(Level 1) the role of situational and dispositional factors in explaining behaviour

Situational factors

- External factors affecting behaviour

Dispositional factors:

- Internal factors affecting behaviour

Heider:

- We make assumptions about an individual’s reasons for doing something in order to give them meaning

Errors in attribution:

Fundamental attribution error (FAE)

- Overestimate dispositional factors, underestimate situational factors

Self-serving bias (SSB)

- Self-associate with success but associate failure to situational factors

Studies to use:

Cialdini (1976), Kashima & Triandis (1986)

(Level 3) two errors in attribution.

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Errors in attribution:

- Caused by the human need to understand why somebody does something- People are easier to control when they have ben stereotyped

Fundamental attribution error (FAE):

- Overestimate dispositional factors, underestimate situational factors- Fiske: people rely on personality to explain behaviour and do not

consider situations- Makes life more predictable- People are easier to deal with- Individualistic cultures tend to over associate dispositional factors to

success or failure

Strengths Limitations

Allows a better understanding of why people make errors in attribution

Culturally biased, focuses on individualism

Substantial support for the theory can be found in research studies

Generally lab experiments on students. This limits generalization of results.

Self-Serving Bias (SSB):

- Self-associate with success but associate failure to situational factors- Protects our self-image/self-esteem- May occur when not enough information is given. - People expect to succeed and so they associate success with personal

effort- SSB is more commonly seen in individualistic cultures

Strengths Limitations

Explains why people disassociate from failure

Culturally biased

Studies to use:

SSB: Cialdini (1976), Lau & Russel (1980), Kashima & Triandis (1986)

FAE: Morris & Peng (1994), Norenzayan (2002)

(Level 3) Social Identity Theory, making reference to relevant studies.

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Social Identity Theory (SIT):

- Tajfel and Turner- Social categorization- In-group and out-group mentality- ‘I’ becomes ‘we’

In-group

- Groups an individual associates with- Influences self-concept either positively or negatively depending on the

group associated with- Positive in-group distinction- In-group favouritism- ‘Us’

Out-group

- Groups an individual does not associate with- Provides social comparison- Negative out-group distinction- ‘Them’

Inter-group discrimination

- Allows for a positive self-image as ‘us’ becomes positive and ‘them’ becomes negative

Strengths Limitations

Intergroup conflict is not necessary for discrimination to occur between groups

Cannot fully explain violence between groups

Explains some reasons for and aspects of positive distinction between groups

There are other social factors that play a greater role in behaviour than SIT

Can be applied to stereotyping, favouritism, ethnocentrism and conformity

Artificiality of the research

Studies to use:

Tajfel (1974), Zimbardo (1973), Steele & Aronson (1995), Cialdini (1976)

(Level 2) the effect of stereotypes and their effect on behaviour.

Stereotyping

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- Simplifies the world- Makes life easier when people can be categorized- Assumes that people of the same group have the same traits- Creates schemas

Theories:

Lipmann

- Stereotypes are simplified mental images that help interpret the social world

Posner and Snyder

- Stereotyping is an automatic cognitive process

Campbell

- Grain of truth- The group stereotype is true for at least one person in the group, but

cannot be vastly generalized

Behaviour:

Illusory correlation

- Seeing a relationship where there isn’t actually one- ‘All blondes are stupid’

In-group/out-group generalizations

- The in-group is positive and the out-group is negative

Schema processing

- Schemas of a group’s stereotypes affects our perception of an individual

Confirmation bias

- People pay special attention to details that confirm their stereotyping

Studies to use:

Steele & Aronson (1995), Wegner et al (1976), Katz & Braley (1933)

(Level 2) Social Learning Theory, making reference to two relevant studies

Social Learning Theory (SLT):

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- Assumes that people learn behaviours by through their own experiences as well as by observing a model

- People learn consequences to actions by observing others which may affect future behaviour

Attention:

- Paying attention to a model similar to the individual and learning behaviours

Retention:

- Recalling the observed behaviour and the consequences of that behaviour

Reproduction:

- The individual must have the capacity to imitate the behaviour

Motivation

- The individual must be motivated to reproduce the behaviour

Studies to use:

Bandura (1961), St Helena (2002)

(Level 3) the use of compliance techniques.

Compliance:

- Submission to an explicit request from an external party.

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- People are socially forced to return the favor

Factors affecting compliance:

Reciprocity:- We treat others as they treat us

Authority:- People are more likely to respond to a request from somebody with

authority over themCommitment:

- If you agree to something, you are likely to agree so a future request of a similar nature

Liking:- If a request is made by somebody liked, it is likely that request will be

acceptedScarcity:

- When something is less available, it is more likely you will agree to itSocial proof:

- Seeing others do something makes an individual want to be a part of it as well.

