soil research review fleurieu peninsula, s.a. · acid soils, selenium deficiency in livestock, the...

Soil Research Review

Fleurieu Peninsula, S.A.

Kew Wetherby Soil Survey Pty Ltd

August 2016

Soil Research Review – Fleurieu Future Farming - compiled June 2016

Acknowledgements

This project was funded through a Sustainable Agricultural Industry Grant supported by the

Adelaide and Mt Lofty Ranges NRM Board, through funding from the Australian

Government’s National Landcare Program.

Landholders throughout the Fleurieu Peninsula who have allowed trials and demonstrations

to be conducted on their properties for many decades.

Individuals and organisations who have contributed references to the literature review:

Steve Davies (DAFWA), Jeff Edwards (NRM), Mark Farrell (CSIRO), Nigel Fleming (SARDI),

Brian Hughes (RSSA), Alan Humphries (SARDI), Greg Mitchell (FPAG), Tim Prance (Rural

Consulting).

Melissa Rebbeck (Climate & Agricultural Support Pty Ltd) for coordinating the soils issues

survey

Author

Geoff Kew

Kew Wetherby Soil Survey Pty Ltd Second Valley, SA mobile: 0409 690 469

email: [email protected]

web: www.soilprofile.com.au

mailto:[email protected]

http://www.soilprofile.com.au/


Table of Contents

1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 8

1.1. General background ........................................................................................................... 8

1.2. Project funding................................................................................................................... 8

2. Fleurieu Peninsula ................................................................................................................... 10

2.1. Location and literature review boundaries ....................................................................... 10

2.2. Geology and soils of Fleurieu Peninsula ............................................................................ 10

3. References related to Fleurieu Peninsula ................................................................................. 13

3.1. Guide to the tables ........................................................................................................... 13

3.2. Tables of references ......................................................................................................... 14

4. Trial and demonstration categories.......................................................................................... 80

4.1. Fertilisers trials ................................................................................................................. 80

4.2. Liming Trials ..................................................................................................................... 81

4.3. Alternative fertilisers ........................................................................................................ 83

4.4. Monitoring projects ......................................................................................................... 83

4.5. Pasture trials .................................................................................................................... 84

4.6. Livestock .......................................................................................................................... 85

4.7. Soil biota .......................................................................................................................... 86

5. Future Fleurieu Peninsula research, trial and demonstration work ........................................... 88

5.1. Soil Research Review – discussion and recommendations ................................................ 88

5.2. Soil issues, Fleurieu Peninsula farmer survey .................................................................... 89

5.2.1. Ranking of 11 soil issues ........................................................................................... 89

5.2.2. General survey question responses .......................................................................... 90

6. Recommendations ................................................................................................................... 94

Table 3-1 Colour codes for reference tables ................................................................................... 13

Table 3-2 Burford (1967) Potassium status of soils .......................................................................... 14

Table 3-3 Elliot and Abbott (1970's published 2003) Nitrogen fertiliser use on rain-fed pasture ...... 14

Table 3-4 Reuter et al (1974) Trace element experiments .............................................................. 15

Table 3-5 Trace element disorders (1970 - 1988) ............................................................................ 16

Table 3-6 Clarke (1975) Retention of phosphorus fertiliser ............................................................. 18

Table 3-7 Gibson (1976) Annual and perennial pastures KI ............................................................ 19

Table 3-8 Gibson (1978) Evaluation of perennial pastures ............................................................... 20

Table 3-9 Richards (1992) Predicting and ameliorating soil acidity .................................................. 20

Table 3-10 Davies (1982) Selenium deficiency KI ............................................................................. 23

Table 3-11 Henry (1983) Introduction of dung beetles .................................................................... 23


Table 3-12 Brooks and Fairbrother (1989) Direct drilling pastures ................................................... 24

Table 3-13 Merry et al (1989) Potential for soil acidification ........................................................... 24

Table 3-14 Hodge and Lewis (1989) Phosphorus leaching and lime ................................................ 25

Table 3-15 Richards et al (1989) Techniques to predict soil buffering capacity ............................... 25

Table 3-16 Mitchell et al (1990) Legume recommendations ............................................................ 26

Table 3-17 Stevens et al (1990) Selenium and magnesium status of dairy cows .............................. 26

Table 3-18 Merry et al (1990) Variability in characteristics of acidic pasture soil ............................. 27

Table 3-19 (1990) Flaxley Research Centre pasture agronomy trials 1988-1989 .............................. 28

Table 3-20 (1991) Flaxley Research Centre pasture agronomy trials 1990 ....................................... 28

Table 3-21 Fairbrother and Thomson (1991) Irrigated lucerne production ...................................... 29


Table 3-23 Kealey (1992) Acid soils, occurrence and management ................................................. 30

Table 3-24 Parawa (1992) Soil pit field day, Dept Ag SA .................................................................. 31

Table 3-25 Baker et al (1992) Abundance and diversity of earthworms ........................................... 31


Table 3-27 Court (1998) Grassland productivity program ................................................................ 32

Table 3-28 Mitchell et al (1994) High rainfall pasture research ....................................................... 33

Table 3-29 Hughes et al (1994) Earthworm behaviour .................................................................... 34

Table 3-30 Prance and Ryan (1994) Grazing management, putting it all together (GSVIC) ............... 35

Table 3-31 T Prance and B Ryan (1995). Economic analysis, strategic grazing .................................. 35

Table 3-32 Doube (1996) Earthworms and moisture gradients ....................................................... 36

Table 3-33 Dyson (1996) Liming strategies ..................................................................................... 37

Table 3-34 Mitchell (1997) Guidelines for grazing pastures .............................................................. 39

Table 3-35 Simpson (1997) National reactive phosphate rock project ............................................. 40

Table 3-36 Sale et al (1997) Agronomic effectiveness of reactive phosphate rocks .......................... 41

Table 3-37 McFarlane et al (1997) Trace elements, livestock........................................................... 41

Table 3-38 Fleming and Hughes (1997) Lime products and grass tetany .......................................... 42

Table 3-39 Fleming (1997) Fertiliser efficiency high rainfall pastures ............................................... 43

Table 3-40 Mitchell (1998) Intensive block grazing .......................................................................... 46

Table 3-41 Grassland society Victoria (1998) Grassland productivity program ................................. 46

Table 3-42 Mitchell (1998) Profitable pasture use ........................................................................... 47

Table 3-43 Effects of sheep grazing on cocksfoot herbage mass and persistence ............................ 48

Table 3-44 Graham et al (2000). Effect of grazing on perennial ryegrass ......................................... 48

Table 3-45 Parawa PPP group (2000). Grazing management to increase meat production ............. 49

Table 3-46 Parawa PPP group (2001). Grazing management to increase meat production ............. 52

Table 3-47 Fleurieu Beef Group (2001). Yundi SGS site .................................................................. 53

Table 3-48 Fleming and Cox (2001) Carbon and phosphorus losses, dairy ....................................... 55

Table 3-49 Greene (2002) Predicting spatial variability of rainfall .................................................... 56

Table 3-50 2001 to 2003 - Mitchell et al (2011) Alternative fertilisers, Back Valley .......................... 57

Table 3-51 2001 to 2003 Mitchell et al (2011) Alternative fertilisers, Nangkita ................................ 57

Table 3-52 2002 – 2008 Mitchell et al (2009) Mt Compass Area School ........................................... 58

Table 3-53 Harding (2005) Wetland inventory ................................................................................ 58

Table 3-54 Bourman (2006) River terraces of Fleurieu Peninsula..................................................... 59

Table 3-55 Watkins and Forward (2008) Mass erosion mapping on Southern Fleurieu Peninsula .... 60

Table 3-56 Harding and Dowie (2010) Management of sandy soils .................................................. 61


Table 3-57 VanLaarhoven and vander Wielen (2009) Environmental water requirements ............... 63

Table 3-58 Deegan et al (2010) Assessment of river ecological condition ......................................... 64

Table 3-59 Mitchell et al (2011) Alternative fertilisers, Mt Compass ................................................ 65

Table 3-60 Mitchell et al (2011) Alternative fertilisers, Willow Creek .............................................. 66

Table 3-61 Mitchell et al (2011) Alternative fertilisers, Back Vy, Mt Compass, Pages Flat................ 67

Table 3-62 Mitchell et al (2012) Dairy, soil nutrient monitoring....................................................... 67

Table 3-63 Sparkes and Stoutjesdijk (2011) Biochar, agriculture implications .................................. 68

Table 3-64 Mitchell et al (2013) Dairy soil nutrient monitoring........................................................ 68

Table 3-65 2011-2013 Mitchell (2014) Perennial grasses on sand ................................................... 69

Table 3-66 2011-2013 Mitchell et al (2014) Pasture legumes on sand ............................................. 70

Table 3-67 2011-2013 Mitchell et al (2014) Pasture field trials, Mt Compass ................................... 70

Table 3-68 2011-2013 Mitchell et al (2014) Parawa Progress Ass, pastures ..................................... 71

Table 3-69 2011-2013 Mitchell et al (2014) Pasture field trials, Back Vy .......................................... 71

Table 3-70 2011-2013 Mitchell et al (2014) Pasture field trials, Mt Compass ................................... 72

Table 3-71 Mitchell et al (2014) Pasture field trials, Sellicks Hill....................................................... 73

Table 3-72 2011-2013 Mitchell et al (2014) Pasture field trials, Parawa .......................................... 73

Table 3-73 2011-2013 Mitchell et al (2014) Pasture field trials, Pages Flat ...................................... 74

Table 3-74 Sanderman et al (2013) Carbon sequestration ............................................................... 74

Table 3-75 Ellis (2013) Soil nutrient survey ...................................................................................... 75

Table 3-76 Humpharies (2015) Acid tolerant lucerne ...................................................................... 75

Table 3-77 Mitchell et al (2014) Dairy nutrient survey ..................................................................... 77

Table 3-78 Doube (2015) Dung beetles, biochar, water quality ....................................................... 77

Table 3-79 Warneke (2015) Nitrous oxide uptake by soil................................................................. 78

Figure 2-1 Fleurieu Peninsula South Australia ................................................................................. 10

Figure 2-2 Geology of the Fleurieu Peninsula .................................................................................. 12

Figure 5-1 Survey responses to 11 soil issues raised by Fleurieu Forward Farming Group ............... 90


Executive Summary

Funding from the Sustainable Agriculture Industry Support program managed by the Adelaide and

Mount Lofty Ranges Natural Resource Management Board (AMLR) has been used to prepare a review

of research, trial and demonstration work that has been conducted on the Fleurieu Peninsula on the

related topics of soils and pasture production. A steering committee was established consisting of

Fleurieu Peninsula primary producers, consultants and natural resource management (NRM)

personnel. A meeting was convened near the end of the review process to discuss the findings and

future recommendations for sustainable agricultural soil management and other practices.

The review of soils work has been divided into categories to try and identify where time and effort has

been invested. The categories are arbitrary and do overlap. The categories are: fertilisers, liming,

alternative fertilisers, monitoring projects, pasture, livestock and soil biota. The 1970’s was a period of

soil nutrition (major and trace elements) research. Topics included: the use of nitrogen on pasture;

trace element deficiencies in soil and livestock and the fate of applied phosphorus through leaching

from the soil. The 1980’s saw a range of topics for trial and demonstration work and included identifying

acid soils, selenium deficiency in livestock, the introduction of dung beetles and direct drilling of

pastures. In the 1990’s low soil pH and trace element deficiencies relating to animal and pasture

production and management continued to receive attention. During this period there were also

numerous studies throughout Australia on earthworms in agricultural systems. The 2000’s saw

continued work on acid soils and liming and the usefulness of alternative fertiliser products to improve

production. Monitoring projects included water allocations on the Fleurieu Peninsula, prediction of

rainfall patterns at catchment level and a survey of wetlands. To date during the 2010’s soil research

on the Fleurieu Peninsula has included pasture management with less inputs, soil nutrient surveys and

again soil acidity and liming trials. Soil acidity has been an ongoing area of research and trial work

since the 1970’s and is related to the low soil pH environment of the Fleurieu Peninsula such as a lack

of suitable annual and perennial pastures, soil health and productivity.

Fundamental questions discussed at the group meeting held at the end of the literature review were:

1. What are the aims and goals for grazing enterprises on the Fleurieu Peninsula at the individual

and community level? and

2. Should be a systems approach to further work be adopted as altering one component of a

farming system will impact on others ?

Discussion of the following components of current farming systems included:

1. Low soil pH, calcium/magnesium ratios, phosphorus retention using liming, impact of

liming on soil biota, what to do if lime is not available in the future;

2. Availability of nitrogen and other inputs in the future;

3. Profitability versus productivity – what is the right balance?

4. Deep rooted perennial grasses, legumes or other plants tolerant of low soil pH

conditions;

5. Efficiency of inputs and labour, can we get more clover with less inputs?


6. Soil modification by clay spreading, delving and spading, has it worked or not and why?

7. Soil biota. Impact of pesticides, herbicides, animal treatments, gibberellic acid, new

alternative fertiliser products and lime on soil biota?

8. Soil biological tests, what are they, how do they compare, what do they mean can they

be used to answer questions about “soil health”?

9. Adoption of precision agriculture technology, making it available to all;

10. Soil moisture and water availability, how to maintain or retain more water at the end of

the season?

11. Predicting spatial rainfall variability and its application to predicting soil moisture status

and pasture production at the paddock level;

12. Information sharing by farm walks. Field days on individual properties to look at what

they have done, does it work or not, not just visits to trial sites?

The Fleurieu Forward Farming group suggests the following recommendations based on the Soil

Research Review, that is (not in priority order):

1. System approach to soil, animal and pasture health on the Fleurieu Peninsula at farm and

regional scale;

2. Continue to conduct relevant soils research and demonstration sites in the region;

3. Higher on the list of priorities should be soil health issues including:

a. retention of phosphorus in soils;

b. alternative fertilisers (including cost benefit analysis);

c. soil biological testing, understanding of results and benefits;

d. prediction of soil moisture status and retention of soil moisture and soil water runoff

and erosion;

e. impact of chemicals and alternative fertiliser products on soil health.

4. Alternative perennial and legume pasture species:

a. for acid soil conditions;

b. to provide a range of feed alternative throughout the year and for variable seasons

and climate.

5. Farm walks and visits to promote issues and research findings; and

6. Assistance with funding and sourcing of alternative funding.


1. Introduction

1.1. General background

The farming systems of the Fleurieu Peninsula are characterised by medium (450-550 mm) to high

(greater than 550 mm) rainfall grazing enterprises with some irrigated pasture production. Increasing

inputs and grazing management have been used to improve profitability. The increased use and cost

of inputs such as fertilisers and chemicals exposures farming enterprises to both economic and

environmental risk, particularly when linked with increasing soil inputs and risks associated with climate

variability including shortened growing seasons. Returns may be higher but inputs have been higher.

Other factors impacting on farming operations include reduced water allocations and quality for irrigation

and stock water and the changing community expectations regarding the impact of primary production

activities on the environment. Potential impacts on the region’s natural resource base and environment

include reduction in ground cover (resulting in increased surface water runoff, leading to increased soil

erosion), sedimentation and nutrification of water courses (resulting in damage to environmentally

sensitive swamp and coastal areas), increasing soil acidity and reduced fertility and soil health on

certain soil types.

To meet these challenges, primary producers are constantly looking for opportunities to improve their

existing production systems and land management, including sometimes quite innovative approaches.

Many farmers are looking for alternatives as opposed to the high input systems. The process of

identifying relevant improvements and then successfully implementing change requires access to good

information, appropriate technical expertise and the knowledge, experience and support of peers. While

this can be done on an individual property/business basis, there are clear benefits in producers working

through this process as part of a motivated, focussed, mutually supportive group, supported where

necessary by scientific and other expertise.

1.2. Project funding

The Sustainable Agriculture Industry Support program funded by the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges

Natural Resource Management Board (AMLR) aims to fund projects that will ensure protection of the

natural resources of the region.

The general project aim of the support program is to assist Fleurieu Peninsula grazing enterprises to

evaluate potential solutions to a number of current challenges affecting the long term sustainability of

their business and the region’s natural resource base. The focus is on improving the productivity and

sustainability of existing production systems, particularly through innovative approaches to the

management of soil health and fertility, management of pastures and options for managing climate

variability.

Two separate groups of farmers and advisors were working on proposals with the same general aims

and were encouraged to work together by the A&MLR to gain a wider reach of farmers As a result, a

two stage project proposal was submitted for funding under this support program with the first stage


being to a) form a steering committee and b) review existing soil and pasture related trials and

demonstrations on the Fleurieu Peninsula.

Aims of the steering committee were:

To represent farmers interests from the region by inviting members from the Parawa

Agrucultural Bureau, the Fleurieu Beef Group, the Mt Jagged Dairy Discussion Group and any

farmers outside of this to become a part of the steering committee to be called the Fleurieu

Future Farmers;

To provide advice to the soils review in terms of inputs and outputs and recommendations; and

To provide support to all new and future projects related to this.

Aims of the soil review were:

collate, store and make available in a format that potentially can be added to in the future, a list of

trials and demonstrations conducted on the Fleurieu Peninsula in relation to soil production;

highlight the major focus of trials and demonstrations that have been conducted on the Fleurieu

Peninsula and present this to the steering committee meeting;

determine what (if any) areas of farming practice related to soil and pasture production require

investigation or economic assessment;

make recommendations to AMLR NRM as to future direction for soils reseach and demonstration

for the Fleurieu region.


2. Fleurieu Peninsula

2.1. Location and literature review boundaries

The Fleurieu Peninsula comes under the derestriction of the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Natural

Resources Management Board (AMLR) and the Ranges to the River district of the South Australian

Murray-Darling Board region. The dotted line (Figure 2-1) shows the approximate divide between the

two Natural Resource Management board (NRM) regions with the AMLR board region covering the

major portion of the Fleurieu Peninsula to the west of the dividing line.

The current review of soils research is limited to the boundary between the two NRM boards which is based

on catchment divides. However the work reviewed must be relevant and have application to the region.

Figure 2-1 Fleurieu Peninsula South Australia

2.2. Geology and soils of Fleurieu Peninsula

The soils of Fleurieu Peninsula are related to the geology of the region which was mapped by the

Department of Mines South Australia now part of Primary Industries and Resources SA (PIRSA) and is

presented on the Barker 1:250,000 geological series map (Figure 2-1. Barker Sheet 1 54-13). The

geological units described for Fleurieu Peninsula are listed from recent to oldest, the symbol Ma

represents millions of years.


The dominant geological types are the Tertiary Pliocene (Tp) and Permian glacial deposits (P). Tertiary

Pliocene (Tp) is characterised by laterised and iron stained (ferruginised) sands and gravels that occur

along the Range Road from Cape Jervis toward Victor Harbor. The landform can be described as a

plateau that has been incised by streams and rivers and the soils are characterised by ironstone gravels

of mottled kaolin clays. The Permian glacial deposits dominate valleys including the Inman Valley

between Victor Harbor and Normanville and mark the direction of glacial retreating ice sheets. The

soils consist of sands and clays deposited by the retreating glaciers.

Descriptions and ages of dominate geological units on the Fleurieu Peninsula are:

Quaternary Recent (Holocene – present to 10,000 years) - Qr – Alluvial flat deposits. The soils are

variable and may include rounded coarse fragments throughout the soil profile.

Quaternary Pleistocene (10,000 years to 1.64 Ma) – Qpa – Outwash deposits of sand and clay underlain

by piedmont boulder beds (deposits formed at base of hills and mountains). The surface can be capped

by calcareous kunkar (cemented) deposits. The soils can include deep sands, sand over clay and

areas of calcareous deposits. There can be high percentages of coarse fragments associated with

calcareous deposits.

Tertiary Pliocene (1.64 to 5.2 Ma)– Tp – laterised deposits and ferruginised sands and gravels of a

plateau area. Includes mottled sands and clays and is underlain by Hallett Cove Sandstone (marine

sandy limestone). Ironstone gravel, mottled yellow-brown clay soils with pale white kaolin clay are

common.

Permian (245 to 290 Ma) - P – Glacial and fluvioglacial deposits. Consists of cross-bedded silts and

sands with boulders and green clays. The soils can include pale deep sands and sand over clay.

Cambrian (510 to 536 Ma) – Ek – Inman Hill Formation which consists of coarse-grained arkose

(sandstone). The soils are dominated by quartz sands, loams and clay. Pebble beds are common and

composed of more than one mineral type.

Archaen (2500 to 4500 Ma) – A – Felspathic schists and gneisses and quartz feldspar augen gneiss

with zones of sericite schist. Felspathic schist is rock composed of feldspar (aluminium silica minerals)

that shows a preferred orientation due to deformation. Gneiss is rock with an existing structure that has

undergone deformation. Augen gneiss has a planar or linear fabric.


Figure 2-2 Geology of the Fleurieu Peninsula


3. References related to Fleurieu Peninsula

3.1. Guide to the tables

The tables are a list of known references in date order. The information gathered about trial and

demonstration work shown in each table includes: date of trial work; location; title, author and journal

reference; type of work conducted, trial or demonstration; aims; results and whether economic

assessment were conducted. A colour code has been given on each table to represent major

categories of trial and demonstration work (Table 3-1). The categories shown are general and there

maybe overlap between categories. The purpose of the categories and colour code is to highlight what

was considered important and during which period.

The reference tables contain information taken from research papers, technical reports or other

documents. It includes details found in the abstract, results or conclusion sections of the relevant

document.

Table 3-1 Colour codes for reference tables

Colour code Category

No colour Fertiliser

Yellow Lime trials

Blue Alternative fertiliser

Grey Monitoring projects

Green Pasture related trials

purple Livestock

Olive green Soil biota

If the trial and demonstration work conducted on Fleurieu Peninsula is grouped for each decade there

are several trends. The 1970’s were a period of soil nutrition research (major and trace element soil

research). Topics included: the use of nitrogen to increase pasture production; defining of trace element

deficiencies in soil and livestock; and the fate of applied phosphorus through leaching from the soil.

The 1980’s saw a range of topics including: identifying acid soils; selenium deficiency in livestock; the

introduction of dung beetles; and methods for direct drilling of pastures to avoid soil erosion. During

the 1990’s there were numerous studies on earthworms. Also during this period there were trials in the

areas of soil pH and use of agricultural lime, trace element deficiencies in livestock, pasture production

and management. The 2000’s saw continued work on acid soils and liming but also demonstrations of

the usefulness of alternative fertiliser products to improve production. Monitoring projects included

water allocation in the Fleurieu Peninsula, the prediction of rainfall patterns in catchments and survey

of wetlands that are characteristic of the Fleurieu Peninsula. In the 2010’s a broad range of trail and

demonstration work has been conducted to date including pasture management with less inputs, survey

of soil nutrient status in irrigated and non-irrigated pastures and again soil acidity and liming trials. Soil

acidity has been an ongoing area of research and trial work since the 1970’s and is related to the low


soil pH environment of the Fleurieu Peninsula. Research has included: a lack of suitable annual and

perennial pastures; and soil health and productivity.

