sociological theories: the brief version. structural-strain theory robert merton conditions in...
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Sociological Theories: The Brief Version
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Structural-Strain Theory Robert Merton
• Conditions in society result in unequal distribution of legitimate (conforming) opportunities for success.
• An absence of legitimate opportunity for success contributes to deviance.
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Goal-Means Gap TheoryRobert K. Merton
– Cultural Goals: A Part of Social Structure• Cultural Goals--goals strongly promoted by a
culture.
• Individuals in a culture are expected to desire the achievement of these goals.
• Can include such things as financial success, prestige, winning, etc.
• Merton seemed to focus mostly on financial success/prestige as the cultural goal most promoted in American culture.
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– Cultural Means: A part of social Structure• Cultural Means--the accepted, socially
appropriate, LEGITIMATE methods for achieving cultural goals.
• Cultural Means may vary from one culture to another.
• In U.S., cultural means would include going to school, working hard, playing by the rules, making wise investments, etc.
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Strain: Disparity (Gap) Between the Goals and Means
– Strain: Disparity (Gap) Between the Goals and Means
• An extreme emphasis on a cultural goal without access to legitimate cultural means produces strain.
• People feel pressure to desire and achieve the goal but may not have access to legitimate cultural means.
• This gap between goals and means may contribute to deviant behavior.
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Deviant Adaptations to Strain
• Conformity--accepts the goals and means.
• Innovation--accepts the goals but rejects the means in favor of illegitimate means.
• Ritualism--rejects the goals but accepts the means.
• Retreatism--rejects the goals and the means.
• Rebellion--rejects the goals and means, and actively promotes new goals and means.
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Additional Points
– Merton predicts that the greatest proportion of crime will be found in lower classes, because of disproportionate lack of access to legitimate means. May limit applicability of theory.
• May be better to focus on the issue of disparity between aspirations and means, regardless of starting point. If we do this it becomes more than a social class-crime theory.
• Theory may be also used to understand wealthy or middle class deviants.
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Examples
• Disclaimer: These do not prove the theory. They only provide food for thought concerning its validity.
• Marijuana Farming among farmers and ranchers in Georgia and Montana
• Poor kids who turn to dealing drugs
• Politicians who take bribes and kickbacks
• Medical Doctors Who Provide Fraudulent Billings to Insurance Companies
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Control Theories
• Views humans as naturally deviant--will deviate unless controlled.
• Deviance occurs because individuals are not adequately controlled.
• Sources of control include family, self-concept, attachments to mainstream society, legitimate authority.
• Some control theorists place great emphasis on family as agent of control.
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Differential Association Edwin Sutherland
• Deviant behaviors are learned just like any other behavior.
• Learn how to deviate and attitudes that support deviation
• Learning takes place in close/intimate relationships
• Positive reinforcement of deviant behavior contributes to learning.
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Neutralization Theory
• Deviant behavior occurs, in part, because people are able to rationalize or justify their behavior by neutralizing (negating, altering) the rules governing that behavior.
• Deviants (all of us) have many techniques we use to negate the rules governing behavior.
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Some Techniques of Neutralization
• Denial of responsibility
• Denial of injury
• Denial of victim
• Condemnation of Condemner
• Appeal to Higher Loyalties
• Denial of the Law
• Appeal to social patterns
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Labeling Theory
• Does not explain initial act of deviance
• Claims that when a deviant label is applied to a person it can have adverse consequences--increase in deviant activity (secondary deviation), negative view of self.
• Powerful are least likely to be labeled as deviant, powerless more likely.
• Labeling, and its consequences can occur in the absence of guilt.
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Basic Premise of Labeling Theory
• When someone is labeled (identified as deviant by an audience) it may lead to negative reactions from the audience.
• Negative reactions, when strong enough, prolonged enough may affect the emotional state of the alleged deviant and may intensify deviant activity of the alleged deviant. The labeled become the label.
• Labels are subjectively applied and individuals may be inappropriately labeled even in the absence of guilt. Who the person is may influence labeling as much as what they do.
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Key Assumptions of Labeling Theory:
• Acts are not inherently deviant/criminal
• People are not criminal/deviant until they are defined as such by authorities
• Labeling is a social process
begins with the detection of some real or imagined deviant criminal act
involves interaction between “nondeviant audience” and “deviant” actor
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• In the labeling process, characteristics of the offender are more important than characteristics of the act.
Deviant Labeling can even occur without the occurrence of a deviant act
• Age, Race, Sex and Social Class are important factors influencing the outcomes of labeling.
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Important Points to Remember
• Labels may be applied in the absence of guilt.
• Labels have consequences for those who are labeled.
• Labels may not always be fairly applied.
• Labels are often based on inadequate information.
• Observable characteristics (sex, race, age) are often the basis of a label.
• Power determines labels.
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Conflict Theories
• Deviant behavior is a product of miserable life conditions caused by social inequality.
• The powerful create the rules in society and use them to protect their interests, while harming the interests of others.
• Attention is focused on powerless deviants and away from powerful deviants.
• The “deviant” in society are those who disagree with the agenda/values/culture of those in power.
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Background Information
• Not a single theory but a set of theories and ideas
• Also referred to as conflict criminology and radical criminology
• Based to a large extent on sociological conflict theory.
• Attempts to explain how the law may be used as a tool by the powerful in society.
• It is an alternative, often dismissed, way of viewing crime and deviance.
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Central Assumptions:
• There is not a single class of criminals. Violation of law occurs across all social classes.
• Powerless classes are most likely to be defined as criminals or deviants.
• Justice is not equally applied to all social classes. Powerless groups likely to feel the “brunt of injustice.”
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• Powerful make the rules and enforce the rules, therefore are in a position to break the rules without being detected, labeled or punished.
• Inequalities within social system create miserable conditions conducive to criminal activity.
• Crime is a byproduct of power struggles that exist in society.