Foot-in-door technique:

- First concede to a small request, then to a much larger one of a similar nature

- Often used in fundraising campaigns- Most effective when the individual’s self-image is associated with the

request- May be associated to commitment, once an individual is committed to a

request, they are more likely to fulfil future requests of a similar nature- Much of the research in this field is associated with social awareness and

campaigns which may affect the validity of the results

Reciprocity norm:

- People are given something and then a request is made for something in return

- Often used by stores and brands- Individualism – reciprocity is optional- Collectivism – it is not morally correct not to reciprocate

Studies to use:

FIDT: Freeman & Fraser (1966), Freedman & Fraser (1966)

Reciprocity: Lynn & McCall (1998), Regan (1971)

Hazing: Gerard & Mathewson (1966), Young (1963)

(Level 3) research on conformity to group norms.

Conformity

- Derived from the human desire to belong

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- Behaviour is adjusted in order to fit in to the group- Caused by group pressure in the absence of a direct request

Group norms

- Behaviours that are accepted in a group- What is expected of group members

Research

- May be culturally biased- Levels of conformity changes as time passes, less common in modern

sociology- Conformity may be context-dependent which is not reflected in research- In-groups have greater chances of influencing conformity than out-groups

Studies to use:

Asch (1950), Moscovici (1976), Smith & Bond (1996), Zimbardo (1973)

(Level 3) factors influencing conformity.

Conformity

- Derived from the human desire to belong- Behaviour is adjusted in order to fit in to the group- Caused by group pressure in the absence of a direct request

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Types of conformity:

Informative social influence

- Imitating behaviours because of self-doubt- Seeking reassurance in the behaviours of others- Changing behaviours and opinions

Normative social influence

- Conforming in order to be liked by other group members- Satisfies the need for social acceptance- Changing behaviours but not opinions

Factors influencing conformity:

Group size

- If there is a large group with opposing views, the individual is likely to conform

- It is also possible that they do not conform because they become suspicious that the large group is working together and purposely giving the incorrect answers.

Group unanimity

- If there is one person in the group that does not conform, it is likely that there will be another, even if their viewpoints differ.

Culture

- People that are part of a collectivist culture are more likely to conform than those that are part of an individualist culture.

Minority influence

- The minority can influence the opinion of the majority

Studies to use:

Asch (1950), Moscovici (1976), Zimbardo (1973), Berry (1967)

(Level 1) the terms ‘culture’ and ‘cultural norms’.

Culture

Lonner

- Rules that define the actions and interactions of a group, as well as that group’s values

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Matsumoto

- Dynamic system of rules that ensures a group’s survival, including attitudes, beliefs, behaviours and norms.

Hofstede

- A collective understanding of society that guides a group of people in their daily interactions

Cultural norms

- The rules that define what is appropriate and what is inappropriate within a group

- Provide order and control in life- May include marriage rites, child bearing rites and much more- Can be explicit or implicit

Studies to use:

Mead (1935), Berry (1967)

(Level 3) the role of two cultural dimensions on behaviour

Cultural dimension:

- An aspect of a culture that can be compared to other cultures

Behaviour

- Hofstede: culture plays a great role in an individual’s behaviour

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- It is very difficult to unlearn cultural behaviours- Understanding how culture affects behaviour may make international

communication easier

Collectivism & Individualism

Collectivism:

- People are tied to social groups during their lifetime- Safety and loyalty are important in these groups- More likely to conform- Group achievement more important than individual success

Individualism:

- People see themselves as independent individuals that must fend for themselves

- Ties between people are voluntary- Value in self-expression- Competitive society

Masculinity & Feminism

Masculinity:

- Male-oriented society- People tend to be less emotive- There is a greater power gap between men and women

Feminism:

- Equal society- People are more open with their feelings and thoughts- There is a balance between male and female power

Studies to use:

Hofstede, Mead (1935), Smith & Bond (1996)

Using one or more examples, (Level 2) ‘emic’ a nd ‘etic’ concepts.

Emic

- Studies culture-specific behaviour- A culture is understood from the viewpoint of those in the culture

Etic

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- Compares psychological behaviours across cultures- Aims to find out if behaviours are similar across cultures or if they are

culture-specific.

Studies to use:

Mead (1935), Ekman (1969), Berry (1967), Kashima & Triandis (1986)

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