3.2. Tables of references

Table 3-2 Burford (1967) Potassium status of soils

Date: 1967

Location: Mt Lofty Ranges

Title: Potassium status of podzolic and solodic soils of the southern Mt Lofty

Ranges of SA

JR Burford

Type – trial/demo: M.Ag.Sc Thesis Adelaide University

Aims:

Results:

Economic analysis: None

Contact: Waite Institute Library

Table 3-3 Elliot and Abbott (1970's published 2003) Nitrogen fertiliser use on rain-fed pasture

Date: 1970’s (2003 published)

Location: Mt Lofty Ranges

Title: Nitrogen fertiliser use on rain-fed pasture in the Mt Lofty Ranges, South

Australia. 1. Pasture mass, composition and nutritive characteristics

D. E. Elliott and R. J. Abbott Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 43(6) 553 - 577 Published: 30 June 2003

Type – trial/demo: Trial - fertiliser

Aims: The effects of nitrogen (N) fertiliser (0–200 kg/ha) on mass, botanical composition, and N concentration (%) in herbage were examined in nine 2- or 3-year rate × time of application experiments, 14 single-year annual rate of application experiments and 15 short-term spring rate of application experiments, at 27 sites in the Mt Lofty Ranges, South Australia, in 7 years between 1970 and 1979, inclusive. Effects on in vitro digestibility and concentrations of other nutrients in herbage were examined in selected experiments.

Results: Annual applications of 200 kg N/ha increased herbage mass by an average of 2.8 t/ha (57% increase), over the average yield of unfertilised pasture of 4.6 t/ha. Subterranean clover was eliminated from the sward with this rate of N application, although this may have been exacerbated by the experimental methods used. N fertiliser application increased herbage mass throughout the growing season, except in autumn 1972 when low rainfall restricted growth and about half of the experiments were not harvested. In 5 of the 126 individual harvests, herbage mass did not respond positively to N fertiliser applications, even though clover composition of herbage declined.


A single application of 50 kg N/ha in autumn increased herbage mass, 6–8 weeks later, by an average 11 kg DM/kg N, but this N effect only persisted to a subsequent harvest in about half of the experiments, with an average residual effect of 25%. Commonly, a response to N fertiliser in the first and/or second harvests was followed by a non-responsive period and then a depression in herbage mass, where no further N fertiliser was applied. With repeated N fertiliser applications, the average responses to 50 kg N/ha were 11 kg DM/kg N in late winter and also in early spring, similar to the autumn response, and 18 kg DM/kg N in late spring. In a later study, a single application of 50 kg N/ha in spring, for silage or hay conservation, increased herbage mass by an average of 1.3 t/ha in late spring while the average response to 100 kg N/ha was 2.0 t/ha. Clover composition declined but was rarely eliminated from the sward by these N rates when applied only in spring. From early winter to early spring, N concentration in herbage from unfertilised pasture ranged from 3 to 4% N and then progressively declined. Relationships between herbage N concentrations and increasing N rates were either linear or curvilinear in early and late winter, whereas in spring, many of these responses to N fertiliser were sigmoidal, with a decline in herbage N concentrations being observed at low N rates. Nitrogen fertiliser applied throughout the growing season had little effect on in vitro digestibility for a wide range of pasture compositions. However, in vitro digestibility of a pure grass pasture was increased early in the growing season by applications up to 50 kg N/ha, but was depressed by the same N rates applied in late spring. Consistently, an increase in N had the following effect on the

concentration of other herbage nutrients: K increased; Ca decreased

becoming more pronounced as the growing season progressed; P

decreased in late spring; and Cu fell in autumn. The content of these

nutrients in harvested herbage usually increased with increasing N rate,

particularly when associated with large herbage mass responses to N

fertiliser. The K : (Ca + Mg) ratio in herbage, a criterion for grass tetany,

increased detrimentally with increasing N rate. Strategies are proposed for

using N fertiliser on rain-fed pasture in the Mt Lofty Ranges.


Contact: Journal paper

Table 3-4 Reuter et al (1974) Trace element experiments

Date: 1974

Location: Kangaroo Island

Title: Trace element experiments on the ironstone soils of Kangaroo Island from

1972 – 1974.

DJ Reuter, RJ Hannam, GJ Judson, ME Dobson and JL Riggs

Soil Conservation Branch report S15/74

Type – trial/demo: Trials

Aims: To investigate at the request of farmers on Ki whether the continued use of copper and molybdenum is required 20 years after farming commenced


on ironstone soils. Copper and molybdenum were associated with poor wool and livestock condition prior to its use. Five experiments established at Seddon and Gosse; trail sites 5.1 ha; 50 merino wethers stratified on body and fleece weight; control and copper treated; stocking rate was 10 wethers/ha; measurements included liveweights, wool quality, blood samples for copper; dry matter cuts and samples for copper levels in pasture.

Results: Sheep – copper injection s did not add to liveweight; no copper

deficiencies; blood copper and zinc levels high; greasy and clean wool

production not affected by added copper

Trace elements in pastures – copper, zinc and manganese levels adequate

and highest in winter and feed during spring-summer. Copper, zinc and

manganese higher in capeweed, then clover, then grasses

Pasture response to trace element sprays – foliar sprays to pastures did

not increase pasture production. No visible deficiency symptoms

observed.


Contact: Waite Institute Library collection

Table 3-5 Dept Ag (1988) Trace element in South Australia

Date: 1970’s to 1988

Location: SA agricultural districts (trace element disorders on the Fleurieu Peninsula are present)

Title: Trace elements in South Australian Agriculture. Department of Agriculture South Australia, Technical Report No 139

Type – trial/demo: Trials – trace element fertilisers

Aims: Distribution and treatment of trace element disorders in South Australia

Results: Copper (Cu):

Copper deficiencies have been recorded on acidic and alkaline soils

including deep sands, shallow duplex soils and lateritic soils. Leaf analysis

used for diagnosis of copper deficiency. Corrected by applying copper-rich

fertiliser, rate 2 kg/ha (8 kg/ha copper sulphate). Foliar application of

copper (75 to 100 g/ha) in lucerne and annual pasture legumes.

Copper deficiency livestock corrected by subcutaneous injections of

organic Cu complexes and oral doses of copper sulphate.

A series of sheep and pasture trials were conducted on lateritic soils on

Kangaroo Island and Fleurieu Peninsula (8 sites) from 1972 to 1974 and on

sandy soils of the upper SE region (3 sites) from 1974 to 1977 to

investigate the residual value of previously applied fertiliser Cu. These

various sites had not received Cu for up to 13 years and 23 years

respectively. Cu was applied to a fenced off pasture area at each site and

Cu glycinate injections were administered to wethers, but neither pastures

nor livestock responded. Cu levels in pasture and sheep blood and liver

were in the adequate range, attesting to the long residual value of applied


fertiliser Cu. These findings have since been confirmed by long-term Cu

trials conducted in WA, where

recommended Cu rates lasted for up to 28 years. Thus, at some time in the

future Cu will need to be re-applied to these SA soils. The SA work was

undertaken by Geoff Judson, Doug Reuter, Bob Hannam, Tom Benson,

John Riggs, David Kruger, with Locky McLaren and Jock McFarlane also

being involved in the SE trials.

Field work by Geoff Judson and Peter Babidge in 2002 with sheep grazing

pasture with high Mo content at Kybybolite showed that an intramuscular

injection of copper heptonate was as effective as an oral dose of copper

oxide in preventing Cu deficiency.

Judson GJ (1984). Diagnosis and therapy of trace element deficiencies. In

“Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics No 71 157-168 (Post-Graduate

Committee in Veterinary Science, Uni of Sydney).

Merry RH, Reuter DJ, Tiller KG, Young GJ (1983). Possible contributions of

nutritional interactions to copper deficiency in ruminants in South

Australia. Aust J Soil Res 13:177-188.

Hannam RJ, Judson GJ, Reuter DJ, McLaren LD, McFarlane JD (1982).

Current requirements of copper for pasture and sheep production on

sandy soils in the Upper South East of South Australia. Aust J Exp Agric

Anim Husb 22:324-330.

Reuter DJ, Hannam RJ, Judson GJ, Dodson ME (1977). Copper fertiliser for

pasture and sheep production on lateritic podzolic soils in South Australia.

2. Current requirements on developed soils. Agric Rec (SA) 4:36-43.

Carter ED, Day HR (1977). Copper fertilisers for pasture and sheep

production on lateritic podzolic soils in South Australia. 1. Initial effects on

virgin soil. Agric Rec (SA) 4:9-15.

Tiver NS. (1955). Deficiencies in South Australian Soils. J Agric South

Australia. 59:100-113.

Molybdenum (Mo):

Toxicity in livestock (molybdenosis) reduces availability of copper and

induces copper deficiency symptoms. Deficiency in pastures shown as

poor growth, resembles nitrogen deficiency, paleness of young leaves,

nodulation affected.

Molybdenum deficiency on acid soils including sandy solodised solonetz,

solodic, soloths, podzos and lateritic podzolic soils. Mo availability

increased at high soil pH, liming can increase plant Mo status.

McFarlane JD, Judson GJ (1981). Copper status of cattle in the South East

of South Australia. In “Trace elements in Man and Animals TEMA 4 (J

McHowell, JM Gawthorne, CL White Eds) pp63-65 (Aust Acad Sci

Canberra).

Tiver NS. (1955). Deficiencies in South Australian Soils. J Agric South

Australia. 59:100-113.


Cobalt (Co):

Cobalt is required for synthesis of vitamin B12 by microrganisms in the rumen. Sheep more susceptible than cattle and young more susceptible than mature animals. Less severe symptoms in Mt Lofty Ranges (including Fleurieu Peninsula) and Kangaroo Island. Most severe in coastal regions. In 1989, on Fleurieu Peninsula Mike Shallow, Simon Ellis and Geoff Judson showed that wether lambs were more susceptible to vitamin B12 deficiency than ewe lambs (reference – not found ?).

Selenium (Se):

White muscle disease in spring lambs, reduced wool growth in weaner

sheep on dry summer and autumn pastures. More common in sheep than

cattle.

Se deficiency reported in sheep on Kangaroo Island, Mt Lofty Ranges,

Fleurieu Peninsula and some in South East.

Se deficiency associated with acid soils (lateritic podzolic soils), sand-over-

clay soils and deep sands where rainfall greater than 500 mm.

Waterlogging, high iron (Fe) content and heavy superphosphate

applications contribute to deficiency. Corrected with vaccine dosage rate

of 0.1 mg/kg bodyweight.

SE region by Jock McFarlane and Geoff Judson in late 1980s indicated that in general livestock were at risk to Se deficiency in areas with acidic soils, with annual rainfall > 500 mm, and particularly in years when clover growth was prolific. In 1991, Geoff Judson, Simon Ellis, Brian Kempe and Mike Shallow demonstrated on Fleurieu Peninsula that a subcutaneous injection of barium selenate raised and maintained Se status in ewes for at least 4 years.

Judson GJ (1977). Diagnosis and treatment of selenium responsive

conditions in ruminants. Proc of Workshop on Selenium in Australian

agriculture. (Convenors K Spencer and P Randall CSIRO Aust Div of Plant

Ind).

Judson GJ (1985). Merits of different selenium supplements for livestock.

In Proceedings of a meeting on ‘Selenium and ruminant health’ (Convernor

A Ross) pp 16.1-16.4 (Dept Agric NSW).

Economic analysis: Comments only in text

Contact: Journal papers

Table 3-6 Clarke (1975) Retention of phosphorus fertiliser

Date: 1975

Location: Adelaide Hills – possible near Mt Compass (as coffee rock soil)

Title: The retention of phosphate fertilisers in a leached soil and their nutritive

value to pasture

A.L. Clarke, Soil Conservation Branch Report, S1/75

Type – trial/demo: Trails – fertiliser


Aims: Concern over the leaching of water soluble phosphate fertilisers on siliceous sand in southern Australia. To monitor the loss of phosphorus over 3 years in a leaching soil. Methods – rainfall 670 mm; soil 50 cm sand (pH CaCl2 = 3.8 to 4.4) over coffee rock over cemented sandy clay.

48.5 kg/ha phosphorus applied to 8 cm depth, sub clover and perennial ryegrass sown

Used superphosphate; lime coated superphosphate; heat treated superphosphate; silico-phosphate; rock phosphate

Results: Summary:

Superphosphate was rapidly leached from the soils surface, 70% lost in 7

weeks.

Adding 5t/ha lime reduced loss by half – available phosphate status

(measured by 0.03 N NH4F and 0.025 N HCL) and yield and quality of

pasture increased. Lime effect persisted into the 3nd year of trial.

Lime-coated or heat treated superphosphate had little effect.

Fine rock phosphate mixed with the soil was retained – loss of 40% in 7

months. Superior residual value in last 2 years of trial compared to super.

Silicophosphate – similar pasture yield to rock phosphate but more quickly

leached.

Phosphate accumulated in the soil at depth (not specified), suggesting not

contaminating streams and aquifers.

Agronomic problem of leaching maybe solved by using insoluble fertiliser

to retain phosphate near surface.



Table 3-7 Gibson (1976) Annual and perennial pastures KI

Date: 1976

Location: Kangaroo Island – Ironstone soils

Title: A comparison of annual and perennial based pastures for liveweight and

wool production of sheep grazing on lateritic podsolic soils on Kangaroo

Island.

PR Gibson

Proceedings Australian Society Animal Production XI 6P - Lib

(619(06)A93.2

Type – trial/demo: Trial - pastures

Aims: Sheep performance on lateritic Podsolic soils on KI

Results: Method:

Stocking rate Merino Wethers - 10, 11, 13, 14, 15 and 17 / ha

Pastures – volunteer grass plus sub clover – renovated perennial ryegrass

plus sub clover

Results:


Sheep grazing annual pasture same or better growth than perennial

pasture sheep. Maximum weight gains were 11 to 14 weeks after opening

rains.

Greasy wool production – no significant difference.

Summary – author questioned whether it is worth renovating annual

volunteer pastures in favour of perennial pastures.



Table 3-8 Gibson (1978) Evaluation of perennial pastures

Date: 1978

Location: Inman Valley

Title: Evaluation of three perennial grasses under grazing in the Adelaide Hills

Author – PR Gibson

Proced Aust Soc Anim Prod 12:206

Type – trial/demo: Trial

Aims: Comparing different perennial grass species in terms of animal production

Results:

Pasture treatments – Fescue arundinacea cv Demeter, Lolium perenne Mt

Alma and Phalaris tuberosa by Phalaris arundinacea cv Siro. Each sown

with Trifolium subterraneun cvv Mt Barker and Woogenellup.

Sheep – Polwarth weaners – 10, 14, 18 / ha in 1976 and 11.2 and 14.4 / ha

in 1977.

Results:

Highest liveweights in Demeter treatments. Demeter was able to respond

to out of season rainfall and increase the length of the growing season.



Table 3-9 Richards (1992) Predicting and ameliorating soil acidity

Date: 1985 (report 1992)

Location: Mt Lofty Ranges and Kangaroo Island

Title: Improved criteria for predicting and ameliorating soil acidity in the higher

rainfall areas of South Australia.

Author - Richards AF (1992) Technical report No 196

Type – trial/demo: Trial – lime

Aims: To define areas in the higher rainfall zones of SA that have become or have

the potential to develop soil acidity problems under improved pasture.

To identify the principal soil properties and conditions associated with

acidic soils that affect plant growth.

To provide a scientific basis for liming strategies on a range of acidic soils, and to evaluate the effects of lime in terms of acidity and associated plant


nutrient status. This includes the establishment of reliable diagnostic tests and guidelines for assisting graziers in their use of lime for correcting soil acidity.

Results: Conclusions:

The project has determined that large areas of the productive high rainfall

areas of SA are experiencing soil acidity related productivity constraints.

Many more soils were identified as likely to become highly acidic under

current farming practices.

The acidic soil problems of many soil types have been characterised.

Plant growth responses to liming have been demonstrated in long term

field experiments and in glasshouse studies.

Marked changes in the species composition of pastures as a result of

liming have been demonstrated by field studies.

Improved nodulation of subterranean clover has been demonstrated by

pot experiments.

Chemical tests for aluminium toxicity show promise for predicting

responses to lime. However, an assessment of soil acidity and aluminium

toxicity of subsurface soil horizons will often be required.

Estimation of the quality of lime required to raise the soil to the desired pH

can be made from simple laboratory tests or field texture.

The effects of lime on trace element availability on some soils (lateritic and

deep sandy soils), will have to be monitored closely to avoid induced

nutrient imbalances, particularly Mn deficiency and Cu deficiency in

ruminants caused by excess Mo.

Publications:

Hodge, T.J.V. and Lewis, D.E. (1989). A description of acid soils and the relationships between properties of acid soils and the nutrient status of grazed pastures in the south-east of South Australia. Aust.L Soil Res., 27: 149-159. Hodge, T. (1990). Correcting soil acidity - South East. Pasture symposium No. 3, 7th February 1990, Waite Agricultural Research Institute, University of Adelaide. Merry,R.H., Tiller, K.G., Chartres, C.l. and Geeves, G. (1989). Generalised maps of acidic and potentially acidic agricultural soils of Australia, with special reference to temperate Australia. Proc. Acid Soil Research Workshop, Coonawarra SA 25- 27 Oct. 1989. Merry, R.H. (1989). Soil acidity research in South Australia. Aust. Soil Acidity Res. News., 15-18, pg. 6-10. Merry, R.H., Tiller, K.G. and Richards, AF. (1990). Variability in characteristics of some acidic pasture soils in South Australia and implications for lime application. Aust.L Soil Res., 28: 27-38. Merry, R. and Richards, A (1990). Correcting soil acidity - Adelaide Hills and Kangaroo Island. Pasture symposium No. 3, 7th February 1990, Waite Agricultural Research Institute, University of Adelaide.


Richards, AF. and Merry, R.H. (1988). Inducement of manganese deficiency by lime application on acid lateritic soils. Is it a problem? Contributed papers Int. Symp. on manganese in soils and plants, pg 15-18. Waite Agricultural Research Institute, August 22-26, 1988. Richards, AF. (1989). Comparison of different soil to solution extraction ratios on pH and extractable aluminium and manganeses in 0.01M CaCI2. Aust. Soil Acidity Res. News., 15-18, pg. 21-24. Richards, AF. and Merry, R.H. (1989). Lime application to South Australian soils of low nutrient status, with reference to induced Mn deficiency on lateritic soils. Aust. Soil Acidity Res. News., 4, pg. 6-10. Richards, AF., Tiller, KG., and Merry, R.H. (1989). Techniques for the prediction of soil buffering capacity. Proc. Acid Soil Research Workshop, Coonawarra S.A 25- 27 Oct. 1989. Richards, AF. (1990) Land degradation by soil acidity. Soil and conservation and land management, 7th March 1990, Roseworthy Agricultural College, pp 31-35. Riley, G.G., Merry, R.H. and Zomada, E. (1986). Clay minerals in some acid pasture soils of the Mt. Lofty Ranges and Kangaroo Island. CSIRO Division of Soils, Tech. Mem, 52/1986. Tiller, KG. and Merry,R.H.(1989). Generalized maps of acidic and potentially acidic soils in Australia, with special reference to South Australia. CSIRO Division of Soils Tech. Memorandum 11/1989. All"Proceedings Acid Soil Workshop, Waite Agricultural Research Institute, 23rd August 1989". Tiller, KG. (1989). Occurrences, causes and rates of acidification, pg. 1-6. Merry, R.H. (1989). The effects of acidification and some consequences of liming on soils and plants, pg. 7-13. Richards, AF. (1989). What do we measure?, pg. 14-22. Hodge, T.J.V. (1989). lime quality, pg. 29-33. Hodge, T.J.V. (1989). The south-east situation, pg. 43-46.

Further Research:

- Examine the effects of soil acidity on earthworm populations and the role of earthworms in lime incorporation and organic matter turnover in acidic soils.

- Examine the interaction between lime application and reduced incidences of fungal root disease in subterranean clover.

- Assess the effects of lime application on the quantity and distribution of rhizobial populations in acidic soils.

- Assess the role of lime in improving rainfall infiltration in permanent pasture soils.

- Determine the rate of movement of surface applied lime into the soil horizons to predict the periods necessary to overcome subsoil acidity.

- Evaluate efficiency strategies for applying lime to permanent pasture soils.

- Evaluate the feasibility of less acidifying farming systems, including the greater use of deep rooted perennial species, to reduce rates of soil acidification.


- Quantify whether lime applications will have adverse effects on plant B availability on low B acidic soils.

Economic analysis: Comments in text

Contact: Journal papers

Table 3-10 Davies (1982) Selenium deficiency KI

Date: 1982

Location: Kangaroo Island – Ironstone soils on central plateau

Title: Selenium in barley and grain legumes from Kangaroo Island

RL Davies

Technical report No 10

Type – trial/demo: Demonstration

Aims: Selenium deficiency not diagnosed in pigs but has been recorded in sheep in SA. If grain and grain legumes with low selenium levels where the main diet for pigs it could lead to clinical deficiency. Objective of the research was to determine whether selenium levels of 0.05 mg/kg or less occur in grain and grain legumes on KI.

Results: Methods:

Selenium deficiency mainly occurs on ironstone soils on central plateau

and eastern end of KI. Six barley and five grain legume samples analysed.

Results:

Most samples of samples of barley and grain legumes from lateritic and

associated soils on Kangaroo Island had selenium levels below adequate

for pigs. Deficiency in pigs feed a diet of these grains from KI.

Selenium supplements needed for pigs feed this diet.



Table 3-11 Henry (1983) Introduction of dung beetles

Date: 1983

Location:

Title: Introduction of dung beetles into South Australia 1970 - 1983

Author – KR Henry

Technical Report No 41


Aims: Problem: Native dung beetles prefer dry, fibrous Marsupial dung and not moist dune from introducted cattle.

Results: Methods:

In 1972 one release of 600 beetles at Inman Valley.

Summary:

There have been 95 releases of 9 different species at Kenton Valley,

Wanilla, Inman Valley, Jervois, Strathalbyn and Mypolonga.

The most successful release was at Inman Valley with Onthophagus taurus

and O. binodus spreading 3 to 4 kilometers from the release site.


Beetles can now be harvested and released in other locations.



Table 3-12 Brooks and Fairbrother (1989) Direct drilling pastures

Date: 1989

Location: Not specified – general publication

Title: Direct drilling of pastures in high rainfall areas

Authors – N Brooks, P Fairbrother

Technical report No 4


Aims: To demonstrate the advantages of direct seeding over the cultivation of deteriorated pasture paddocks. Provide a guide to effective direct seeding.

Results: This technical report provides a guide to all aspects to consider when

direct seeding a pasture paddock. It includes pasture management,

herbicide rates and calculation

Benefits of direct drilling include less cultivation, reduce chance of soil

erosion, soil stability maintained.

Method successful if follow a formula:

Identify reason for pasture decline

Grazing management before re-seeding

Spray quantity according to label instructions

Sowing at correct time and depth

Machinery application rates correct

Suitable fertilisers

Insect pests controlled

Newly sown pasture is managed correctly



Table 3-13 Merry et al (1989) Potential for soil acidification

Date: 1989

Location: General report

Title: Generalised maps of acidic and potentially acidic agricultural soils of

Australia, with special reference to temperate Australia

Type – trial/demo: Report. Australian Wool Corporation and National Soil Conservation

Program

Aims: Development of a map showing potential for soil acidification.

Results: General soil acidity map developed from the Australian soil map. Detailed

maps at 1:2,000,000 scale developed using knowledge of soil reaction

trends, inferred buffer capacities and soil pH records.

Three mapping units for acidic soils in Australia:

1. Naturally acidic throughout profile


2. Acidic surface and neutral subsoils (clay B horizon – duplex) 3. Alkaline subsoils but acidic surface soils due to farming practices

Soils not at risk of acidification include grey, brown and red clays, black earths, prairie soils, solonised brown soils, calcareous earths, rendzinas and terra rossa. Areas at risk have rainfall greater than 500 mm and areas where rainfall is 300 to 500 mm.


Contact: Proceedings of the Australian Acid soil research workshop, Coonawarra, SA October 1989.

Table 3-14 Hodge and Lewis (1989) Phosphorus leaching and lime

Date: 1989

Location: South East

Title: The effect of lime (CaCO2) applications on the utilisation of phosphorus

and dry matter production of subclover growing on an acid siliceous sand

Hodge T and Lewis D (1989) Dept Agriculture

Type – trial/demo: Trails. Australian Wool Corporation and National Soil Conservation

Program

Aims: Understanding of how lime reduces phosphorus leaching

Results: Soil type studied – siliceous sands with little clay to buffer against soil acidity, poor nutrient levels and retention. P retention – related to iron (Fe), aluminium (Al), and P sorption capacity. Applied P moved through surface soils to subsoil clay and laterally to drains and swamps. No P accumulation in the top 7.5 cm. Up to 100% loss of P within 5 months. Improved P utilisation – use of lime to reduce P leaching. Clarke (1974) showed superphosphate applied with lime reduced P leaching. But he was unable to substantiate the mechanism involved.



Table 3-15 Richards et al (1989) Techniques to predict soil buffering capacity

Date: 1989

Location: Not specified, states high rainfall areas of SA

Title: Techniques for the prediction of soil buffering capacity

Richards A, Tiller K, Merry R (1989)

Type – trial/demo: Trials. Australian Wool Corporation and National Soil Conservation

Program

Aims: To determine how much lime to apply using soil buffering capacity (tonnes of lime per hectare needed to raise soil pH by one unit)

Results: Using soil texture and Ca(OH)2 titration and adapted SMP buffer test to

determine soil buffering capacity.


Estimation of soil buffering capacity of pasture soils from soil texture can

predict lime requirement. Organic matter in soils resulted in varied

results.

Estimation of soil buffering capacity by SMP buffer procedure is rapid and

accurate as titration method. Buffer must be calibrated for soil.



Table 3-16 Mitchell et al (1990) Legume recommendations

Date: 1990

Location: General – not specified

Title: Legume recommendations for dryland pasture in SA 1990-1991

Authors – G Mitchell, A Lake, M Stanley

Technical Bulletin No 2/90


Aims: Guide to pasture legume selection for long-term pasture renovation for dryland farming, non-irrigated. Recommendations are given for regular cropping rotations and for permanent pasture situations.

Results: When selecting pasture legumes consider:

farming system – cropping or permanent pasture

soil type

rainfall

soil pH

grazing management – continuous or rotation Report uses a step guide to selecting legume pasture based on above information for cropping and permanent pasture situations. Pasture selection is then split based on depth of sand, that is < 50 cm or greater than 50 cm. Then select from rainfall zone, soil pH range and variety. This guide could be updated for current (2016) pasture options.

Economic analysis: Recommendations only given for legume s with economic benefit


Table 3-17 Stevens et al (1990) Selenium and magnesium status of dairy cows

Date: 1990

Location:

Title: The selenium and magnesium status of dairy cows on deep sand and

lateritic soils on the Fleurieu Peninsula.

Authors – G Stevens, P Lewis, D McLean, B Bartsch, G Judson. (636.2085

S844)

Type – trial/demo: Monitoring

Aims: Survey to determine if dairy cows on deep sand and lateritic soils were at risk of selenium and magnesium deficiency. Also to provide ranges in dairy cows for urinary Mg, Ca, Na and K.


Results: Problem:

selenium deficiency observed in cows grazing acidic soils in high rainfall areas. Young animals more susceptible when adequate feed. Heavy superphosphate applications shown to decrease pasture Se concentration and encourage growth of pasture legumes which have lower Se concentrations than grasses, which may decrease selenium uptake by animals.

Methods:

8 dairy properties of each soil type monitored – locations not specified

Summary: Seleniun:

Marginal selenium deficiency found on both lateritic and deep sand soils, but greater on lateritic soils.

Milk selenium level varied with season autumn>winter>summer

Blood and milk selenium levels correlated but not suitable for monitoring

Magnesium:

Magnesium levels normal, low deficiency risk

Urine samples indicate winter supplements needed

Magnesium in cows on deep sand had higher levels Potassium:

Urinary potassium higher on deep sand and greater in Sept>April>June

Sodium:

Lower on deep sand in winter/spring. Supplements needed Calcium:

Plasma calcium levels normal, but some cows had low levels and reasons unknown

Phosphorus:

Plasma phosphorus levels normal Vitamin E:

Affected by calving status (first calves> late calves) and sample time (winter/spring>autumn)

Conclusions:

Results do not show sufficient problems to conduct further research but suggests that monitoring and economics of supplement regimes is required.



Table 3-18 Merry et al (1990) Variability in characteristics of acidic pasture soil

Date: 1990

Location: Sites 3 and 4 at Inman Valley and Parawa

Title: Variability in Characteristics of Some Acidic Pasture Soils in South Australia and Implications for Lime Application R. H. Merry, K. G. Tiller and R. A. Richards

Type – trial/demo: trial


Aims: The variability _of soil pH (0.01 M CaCI2), aluminium and manganese (extractable in 0.01 M CaCIz), total carbon and some soil morphological factors have been investigated in the surface and subsoil at seven pasture sites in the southern Mount Lofty Ranges and Kangaroo Island, South Australia.

Results: Conclusion- The levels of variability are such that in these soils it may be difficult to measure field responses to lime in legume-grass pastures where further variability is encountered, due to environmental, nutritional and pathological factors as well as floristic composition.

Economic analysis: none

Contact: Aust. J. Soil Res., 1990, 28, 27-38

Table 3-19 (1990) Flaxley Research Centre pasture agronomy trials 1988-1989

Date: 1988 – 1989

Location: Flaxley Research Centre

Title: Flaxley research centre pasture agronomy trials 1988-1989


Aims: Report covers pasture trials conducted between 1988 to 1989. The focus is on pasture species and cultivar evaluation.

Results: Subclover – importance of seedling vigour for establishment and

persistence in mixed pastures. New ssp yanninicum clover line FS-24 has

improved seedling vigour and clover scorch compared to cultivars Trikkala

and Larisa.

To date, subclover has been the most successful legume in dryland pastur

trials. Mures medics, Kyambro Persian clover and Paradana balansa clover

performed well and have role in Fleurieu.

Ellett and Kangaroo Valley perennial ryegrasses most productive in first

year.

Direct drilling is most reliable technique for establishment in autumn.


Contact: Dept Agriculture Technical Report no 156

Table 3-20 (1991) Flaxley Research Centre pasture agronomy trials 1990

Date: 1991


Title: Flaxley research centre pasture agronomy trials 1990


Aims: Report covers pasture trials conducted between 1990. The focus is on pasture species and cultivar evaluation.

Results: In general – sub clover most productive pasture legume. Karridale best

performing. Mt arker, Woogenellup, Meteora and Clare should no longer

be recommended for the Fleurieu.

Late-maturing sub clovers, Leura, Denmark, Goulburn very productive.

Leura should be recommendation in 700mm plus rainfall on Fleurieu.


Grasslands Kopu goods levels of production and persistence over two

years.

Victorian perennial ryegrass good in rainfed trials, but Ellett better when

>700mm. Irrigated pasture, Grasslands Nui, Supernui and Ellett best

producing.

Porto most productive cocksfoot in mixed swards, but Currie best in pure

stands.

Triumph tall fescue more dry matter in irrigated trials.



Table 3-21 Fairbrother and Thomson (1991) Irrigated lucerne production

Date: 1991

Location: General guide publication – not location specific

Title: Irrigated Lucerne production for fodder Authors – P Fairbrother, T Thomson Technical Bulletin No 1/91

Type – trial/demo: Guideline publication

Aims: To discuss the main aspects of Lucerne production for fodder

Results: Aspects discussed:

Soils and soil amendments

Variety selection

Timing of operations

Seeding – preparation seedbed, rates and methods

Cereal cover crops

Fertilisers

Weeds, insect pests and diseases

Cutting and grazing, silage making, haymaking (windrows, bailing, hay testing)

Renovation, resowing

irrigation Conclusions throughout text




Date: 1992





Results: Dryland trials subclover most productive and persistent. Karradale,

Trikkala, Gosse, Woogenellup and Seaton Park most productive. Leura

superior herbage production over 2 years.


Mediterranean cultivars of white clover more productive in Mt Lofty

Ranges.

Under dryland conditions Ellett and Victorian perennial ryegrass similar

herbage production. Porto cocksfoot more productive on deep sand and

lateritic podsols.

Irrigated pasture – Ellett more productive in 3nd year, but Triumph tall

fescue more productive overall.

Topdressing in the year before autumn sown pasture improved

establishment.



Table 3-23 Kealey (1992) Acid soils, occurrence and management

Date: 1992

Location: General outline of acid soil problem – not site specific

Title: Acid soils – Their occurrence and management in SA Author – L Kealey Technical Bulletin No 1/92

Type – trial/demo: Summary of research

Aims: Outline of acid soil problem, report presented as guide to current (1992) information.

Results: Report in two parts: section 1 - Acid soils; section 2 – Management of acid soils. Fleurieu Peninsula and KI shown as area where soil acidity at depth may occur. Acidifiction rate depends on: rainfall (high rainfall), soil (sandy soil less clay) and production type (productive plant system). Symptoms: uneven growth; poor nodulation; stunted root growth; root disease; acid-tolerant weeds; Lucerne, phalaris and medics less easy to establish; less biological activity forming organic mats. Causes: nitrate leaching; OM accumulation; inappropriate fertiliser use (ammonia and elemental sulphur fertilisers will lower pH) Superphosphate - combat with lime – superphoshate not acidifying – not enough acid in normal super to acidify the soil permanently – effect is several hours. Nitrate and OM build up as pastures grows this acidifies the soil. Management: short term option is to plant tolerant plants, long-term increase soil pH using lime (cost effective – need to check for 2016 costs). Lime sources include agricultural lime, lime sand, quick lime, hydrated lime, dolomite, magnesite, cement kiln dust. Lime quality depends on particle size, neutralising value, RH value, chemical analysis. Lime rates depend on soil type, soil pH and lime quality. Future management - monitoring of soil pH. Slow soil acidification rate by:

perennial pasture species, deep rooted take up nitrate more than annuals

modify fertiliser practices and reduce soil nitrate buildup


return cut hay to paddock or bring in to return nutrient s to system

reduce stock camp areas, so manure is spread Summary: Soil acidification is a natural process that has been accelerated by agriculture. Soil acidification lowers soil pH, reduces soil fertility and pasture quality. Liming increases soil pH, monitoring required. Check lime quality. Too much lime can be detrimental to stock and pasture. Regular applications.



Table 3-24 Parawa (1992) Soil pit field day, Dept Ag SA

Date: 1992

Location: Parawa

Title: Soil pit field day – Southern Hills Soil Conservation Board

Type – trial/demo: Field day

Aims: Instruction on the procedures for describing soils and interpretation of soil analysis results

Results: Booklet produced. Topics covered include: soil description, waterlogging

and drainage, surface and subsoil structure, soil waterholding capacity, soil

chemical fertility, soil pH, salinity, water repellence, water erosion

potential, wind erosion potential, soil sampling instructions, soil analysis

for crops and pastures.


Contact: Dept Agriculture SA

Table 3-25 Baker et al (1992) Abundance and diversity of earthworms

Date: 1992

Location: Fleurieu Peninsula – property locations not specified

Title: The abundance and diversity of earthworms in pasture soils in the Fleurieu Peninsula SA Authors – G Baker, J Buckerfield, R Grey-Gardner, R Merry, B Doube Soil Biology Biochem, Vol 24 No 12 pp1389-1392

Type – trial/demo: Survey - monitoring

Aims: Survey of earthworm populations in permanent pasture soils in Adelaide Hills and Fleurieu Penisula and considers the environmental factors affecting their distribution.

Results: 113 pasture soils investigated. Soil types include sandy topsoils with yellow brown or red clay B horizons and deep course textured sands. Most common earthworms were Aporrectodea trapezoided (95% sites), Microscolex dubius (61% sites), A rosea (38% sites) and A culiginosu (36% sites). All introduced species. Mean density was 169 / m2. Native earthworms present at only 40 sites. Species richness was low, not more than 5 species at each site.


Earthworms less abundant on course textured sands. % clay content most important determinate of earthworm presence.


Contact: Soil Biology Biochem, Vol 24 No 12 pp1389-1392


Date: 1993





Results: Dryland permanent pasture trials subclover most productive and

persistent. Leura, Trikkala and Gosse best.

Alansa clover, murex medic and yellow serradella and lotus persisted in

dryland trials but inferior to subclover.

Dryland trials Victorian and Ellett perennial ryegrass persisted. Porto

cocksfoot out-yielded other cultivars.

Irriagted trial, Triumph tal fescue and Porto cocksfoot performed best.

Endophyte infection no effect on herbage production.

Dryland forage crops – oat cultivars Marloo, Wallaroo, Bettong and Tetila

Italian rygrass greater spring forage yields. Corvette, Exalta and Concord

Italian ryegrass greater regrowth after spring defoliation.

Direct drilling trials shown tyned seeding machines gave better

establishment. But does not effect pasture compostion, production or

utilisation.

Nitrogenous fertiliser at 20 and 40 kg/ha did not increase herbage

production in 3 year trials.



Table 3-27 Court (1998) Grassland productivity program

Date: 1993 to 1996

Location: Parawa – Tony Philip

Title: Grasslands Productivity Program (convened by the Graslands Society of Southern Australia)

Court J (1998), Grasslands Productivity Program 1993-1996: Final Report to Members 1998. Grasslands Society of Victoria Inc.

Type – trial/demo: Demonstration - pastures

Aims: Demonstrate the profitability & sustainability of the GPP pasture management package on a Parawa sheep farm.

Set up on a farm running a spring-lambing meat sheep flock on the trial paddocks.

A control paddock left under existing management, inputs and stocking rate.


A 2nd 'Productivity paddock' set up where soil fertility improved and other limitations to pasture growth removed, with stocking rates increased over time as sheep responded to the changes practices.

Results: Profitability & sustainability of high input pasture systems for meat sheep production on the Fleurieu Peninsula. Lateritic podsols. Control paddock soil fertility: pHCaCl2 4.7, POlsen 5 ppm, Kcolwell 120 ppm. Productivity paddock soil fertility increased to: pHCaCl2 4.7, POlsen 15 ppm, Kcolwell 173 ppm. The GPP productivity package allowed for a sustainable 40% stocking rate increase (15 --> 21 DSE/ha). Weaning percentages decreased from 134 --> 123%, but weaning liveweights increased from 43 --> 47 kg/ lamb.

Economic analysis: Overall, calculated enterprise gross margins increased from $391/ha (control paddock) to $487/ha (GPP paddock). The GPP reported a $2.31 return for every extra dollar invested in the

'Productivity Paddock'.

Contact: Grasslands Society of Victoria

Table 3-28 Mitchell et al (1994) High rainfall pasture research

Date: 1994

Location: Mt Compass (R & D Basham), Harrogate (A, J&D Brice), Kuitpo (A Brookman & M Connell), Sandergrove (D Clarke), Springton (G&S Elliot), Montieth (J, H&M Erickson), Woodside (M Green), Delamere (P&G Filsell), Penneshaw (K&B Howord), Delamere (P Krichauff), Macclesfield (B&C Lowe), Tooperang (L McKenzie), Wilunga (C&M Taylor), Strathalbyn (P Vivian), Gosse (J Wandel).

Title: High rainfall pasture research Authors: G Mitchell, S Chinner, P Colman, D Heinjus Technical Report No 227

Type – trial/demo: research

Aims: Background – cattle compensation fund provided funds to SARDI (1989-1993) for field testing of perennial pastures and legume species. Evaluate 20 perennial pasture species under dryland and summer irrigated regimes. (soil types acidic, neutral duplex, lateritic, heavy clay, deep acidic sandy soils). Evaluate 20 legumes in dryland regimes. (Flaxley research centre and Murray Floodplain soils). Evaluate 18 late mature lines of banksia clover (Flaxley). Evaluate 10 white clover cultivars under dryland and irrigated regimes.

Results: Results of these trials are presented in Dept Agriculture Technical Reports Nos: 156, 181, 197 and 206. This is a summary of the findings of all trial work. Legumes:

19 legume species were evaluate for dryland production with Subterranean clover the best performing

Karridale had superior seed and herbage production

Goulburn, Denmark and Leura cvv selected and commercialised from this research


Gosse subclover cultivar selected and commercialised for waterlogging tolerance similar to Trikkala and Larisa

Cvv Woogenellup and Seaton Park productive clovers for deeper acid sandy soils

The range of perennial legumes tested did not persist for more than two years of summer drought

White clover is most commonly used perennial legume in dairy pastures. No new alternatives identified. Grasslands Kopu cultivar more productive in third year of irrigation

Perennial grass species:

Performance varied with soil type

Yellow, red and grey Podsol soils – perennial ryegrass. cvv Victorian and Ellett were consistently more productive. Ellett was most productive in year 3 and most persistent in year 5. Victorian more persistent than all other ryegrass (except Brumby) after two years of cattle and sheep grazing

Lateritic or deep sandy soils – Cocksfoot superior. Cultivar Porto more productive than Currie

Phalaris – less productive than perennial ryegrass or Cocksfoot on a range of acid soils. More productive on neutral soils. The cultivars Sirosa and Sirolan performed well over all sites. The culivar Holdfast similar productive. Cv Grasslands Maru best on lateritic podsol soils with greater summer activity

Tall fescue persisted in dryland pastures but is active in late spring and summer when Fleurieu Peninsula gets summer drought conditions – less productive than perennial ryegrass, cocksfoot or phalaris

Perennial ryegrass still remains best option for irrigated dairy pastures



Table 3-29 Hughes et al (1994) Earthworm behaviour

Date: 1994

Location: Balhannah – Mt Lofty Ranges

Title: The use of resource patches by earthworms. Authors: M Hughes, C Bull, B Doube Biol Fertil Soils (1994) 18:241-244

Type – trial/demo: Research

Aims: The behaviour of earthworms under manure patches was examined. Assess the effects of additional organic matter on earthworm populations. Previous research has shown earthworms congregate under manure patches.

Results: Bags of soil (15 cm deep) were placed in a pasture at Balhannah in autumn. A total of 5 Aporrectodea trapezoids were placed in each bag and 250 g of sheep manure added. In harvests during weeks 7, 9, and 11 after the start of the experiment, A. trapezoides and three other species, A. caliginosa, A. rosea, and Microscolex dubius, were recovered from the bags.


Bags with added manure had a greater number of species present. Total earthworm numbers were not influenced by either the form or the location of application of the manure. Cocoons of Aporrectodea spp were more common in lower layers of bag.


Contact: Biol Fertil Soils (1994) 18:241-244

Table 3-30 Prance and Ryan (1994) Grazing management, putting it all together (GSVIC)

Date: 1994

Location: Delamere

Title: Grazing management putting it all together.

T Prance and B Ryan (Delamere)


Aims: Comparison of traditional set stocking and strategic grazing system involving deferred grazing, block grazing and set stocking.

Results: Problem: Renovated pastures did not last long. Plus hard grazing of set

stocked areas resulted in reduced winter growth rates of pasture due to

small leaf area of pasture plants and continuous defoliation by sheep.

In spring extra pasture is carried over as dry feed and difficult to harvest

(cut) as spread over whole farm.

Season finishes too early for spring lambing for meat production.

Aim: is to maintain and improve pasture production and consequently

stocking rates; maintain perennial ryegrass and subclover pastures; finish

crossbred lambs for sale in late January/February.

Summary:

Extra feed in winter from strategic grazing area was available for cattle and

there was extra feed conserved in spring for cattle and finishing of lambs.

Flexibility is the key to successful grazing management, plus good pasture

and stock observations. This leads to fine-tuning of stock and pasture

management during the year to get the most out of pastures while

sustaining good perennial grass and subclover pastures. Working to a

recipe of either fixed dates or levels of pasture production is not

recommended.

Economic analysis: In 1995 report.

Contact: T Prance and B Ryan

Table 3-31 T Prance and B Ryan (1995). Economic analysis, strategic grazing

Date: 1995

Location: Economic analysis – strategic grazing - Delamere

Title: Pasture, use it or lose it.

Grasslands Society of Victoria – 36th Annual Conference

T Prance and B Ryan (Delamere)


Aims: Comparison of strategically grazed area with set stocked area


Results: Methods:

Set stocked area 40 ha, strategically grazed area 48 ha. Stocking rate 7 and

8 crossbred ewes/ha respectively. No hand feeding of set stocked area.

Silage cost $50/tonne dry matter to produce.

Results:

Strategically grazed carried extra 1 crossbred ewe/ha and cut extra 800

tonne/ha silage above set stocked area.

Extra income for strategically stocked area (ewe and silage) was $81/ha.

Extra costs for strategically stocked area (silage, feeding out, fencing) was

$34/ha. Extra labour 1 hour for 40 days.

Summary:

To break even stocking rates need to increase by 1 crossbred ewe/ha over

extra costs of feeding. However extra silage made under strategic grazing

provides extra income.

Other benefits include increase pasture use, pasture composition. Extra

pasture is available in winter when needed.

Economic analysis: Net extra income return was $47/ha.

Contact: T Prance and B Ryan (Delamere)

Table 3-32 Doube (1996) Earthworms and moisture gradients

Date: 1996

Location: Fleurieu Peninsula Properties – Parsons, Ratjens, Nottles.

Title: The response of llporrectodea rosea and liporrectodea trapezoides (Oligochaeta: Lubricidae) to moisture gradients in three soil types in the laboratory. Authors: B Doube, C. Styan Biol Fertil Soils (1996) 23:166-172


Aims: The aims of the experiment reported here were firstly, to determine for A. rosea and A. trapezoides (in three contrasting soil types) the moisture thresholds at which earthworms move from dry to moist soil and, secondly, to determine whether the earthworms' behavioural response to soil moisture is best described in terms of moisture content or by matric suction.

Results: Soil types with clay contents varying from 4 to 39%. Gravimetric moisture gradients ranging over 5-30% were established in horizontal cores comprising 12 or 14 sections containing loosely packed soil. The earthworms moved from sections containing dry soil into adjacent sections containing moister soil. For the earthworm Aporrectodea rosea, the threshold soil mositure level at which earthworms were induced to move away from dry soil was a matric suction of about 300 kPa (pF 3.4) and was independent of soil type. For A. trapezoides, the threshold soil moisture varied with soil type (sandy loam 15 kPa, loam 25 kPa, clay 300 kPa). For the earthworm A. rosea, matric suction and not water content of soil provided the cue by which the earthworm recognized dry soil. For


A. trapezoides, there was an interaction between matric suction and soil type


Contact: Biol Fertil Soils (1996) 23:166-172

Table 3-33 Dyson (1996) Liming strategies

Date: 1996

Location: Mt Lofty Ranges (Birdwood-site 1-D and V Rathjen, Flaxley-site 2-P Barolo, Inman Valley-site 3-W and G Parsons , Parawa-site 4-V Walters), Kangaroo Island (Stokes Bay-site 5-I Kelly, Goose-site 6-D Siekmann, Seddon-site 7-T Bolto), South East (Kalangadoo-site 8-M Young, Dismal Swamp-site 9-R Jones, site 10-R Florance)

Title: Liming strategies for acidified pasture soils in the higher rainfall areas of

South Australia

Author – CB Dyson

Type – trial/demo: Trails - lime

Aims: General aim was to define liming strategies to counter the effects of soil acidification, and thus protect the soil resource, in the higher rainfall areas of South Australia.

1. To develop techniques for predicting the response of acid soils to liming and it’s benefit/cost in various locations

2. To predict the effects of liming on trace element nutrition and the nodulation of subterranean clover

3. Train PIRSA and agribusiness staff in use of models 4. Define liming strategies to counteract soil acidification

Results: Introduction:

The project was an extension of trial work conducted between 1985 and

1989 (Richards AF 1992).

Major outcomes:

Aim 1.

Agronomic benefits seen at sites 1, 2, 4 and 6 with lime applied at 2 to 4

t/ha and incorporated to 10 cm were expected to meet cost within 7 to 8

years.

A range rather than a rate of lime applied is suggested.

Pasture responses – agronomic benefits in the first five years after

incorporation of lime (with limited or no grazing) were: early season clover

vigour; pasture production of higher quality earlier, but little change in

total dry matter.

The amount of incorporated lime required to raise soil pH at 0-10 cm

within 12 months to a target soil pH is predicted by soil texture.

Stronger performance of clover is expected to exacebate soil acidification.

Reacidification following liming by incorporation with pasture renovation

was more rapid than rates of acidification in pastures in general.

Stock have shown preference for limed pastures even in absences of any

visual response.


Aim 2. Rates of lime at 4 t/ha or greater inhibited manganese (Mn),zinc (Zn), copper (Cu) and boron (B) availability and molybdenum (Mo) levels were very high for a short period. That is, lime applied in a method that achieves less thorough mixing than rotovation or use of a low reactivity lime or liming at moderate rates – does not have the potential to disrupt nutrient balance (except at critical levels of nutrients). Subclover nodulation (assessed at early flowering at five sites after 5 years since liming) was little enhanced (more nodules on main root = earlier initiation) early in season with incorporation of moderate lime rates 2 t/ha. Aim 3. Bulletin prepared. Kealey LM (1992). Soil acidity – its occurrence and management in SA. Dept Ag SA Bulletin 1/92. Aim 4. A lime requirement formula for 0-10 cm based on incorporated lime can be derived from this project. The most acid prone soil zone is 2.5 to 20 cm under pastures. The regular downward movement of the liming effect at 2 to 2.5 cm / year is based on moderate to high rates of incorporation and will raise soil pH by 1 unit in 0-10 cm zone within 5 years and ameliorate extreme acidity to 20 cm. Liming without incorporation will take around 10 years. The liming effect with low rates of lime (2 t/ha) will run out after about 7 years. Amelioration to 20 cm depth only achieved with lime rates greater than 2.5 t/ha lime incorporated. More than one substantial lime input is needed if surface spreading/drilling of lime. If soil exchangeable Al in high, then cultivation after liming is recommended. The extent of acidity at depth determines the liming program. If lime status is satisfactory then applying lime at moderate rates ( 2 to 4 t/ha) each 3 to 5 years is adequate once target soil pH is reached, then every 5 years. With acidity at depth a larger initial dose is required. A change to deep rooted perennial species should be part of amelioration process. This could be targeted 3 years after lime incorporation and 7 years after surface spreading. Earthworm numbers were consistent after liming, but biomass increased and species composition moved toward vertical travellers. General conclusions:

1. General fertiliser management provides a way of fending off the worst effects of soil acidity until a liming program in undertaken

2. Liming could induce micronutrient deficiencies (Mn, Zn) and increase Mo levels


3. Attempts to offset induced deficiencies did not work. Field pastures are buffered against induced deficiencies

4. Higher rates of lime relieved extreme subsoil acidity through downward movement of the liming effect

5. Good quality swards are needed to realise the full benefits of liming

6. The improvements in sward performance induced by liming and renewal lead to high rates of reacidifcation

7. Responses to liming in the first few years after application are expressed in early season clover vigour. With time responses in the performance of high fertility grasses dominate

The success of liming depends on ability to turn improved pasture performance into improved stock performace. On-going liming program needed to maintain the pasture.

Economic analysis: Agronomic benefits have been obtained through early season clover vigour

and associated lift in pasture production (10 to 20%), amounting in total to

200 – 400 kg/ha per t/ha of lime incorporated across a range of season

openings.

Contact: SARDI report Wool Research and Development Corporation Project DAS-31P (extension of DAS-14)

Table 3-34 Mitchell (1997) Guidelines for grazing pastures

Date: 1997

Location: Flaxley Research centre

Title: Guidelines for grazing. Dairy pasture systems for low summer rainfall pasture production zone. Author: G Mitchell Technical Report 264.

Type – trial/demo: Guidelines from research trials

Aims: To generate management information to optimise the growth, quality and utilisation of dryland perennial grasses/subclover pastures on dairy farms. This work appears to be precursor to Dairy SA.

Results: Part of Dairy Research & Development Corporation funded project, with SARDI and PIRSA. Components of SA work were:

Calibration of Ellinbank rising plate meter for a range of perennial grasses and subclover pasture types

Regional grazing comparisons – to provide local data and information

Replicated block grazing trial at Flaxley

Replicated pasture trial at Flaxley

Monitoring of pasture utilisation on commercial dairy farms in Mt Lofty Ranges over 4 years

Block grazing principals used at Flaxley Dairy farm Summary:

1. Assessing pasture dry matter cover – the Ellinbank rising plate meter was calibrated for mixed pastures of subclover with either perennial ryegrass, phalaris or cocksfoot as the companion grass.


2. Regional grazing comparisons – farmer groups compared different grazing systems at Moculta (Barossa Valley) and Meadows (Adelaide Hills).

a. At Moculta rotation grazing of small areas utilised pasture better than continuous grazing. Grazing per area was limited to 3 days giving best results.

b. At Meadows rotations of 30 to 45 days best for pasture utilisation. Longer grazing days when pasture growth was slowed during colder months.

3. Replicated block grazing trial – evaluated grazing strategies from regional grazing comparisons, defined by pasture DM levels before and after grazing

a. For perennial ryegrass + subclover and cocksfoot + subclover pastures, a grazing strategy of 2200→1200 kg DM/ha produced greater pasture use in autumn / winter

b. For phalaris + subclover pastures - grazing when phalaris was at 4 leaf stage and leaving 1200 kg DM/ha gave best utilisation.

c. Winter growth and utilisation of phalaris+subclover pasture was superior to perennial ryegrass or cocksfoot+subclover pastures in this trial. Phalaris maybe more persistent in block grazed pastures in Mt Lofty Ranges.

4. Replicated spring pasture management trials – a. 1st year phalaris and cocksfoot pastures should not be used

for fodder conservation. Once established they are more tolerant to conserved fodder cuts when soil fertility is good and block grazed at other times.

b. Seed production of subclover is better if not defoliated by grazing of cuts during flowering. Multi-cultivar stands more adaptable to cutting

5. Current pasture utilisation – average 3.3 to 3.7 tonnes DM/ha, is lower than expected. Significant positive associations between pasture use and farm gross margins/ha.

6. Pasture management at Flaxley – monitoring stocking rates, cattle feeding, pasture utilisation and milk production – on the farm increased output.

Economic analysis: Limited


Table 3-35 Simpson (1997) National reactive phosphate rock project

Date: 1997

Location: National RPR Project

Title: Reactive phosphate rocks, their potential role as a P fertiliser for Australian

pastures

Author: Simpson PG. LaTrobe University

Type – trial/demo: Summary of research

Aims: Summary publication. The report discusses the role of reactive rock

phosphate (RPR) may have for supplying P to pastures.


Results: The report covers:

Conditions for RPR to dissolve

Pasture responses

Field performance

Guidelines for use

Environmental considerations

Partial acidulated phosphate rocks

Concluded that RPR can be used as an alternative source of P in some high rainfall areas. Computer based expert system for deciding on RPR use developed by Gillard (1997).


Contact: LaTrobe University

Table 3-36 Sale et al (1997) Agronomic effectiveness of reactive phosphate rocks

Date: 1997

Location: National. Location of trial sites is specified in publication: Simpson et al (1997). National Reactive Phosphate Rock Project-aims, experimental approach and site characteristics. In 'The Role of Reactive Phosphate Rock Fertilisers for Pastures in Australia'. (Eds P. W. G. Sale, P. G. Simpson, C. A. Anderson and L. L. Muir.) pp. 885-904. (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne.)

Title: Sale et al (1997). The agronomic effectiveness of reactive phosphate rocks.

1 Effect of the pasture environment.


Aims: The objective of the National rock phosphate project was to investigate if RPR would give similar results to water-soluble phosphorus fertilisers.

Results: North Carolina RPR was trailed over 4 years at 26 pasture sites across

Australia. RPR was as effective as triple super in the first year at 4 sites

and as effective at 5 sites in the 4th year of the trial. At 9 sites it was

moderately as effective as triple supper. At 8 sites it performed poorly. It

performed best in higher rainfall environments in excess of 850 mm.

Carolina phosphate rock became effective by the 4th year at sites in southern Australia where annual rainfall exceeded 700 mm, and where the surface soil was acidic [pH (CaCI2) <5.0]and not excessively sandy (sand fraction in the Al horizon <67%) but had some phosphorus (P) sorption capacity. Unsuitable on high P-sorbing lateritic soils or red-earth soils with subclover pasture or on low rainfall pastures with a sandy A1 horizon. The results from this Project indicate that there are a number of specific pasture environments in the higher rainfall regions of Australia where North Carolina reactive phosphate rock can be considered as an effective substitute P fertiliser for improved pasture.


Contact:

Table 3-37 McFarlane et al (1997) Trace elements, livestock


Date: 1997

Location: General publication - no specific location

Title: Trace elements for beef and dairy cattle. Authors: J McFarlane, K Baumgurtel, S Ellis, G Judson Technical Bulletin No 1/97

Type – trial/demo: Research trials

Aims: Summary of the effects of trace elements on beef and dairy cattle and the clinical signs to help diagnosis of a deficiency.

Results: Guidelines presented for trace element deficiency and treatment in cattle. Decline in severe trace element deficiencies due to vaccination programs. Marginal deficiencies in some stock each year below a prescribed level. Production losses can occur with marginal deficiencies as they are not seen. Trace element availability – soil type:

Sandy soils low in phosphorus and sulphur and annual applications are needed. Copper and zinc application showed prolonged residual values and they should only be applied after plant tissue analysis

Peats are high in molybdenum. The high OM locks up copper

Red gum soils (? SE ?) have low soil pH and high molybdenum. High molybdenum ties up copper in the rumen. Blood and plant tissue testing to determine when to apply copper.

High pH soils have inadequate cobalt and low zinc

Low pH acidic soils (high rainfall) have high iron content and selenium deficient

High iron content soils can induce low copper status in cattle Report outlines:

seasonal effects

areas of deficiency

clinical signs

diagnosis

treatment and prevention Treatment options table presented.



Table 3-38 Fleming and Hughes (1997) Lime products and grass tetany

Date: 1997

Location: Wistow – J Thring

Title: The effect of different liming materials on soil and plant indicators of grass

tetany in a grass dominant acid pasture with a history of grass tetany

Authors: Nigel Fleming and Brian Hughes

Type – trial/demo: Trial – grass tetany

Aims: 1. Should we recommend dolomite in preference to lime in grass tetany situations

2. What soil test indicators can be used to determine lime type requirements

Results: Lime treatments:


all 3 t/ha. Products Nutrilime (0.5%Mg, 40%Ca, NV104%); Murray Bridge

lime (3%Mg,25%Ca, NV75%); dolomite 1 (9%Mg,21%Ca, NV90%); dolomite

2 (9%Mg,21%Ca, NV89%); mix MBD and dolomite(6%Mg,23%Ca, NV82%).

Ca:Mg treatments:

3 t/ha of CaCO3 plus MgO in ratios of 10:0, 10:1, 10:2, 10:4, 10:8

Site:

Sandy loam over clay; rainfall 600mm; cattle grazing steers; phalaris,

annual grasses, broadleaf weeds and clover pasture

Soil info: P Colwell 16 mg/kg, K Colwell 239 mg/kg; pH (CaCl2) 4.3;Exc

k/(Ca+Mg) = 0.19; plant tissue k/(Ca+Mg) = 2.7

Results:

All treatments had significant effects on: soil pH, soil K/(Ca+Mg) ratios: soil

Ca and Mg levels.

All products increased slightly Ca and Mg levels.

All products slightly decreased K/(Ca+Mg) ratio and k/Mg ratio.

At higher Mg treatments – plant Mg% was higher and ratio of K/Mg lower

in 1996 only (not 1997).

Conclusion:

Soil analysis is misleading in dealing with success of different lime types in

increasing plant Mg levels and ratios between cations.

All products gave small increase in ratios of K/Mg and K/(Ca+Mg) in plant

samples. Small differences between products.

Higher rates of Mg will increase plant Mg levels at expense of Ca.


Contact: Brian Hughes

Table 3-39 Fleming (1997) Fertiliser efficiency high rainfall pastures

Date: 1997

Location: Mt Lofty Ranges and Kangaroo Island

Title: Fertilizer efficiency - high rainfall pasture

Author: Nigel Fleming

Type – trial/demo: Fertilisers – phosphorus and potassium

Aims: Aims: The aim of this project was to encourage efficient, productive and cost-effective fertiliser use on cattle properties of the Mount Lofty Ranges and Kangaroo Island. This was to be achieved through a) calibration of soil tests and b) determination of P and S requirements of pastures. Methods: These objectives were addressed by two types of fertiliser trial:

1. The first type assessed rates of P and S on sub clover based ryegrass pasture. Treatments were repeated each year onto the same plot. These trials determined maintenance fertiliser rates, and the effect of cumulative P additions on soil test P. They also


provided typical fertiliser response information for pasture on common soil types of the study area. Rate of P and S trials included both small plot trials (where pasture was cut and removed), with occasional grazing, and large plot trials (commercially grazed) using pasture cages. There were three small plot trials and 2 large plot trials.

2. The second type of trial was short term (one year) small plots on monoculture sub clover, with pasture being cut and removed. Trials were run on ironstone soils of Kangaroo Island, with the aim of measuring the response to P, K and S, at a given location, at the corresponding level of soil fertility. Each small trial gave a single data point on a soil test calibration curve. The primary purpose of these trials was to measure response to P (by far the most important nutrient limitation in this area). Response to K and S was a secondary aim. Response to S became more valuable with the recent introduction of a soil S test, which could be verified at these trial sites.

3. Rate of P trails: Each trial had four rates of superphosphate (super) as single super, as triple super or as triple super plus elemental sulphur (S), where elemental S was mixed by hand with triple super at the same P:S ratio as in single super. One rate of slow release fertiliser (SR13) was included and a control (nil) treatment. The 14 treatments were replicated 4 times. Plots measured 20 m by 2 m. Locations of trials Owner: John Crompton, “Rivington Farms” Location: Back Valley, 11 km west of Victor Harbor Land use: dairy farm Soil: yellow podzolic, sandy topsoil Pasture: kikuyu and subterranean clover Owner: Ian Newman, Prospect Hill Location: Prospect Hill, 2.5 km south of Meadows Land use: dairy farm Soil: yellow podzolic, clay loam topsoil Pasture: perennial ryegrass and subterranean clover Owner: Glen Rowlands, Parawa Location: Parawa, 25 km south west of Victor Harbor Land use: sheep farm Soil: yellow podzolic, SL topsoil with some Fe gravel Pasture: perennial ryegrass and subterranean clover

4. Rate of P trials – pasture cages These trials had large plots (90 by 4.5 m) with four rates of single super at 0, 6, 11 and 22 kg P/ha/yr over four replicates giving 16 main plots. To determine if pasture responded to S, each main plot had 4 subplots which received nil, P, S or P+S applied annually in addition to the main treatments (30 kg/ha of each nutrient as gypsum (S) or Aerophos (P)). Phosphorus and S subtreatments were applied as monocalcium phosphate and gypsum. Four rows of pasture cages were set out across the main plots


at the start of each season. Four rows across 16 plots gave a total of 64 cages, one row in each quarter (top, upper, lower, bottom) of the trial. Each cage measured 0.8 m by 0.8 m wide and 0.6 m high, constructed of 50 mm square weldmesh. Location of trials: Owner: Flaxley Agricultural Centre, Primary Industries (SA) Location: Flaxley, 10 km south-west of Mt Barker Land use: dairy farm Soil: yellow podzolic, sandy loam topsoil Pasture: ryegrass and subterranean clover Owner: Peter and Bob Bishop Location: Hope Forest, 18 km south-west of Meadows Land use: dairy farm Soil: red podzolic, loamy topsoil Pasture: ryegrass and subterranean clover

5. Soil testing for P, K and S – ironstone soils, KI Soil samples were taken and fertiliser applied in autumn. Trials were harvested according to pasture growth over the growing season (generally May to November). Monoculture subterranean clover trials were used as clover is the component of pasture which responds most strongly to fertiliser. Pasture responses to P, K, or S at a given level of soil fertility were measured at each site. Soil was sampled 0 10 cm and 10 20 cm and analysed for Colwell P (Colwell 1963), K (Colwell extraction), KCl40 S (Blair et al 1991) and phosphate buffering capacity (PBC - Ozanne and Shaw 1967), prior to fertiliser application. Nutrients were applied as calcium monophosphate (Aerophos)(P), potassium chloride (K) and gypsum (S). Four replicates of seven fertiliser treatments were used - nil, P0KS, P1KS, P2KS, P3KS, P3S and P3K. Maximum nutrient rates were calculated to give maximum yield without causing toxicity. Nutrient rates (kg/ha) were P0 (nil), P1 (10), P2 (20), P3 (50), K (100), and S (40). Trial sites were mechanically topped in the previous spring to reduce seed set of weeds and annual grasses. Insect pests were controlled as necessary. Sites were fenced and stock excluded for the trial period.

Results: Summary of results: Results have shown that soil test P values on loamy soils of the Mount Lofty Ranges may be maintained by applying 1 kg P per DSE, calculated as either 600 kg DM/DSE, or by actual DSE/ha grazed. At a given level of soil fertility, about 4 kg P/ha is required above the calculated maintenance rate to increase in soil test P by one unit. Soil test trials on Kangaroo Island showed that the critical range for Colwell soil P is 35-45 mg/kg, not 25-30 mg/kg as in the Mount Lofty Ranges. Critical values for K (80-120 mg/kg) were similar to those in the Mount Lofty Ranges. The timely introduction of a commercial soil S test (KCl40 S) during the project allowed verification of this test from S responses at the trials. A critical value of 6-8 mg/kg S is possibly appropriate for loamy soils


of Kangaroo Island and the Mount Lofty Ranges, but a higher value applies to sands. Conclusions: The soil test for P is well-defined on ironstone soils of Kangaroo Island (R2= 0.77). The critical range for ninety percent pasture yield is 35-45 mg/kg Colwell P. Calibration of the soil test would be further improved by extensive field trials investigating how response to fertiliser is modified by PBC. However, this is probably not justified in the study area, particularly if the increase in yield from 80% to 90% of potential yield is not critical to the farmer's management. Soil tests for K and S were not rigorously defined due to priorities of site selection. Within the range covered, however, results generally agreed with existing calibration data.


Contact: Nigel Fleming- SARDI

Table 3-40 Mitchell (1998) Intensive block grazing

Date: 1998


Title: Intensive block grazing for SA dairy farms Author: G Mitchell Technical Bulletin No 3/98


Aims: The booklet describes intensive block grazing to optimise growth, utilisation and longevity of perennial grass/clover pasture for dairy farms. Booklet geared to grazing management and not inputs to improve farm profits.

Results: Report provides guidelines on increasing pasture use using block grazing. Topics covered:

what is intensive block grazing

grazing rotation speed

how hard should pastures be grazed

assessing pasture cover

fodder conservation in spring

replacement cattle

fully feeding cattle

grazing requirements of pasture species: perennial ryegrass; cocksfoot; Phalaris; paspalum and kikuyu; white clover; Lucerne; subclover; annual pastures



Table 3-41 Grassland society Victoria (1998) Grassland productivity program

Date: 1998

Location: SA and VIC

Title: Grassland Society of Victoria – Grasslands productivity program.


Author Jane Court

Type – trial/demo: trail

Aims: Control versus productivity paddock comparisons in SA and VIC.

Results: DSE/ha increased as rainfall increased and control paddocks carried less

stock than productivity paddocks.

Regression analysis with length of growing season and rainfall showed the

length of growing season (R2 = 51%) was a better indicator of stocking rate.

Some nutrient data on soils (P, K pH).

Economic analysis:

Contact: Grasslands Society of Victoria

Table 3-42 Mitchell (1998) Profitable pasture use

Date: 1998


Title: Profitable pasture use – A key to cost efficient dairying in SA Author: G Mitchell Technical Bulletin No 2/98


Aims: The booklet describes effective use of pasture resources to achieve cost-effective milk production. Booklet geared to grazing management and not inputs to improve farm profits.

Results: Topics include:

pasture grown and pasture used

why increase pasture use ?

how to assess pasture use on your dairy farm

what makes a high pasture use dairy system o adequate soil fetility o adequate pasture base o block grazing o appropriate use of supplementary feeds

a case study of increase pasture use

feed inventory table

calculate gross margins

calculate pasture per heactare Summary:

1. up to date of publication, pasture use is less than growth 2. estimate pasture use by using a reverse feed budgeting technique 3. if there is a 1 t/ha increase in pasture use, equates to $180/ha

increase in dairy gross margins 4. increased pasture use does not have to conflict with high grain

feeding of dairy cows 5. four essential components for achieving high pasture use, they

are: a. adequate soil fertility b. adequate pasture base c. controlled grazing d. appropriate use of supplement feeding


Economic analysis: YES

Calculating dairy farm gross margins.

Calculating pasture use per hectare on the farm


Table 3-43 Effects of sheep grazing on cocksfoot herbage mass and persistence

Date: 2000

Location: Delamere (plus Victorian sites)

Title: Effects of sheep grazing management on cocksfoot herbage mass and

persistence in temperate environments

A Avery, D Michalk, R Thompson, P Balf, T Prance, C Harris, D FitzGerald, J

Avres, B Orchard

Type – trial/demo: Trail

Aims: The persistence of cocksfoot at 5 sites in southern Australia under sheep grazing management systems. Compared seasonal sheep grazing management with continuous grazing. Each site had 8 common grazing treatments and up to 5 local grazing management treatments.

Results: Cocksfoot herbage mass under continuous grazing declined at 2 sites, was

stable at 2 sites and increased at 1 site.

At the end of the experiment no single grazing management system gave

significantly better results than continuous grazing.

Cocksfoot pasture was stable and unresponsive to grazing management at

moderate pressure (8-10 dry sheep equivalents) and therefore

recommend continuous grazing.

In summer high grazing pressure will reduce cocksfoot, therefore remove

stock in drought conditions.

Summer seasonal closure increased cocksfoot persistence.

Results show strategic grazing practices over summer and early autumn

improve cocksfoot herbage mass.

Economic analysis: Costs

Contact: Aust J Exp Ag 2000, 40, 185-206

Table 3-44 Graham et al (2000). Effect of grazing on perennial ryegrass

Date: 2000

Location: Delamere (plus Victoria)

Title: The effects of grazing management on perennial ryegrass herbage mass

and persistence in south-eastern Australia

J Graham, T Prance, R Thompson, D Borg, P Ball, P Filsell


Aims: The Temperate Pasture Sustainability Key Program was designed to examine the effect of grazing management on the perennial grass component of pastures in the high rainfall zone of southern Australia. Six sites located at Hamilton, Cavendish (Vic), Delamere (SA), Ross and Parattah (Tas).


Results: Grazing management effected ryegrass mass and persistence but the

results were not consistent across all sites.

Autumn closure increased ryegrass content at Cavendish and Ross as did

winter and summer closures at Ross.

Spring closure increased perennial ryegrass content at Hamilton,

Cavendish and Ross, but decreased it at Parattah as did summer closure at

Parattah and Delamere.

At Hamilton and Ross, mob stocking increased ryegrass content.

Increased superphosphate at Hamilton increased ryegrass content.

Rotational grazing at Cavendish and Hamilton increased ryegrass content.

Late spring or summer closure with short autumn deferment increased

ryegrass content at Cavendish and Ross. However this treatment

decreased ryegrass at Parattah in favour of cocksfoot.

At most sites, spelling during spring (allowing seed shedding) and spelling

the following autumn (allowing germination) have benefit to ryegrass

content.

Economic analysis: General costs

Contact: Aust J Exp Ag, 2000, 40, 207-224

Table 3-45 Parawa PPP group (2000). Grazing management to increase meat production

Date: 2000

Location: Parawa

Title: Parawa PPP group

Type – trial/demo: Trail

Aims: Grazing management to increase meat production

Results: Property – B Ryan: Hodges block. 108 ha grazable in 10 paddocks Aim – 1.3 X/B cows/ha = 140 cows. Hereford/Simmental/Friesian cows

mated to Simmental/Red Angas bulls.

Results Sold 126 vealers @ 384 kg LW (203 kg DW = 53% @ $2.94/kg DW = 48297 kg (actual weight sold) plus sold one other and ate one = 48697 kg meat = 451 kg/ha – previously 340 kg/ha LW produced from this area. less cost of silage – 0.5t/cow DM = 63tonnes @ $45/tonne DM = $2800 plus feeding out costs – for 40 days every second day = 20 feeds X 2 hrs/feed = 40 hours @ $45/hour = $1800 = a total of $4600 = $36.50/cow Property – P Filsell: Three paddocks of 18 ha, 14 ha and 18 ha traditionally (in the past) set stocked with 150X/B ewes, 140 X/B ewes and 180 X/B ewes respectively = 470 ewes (10.7, 11.7 and 10.0 X/B ewes/ha). 80 kg/ha Hifert Pasture Gold Plus applied March 2000 to all paddocks Results

All lambs weaned on 7/11/00. At 7/11/00 Timber and Side paddocks contained around 1400 – 1800 kg/ha FOO and were clover dominant.


485 lambs weaned into Timber paddock averaged 17.1 kg DW - sold mid December to first week January. These lambs were from ewes lambed down in the three PPP paddocks. 430 lambs weaned into the Side paddock sold from mid December to first week in January also averaged 17.1 kg DW. These paddocks produced six weeks grazing for the weaner lambs. Average lamb weight for whole farm was 17.85 kg DW. For these calculations assume 516 lambs were sold off the three PPP paddocks – the % for each weight category have been based on the farm average. 368 (71%) Woolworths lambs weighed 18.3 kg DW = 43 kg LW (42%) = 15820 kg LW 118 (23%) store lambs weighed 14 kg DW = 34 kg (40%) = 4010 kg LW 30 (6%) heavy lambs weighed 22.4 kg DW = 52 kg (43%) = 1560 kg LW Total = 21390kg = 465 kg LW/ha Gross income 368 Woollies lambs @ $39 = $14,350 118 store lambs @ $26 = $3,070 30 heavy lambs @ $46 = $1,380 470 ewes cut 6 kg per head wool = 2820 kg @ $3/kg = $8,460 Total income = $27,260 = $593/ha Whole farm 260 ha grazable produced 43,526 kg meat = approx 103,600 kg liveweight (42%) = 399 kg/ha LW. Conclusions Weaning lambs works – if you prepare a high quality pasture for them. Ewes can be put onto cleaning up rubbishy pastures and annual weeds. It also makes handling ewes much easier for crutching, shearing and fly control. Pastures here were very high quality for weaner lambs – short and clover

dominant especially Side paddock, then Timber paddock whilst Obelisk

paddock was too rank for weaner lambs with 2000kg/ha FOO at early

November. Needs to be grazed first with dry ewes to remove “excess”

feed.

Property – A Seedman

227 ha grazable as productivity area, 13 paddocks 1800 X/B ewes lambing 6-7th July have been rotated through these paddocks = 7.8 ewes/ha – as a single mob. This year ran 2000 X/B ewes = 8.8 ewes/ha. Results Lambs weren’t weaned 2250 lambs sold before Christmas – average 16.5 kg DW = 37.5 kg LW (44% as lambs not weaned) Total meat = 84,375 kg = 372 kg/ha Gross returns 80% (1800) to Woolworths averaged 17.6 kg DW @ $40 = $72,000 20% (450) as stores averaged 14 kg DW @ $27 = $12,150


Wool – 2000 ewes x 6 kg @ $3.00/kg = $36,000 Total = $120,150 = $529/ha By comparison – the other part of the property at higher stocking rate (1850 ewes on 189 ha grazable = 9.8 ewes/ha produced 2100 lambs as ewes were older. They were rotationally grazed but in larger paddocks than PPP area. These lambs averaged 16.5 kg DW = approximately 37.5 kg LW (@ 44%) = 417 kg/ha LW. Again 80% were sold to Woolworths and 20% sold as stores – same weights as above to give gross return of $593/ha including wool. Conclusions Impact of lambing % on returns is significant. Mob size may have some impact on mating – but only at very large mob sizes and with younger ewes. This year Andrew’s older ewes have been joined on 10th January in one mob of 1800 ewes, whilst all other ewes have been joined in three mobs (of 900, 450 and 600 ewes) on 5th February. By comparison, Ben is mating in mobs of 400 ewes. Property – P Krichauff 64 ha in four paddocks on western part of property. 550 X/B ewes usually carried in four separate mobs = 8.6 X/B ewes/ha. Pastures have been renovated over the years, but are unevenly grazed – containing barley grass/geranium/capeweed near the Three Bridges Rd due to camping especially in the south east corner to fog grass on the northern side along the Range Rd. There is also silver grass through most of the paddocks. Results 403 ewes were actually rotationally grazed through three paddocks of 52 ha = 7.75 ewes/ha and 147 ewes set stocked on one paddock of 16 ha (4 ha of which was cut or silage –ie closed from September to late October) = 9.2 ewes/ha or about 10 ewes/grazed ha. Meat sold off 64 ha was as follows 347 Woolworths lambs averaged 46 kg (20.2 kg DW @ 44%) = 15,962 kg 119 Heavy lambs averaged 55 kg (23.8 kg DW @ 43%) = 6,545 kg 190 store lambs averaged 40 kg = 7,600 kg These were weaned and shorn and have been run on the home block. Total 656 lambs – 29840 kg LW = 466 kg/ha LW Meat sold off rotationally grazed area as follows 21,920 kg off 52 ha = 422 kg/ha Meat sold off set stocked area as follows 7920 kg off 16 ha = 495 kg/ha less area shut up for silage = 512 kg/ha grazed area Conclusion Lambs did better under set stocking – however, set stocked paddock was better quality feed – more clover – due in part to higher stocking rate. The rotationally grazed paddocks contained areas not grazed – pasture not utilised – which included areas of silver grass. Spray topping done over part of the area being rotationally grazed in late spring 2000 should help – by improving pasture quality, removing silver


grass and by making dry feed more palatable thus enabling a more even grazing over summer. All paddocks will be rotationally grazed with one mob during summer/autumn then split up into smaller mobs for lambing at end of May. Property – R Willing Parawa block 9 paddocks including one very large steep paddock covering one third of property. 134 ha. Carrying 50 breeders – mostly Angus (ave DSE = 14DSE/cow) = 700 DSE plus at March 2000 there were 30 weaner steers and 40 weaner heifers (ave DSE = 8DSE) = 560 DSE. Total carrying at March 2000 = 1260 DSE = 9.4 DSE/ha. Weight of beef turned off in 2000 = 29,953 kg = 225 kg/ha Conclude - Increase cow numbers substantially to further increase meat production per hectare. Property – P Bellaney “Maylands” Maylands block 220 ha less non grazable land of 20 ha and Church paddock of 10 ha (grazing stud stock only) = 190 ha grazable. Carrying 1047 X/B ewes and 49 stud ewes = 5.8 ewes/ha (about 10 DSE/ha average). Lambing starts late May. Aiming to rotationally graze one mob of ewes around the 190 ha using same criteria as for Andrew ie grazing at three leaf stage and not let pastures get too rank. Results Lambs weren’t weaned – except for a small number (185 lambs) as an experiment. Weaned lambs were grazed on turnips and swamps. Lambs from PPP paddocks weren’t weighed separately so hard to assess results – however no reason to suggest lambs from PPP were any different from remainder of the property. Sold 3081 lambs from whole farm 2488 off mothers to T&R @ 24.1 kg (approx 54 kg LW @ 45%) 551 to Woolworths – averaged 44 kg LW 42 sold as stores @ 30 kg LW Total kg lamb LW = 159856kg Plus sold cattle as follows 8 steers @ 380kg = 3040 kg 24 steers @ 359 kg = 8616 kg 18 steers @ 285 kg = 5130 kg 21 heifers @ 350 kg = 7350 kg Total kg beef LW = 24136 kg Total meat LW = 183992 kg = 335 kg/ha Conclusion: Move lambing later than May/June – aim to carry more ewes and produce more lambs (but lighter) and more meat/ha

Economic analysis: Yes

Contact: T Prance

Table 3-46 Parawa PPP group (2001). Grazing management to increase meat production


Date: 2001

Location: Parawa

Title: Parawa PPP Group

Type – trial/demo: Trial – continuation of trial started in 2000

Aims: Grazing Management to increase meat production

Results: Property – B Ryan

Sold 111 vealers @ 390 kg LW = 43290 kg (actual weight sold) plus kept 19 @ 200 kg = 3800 kg = 47090 kg meat plus increased weight of lambs on turnips 357 ewe lambs 17/12/01 – 25/1/02 (39 days) x 6 kg LW (154 g /day) = 2142 kg 242 X/B lambs 18/12/01 – 25/1/02 (38 days) x 5 kg LW (132 g/day) = 1210 kg 514 ewe lambs 25/1/02 – 1/4/02 ( 65 days) x 8 kg LW (123 g/day) = 4112 kg Total meat = 54552 kg = 505 kg/ha less cost of silage – 0.5t/cow DM = 63 tonnes DM @ $45/tonne DM = $2800 plus feeding out costs – for 40 days every second day = 20 feeds X 2 hrs/feed = 40 hours @ $45/hour = $1800 = a total of $4600 = $36.50/cow plus silage cut = 40t DM off 14 ha closed from 22/8/01 – 6/11/01

Property –P Filsell

ave 10.5 ewes/ha with 13.8 lambs/ha turned off @ 17.24kg/lamb DW = 237.6 kg/ha carcase weight @ 44% DW = 540 kg/ha LW lambs Property – A Seedsman 2001 ran 2400 ewes less deaths = 2350 ewes and 2470 lambs sold Ave 19 kg per lamb @ 46% DW = 444 kg/.ha LW Property – R Willing Turn off has been 18 weaner heifers, 5 weaner bulls, 18 yearling steers, 5 yearling bulls, 15 steers and 1 cow (some of these were present at 1/1/01? So weight added would be less than 18,200kg?) = 18,200 kg = 136 kg/ha LW Current stock = 50 cows and 25 heifers Property – P Bellaney Produced 3030 lambs. Sold 2883 @ 23 kg carcase weight = 67,363kg plus 147 left @ 21 kg CW = 3087 kg. Total = 70450 kg x Ave 47% DW = 149,900 kg LW = 375 kg/ha LW Cattle – sold 24 @ 410kg, 19 to store sale and 30 left @ 400kg plus one death = 73 @ ave 400 kg = 29,200 kg = 292 kg/ha LW Adding both cattle and lambs sales = 358 kg/ha LW

Economic analysis: Yes

Contact: T Prance

Table 3-47 Fleurieu Beef Group (2001). Yundi SGS site

Date: 2001


Location: Property – Kimberley Park

Title: Fleurieu Beef Group – Yundi SGS Site

R Willson (T Prance)


Aims: Improve meat production per hectare through pasture management

Results: • All high input fertilisers (and herbicides) in 1998 and 1999 (at levels well above maintenance) have been factored in to the gross margin – even though there will be a carry over impact into subsequent years. • In 2000 it was decided to focus on fertilisers and grazing management to manage weeds and to maximise pasture quality and productivity. • In 1998, the calves from the productivity cows took 11 days longer to reach sale weight and only 12% met the Woolworth’s grid specification before Christmas compared to the calves from the control cows where 75% met Woolies grid. In 1999 and 2000 all calves from the productivity cows met Woolies grid (in fact in 2000 three calves or 30%) from the control mob were kept as stores). Different terminal sires were used in 1999 and 2000 resulting in earlier finishing calves. • Risks of not finishing animals is greatly increased as pasture utilisation (ie stocking rates) increase. This can lead to significantly lower returns if you are chasing the vealer market. and the season goes against you. Focus on pasture quality and selecting sires to match growing season will make a difference as happened in 2000. • Pasture composition limited potential meat production in 1998. Pastures improved under high productivity in 1998 but still contained too much silver grass. Herbicide treatments in 1998 focussed on broadleafed weeds and guilford grass. Spray topping for silver grass in 1999 has improved pasture quality in 2000. More perennial grasses are probably needed to maximise livestock production. In winter 2000 there were significant bare areas in paddocks used for steer/heifer fattening – these paddocks had to be destocked for a period. More perennial grass cover would have helped here. • Cows under rotational grazing paddock were pushed hard in 1998 in order to clean up dead and rank feed in the strip – this may have affected their performance. Productivity cows had access to visually better quality pastures in 1999 and in 2000. Improved pasture quality (in terms of digestible dry matter) is vitally important to maximise beef production. • Steer heifer fattening - no (or low) stock numbers carried over summer – hence the low DSE/ha rating. There may not enough high quality grazing days of pasture available per year for this system to be as profitable as the cow/calf unit on sandy soils such as in the SGS demonstration paddocks. • Pasture used is higher than pasture produced in some years due to carry over dry feed reserves being used the following year. • Don’t forget – the value of these on farm trials is as much to learn about pitfalls, as it is about producing a perfect result! Improving returns by improving pasture grazing management is a learning experience which can’t be taken in during a single field day. If it was that simple it would have been done years ago! Doing a PROGRAZE course and joining a discussion group such as the Fleurieu Beef Group are important steps along the way.


The future - application of trial results on Kimberley Park Since weaning in January 2001 the principles learnt from the SGS trial are being applied over the whole of Kimberley Park Total grazable area = 125ha Stock numbers at 25/9/01 are 71 cows with calves 5-6 months 2 dry cows 17 agisted cows (currently calving) 3 mature bulls 2 yearling bulls 3 Friesian steers 12 month old Current winter stocking pressure is 16 DSE/ha – assuming 125 grazable ha Fertiliser 2001. Base rate is 21 kg/ha P, 26 S and 25 K (as Pasture Gold and Muriate of potash) applied April No lime has been applied as yet All calves receive a B12/Se injection in spring Aim is to gradually increase cattle numbers by retaining more heifers plus retaining weaner steers and purchase of some replacement cows. In the meantime 22 ha of surplus feed will be cut for silage this year – to be sold. In addition to about 10 ha being sprayed out for renovation plus agistment cows mentioned above The target is around 75 cows, 15 replacement heifers 3 bulls and 50 weaners or about 1750 DSE = 14 DSE/ha average for year with minimal supplementary feeding. Winter stocking pressure will be 18 DSE/ha. The steers may be relaced by cows. Target is to maximise meat production/ha over the whole farm - initial target = 300 kg/ha liveweight = 37500 kg meat/year.

Economic analysis:

Contact: T Prance

Table 3-48 Fleming and Cox (2001) Carbon and phosphorus losses, dairy

Date: 2001


Title: Carbon and phosphorus losses from dairy pasture in South Australia Authors: N. K. Fleming and J. W. Cox


Aims: This report presents 3 years of data on P and C movement from 2 pastured dairy subcatchments in the Adelaide Hills, South Australia. In addition, the factors that control the losses of P and C in both the particulate and dissolved form are shown.

Results: Runoff (overland flow and A/B horizon interflow) was measured from 2 grazed dairy pastures at Flaxley, South Australia, from 1996 to 1998. Runoff ranged from 0.4% to 10% of annual rainfall and >90% of this was


overland flow. Phosphorus and carbon were measured in runoff. As much as 2.3 kg/ha of phosphorus and 10.7 kg/ha of total dissolved carbon were lost from the subcatchments in the wettest year. Over the study period, 98% of total phosphorus and 86% of total dissolved carbon were lost in overland flow. Around 45% of phosphorus was dissolved and 69% of total dissolved carbon was dissolved organic carbon. The proportion of phosphorus present in the particulate form decreased during each runoff season, and was highest in the wettest year. There was no consistent trend in the proportion of total dissolved carbon present as dissolved organic carbon because the factors found to affect dissolved organic carbon loss were different from those affecting dissolved inorganic carbon loss. Predictive relationships based on factors such as the time of year when the storm occurred and runoff volume have been developed from the 3 years of data and they explain a high proportion of variability of phosphorus and carbon loads.


Contact: Aust. J. Soil Res., 2001, 39, 969–978

Table 3-49 Greene (2002) Predicting spatial variability of rainfall

Date: 2002

Location: Fleurieu Peninsula : Normanville – Yankalilla region

Title: A geostatistical method for predicting the spatial variability of rainfall in landslide hazard assessment: A case study on the southern Fleurieu Peninsula, SA. S. Greene. PhD Candidate, Department of Applied Geology, University of South Australia. Australian Geomechanics March 2002


Aims: This paper presents four methods for predicting the spatial variability of rainfall: the theissen polygon, inverse distance squared, isohyetal and kriging. These techniques were applied to an area on the southern Fleurieu Peninsula for use in landslide hazard assessment.

Results: The theissen polygon and isohyetal methods recorded the largest prediction errors due to their dependence on having a large number of rainfall stations not available in the area. The inverse distance squared technique was more successful but was primarily restricted by the difficulties involved in incorporating elevation into the model. The most successful technique was the multivariate geostatistical algorithm: kriging with an external drift (KED). This technique was able to account for spatially dependent rainfall values and elevation. Predictive monthly rainfall plots were calculated between 1997-2000 using the technique, based on data from the past 74 years. Rainfall values were largest in areas of high relief (Mount Lofty Ranges) and lower in the valley system (Inman Valley). High rainfall variability was shown to have a significant impact when predicting the likelihood of rainfall-triggered landslides in the area. USE of this data: - some of these methods maybe useful in predicting pasture growth and therefore pasture use.


Economic analysis: Could have relevance to climate change and be used to predict rainfall

over the Fleurieu Peninsula

Contact: Australian Geomechanics March 2002

Table 3-50 2001 to 2003 - Mitchell et al (2011) Alternative fertilisers, Back Valley

Date: 2001 – 2003

Location: Back Valley, R&T Mulhern

Title: Mitchell GJ, Clarke A & Mitchell HK (2011). Field evaluation of alternative

fertiliser & plant treatments in Fleurieu pastures.

P-AG Technical Report No.7 (FP-AG, Victor Harbor)

Type – trial/demo: Trial – pastures

Aims: To assess a single application of Neutrog Rapid Raiser® organic fertiliser for improving the productivity of well-fertilised dryland pastures on deep acid sands at Back Valley. As per manufacturer recommendations (Steve Smith, formerly Neutrog Sales Manager), Rapid Raiser® at 150 kg/ha broadcast onto three of the study paddocks in early May 2001. With high base fertiliser inputs and rotational dairy grazing, pasture consumption recorded for treated and comparable untreated paddocks over the next three years. Soil issue: Whether a single application of Rapid Raiser® can act as an organic fertiliser or biostimulant in boosting the growth of well-fertilised dryland dairy pastures at Back Valley.

Results: There was no recorded effect of Rapid Raiser® application on pasture

productivity in this study.


Contact: G Mitchell

Table 3-51 2001 to 2003 Mitchell et al (2011) Alternative fertilisers, Nangkita

Date: 2001 - 2003

Location: Nangkita. M&J Connor


fertiliser & plant treatments in Fleurieu pastures. FP-AG Technical Report

No.7 (FP-AG, Victor Harbor)

Type – trial/demo: Trial - pasture

Aims: To assess a single application of Neutrog Rapid Raiser® organic fertiliser for improving the productivity of well-fertilised irrigation pastures at Nangkita. As per manufacturer recommendations (Steve Smith, formerly Neutrog Sales Manager), Rapid Raiser® at 150 kg/ha broadcast onto three of the study paddocks in December 2000. Study paddocks all involved fully irrigated perennial grass + white clover pastures under rotational dairy grazing and receiving high fertiliser inputs (around 51 kg N + 50 kg P + 124 kg K + 44 kg S/ha p.a.) Soil issue: Whether a single application of Rapid Raiser® can act as an organic fertiliser or biostimulant in boosting the growth of well-fertilised irrigated dairy pastures at Nangkita. Shallow sandy duplex soils.


Results: There were no clear trends between individual pairs of paddocks in utilised

pasture production between the Rapid Raiser® and untreated areas.


Contact: G Mitchell

Table 3-52 2002 – 2008 Mitchell et al (2009) Mt Compass Area School

Date: 2002 to 2008

Location: Mt Compass Area School

Title: Mitchell GJ, Heath N, Davis K & Clarke A (2009). Mount Compass Area

School Focus Farm Project: Technical Review 2002-8. FP-AG Technical

Report No.3 (FP-AG, Victor Harbor)

Type – trial/demo: Trial - fertiliser

Aims: Provide a six-year study of the relative effects of varying fertiliser inputs versus reseeding on the productivity of high rainfall pastures at Mount Compass. * Low fertiliser inputs were no N + 14 kg P + 20 kg K + 17 kg S/ha p.a. * High fertiliser inputs were 56 N + 41 kg P + 78 kg K + 37 kg S/ha p.a. * Reseeding treatments were either original pasture, perennial ryegrass, phalaris or tall fescue. Long-term pasture production responses to varying fertiliser regimes (+/- reseeding). Shallow brown podsols. Pre-existing soil fertility: pHH2O 5.5, Pcolwell 14 ppm, Kcolwell 157 ppm, SKCl-40 24 ppm.

Results: On average over six years, switching from Low to High fertiliser inputs increased the level of consumed pasture growth from 5.4 to 7.9 t DM/ha p.a. from original (non-renovated paddocks). In contrast, reseeding pastures alone (without extra fertiliser) led to NO extra pasture production over six years. Combining high fertiliser inputs + reseeding led to an average 8.3 t DM/ha

p.a. consumed pasture over six years.

Economic analysis: Switching from low to high fertiliser inputs; * incurred an extra $320/ha p.a. in additonal fertiliser expenses (or $128 per t DM consumed). * generated an extra $520/ha in annual beef sales (for a margin over

fertiliser costs of $200/ha p.a.).

Contact: G Mitchell

Table 3-53 Harding (2005) Wetland inventory

Date: 2005

Location: Fleurieu Peninsula

Title: Wetland Inventory for the Fleurieu Peninsula, South Australia Harding, C.L. Dept of Environment and Heritage Adelaide


Aims: To identify those wetlands which are important at the Regional, State, National and International levels, and ensure appropriate recognition, management and protection of these sites; and


To develop, maintain, and make readily accessible to all, a comprehensive inventory of South Australia’s wetlands and their resources.

Results: A total of 858 wetland bodies were mapped from rectified aerial photography on the Fleurieu Peninsula as part of the wetland inventory. Analysis of inventory data and mapping revealed an estimated 42% loss of wetland area on the Fleurieu Peninsula since European settlement. Over 80% of wetlands surveyed for the inventory were identified as permanently inundated freshwater waterbodies, the majority of which are spring-fed. A total of 742 plant species have been recorded within and on the margins of wetlands within the region, of which, 80% are indigenous. The most common wetland character types were Shrub-dominated freshwater peat swamps, and Sedge-dominated freshwater swamps. Peat swamps were consistently the most diverse wetland ecosystems on the Fleurieu Peninsula. The results of the analysis revealed that only 2% of remaining wetlands on the Fleurieu Peninsula could be regarded as pristine. The majority of wetlands (92%) are located on freehold land.

Interest value

Contact: Dept of Environment and Heritage

Table 3-54 Bourman (2006) River terraces of Fleurieu Peninsula

Date: 2006


Title: River terraces of the Fleurieu Peninsula SA Author: R Bourman South Australian Geographical Journal. Vol 105, 2006 PP1-24


Aims:

Results:

Interest value Interest value


Contact: South Australian Geographical Journal. Vol 105, 2006 PP1-24

Table 3-55 Watkins and Forward (2008) Mass erosion mapping on Southern Fleurieu Peninsula

Date: 2008


Title: Mass Erosion Mapping for the Southern Fleurieu Project: Final Report Authors: N Watkins and G Forward

Type – trial/demo: Monitoring

Aims: It was intended that this work would provide baseline information on mass erosion and help provide a basis for targeting incentive funding for erosion stabilisation works.

Results: In total 556 erosion sites were identified in the Southern Fleurieu Catchments mapped, covering an area of approximately 700 hectares. Five erosion sites were identified from the aerial photographs, but the erosion status of the sites was unable to be determined in the field from the roadside, these sites are identified on the maps as requiring further investigation. The catchment with the highest incidence of soil erosion was the Inman Catchment, followed by the Bungala and Yankalilla Catchments, with over 90 erosion sites identified in each catchment. Other catchments with significant erosion problems included the Lower Myponga, Carrickalinga, Little Gorge, West Coast Catchments and Yattagolinga Catchment. The dominant form of erosion identified in the Southern Fleurieu Catchments was gully erosion (44%), followed by landslips (21%) and stream erosion (15%). Other common forms of erosion included, tunneling, slumping, scalding and wind erosion. The majority of the erosion sites identified (51%) had only minor severity, 41% had moderate severity and 8% (44 sites) had major severity and should have the highest priority in terms of treatment. The South West Coast Catchments, Lower Myponga and Bungala Catchments had the highest number of major erosion severity sites. The management status of the majority of erosion sites identified was untreated (81%), with only 8% of sites partially treated and 12% fully treated. The South West Coast Catchments and the Yattagolinga Catchment had no erosion sites with any form of active treatment evident. The Carrickalinga and Waitpinga Catchments had only one treated site in each catchment. Eight percent of all sites identified had a high treatment priority, 11% had a medium high treatment priority and 26% had a medium treatment priority. The catchments with erosion sites with a high treatment priority consisted of the Bungala (14 sites), Carrickalinga (2 sites), Little Gorge (3 sites), Lower Myponga (9 sites), South West Coast (1 site) and Yankalilla (13 sites) Catchments. The catchments with erosion sites that have major erosion severity and have been given a high priority for treatment should be the immediate focus of any incentive funding for erosion stabilisation works. A significant number of erosion sites have undergone (or are likely to in the near future) treatment through the funding incentives program for on ground works run by the SFSAPIC. The erosion treatment status of these


sites was given as at the time of the field survey, and may have changed since then. The idea of the database of information on each site is that it can be continually added to and updated over time. There is also potential to align this methodology to other watercourse stability/erosion assessments that have been conducted in parts of the Mt Lofty Ranges catchments.

Economic analysis: none

Contact: DEWNR

Table 3-56 Harding and Dowie (2010) Management of sandy soils

Date: 2009 – 2010


Title: Management of Sandy Soils on the Southern Fleurieu Peninsula Authors: A Harding, R Dowie

Type – trial/demo: Trial – soil modification

Aims: Sand over clay, highly leached sand over clay and deep sand soil types cover 26% of the Southern Fleuireu Peninsula. A three year project “Managing soil moisture in glacial soils within the Southern Fleurieu Peninsula” aimed to investigate the opportunity to increase the sustainability and productivity on these soil types. Seven trials were established:

Trail 1 - Waitpinga, sand over clay, clay spreading and Lucerne establishment

Trail 2 – sand over alkaline clay, clay spreading

Trial 3 – Back Valley, sand over clay, spading, delving, spading and delving, control. Plus high and low lime trial

Trial 4 – Inman Valley, sand over clay, spading, delving, spading and delving, control. Plus high and low lime trial

Trial 5 - Willow Creek, deep sand, clay delving and pasture establishment

Trial 6 – Bald Hills, Sand over clay, delving and spading, Kikuyu establishment

Trial 7 – Myponga, sand over clay, spading

Results: Two trials established at Inman Valley and Back Valley. Treatments were:

control, delved, spaded, delved and spaded – with and without low and high

lime rates.

Soil acidity

Inman Valley site – lime rates were 3 t/ha (low) and 6 t/ha (high).

Back Valley site – lime rates were 2 t/ha (low) and 4 t/ha (high).

The higher rates not recommended as may induce a manganese deficiency.

Triticale was sown for two years on the Inman Valley site and the Back Valley

site was sown with ryegrass and clover and crash grazed with dairy cattle.

At both sites the initial pH (CaCl2) was 4.3 (0-10 cm) and 4.5 (10-20 cm) and

acidic throughout the rest of the soil profile.

The results from the trials to date have shown that:


At the Inman Valley site after two years lime has improved the soil pH and increased the dry matter of triticale. The delving and spading treatment with lime had the highest growth. This is not only due to the mixing of clay throughout the upper soil profile but could also be due to the mixing of lime that has improved the pH of the upper soil profile including the bleached layer and improved conditions for plant growth (Figure 8).

Plant tissue results showed that calcium and magnesium levels were low in the plants due to the low soil pH but in general were higher where lime was added.

At the Back Valley site lime treatments had an effect on pasture growth with high lime better than low lime and both better than no lime. The results of the delving, spader, delving and spading with lime treatments were much better than the control (no soil treatment) and lime. This is possibly due to the mixing of lime throughout the upper soil profile and improving soil pH and conditions for plant growth (Figure 9).

Conclusions:

Preventative strategy by monitor soil acidity is better than trying to correct a deficiency

Keep surface soil pH above 5.5 (CaCl2)

Lime neutralising value of greater than 80% plus fines less than 0.25 mm

Over lime on sandy soils may cause manganese deficiency

Clay spreading / delving

In all trials the use of clay spreading, delving and spading substantially

increased crop and pasture growth.

At Inman Valley the dry matter of triticale was at least 3.5 times more with

delving and spading compared to the control.

Before spading or delving, consider:

deep and type of clay. Slaking and dispersive clay will spread over sand grains. Yellow brown mottled clays on Fleurieu Peninsula are generally suitable;

delving possible only if clay less than 60 cm deep;

deep clay borrow pits are more expensive;

about 150 – 180 tonnes of clay per hectare for Fleurieu Peninsula;

incorporate clay to avoid surface sealing; and

Fertiliser applications may need to be changed after delving and spading due to presence of clay.

Pastures on clay spread soils

Soil that has been spread with clay requires the clay to be incorporated

before establishing pastures. Things to consider;

Perennial pastures require at least 50 cm of soil without soil physical or chemical barriers. Physical barriers include low soil pH, high exchangeable aluminium, dispersive clay;


soil fertility maybe low after clay spreading and delving and sowing of annual crops after clay incorporation for several years will help to improve the soil fertility before the pasture is sown;

sow pasture after opening rains;

Pasture seeds should only be covered with 15-20 mm of soil. If the paddock is too soft due to poor clay incorporation, then many pasture seeds will be buried too deep;

Rhizobia will be reduced after clay incorporation, new improved strains could be introduced at sowing;

Weeds not significant problem after clay incorporation;

Graze new pasture at 7-10 cm high for 1-2 day with a high stocking pressure (50-100 dse/ha) will improve tiller growth and promote good root development.

Establishment of Lucerne on sandy soils

Things to consider:

Soil physical and chemical properties similar to perennial pastures above. Lucerne root growth sensitive to low soil pH and high aluminium;

Weed control;

Sub-clover seed reserves will be low after clay incorporation. Sow sub-clover with the lucerne but reduce the sub-clover seeding rate to 5 kg/ha; and

Spray 50 m buffer around paddock to control insect pests.


Contact: PIRSA – Rural Solutions

Table 3-57 VanLaarhoven and vander Wielen (2009) Environmental water requirements

Date: 2009


Title: Environmental water requirements for the Mount Lofty Ranges prescribed

water resources areas.

Authors: VanLaarhoven, JM and van der Wielen, M

Type – trial/demo: DWLBC Report 2009/29, Department of Water, Land and Biodiversity

Conservation & South Australian Murray-Darling Basin NRM Board,

Adelaide.

Aims: The major aim of this project is to develop a methodology that can be used to determine the EWRs of water-dependent ecosystems and biota in the Mount Lofty Ranges, and to develop a tool that can report on the levels of stress placed on these environments by current and projected future water resource development.

Results: Fleurieu Peninsula falls within the Western (WMLR) catchments. On 20th October 2005 the surface water, watercourse water and groundwater of the WMLR were prescribed. The Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges (AMLR) NRM Board is responsible for developing the WMLR water allocation plan (WAP).


Table 3-58 Deegan et al (2010) Assessment of river ecological condition

Date: 2010

Location: The 4 catchments (Angas River, Finniss River, Currency Creek and Tookayerta Creek) located in the Eastern Mount Lofty Ranges

Title: Assessment of Riverine Ecological Condition in the Fleuieu Peninsula SA

Implications for restoration

B M. Deegan, GG Ganf and JD Brookes

Type – trial/demo: Monitoring study

Aims: The aim of this study was to assess the ecological condition of riverine reaches and relate this condition to restoration processes.

Results: Methods: The ecological condition assessment tool used in this study is similar to that of Ladson et al. (1999). Ladson et al. (1999) described an index of stream condition based on 18 indicators that assessed alterations to the hydrology (an assessment of flow), physical form (condition of the channel and physical habitat), streamside vegetation, water quality and biota (macroinvertebrate populations). Results:

The prescription process identifies the quantity, quality and regime of water required to sustain water-dependent ecosystems, and gathers information on water resources and social demands. All information is used to set sustainable extraction limits and other water management policies. The goal of this study is to define the level of deviation from the natural flow regime within which populations of aquatic animals and plants can be maintained and/or restored to a self-sustaining state and can withstand times of (natural) sub-optimal conditions such as drought. Meeting environmental water requirements in the Low Flow Season is likely to be the most critical in supporting the continuing presence of aquatic biota in the environment, largely due to the importance of maintaining viable aquatic habitat in the absence of (or with reduced) water inputs. The next step in the process is to use the metrics and limits to assess the hydrological impacts of different management actions, such as varying dam capacity limits, extraction limits, or allowing threshold flows to bypass dams. The impact on metrics due to varying levels of water resource development can be expressed as varying levels of ‘stress’, for which targets can be set to environmentally acceptable levels, and consequently inform the development of environmental water provisions


Contact: Adelaide and Mt Lofty Ranges NRM Board


Ecological condition was scored for each of the riverine reaches, to assess the current state of the reach and identify where restoration efforts could be focussed. The Total Ecological Condition Scores (TECS) were used to classify the reaches into five categories (very poor to excellent) that were significantly different (ANOVAKruskal-Wallis P <0.001) from each other (Table 3). The Finniss River was the only river to contain reaches in excellent ecological condition (4–Table 3.). The Angas River contained no reaches with a TECS of higher than average; the majority of reaches along this river were classified as either in poor or very poor condition. Tookayerta Creek and Currency Creek both contained reaches ranging in ecological condition from very poor to good. There was no evidence that reaches with similar scores were juxtaposed, for example, in the Finniss River the 4 excellent reaches were bounded by either very poor, poor, average or good reaches (Fig. 8). Soil and water quality varied little between sites, whereas the riparian sub-index (width of riparian vegetation, fenced, ungrazed and underwater bank slope) increased significantly as the total ecological condition increased. Those reaches of average to excellent ecological condition were all strongly correlated with the sub-index indicators: bank stability, riparian vegetation, ungrazed, fenced, aquatic wood, and width of riparian zone. Figure 8 illustrates that local land management practices such as fencing and stock removal are important influences in determining the ecological condition of a riverine reach. This is particularly reflected in those sub-catchments containing sites 28 to 33 (Giles Creek) and sites 34 to 39 (Bull Creek) (Fig. 8), which were subject to intensive grazing with very limited fencing or protection provided to the riparian areas, and hence their poor to very poor TECS. Many of the factors that had a significant influence on the TECS of surveyed reaches: bank stability, width of riparian zone, soil structure, submerged vegetation, riparian vegetation, or understorey cover, could be improved with the removal and exclusion of stock. However, as a point of interest, the finer scale assessment employed here classified 33% of surveyed reaches as very poor, 24% as poor, 23% as average, 15% as good and 4% as excellent. In fragmented riverine ecosystems such as those surveyed, restoration programmes should initially assess the whole length of the system identifying those reaches of below average condition and rectify the causative parameters where possible. A further benefit of surveys carried out prior to any rehabilitation action is that they could be used to assess the success or failure of the actions taken.


Contact: Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia (2010), 134(2): 228–242

Table 3-59 Mitchell et al (2011) Alternative fertilisers, Mt Compass


Table 3-60 Mitchell et al (2011) Alternative fertilisers, Willow Creek

Date: 2010

Location: Willow Creek – V, H & D Walter



FP-AG Technical Report No.7 (FP-AG, Victor Harbor)

Type – trial/demo: Trial – alternative fertiliser

Aims: To assess a single application of Wormswork® compost (alone or with manufactured fertiliser inputs) for boosting growth of dryland beef pasture at Willow Creek. * Wormswork® compost applied at either 1.5 or 3 t/ha (applied in late April). * Manufactured fertiliser inputs involved Pastureboosta 220 kg/ha (July) + urea 50 kg/ha (Sept). Whether Wormswork® compost can boost pasture growth, either alone or onto pasture treated with manufactured fertilisers. Sandy brown duplex soil. pHCaCl2 4.7, Polsen 13.6 ppm, Kcolwell 60 ppm, SKCl-40 6.5 ppm, Org C 4.28%

Results: The application of manufactured fertilisers resulted in a 68% increase in pasture production in the 2010 season. However the landowner has since observed and reported less clover and increased capeweed levels in those 'manufactured fertiliser' areas in subsequent years. Untreated pasture recorded a low level of utilised DM (2.9 t/ha), reflecting the prevailing infertile soil conditions. Addition of Wormswork® compost

Date: 2010

Location: Mount Compass – D&C Perry




Type – trial/demo: Trial – alternative fertilisers

Aims: To assess five foliar fertilisers/biostimulants for boosting the short-term growth of perennial grass + subclover pasture. Treatments included Wormswork® Liquid, Lawn Brew®, Seasol Plus®, TM-21® and Nutrian Microfusion®. Pasture growth responses only monitored for 7 months after application. Efficacy of several alternative foliar fertilisers/biostimulants for boosting pasture growth. Sandy brown duplex soil. pHCaCl2 4.5, Pcolwell 20 ppm, Kcolwell 74 ppm, SKCl-40 4.5 ppm, Org C 3.25%

Results: Two applications of Lawn Brew® (in May and July) led to an 18% increase (p<0.05) in pasture production in 2010. Each application involved 4 L/ha of Lawn Brew®, a foliar treatment involving liquid extracts from worm castings plus added potassium nitrate + urea + ammonium nitrate. No significant responses in either pasture growth or utilisation were recorded for any other foliar treatments in the year of application.


Contact: G Mitchell


(at 1.5 or 3 t/ha) did NOT improve pasture productivity in the year of treatment.


Contact: G Mitchell

Table 3-61 Mitchell et al (2011) Alternative fertilisers, Back Vy, Mt Compass, Pages Flat

Date: 2010

Location: Back Valley - R&T Mulhern Mt Compass - J Crompton Pages Flat - W Jacobs and C Martin Four paddock sites on each host farm




Type – trial/demo: Trial – alternative fertiliser

Aims: To assess a single post-sowing application of Soak-N-Wet® for improving annual ryegrass establishment on non-wetting sands. Whether spraying on a soil wetting agent (post-sowing) can improve ryegrass establishment on non-wetting sands.

Results: Post-sowing pre-emergent applications of Soak-N-Wet® had NO effect on

ryegrass establishment at four sites.


Contact: G Mitchell

Table 3-62 Mitchell et al (2012) Dairy, soil nutrient monitoring

Date: 2010 – 2012

Location: Ten dairy farms on the Central Fleurieu Peninsula Members of the Mt Jagged Dairy Discussion Group 200 paddocks soil-tested

Title: Mitchell GJ, Clarke A & Mitchell HK (2012). Dairy soil nutrients: monitoring

soil fertility on Fleurieu dairy farms 2011/12.


Type – trial/demo: Monitoring – diary soil nutrient fertility

Aims: To provide high calibre soil test information to assist Mt Jagged dairy farmers to make more informed and objective fertiliser decisions on their farms. To equip the Mt Jagged Dairy Dairy Discussion Group with a relevant, objective information base to support more meaningful discussions on soil fertility management at Group meetings.

Results: Wide variations in soil phosphorus (P), potasssium (K) and sulphur (S)

levels identified across paddocks on individual farms, equipping farmers to

better target fertiliser investments for best effect and, in many instances,

reduce fertiliser inputs for specific nutrients.

70% of study paddocks tested with strongly acid topsoils (pHCaCl2 < 4.9). 23% of study paddocks tested to be at least moderately saline topsoils

(EC1:5 > 0.2 ds/m)


Economic analysis: None presented

Contact: G Mitchell – report not available

Table 3-63 Sparkes and Stoutjesdijk (2011) Biochar, agriculture implications

Date: 2011

Location: Australia wide – NOT Fleurieu Peninsula specific

Title: Biochar: implications for agricultural productivity Jessica Sparkes and Peter Stoutjesdijk Research by the Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics and Sciences. TECHNICAL REPORT 11.06, December 2011


Aims: Summary of research on application of biochar to Australian soils and effects of biochar on productivity of these soils. The report aims to provide information on:

processes and feedstocks available for biochar production

physical and chemical characteristics of biochar

effects of biochar application to agricultural soils

economic considerations of biochar production and use

risks associated with using biochar in agricultural systems

barriers to using biochar in agriculture.

Results: quality of biochar is highly variable and depends on production process. No standards or predictive capacity for biochar production.

need for a rapid screening process of biochars.

limited published research on the effects of biochar on agricultural production in relation to: soil waterholding capacity changes; cation exchange capacity; soil microbial populations; pesticide efficacy; nutrient availability.

short and long term trials needed – assess fate and long term stability of biochar.

Once biochar is added to the soil it can not be removed – it must be fit for purpose.

Current research through - Climate Change Research Program (CSIRO plus research and development corporations, Universities) – aimed at biochar source and production conditions. Carbon Farming initiative.

Need a classification and governance system for biochar production.

NO economic assessment will be done until research available.

Economic analysis: NONE at this stage

Contact: ABARES

Table 3-64 Mitchell et al (2013) Dairy soil nutrient monitoring

Date: 2011 - 2013

Location: Twelve dairy farms on the Central & Southern Fleurieu Peninsula – various owners - 220 paddocks soil-tested



soil fertility on Fleurieu dairy farms 2012/13.


Type – trial/demo: monitoring

Aims: To provide high calibre soil test information to assist Fleurieu dairy farmers to make more informed and objective fertiliser decisions on their farms. To equip Fleurieu dairy farmers with a relevant, objective information base to support more meaningful discussions on soil fertility management at discussion group meetings. Identifying the variations in soil fertility between paddocks across each member farm. Making more informed decisions about fertiliser inputs, stocking and pasture management in lieu of these soil test results.

Results: Wide variations in soil phosphorus (P), potasssium (K) and sulphur (S)

levels identified across paddocks on individual farms, equipping farmers to

better target fertiliser investments for best effect and, in many instances,

reduce fertiliser inputs for specific nutrients.

47% of study paddocks tested with strongly acid topsoils (pHCaCl2 < 4.9). 19% of study paddocks tested to be at least moderately saline topsoils

(EC1:5> 0.2 ds/m)


Contact: G Mitchell – report not available

Table 3-65 2011-2013 Mitchell (2014) Perennial grasses on sand

Date: 2011 – 2013


Title: Mitchell GJ, Clarke A & Mitchell HK (2014). Pasture field trials on the

Fleurieu Peninsula 2011-13. FP-AG Technical Report No.15 (FP-AG, Victor

Harbor)

Type – trial/demo: Pastures – perennial grasses on sand

Aims: To assess the relative DM production and 3-year persistency of 13 perennial grasses under rotational beef cattle grazing on deep acid sand at Mount Compass. The trial evaluated varieties of perennial ryegrass, phalaris, cocksfoot, tall fescue and prairie grass. Trial managed with moderate fertiliser inputs (including nitrogen). Persistency of perennial pasture grasses on a challenging deep, acid, non-wetting sand. Deep acid sand. pHCaCl2 4.1, Pcolwell 19 ppm, Kcolwell 164 ppm, SKCl-40 8.1 ppm, Org C 3.85%

Results: Prairie grass and winter-active phalaris varieties were significantly (p<0.05) more productive than ryegrasses, cocksfoot and tall fescue in year 2. Grazing cattle consumed only around 1 t DM/ha from pastures in the first year, but with around 5 t DM/ha pasture consumed from prairie grass and phalaris pastures in year 2. Prairie grass and phalaris persisted well into year 3, comprising 30% of total groundcover by spring. Perennial ryegrass varieties failed completely by year 3.



Contact: G Mitchell

Table 3-66 2011-2013 Mitchell et al (2014) Pasture legumes on sand

Date: 2011 – 2013




Harbor)

Type – trial/demo: Pasture legumes on sand

Aims: To assess the relative DM production and 3-year persistency of 9 pasture legumes and Puna II chicory, under rotational beef cattle grazing on deep acid sand at Mount Compass. The trial evaluated varieties of subclover, arrowleaf clover, lucerne and sulla. Trial managed with moderate fertiliser inputs. All legumes sown with phalaris as a companion grass. Persistency of pasture legumes and chicory on a challenging deep, acid, non-wetting sand. Deep acid sand. pHCaCl2 4.1, Pcolwell 19 ppm, Kcolwell 164 ppm, SKCl-40 8.1 ppm, Org C 3.85%

Results: Autumn-sown plots of subclover and arrowleaf clover established and grew far better than autumn-sown lucerne, chicory and sulla here. Arrowleaf clover was noteworthy, accumulating 4.5 t legume DM/ha in the first spring. Monocultures of chicory yielded a satisfactory 4.4 t DM/ha consumed forage in year 2. By year 3, subclover and arrowleaf clover were persisting markedly better (p<0.01) than other forages. Autumn-sown sulla failed completely in this trial.


Contact: G Mitchell

Table 3-67 2011-2013 Mitchell et al (2014) Pasture field trials, Mt Compass

Date: 2011 – 2013

Location: Mount Compass, W&J Jacobs, paddock T-38



Harbor)

Type – trial/demo: Pastures – dryland diary pasture variety trial

Aims: To assess the relative DM production and 3-year persistency of ten pasture forage mixes under rotational dairy cattle grazing on deep acid sand at Mount Compass. The trial evaluated mixes of phalaris + lucerne or subclover, prairie grass + subclover, sulla and chicory. Trial managed with moderate fertiliser inputs (including nitrogen). Persistency of pasture forages on a challenging deep, acid, non-wetting sand. Deep acid sand. pHCaCl2 5.6, Pcolwell 16 ppm, Kcolwell 54 ppm, SKCl-40 5 ppm, Org C 1.36%


Results: Chicory (alone) was the outstanding forage here in years 1 and 2, yielding significantly (p<0.001) more forage than year 1 than all other species, including valuable out-of-season forage in summer. Prairie grass outyielded phalaris (p<0.01) in years 1 and 2, but was declining by the 3rd year. Compared to phalaris + sublcover, mixes of phalaris + lucerne were less productive in year 1, equally productive in year 2 and higher yielding (p<0.05) by year 3. Phalaris + lucerne provided extended forage supply over more months each year (c.f. phalaris + subclover). Autumn-sown sulla failed completely in this trial.

Economic analysis: None beyond a record of pasture inputs and 'consumed' pasture in all study years. The seasonal forage production of a commercial prairie grass sowing in the

surrounding paddock was monitored over the full 3 years too.

Contact: G Mitchell

Table 3-68 2011-2013 Mitchell et al (2014) Parawa Progress Ass, pastures

Date: 2011 – 2013

Location: Parawa, Parawa Progress Association, Parawa Hall paddock



Harbor)

Type – trial/demo: Replicated trial - Perennial ryegrass persistence under sheep grazing.

Aims: To assess the relative DM persistence of 16 perennial ryegrass varieties under regular sheep grazing on a shallow lateritic podsol at Parawa. Two phalaris, two cocksfoot and one tall fescue also included in the study. Laterite soils

Results: Victorian persisted better than all other ryegrasses except Base AR37 and Avalon AR1 by early in year 3. Nevertheless even Victorian perennial ryegrass failed here by early in year 4. Factors inplicated in poor ryegrass persistence here included the shallow irontone soil type, poor prevailing soil fertility, below average spring rains in 3 out of 5 study years, repeated fodder conservation every spring, and persistent out-of-season browsing by rabbits. Endophyte type (AR1 vs AR37 vs HE) did not affect the persistence of

one50 perennial ryegrass here.


Contact: G Mitchell

Table 3-69 2011-2013 Mitchell et al (2014) Pasture field trials, Back Vy

Date: 2011 – 2013

Location: Back Valley, John Crompton & Peter Barker, 11-B



Harbor)


Spring-Sown Pasture Variety Trial at Back Valley

Type – trial/demo: Trial – spring sown pastures

Aims: To evaluate spring-sowing (or more correctly August-sowing) as a cost-effective technique for establishing temperate perennial forages on acid, non-wetting sand at Back Valley. Pastures managed under rotational dairy grazing and with moderate fertiliser inputs (including nitrogen). Reliability of establishing and growing temperate perennial forages on challenging sand at Back Vy. Deep acid sand. pHCaCl2 4.3, Pcolwell 24 ppm, Kcolwell 173 ppm, SKCl-40 11 ppm, Org C 2.87%

Results: Phalaris, prairie grass, lucerne and chicory all established satisfactorily by August reseeding on deep sands at Back Valley in 2011. Mixes of phalaris + lucerne and prairie grass + lucerne yielded 6 t DM/ha of consumed forage in year 2. Monocultures of chicory yielded a satisfactory 5.4 t DM/ha consumed forage in year 2. All of these perennial forages persisted satisfactorily into the 3rd year. Spring-sown sulla failed completely in this trial.


Contact: G Mitchell

Table 3-70 2011-2013 Mitchell et al (2014) Pasture field trials, Mt Compass

Date: 2011 - 2013

Location: Mount Compass, W&J Jacobs and P&K Hicks, paddock Tusmore 26



Harbor)

Type – trial/demo: Trial – spring sown pasture variety trial

Aims: To evaluate spring-sowing (or more correctly August-sowing) as a cost-effective technique for establishing temperate perennial forages on acid, non-wetting sand at Mt Compass. Pastures managed under rotational dairy grazing and with moderate fertiliser inputs (including nitrogen). Reliability of establishing and growing temperate perennial forages on challenging sand at Mt.Compass. Deep acid sand. pHCaCl2 5.1, Pcolwell 19 ppm, Kcolwell 82 ppm, SKCl-40 4.1 ppm, Org C 2.27%

Results: Prairie grass, lucerne and chicory all established satisfactorily by August reseeding on deep sands at Mt Compass in 2011. Lucerne pastures yielded 5.5 t DM/ha of consumed forage in year 2, increasing to 6.5 t DM/ha in year 3. Chicory pastures yielded 6.5 t DM/ha consumed forage in year 2, decreasing to 5.6 t DM/ha in year 3. Prairie grass pasture yielded 5.4 t DM/ha consumed forage in year 2, decreasing to 3.2 t DM/ha in year 3. Phalaris and cocksfoot failed when spring sown in mixes with lucerne in this trial.


Spring-sown sulla failed completely in this trial.


Contact: G Mitchell

Table 3-71 Mitchell et al (2014) Pasture field trials, Sellicks Hill

Date: 2012 – 2014

Location: Sellicks Hill, A&A Just (Ashleigh Park), paddock No.5



Harbor)

Type – trial/demo: Replicated trial – perennial pasture

Aims: To assess the relative DM persistence of 14 perennial ryegrass varieties under regular sheep grazing on a shallow brown duplex soil at Sellecks Hill. Four phalaris varieties included in the study. Persistency of perennial ryegrass varieties on a shallow brown duplex soil in a 600 mm rainfall area. Brown duplex: pHCaCl2 4.9

Results: Victorian tended to be more persistent by year 3, but with no statistically significant differences. One50 perennial ryegrass seed was included, infected with either AR1, AR37 or wild endophyte. However One50 ryegrass persistence was not influenced by endophyte

type here.


Contact: G Mitchell

Table 3-72 2011-2013 Mitchell et al (2014) Pasture field trials, Parawa

Date: 2011 – 2013

Location: Parawa, Angus, Ian & Jill Williams, paddock Bob's Night



Harbor)

Type – trial/demo: Spring-Sown Pasture Variety Trial at Parawa

Aims: To evaluate spring-sowing (in mid-September) as a cost-effective technique for establishing temperate perennial forages on a lateritic podsol at Parawa. Pastures managed under rotational dairy grazing and with moderate fertiliser inputs (including nitrogen). Reliability of establishing and growing temperate perennial forages on an ironstone soil at Parawa. Lateritic podsol. pHCaCl2 5.5, Pcolwell 196 ppm, Kcolwell 434 ppm, SKCl-40 10.1 ppm, Org C 6.9%

Results: Prairie grass, perennial ryegrass, cocksfoot, phalaris and white clover all established satisfactorily by Spring-reseeding on ironstone soil at Parawa in 2011. Prairie grass was the highest yielding forage (8.1 t DM/ha consumed forage) in year 2.


Chicory pastures yielded 6.5 t DM/ha consumed forage in year 2, decreasing to 5.6 t DM/ha in year 3. Prairie grass pasture yielded 5.4 t DM/ha consumed forage in year 2, decreasing to 3.2 t DM/ha in year 3. Spring-sown chicory initially established well, however heavy selective

grazing by kangaroos had destroyed the small scale chicory plots by early

in year 2.


Contact: G Mitchell

Table 3-73 2011-2013 Mitchell et al (2014) Pasture field trials, Pages Flat

Date: 2011-2013

Location: Pages Flat, P&C Raper, paddock Skips-2



Harbor)

Type – trial/demo: Spring sowing, perennial pastures, deep acid sand

Aims: To evaluate spring-sowing (or more correctly August-sowing) as a cost-effective technique for establishing temperate perennial forages on acid, non-wetting sand at Pages Flat. Pastures managed under rotational dairy grazing and with moderate fertiliser inputs (including nitrogen). Reliability of establishing and growing temperate perennial forages on challenging sand at Pages Flat. Deep acid sand. pHCaCl2 4.1, Pcolwell 19 ppm, Kcolwell 114 ppm, SKCl-40 13.7 ppm, Org C 4.42%

Results: Prairie grass and phalaris, lucerne and chicory all established satisfactorily by August reseeding on deep sands at Pages Flat in 2012. Prairie grass pastures yielded 6.8 t DM/ha of consumed forage in year 2. Phalaris pastures yielded 4.5 to 5.0 DM/ha of consumed forage in year 2. Lucerne strikes were seriously compromised, and chicory failed

completely, due to early RLEM infestations.


Contact: G Mitchell

Table 3-74 Sanderman et al (2013) Carbon sequestration

Date: 2013

Location: Fleurieu Peninsula (5 sites not listed). Kangaroo Island (4 sites not listed)

Title: Carbon sequestration under subtropical perennial pastures II: Carbon dynamics. Authors: J Sanderman, I Fillery, R Jongepier, A Massalsky, M Roper, L MacDonald, T Maddern, D Murphy, J Baldock. Soil Research. 2013. 51, 771-780


Aims: There is interest in sequestering carbon in agricultural soils as a greenhouse gas abatement method. Modest gains or prevention of


further losses of soil organic carbon (SOC) has been shown but no research into the long-term stability of recently sequestered carbon. Regulations state sequestered carbon must stay out of the atmosphere for at least 100 years. Analysed a case study of SOC change when C3 pastures replace C4 tropical pastures to follow the path of carbon movement and fate of newly sequestered carbon. Compared results with Rothamsted Carbon Model calibrated to Australian conditions.

Results: Soil organic carbon was found to be accumulating in the sandy soils of Western Australia, whereas one-third of the new kikuyu derived SOC was found in the fine fraction in the loamy soils of South Australia. The results suggest different carbon stabilisation methods are operating in the two soils and the ability of the newly sequestered carbon to withstand disturbance will vary. Important result of the study is that not all newly sequestered carbon is equally stable. The physio-chemical properties of the soil will influence the long-term stability of carbon. Different stability pools of carbon will exist in the landscape. For trading soil carbon we must not just measure carbon stocks but also determine where in the soil and in what form SOC is accumulating.

Economic analysis: Carbon accounting

Contact: Soil Research. 2013. 51, 771-780

Table 3-75 Ellis (2013) Soil nutrient survey

Date: 2013

Location: Fleurieu Peninsula and Adelaide Hills

Title: Report of soil survey across Adelaide Hills and Fleurieu Peninsula S Ellis, Fleurieu and Northern Hills Farm Groups

Type – trial/demo: Soil fertility monitoring

Aims: Soil nutrient survey to determine nutrient status of regions surveyed

Results: Conclusions were: The potential to increase the use of soil testing to better match soil nutrient levels with fertiliser and lime/dolomite application programs is clear. The accuracy/appropriateness of some critical nutrient levels is brought into question by some results (eg 94% of paddocks with marginal/low boron measurements). The need for response demonstration trials for some nutrients is recommended - particularly lime/dolomite, potassium and trace elements. A repeat of this survey in 5 years would be very valuable to monitor how soil nutrient levels are changing over time.


Contact: S Ellis or report available on internet

Table 3-76 Humpharies (2015) Acid tolerant lucerne

Date: 2013 – 2015

Location: Tooperang, L, J, H McKenzie

Title: Acid tolerant Lucerne


Author; A humpharies SARDI

Type – trial/demo: Trial – Lucerne varieties and rhizobial strains

Aims: Four acid tolerant lucerne evaluation sites have now been sown in this project including at Tooperang with sowing in 2013. Objectives of the project are: 1. Developed a detailed understanding of the improvement in adaptation of lucerne on acidic soils, separating the individual stresses of pH and aluminium toxicity. 2. Developed an information package for red meat producers which describe the adaptation of lucerne on acidic soils, and to what extent this new variety and strain extend the production of lucerne onto acidic soils. Investigations at Tooperang include:

Liming at rates of 0.6, 1.2 and 2.4 t /ha six months prior to sowing lucerne

Assess a new more acid-tolerant lucerne line

Assess a new acid-tolerant rhizobial strain

Results: Nodulation:

The percentage of nodulated plants in TA37xSRDI736 was 96%, significantly greater than in the SARDI 7 Series 2xRRI128 with 73% nodulation. The number of nodules per nodulated plant in the TA37xSRDI736 treatment increased dramatically from spring to autumn, from less than 3 to 31. Importantly, the improvement in nodulation observed with the

combination of the new acid tolerant plant and strain appears to be

additive – the plant and rhizobia are both contributing to improvements in

nodulation and the maximum benefit occurs when they are used together.

Forage:

Forage was measured in October 2014, December 2014 and March 2015

after flores weevil (Atrichonotus sordidus) attack in winter. The inoculation

of lucerne with rhizobia strains RRI128 (current commercial strain)and

SRDI736 (new acid-tolerant strain) has significantly increased forage yield in

comparison to the uninoculated treatment (nil control).

Date 15-Oct-14 9-Dec-14 17-Mar-15

Nil 1179 699 303

RRRI128 2041 1221 447

SRDI736 2204 1229 484

Fprob 0.002 0.003 0.148

5% lsd 466 274 ns

There have been no differences in the forage yield of plant genotypes (Sardi 7 S2 and TA 37 both inoculated with commercial and acid-tolerant strians) for the 3 spring to summer forage cuts. Liming: The lime treatments have amended the 0−10 cm layer, raising the base pH¬Ca of 4.2 to 4.3 with 600 kg/ha, 4.6 with 1200 kg/ha and 5.1 with 2400 kg/ha. The concentration of aluminium has also been reduced, from 11% CEC in the base soil, to 13% with 600 kg/ha, 5.9% with 1200 kg/ha and 2.7%


with 2800 kg/ha. Lucerne would be considered highly suitable for the soil with the highest lime treatment, with pHCa > 4.8 and aluminium ≤ 5% CEC. Tooperang Lime trial nodulation The addition of lime from the 600 kg/ha base rate to 2400 kg/ha improved nodulation from an average of 43% to 67% across all inoculated treatments.

Economic analysis: None to date

Contact: MLA project code: P.PSH.0664. Alan Humphries & Ross Ballard (notes from milestone report 2015)

Table 3-77 Mitchell et al (2014) Dairy nutrient survey

Date: 2014

Location: Sixteen dairy farms on the Central & Southern Fleurieu Peninsula, Various owners, 240 paddocks soil-tested


soil fertility on Fleurieu dairy farms 2014.


Type – trial/demo: Dairy Soil Nutrients: Monitoring soil fertility on Fleurieu dairy farms

Aims: To provide high calibre soil test information to assist Fleurieu dairy farmers to make more informed and objective fertiliser decisions on their farms. To equip Fleurieu dairy farmers with a relevant, objective information base to support more meaningful discussions on soil fertility management at discussion group meetings. Identifying the variations in soil fertility between paddocks across each member farm. Making more informed decisions about fertiliser inputs, stocking and pasture management in lieu of these soil test results.

Results: Wide variations in soil phosphorus (P), potasssium (K) and sulphur (S) levels identified across paddocks on individual farms, equipping farmers to better target fertiliser investments for best effect and, in many instances, reduce fertiliser inputs for specific nutrients. 43% of study paddocks tested with strongly acid topsoils (pHCaCl2 < 4.9). 17% of study paddocks tested to be at least moderately saline topsoils (Ece

> 0.2 ds/m)


Contact: G Mitchell – Report Not Available

Table 3-78 Doube (2015) Dung beetles, biochar, water quality

Date: 2015

Location: B and J Evans - Heathfield

Title: Dung beetles, biochar and improved water quality and pasture growth:

interim report.

Prepared for Adelaide Hills by Bernard Doube, Dung Beetle Solutions

Australia

Type – trial/demo: Trial – Dune Beetles


Aims: Investigated the role of winter burial of dung with and without

incorporated biochar on pasture production.

Investigated the level of water pollutants present in run-off water

following dung burial by B. bison.

Investigated the effect of dietary biochar on the growth rates of young cattle was examined.

Results: The experiment comprised a split plot Latin square design in which there

were three replicates of three treatments: treatment 1 – control (no dung,

no beetles); treatment 2 - dung only; treatment 3 - dung+beetles. Each of

the nine test sites comprised two adjacent paired plots (that is, the same

treatment), one with and one without added biochar.

Conclusions:

- Biochar in the diet of the cattle appeared to increased their growth rates and improve dung quality (as indicated by dung odour).

- The presence of dung and dung burial substantially increased the pasture growth rate.

- Added biochar appeared to produce a modest increase in pasture production.

- Biochar appeared to increase the permeability of soil to applied water. - Tunnelling by the beetles (up to 15 tunnels per pad, each to about 50

centimetres (cm) deep) generated a network of tunnels under the dung pads which, following rain, were presumed to fill with water. As a consequence water moved from the plots laterally through the soil profile and overland run-off was delayed until the tunnels were full of water.

- Dung burial substantially increased the permeability of the soil to water. In three dung+beetles plots there was no overland run-off. In another three, water was observed to flow into the collection pits through the soil profile (and not across the soil surface into the collection channels) and only in the latter stages of the rainfall event did water flow down the surface collecting channels.

The analysis of the nitrate, phosphate and dissolved organic carbon (DOC)

levels in the run-off water will be reported in the final report for phase 1,

once the data are available.


Contact: Bernard Doube, Dung Beetle Solutions Australia

Table 3-79 Warneke (2015) Nitrous oxide uptake by soil

Date: 2015

Location: Fleurieu - Parawa – S Rogers ?

Title: Abiotic dissolution and biological uptake of nitrous oxide in Mediterranean woodland and pasture soil. S. Warneke, B. Macdonald, L. Macdonald, J Sanderman, M. Farrell Soil Biology & Biochemistry 82 (2015) 62-64


Aims: Soil is generally regarded as a net emitter of nitrous oxide (N2O). However, there are numerous field studies showing net uptake of N2O from soil in different ecosystems. Consumption of N2O may be abiotic (absorption by


water; adsorption by soil matrix) and biotic (microbial reduction of N2O). This study is the first using undisturbed soil cores to determine the capacity of soil to consume N2O and discuss the fate of N2O.

Results: We exposed the base of undisturbed soil cores from Mediterranean pasture and woodland soil to elevated concentrations of N2O and sulphur hexafluoride (SF6; as tracer gas). Headspace concentrations of N2O and SF6 were determined over time and consumption rates of N2O were calculated ranging from 148.8 ± 19.8 ng N2O /min/ g to 163.8 ± 17.2 ng N2O /min/g in woodland soil and from 117.2 ± 36.1 ng N2O /min/g to 145.1 ± 19.4 ng N2O /min/g in pasture soil. Absorption of N2O by soil water contributed 17-49% of the total N2O consumption. The remaining N2O consumed by the cores was due to adsorbtion by the soil matrix and/or reduction by microbes. Mediterranean soil from different ecosystems with different nitrogen (N) loads has a great potential to store and consume N2O, if exposed to an N2O elevated atmosphere.


Contact: Soil Biology & Biochemistry 82 (2015) 62-64

BLANK TABLE – for inclusion of additional references

Date:

Location:

Title:

Type – trial/demo:

Aims:

Results:

Economic analysis:

Contact:


4. Trial and demonstration categories

The reference tables listed in date order in section 3 have been separated into their categories and the

work summarised. The arbitrary categories are: fertiliser trials (no colour); liming trials (yellow);

alternative fertilisers (blue); monitoring projects (grey); pasture trials (green); livestock (purple) and soil

biota (olive green). These categories will be added to when more information relevant to the Fleurieu

Peninsula is collected.

4.1. Fertilisers trials

During the 1970’s and 1980’s on the Fleurieu Peninsula and Kangaroo Island trial and demonstration

work was related to major and trace element deficiencies or toxicities. This work was conducted by the

Department of Agriculture South Australia and much of it was instigated by farmer groups through the

Agricultural Bureau network in recently developed (approximately 20 years old) agricultural land.

Elliot and Abbott (2003) finally published work conducted during the 1970’s on the effect of nitrogen use

on pasture growth, finding increases in herbage mass but decline of subclover. In 1972 to 1974 trace

element experiments were conducted on the ironstone soils of Kangaroo Island and in the Adelaide

Hills (report missing – Waite Institute Library). When land in some of these areas was developed for

agriculture copper and molybdenum were recommended along with superphosphate. These trace

elements were at the time considered expensive to add and there use was questioned by farmer groups.

Research showed that after about 20 levels, soil copper and molybdenum where adequate.

Reuter et al (1988) (Department of Agriculture SA Technical Report 139) summarised trace element

work in South Australia up to 1988. The Fleurieu Peninsula was shown to have copper and

molybdenum deficiency in plants, potential cobalt deficiency in livestock and selenium deficiency in

livestock.

The fate of phosphorus in leaching sands within the Adelaide Hills was examined by Clarke (1975)

(Dept Agriculture Soil Conservation Branch Report, S1/75). He found that superphosphate was rapidly

leached from the surface soil within 7 weeks of application and that the addition of 5 t/ha of agricultural

lime halved the losses. Fleming and Cox (2001) measured the phosphorus and carbon loss from two

sub-catchments at Flaxley in the Adelaide Hills. They found 2.3 kg/ha phosphorus and 10.7 kg/ha of

total dissolved carbon were lost from the catchments in the wettest year. They developed predictive

relationships for loss of P and C.

Monitoring of soil fertility has recently been conducted by Mitchell et al (2012) and Ellis (2013). The

emphasis has been directed toward targeting fertiliser applications and amounts and identifying soil

nutrient levels across the Fleurieu and Adelaide Hills regions.


4.2. Liming Trials

The issue of low soil pH, aluminium toxicity and nutrient availability has been the centre of continuing

research and trials. It appears that every five or so years some aspect of low soil pH and liming has

been investigated, indicating the problem has not gone away and probably never will. In the mid-1980’s

the Department of Agriculture invested in research related to liming. This culminated in a Technical

Report prepared by Richards (1992) titled “Improved criteria for predicting and ameliorating soil acidity

in the higher rainfall areas of South Australia”. The report detailed the research work that had been

undertaken and the general aims were:

to define areas in the higher rainfall zones of SA that have become or potential to develop soil

acidity problems under improved pasture;

to identify the principal soil properties and conditions associated with acidic soils that affect

plant growth; and

to provide liming strategies on a range of acidic soils, and to evaluate the effects of lime in

terms of acidity and plant nutrient status.

This work produced many research papers which were published in peer reviewed journals and

conferences during the late 1980’s (refer to reference tables for Richards 1992). Possible future work

was also listed and this is still relevant today (2016). The first three items listed are related to soil biota

and is relevant considering the current flood of alternative fertiliser products on the market. Future

research work suggested by Richards (1992) included:

Examine the effects of soil acidity on earthworm populations, role of earthworms in lime

incorporation and OM turnover in acidic soils;

Examine the interaction between lime application and reduced incidences of fungal root disease

in subterranean clover;

Assess the effects of lime application on the quantity and distribution of rhizobial populations in

acidic soils;

Assess the role of lime in improving rainfall infiltration in permanent pasture soils;

Determine the rate of movement of surface applied lime into the soil horizons to predict the

periods necessary to overcome subsoil acidity;

Evaluate efficiency strategies for applying lime to permanent pasture soils;

Evaluate the less acidifying farming systems, including use of deep rooted perennial species,

to reduce rates of soil acidification; and


Quantify whether lime applications will have adverse effects on plant B availability on low B

acidic soils.

A report detailing the distribution of acid soils and its management was prepared by officers from the

Department of Agriculture (Kealey 1992), Technical Report No 1/92. This report showed the Fleurieu

Peninsula as having the potential to develop soil acidity at depth and again is one of the future research

questions suggested by Richards (1992). Dyson (1996) produced a report titled “Liming strategies for

acidified pasture soils in the higher rainfall areas of South Australia” which was an extension of the work

conducted in the Richards (1992) report. The main aims were: to develop techniques for predicting the

response of acid soils to liming and it’s benefit/cost in various locations; and to predict the effects of

liming on trace element nutrition and the nodulation of subterranean clover. Fleming and Hughes (1997)

investigated liming related to animal health. That is the use of different lime products. The questions

asked were: Should we recommend dolomite in preference to lime in grass tetany situations ?; and

What soil test indicators can be used to determine lime type requirements ? The results indicated

problems with soil analysis in interpreting plant Mg levels for different products and also higher rates of

Mg (dolermite) will increase plant Mg levels at the expense of Ca.

Sand over clay, highly leached sand over clay and deep sand soil types cover 26% of the Southern

Fleuireu Peninsula and these soils usually have low soil pH and are routinely limed (Harding and Dowie

2011). Primary Industries SA conducted a series of trials throughout the Fleurieu Peninsula with the

aim of increasing sustainable use and productivity of these soils. In addition to liming it involved soil

modification by clay spreading, spading and delving. As part of this work the establishment of pasture

on clayed sandy soils and growth of Lucerne which is sensitive to low soil pH and high aluminium was

investigated. Some of the findings of this report include:

Monitor soil acidity rather than try and correct a deficiency, keep surface soil pH at >5.5;

Lime should have neutralising value of >80% and fine fraction <0.25 mm;

Clay spreading; delving and spading increased crop and pasture growth;

o Slaking and dispersive clay will spread over sand grains;

o Depth of clay, ideally less than 60 cm;

o Incorporate spread clay to avoid surface sealing; and

o Adjust fertiliser requirements on clay spread soil.

Currently (2013 to present 2016) Meat and Livestock Australia are funding a SARDI research project

on sandy soils near Tooperang, Fleurieu Peninsula investigating liming rates and acid-tolerant lucerne

lines and Rhizobia strains. The project is not complete and results to date indicate the improvement in

nodulation observed with the combination of the new acid tolerant plant and strain appears to be

additive. That is, the plant and rhizobia are both contributing to improvements in nodulation and the

maximum benefit occurs when they are used together. This research also indicates the problem of low

soil pH in soils on the Fleurieu Peninsula will continue to be an area of research.


4.3. Alternative fertilisers

Soil health and subsoil constraints have emerged in the last 10 to 15 years as areas of research. Along

with this has been the development of many alternative fertilisers including organic fertilisers, biochar,

foliar sprays, various forms of phosphorus and biological soil additives. To measure soil health test

procedures and laboratories have developed to cater for demand. Alternative fertilisers including

Neutrog Rapid Raiser®, Wormswork® Liquid, Lawn Brew®, Seasol Plus®, TM-21® and Nutrian

Microfusion®, Soak-N-Wet® have been trialled across the Fleurieu Peninsula (Mitchell et al 2011). The

success of these trials has been varied with many products not significantly increasing pasture

production.

Biochar has also emerged as another alternative fertiliser product and has been developed as a method

of greenhouse gas abatement. The Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics and

Sciences (ABARES) summarised the value of biochar to the agricultural industry (Sparkes and

Stoutjesdijk 2011). A number of issues were discussed including; the quality of biochar and

classification of biochar products; the fate of biochar in soil and its effects on soil properties; and the

need for rapid screening techniques for biochar.

There is a need for further testing of the complete range of alternative fertiliser products available that

maybe of importance to pasture production on the Fleurieu Peninsula. The methods used to assess

soil biota and stated improvements in pasture production need testing.

4.4. Monitoring projects

In 2002 a project near Normanville and Yankalilla investigated geostatistical methods for predicting the

spatial variability of rainfall in landslide hazard assessment (Greene 2002). The results showed a

multivariate geostatistical method using kriging was able to predict the spatial variability of rainfall

patterns in catchments assessed. This technique may be useful for predicting soil moisture status in

various parts of a catchment and maybe useful for estimating pasture production.

Environmental monitoring of the Fleurieu Peninsula has been conducted by government agencies. A

study of wetlands on the Fleurieu Peninsula showed considerable decline of spring-fed wetlands since

European settlement with only 2% in pristine condition (Harding 2005). Environmental water

requirements of the western Mount Lofty Ranges covering Fleurieu Peninsula have been developed

and water allocation plans (WAP) are to be prepared by the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges NRM

Board ((VanLaarhoven and van der Wielen 2009). This will impact on farming operations particularly

irrigated pasture within the region.

Soil nutrient monitoring has been conducted in the Fleurieu Peninsula with both groups of work coming

to similar conclusions. Ellis (2013) conducted a soil nutrient survey within the Mount Lofty Ranges and

Fleurieu Peninsula concluding soil testing should be used to better match fertiliser requirements with

soil nutrient status. Mitchell et al (2014) monitored soil nutrients on dairy farms within the Fleurieu and

noted: wide variations in levels of P, K and S between paddocks tested; soil pH was less than 4.9 in


43% of studied paddocks; and the topsoil in 17% of paddocks was saline (EC > 0.2 dS/m). These

monitoring projects suggest that soil nutrient testing and monitoring of soil pH should be ongoing

requirements for maintaining pasture production.

4.5. Pasture trials

Lateritic ironstone soils are common to Kangaroo Island and parts of the Fleurieu Peninsula. Gibson

(1976) compared annual and perennial pasture production on ironstone soils on Kangaroo Island. The

results showed annual pastures performing equally well to perennial pastures and therefore questioned

the expense of renovating annual to perennial pastures. A guide to direct drilling of pastures and not

cultivation was prepared by Brooks and Fairbrother (1989). The Department of Agriculture Technical

Report (No 4/89) gave an outline of the best procedure to direct drill pasture. Following this a guide to

legume pasture selection was developed (Mitchell et al 1990). The guide based legume pasture

selection on depth of soil, that is < 50 cm or >50 cm. The rainfall zone, soil pH and variety best suited

to these parameters were then selected from tables in the guide. In 1991 a management guide for

irrigated Lucerne was prepared by (Fairbrother and Thomson 1991).

The Flaxley Research Centre was during this period the main focus for pasture production research in

the Adelaide Hills and between 1990 and 1993 technical reports detailing pasture agronomy trials were

published (Technical Report Nos 156, 181, 197 and 206). The data in these has been summarised in

Mitchell et al (1994). Legume pastures Goulburn, Denmark and Leura cvv were selected and

commercialised from this research. Karridale was found to have superior seed and herbage production.

Gosse subclover cultivar was selected and commercialised. Cvv Woogenellup and Seaton Park

productive clovers were shown to be suitable for deeper acid sandy soils. No new alternatives were

found to White clover. Perennial grass performance was found to vary with soil type. Perennial

ryegrass cultivars Victorian and Ellett were consistently more productive on yellow, red and grey Podsol

soils. Cocksfoot was suitable on deep sandy or lateritic soils. Perennial ryegrass was still considered

the best option for irrigated dairy pastures.

Primary Industries SA published a Technical Report and two Technical Bulletins in 1997 (No 264) and

1998 (No 2/98 and 3/98) detailing further work conducted at Flaxley Research Centre. Mitchell (1997)

detailed work partly funded by Dairy Research & Development Corporation, SARDI and PIRSA on Dairy

pasture systems for low summer rainfall pasture production zone. The report covered work on

calibration of the Ellinbank raising plate meter, block grazing trials and spring pasture management

trials. It also showed that pasture management including monitoring stocking rates, cattle feeding,

pasture utilisation and milk production increased dairy farm output at Flaxley. Grazing management

using block grazing (report No 3/98) and not adding further inputs to improve farm profits was the focus

of Technical Bulletin No 3/98. While, the effective use of pasture resources was the focus of report No

2/98.


Mitchell (2014) detailed pasture field trials on the Fleurieu Peninsula and includes DairySA’s Fleurieu

Forage Innovation project run in conjunction with FP-Ag Victor Harbor (FP-Ag Technical Report No 15).

Trial aims were:

to evaluate spring-sowing (August-sowing) as a cost-effective technique for establishing

temperate perennial forages on acid, non-wetting sand at Mt Compass and Back Valley;

assess the relative DM production and 3-year persistency of ten pasture forage mixes under

rotational dairy cattle grazing on deep acid sand;

to assess the relative DM persistence of 16 perennial ryegrass varieties under regular sheep

grazing on a shallow lateritic podsol at Parawa;

assess relative DM persistence of 14 perennial ryegrass varieties under regular sheep grazing

on shallow brown duplex soil at Sellecks Hill;

evaluation of spring-sowing (mid-September) as a cost-effective technique for establishing

temperate perennial forages on a lateritic podsol; and

to evaluate spring-sowing (August-sowing) as a cost-effective technique for establishing

temperate perennial forages on acid, non-wetting sand at Pages Flat.

Carbon sequestration under subtropical perennial pastures (kikuyu) has been studied at 4 sites on the

Fleurieu Peninsula (Sanderman et al 2013). The results showed that newly sequestered carbon will

vary in its stability following soil disturbance depending on soil type. The physio-chemical properties of

the soil will determine soil carbon stability. Further research is required to determine where in the soil

and in what form soil organic carbon is stored. A similar environmental monitoring research project

(Warneke et al 2015) investigated abiotic dissolution and biological uptake of nitrous oxide in woodland

and pasture soil at Parawa. They concluded that Mediterranean soil from different ecosystems with

different nitrogen (N) loads has a great potential to store and consume N2O, if exposed to an N2O

elevated atmosphere.

4.6. Livestock

Selenium deficiency in livestock has been reported on lateritic and sandy soils on Fleurieu Peninsula

and Kangaroo Island (Davies 1982 and Stevens et al 1990). A Department of Agriculture Technical

Report (No 10) showed samples of barley and grain legumes from lateritic soils on Kangaroo Island

had selenium levels below adequate for pigs and supplements were required for pigs feed this diet

(Davies 1982). Stevens et al (1990) investigated the selenium and magnesium status of dairy cows

on deep sand and lateritic soils on the Fleurieu Peninsula. They found: selenium deficiency was

marginal; that milk selenium varied with autumn > winter > summer; blood and milk selenium levels

correlated but not suitable for monitoring; magnesium levels were normal and there was a low deficiency

risk, but urine samples indicate winter supplements needed; and Mg in cows on deep sand higher.

They concluded that the results do not show sufficient problems for further research but suggests

monitoring and assessment of the economics of supplement regimes.


The effects of soil trace elements (copper, cobalt, zinc and selenium) on beef and dairy cattle throughout

South Australia was published by Primary Industries SA in Technical Bulletin No 1/97 (McFarlane et al

1997). Low soil levels of copper, cobalt (varied) and selenium were highlighted as potentially being

deficient in beef and dairy cattle on Fleurieu Peninsula. The report outlined seasonal effects, areas of

deficiency, clinical signs, diagnosis and treatment of each trace element deficiency.

Meat and Livestock Australia have funded research throughout Australia and checking of their reference

database is required.

4.7. Soil biota

Soil biota is defined as “collective term that encompasses all the organisms that spend a significant

portion of their life cycle within a soil profile, or at the soil-litter interface. These organisms include

earthworms, nematodes, protozoa, fungi, bacteria and different arthropods” (Wikipedia 2016).

Native dune beetles prefer dry, fibrous Marsupial dune and not the moist dune of introducted cattle

(Henry 1983), Depertment Agriculture Technical report No 41. The report details dune beetle

introduction from 1970 – 1983 and stated the most successful release was at Inman Valley with

Onthophagus taurus and O. binodus spreading 3 to 4 kilometers from the release site. The role of

winter active dune beetle Bubas bison on the incorporation and reduction in potential nutrient runoff

from cattle feed with or without biochar was investigated at Heathfield in the Adelaide Hills (Boube 2015

– interim report). Biochar was added for its ability to retain soil nutrients. Conclusions to date include:

dune burial has improved pasture growth; there were only modest gains in pasture production from

added biochar; tunnelling by dune beetles under dune improved soil permeability; the analysis of the

nitrate, phosphate and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) levels in run-off water has not been analysed

to date (2015).

During the 1990’s there has been several publications on earthworms within the Fleurieu Peninsula. A

survey of the abundance and diversity of earthworms in pastures on Fleurieu Peninsula was conducted

by Baker et al (1992). They investigated 113 pasture soils including sandy over yellow brown or red

clay B horizons and deep course textured sands. The diversity of introducted earthworms was

Aporrectodea trapezoided (95% sites), Microscolex dubius (61% sites), A rosea (38% sites) and A

culiginosu (36% sites). Native earthworms were only present at 40 sites. The percentage of clay was

correlated with earthworm abundance.

The behaviour of earthworms under manure in soil bags placed in a pasture paddock at Balhannah

showed bags with added manure (sheep) had more earthworms and the total number of earthworms

was not influenced by the form or location of the manure (Hughes et al 1994). The response of

earthworms to moisture gradients was assessed in soil collected from the Waite Institute (Doube et al

1996). They noticed that some earthworms (Aporrectodea rosea) will tolerate drier soil conditions at

matric potentials of -300 kPa while others (A. trapezoids) will move in response to drying of different


clay content soils. That is, A. trapezoids moves when a sandy loam is at -15 kPa, loam at -25 kPa, and

clay -300 kPa. Field capacity is -8 kPa.


5. Future Fleurieu Peninsula research, trial and demonstration work

5.1. Soil Research Review – discussion and recommendations

On the 23nd June 2016 a group of Fleurieu Peninsula farmers and those involved with the development

of the soil research review meet to discuss the findings of the review. The aim was to highlight what

research, trial, demonstration work or approach should be adopted for grazing enterprises on the

Fleurieu Peninsula.

The suggestions discussed included:

1. The information collected in the review should be made available and ideally should be

maintained and updated as an ongoing record of agricultural work on the Fleurieu

Peninsula. The suggestion was the development of a website. This should have links to

the wider community through natural resource management (NRM), universities, colleges

and possibly schools.

2. What are the fundamental aims and goals of farming on the Fleurieu Peninsula. Is the

motive for individual farming enterprises (and the Fleurieu Peninsula as a whole) related to

profit, social / community, environment, personnel well-being or a combination of all these

aspects?

3. Need for a systems approach. That is not just focus on one aspect or component of the

current farming system but investigate the system as a whole. That is how does each

component impact on the others, such as adding nitrogen, lime, grazing monocultures of

grasses and legumes impact on each other and for example soil biota.

Who drives the research that would be undertaken? A potential problem is that

university or corporate research is aimed at solving a particular problem, for

example how much lime to add to a pasture. University and corporate researchers

have preferred areas of interest as do consultants and farmers.

Components of the current farming system that were raised during the discussion include:

a. Low soil pH has been an area of ongoing research since on the Fleureiu Peninsula

since the 1970’s. Does there need to be further investigations into liming,

calcium/magnesium ratios, phosphorus retention using liming, impact of liming on soil

biota, how to deal with low soil pH when lime is not available?

b. Effects of inputs such as nitrogen (and others) on soil biota, what is happening?

c. Availability of nitrogen and other inputs that currently maintain or increase production,

alternative inputs? Profitability versus productivity – what is the right balance?

d. Future availability of lime, are there other ways of dealing with low soil pH? Deep

rooted perennial grasses, legumes or other plants tolerant of low soil pH conditions?

Using the full extent of the soil resource not just the top 30 cm.


e. Efficiency of inputs and labour, can we get more clover with less inputs, targeted use

of inputs and pasture management?

f. Soil modification by clay spreading, delving and spading, has it worked or not and why?

g. Soil biota. Impact of pesticides, herbicides, animal treatments, gibberellic acid, new

alternative fertiliser products on soil biota?

h. Soil biological tests, what are they, how do they compare, what do they mean can they

be used to answer questions about “soil health”?

i. Precision agriculture technology, making it more widely available than limited to those

within research trials?

j. Soil moisture and water availability, how to maintain or retain more water at the end of

the season?

k. The use of multivariate geostatistical methods for predicting spatial rainfall variability

and its application to predicting soil moisture status and pasture production at the

paddock level.

l. Information sharing by farm walks. Field days on individual properties to look at what

they have done, does it work or not, not just visits to trial sites?

5.2. Soil issues, Fleurieu Peninsula farmer survey

Based on the discussion points above a soil issues survey was prepared and sent to the Fleurieu Beef

Group, Parawa Agriculture Bureau, Mt Jagged Dairy Discussion group, Livestock SA, Goolwa to

Wellington LAP and Adelaide and Mount Lofty NRM and wider farming community through contacts

with these groups. The purpose was to prioritise the list of soil issues for research and demonstration

and add to the discussions and recommendations from the Soil Research Review (Figure 5.1).

Respondents were also asked general questions with regard to the soils on their property (section

5.2.2). To date there have been 16 responses from members of the farming groups on the Fleurieu

Peninsula.

5.2.1. Ranking of 11 soil issues

Soil issues receiving a ranking of approximately 7.0 were: soil biological testing, what does it mean;

retention of phosphorus in soils; soil moisture status and pasture production (Figure 5.1). Soil issues

receiving a ranking of approximately 6.0 to 6.5 were: need for deep rooted perennial and legume

pastures with acid tolerance; impact of pesticides and herbicides; reducing soil acidification; soil

moisture and water availability.

Based on the responses to the 11 soil issues it can be concluded that the introduction of alternative

fertiliser products has led to a need for an understanding soil biological tests and a means of

benchmarking any improvements in pasture production. Soil acidification and leaching of phosphorus

is an ongoing problem in the generally sandy and sandy loam soils of large areas of the Fleurieu

Peninsula. The lack of choice of perennial pasture species and legume species tolerant to acid soil

conditions and also soil moisture status are considered to impact on grazing production.


Figure 5-1 Survey responses to 11 soil issues raised by Fleurieu Forward Farming Group

5.2.2. General survey question responses

Question 2 - Producers were asked to choose their main top soil and sub soil type and depth from a

drop down menu.

The most common topsoil chosen by 37% of respondents was sandy loam.

The main subsoil was clay from 10cm to 90+ cm.

Other topsoil and subsoils types included ironstone sandy loam, ironstone loam, silt loam, and sandy clay loam.

Question 4 - “what are your main soil management issues”. The responses are listed as follows:

a lack of moisture in summer and too much waterlogging in winter

pH 5.0

non wetting sands

Water retention

Good ground cover, min till for cropping and clay spreading

4.23

4.36

4.64

5.64

6.07

6.50

6.58

6.69

6.85

6.93

7.08

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

The impact of soil temperature and moisture on nitrogen uptake.

Costs/benefits of soil modification by clay spreading, delving andspading.

Impact of gibberellic acid, lime and Nitrogen on soil health.

Determining appropriate lime sources and ratios from economic, soilhealth and lime quality perspective.

Soil moisture and water availability, how to maintain or retain morewater at the end of the season.

Options (other than lime) for reducing soil acidification.

Impact of pesticides, herbicides and animal treatments, on soil healthand fertility.

Pasture trials including deep rooted perennial grasses, legumes orother plants tolerant of acidic soils.

Predicting soils moisture status and pasture production at thepaddock level.

Retention of Phosphorous on soils.

Soil biological tests, what are they, how do they compare, what do they mean can they be used to answer questions about “soil health”?

Rating average

Average rating of soil issues for research or demonstation


I am worried that soils will become acidic overtime with chemical fertilisers and also when pastures have been used for annuals the soil has cracked and been very difficult to re-establish with perennials

Infertility

Winter water logging and summer hard setting. Understanding what real long term soil health means

Having sufficient finance available to apply all soil applications wish list. Maximum pasture production for minimal cost inputs. Its all about costs

Retention of rainfall in the soil profile rather than run off into the sea

P levels, pH readings & trace element levels & ratios

Low EC sands with very limited nutrient holding capacity. Low organic matter. Limited habitat for soil biology

Nutrient use, removal and application? What are soil microbes and how to test and manage?

Acidity. Access to paddocks during winter

Acidity, pasture production and persistence of perennials.

Question 5 - “What is your P and N fertiliser program (i.e. amounts, timing, application method)?’”

Responses included:

50 KG/Ha of DAP single superphosphate over 110 Ha in autumn, top dressed with 1.5 kg copper and 30 grams of moly/ha

Raw chicken manure spread at 160 m3 for 25Hectare. Spread in April at break of rain with marshal spreader

1 ton composted chicken manure in autumn

100kg SSP in April pasture 80kg DAP for crops with urea in August

Chicken litter

Compost every second year about 500kg/ha

Late summer - autumn P

Using chicken manure to improve soil & worm health

Apply P every two years before opening rains

Trialling vermicomposting application immediately following autumn break. Chooks with dramatic results but covering only small areas.

1 t/ha of chicken manure applied in autumn

SSP 100kg/ha late summer spread by tractor. SSP chosen for sulphur content. Hayboosta 120 kg/ha in August

P - 100kg/ha annually N - used when needed ie 66kg/ha after grazing on a 30-day rotation


P - 10units/Ha for last 8 years. No P in 2016

Question 6 - ” What is your liming program (i.e. amount, timing, application method)? The responses

were as follows:

2.5 tonnes of dolomite/ha when soil ph is below 3.6 in the spring or autumn top dressed.

5 tonne hectare 10 years ago by spreader in April. Not done since very expensive but changed to chicken litter.

We put out 2.5 T / ha on a rotation about every 4-5 years

Have applied about 6 tonnes/ha over the last 20 years

As required to keep Ca to Mg optimum ratio

Trialled without discernible results even after three years. Currently nil

Apply to worst paddocks, to total 300t per year applied.

Sellicks lime 2.5 t/ha march 2014 spread by tractor on 3 paddocks. Frequency depends on finances, season etc.

2.5t/ha determined by soil annual tests

Whole farm done with lime between 1994 & 2005 -2.5t/Ha 50% farm done 2nd time 2005-2012 dependant on finances.

Question 7 - “What else would you like to see researched or demonstrated in your region to help you

manage soil health and improve productivity?” The responses include;

I have played around with bulk compost teas and biological brews and had great success. but it is time consuming and all technical info I used was from USA sources. I would like some current local examples and extent to which red mite sprays impact on biological brew efficacy.

Alternative pasture types

Alternative plants for longer ground cover.

I would like to see some trials on alternative fertilisers and heights of grazing and rotations on soil health.

Non fossil fuel fertilisers

Systems approach to managing soil and livestock health, rather than targeting one aspect.

Biological weed control

Funding for storm water management to retain water on property to fill aquifers and prevent erosion of topsoil into the sea.

Different methods of increasing organic matter and biology and cheaply monitoring these parameters.

How to better manage dung beetles on farm and in the region


More effective methods of utilizing P or alternative on paddocks. Cost of fertilizer is a major expense each year and ways of reducing same are worth looking at.

Efficient use of N


6. Recommendations

The Fleurieu Forward Farming group suggests the following recommendations based on the Soil

Research Review, that is (not in priority order):

1. System approach to soil, animal and pasture health on the Fleurieu Peninsula at farm and

regional scale;

2. Continue to conduct relevant soils research and demonstration sites in the region;

3. Higher on the list of priorities should be soil health issues including:

a. retention of phosphorus in soils;

b. alternative fertilisers (including cost benefit analysis);

c. soil biological testing, understanding of results and benefits;

d. prediction of soil moisture status and retention of soil moisture and soil water runoff

and erosion;

e. impact of chemicals and alternative fertiliser products on soil health.

4. Alternative perennial and legume pasture species:

a. for acid soil conditions;

b. to provide a range of feed alternatives throughout the year and for variable seasons

and climate.

5. Farm walks and visits to promote issues and research findings; and

6. Assistance with funding and sourcing of alternative funding.

soil research review fleurieu peninsula, s.a. · acid soils, selenium deficiency in livestock, the...

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