solar cooling

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SOLAR AIR CONDITIONING TECHNOLOGIES FOR ENERGY

CONSERVATION & MANAGEMENT IN BUILDINGS : -

Dr. S.C. KaushikProfessor & Head

Centre for Energy Studies

Indian Institute of Technology Delhi

Emerging Eco Friendly HVAC Technologies for Energy Conservation

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Indian Energy Scenario

India is a major producer and consumer of energy.

It is world’s 11th largest energy producer accounting for about 2.4% of the worlds total annual energy production.

It is the 6th largest energy consumer accounting for about 3.7% of the world’s total annual energy consumption.

Per capita consumption of energy in India is one of the lowest in the world.

India’s energy use efficiency for generating GDP in Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) is better than the world’s average.

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The energy challenges for India

84 million house holds in the country (44.2% of households) do not have electricity in 2000.

The peak power shortage varies from 0 to 25.4% in state to state with all India average of 11.7%(2004).

The energy shortage varies form 0 to 20.1% with all India average of 7.3%.

For 8-10% growth rate that we aspire for, our energy need will also increase. Along with the quantity the quality is equally important.

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Actual and Predicted Energy Consumption Pattern in India

(MOTE)*

Year 2005 (Actual) % 2030 (Predicted) %

Coal 167 51.07 816 49.96

Oil 119 36.39 435 26.63

Gas 29 8.87 224 13.71

Hydro 7 2.14 43 2.63

Nuclear 5 1.53 115 7.04

Total 327 100 1633 100

World % 3.72 10.9*MOTE= Million Oil Tones Equivalent

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Coal Supply Scenario

The proved reserves of coal at current level of consumption can last up to 80 years. If all the inferred reserves also materialize then it may last for 140 years.

If domestic production grows at 5% a year the reserves will run out in 40 years.

Only 45% coal bearing areas have been surveyed. In situ coal gasification can increase India’s available

energy from domestic resources.

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Reduce Energy requirement

Improvement in energy efficiency or conservation is crucial in creating a domestic energy source base. Improvements can be made in energy extraction, energy conservation, energy transmission, distribution and end use of energy.

Recovery in place reserves can be improved easily by 5-10%by adopting advanced mining of coal, Oil and Gas recovery techniques.

The average fuel conversion efficiency is around 30%, it can be increased up to 40-42% by using advanced conversion methods.

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Energy Security through Energy Conservation

Huge Potential in reducing electrical consumption by improving supply side energy efficiency, demand side energy efficiency, electricity T&D and by adopting renewable electricity technologies.

Sector-wise Energy Conservation Potential in the country has been estimated as:

Industrial- 25%, Agricultural- 30%,

Domestic & Commercial- 20%,

Transport- 20% and Economy as a whole- 23%.

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Indian Concerns

Indian per capita incomes today are 45 per cent of that of China and 25 per cent of Brazil. By 2030, we could touch present-day Brazil’s level, but just think: Brazil’s per capita consumption of electricity today is 1,950 units, while it is still 440 in India (and 1,380 in China). India will need to generate 3,880 billion kilowatt hours of electricity in 2030 to sustain an 8 per cent growth rate. To achieve this, we would need to max our hydro use- tap all our rivers, generate 63,000 MW of Nuclear power and 14,000 from wind farms. Even then, 78 per cent of our electricity would have to come from carbon dioxide emitting coal.

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By, 2030, India will reach the current levels of US carbon emissions, with all its negative implications for global warming. But right now as most Indians know, the problem seems to be having power at all. In just one year- 2006- China added 60,000 MW of electricity generating capacity. In five years of the 10th five year plan, we missed all targets and managed 40,000. Looked at any way, the choice seems to be not so much between nuclear, wind or thermal energy, but energy from whatever source it comes from. As for global warming, we should care more for environmental management & carbon management. Which is of more concern today. Use of Renewable Energy Sources & Energy Efficiency considerations can play & important role.

Green Buildings & Eco-Friendly Energy Technologies is a further steps in this direction.

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World Energy Scenario

Enormous energy flux is provided by the sun equivalent to 54.4 x 10 20 kj / year the earth . While the total energy consumed by all humans amounted to 4.3 x 10 17 kj / year which is equivalent to only 0.017%of the solar energy absorbed by earth Surface.

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Renewable Energy Sources: The Economic Growth

Renewable Energy (RE) technologies are fast gaining a foothold on a global level. It can be gauged from the fact that a colossal investment of around $ 38 billion was made on creating new RE capacities alone in 2005. In fact, Germany and China took the investment leads at $ 7 billion each followed closely by USA, Spain, Japan and India.

Amongst the RE technologies, biomass power production witnessed a 50-100% increase in annual production capacities in many countries during 2004. Other technologies like Solar Photovoltaics (PV) and biofuels also recorded quite impressive growth patterns.

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It is now becoming increasingly obvious that we will soon be unable to meet our energy needs via use of coal, oil and gas alone. Historically, RE technologies observed a phenomenal push for a holistic growth during the much talked about oil crisis of early seventies. The interim period between then and now has seen support for RE waxing and waning in accordance with the policy of the day.

Surely, time seems to be ripe once again to pump large investments more so for technology up-gradation so as to attain economies of scale. Simultaneously though, steps should be taken to bring down the energy intake vis-à-vis the use of conventional power.

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Serious thought needs to be accorded to evaluate the economic competitiveness of all available energy sources in the backdrop of three main parameters. These relate to an increasing gap between demand and supply of conventional power, accompanying transmission and distribution losses and importantly, the Climate change process. Surely, RE is poised for a second big leap forward to lead towards a sustained economic growth in the near future.

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Energy Efficiency: The Environmental Solution Energy conservation and Energy efficiency are presently the

most powerful tools in our transition to a clean energy future. There is a need for maximizing the energy efficiency of industrial operations, building and infrastructure through the use of renewable resources, decentralized co-generation and energy cascading techniques in a manner which optimizes integrated energy flows and minimizes potential global environmental impacts such as greenhouse gas emissions. Implementing these solutions will enable people to step into a new era of energy, one that will bring economic growth, new jobs, technological innovation and most importantly environmental protection.

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Demand for energy is increasing fast day by day and is likely to increase in tune with industrialization/ urbanization

The building sector being one of the largest consumers of energy, has gained prominence over the past few decades.

45% of total global energy is used in heating, cooling and lighting of building. 5% energy is used in building construction. In India energy used for air conditioning of commercial buildings accounts for

32% of the total energy consumption in the commercial sector in 1995. Energy consumption patterns can be substantially reduced by energy

conserving measures, particularly during the phase of building design. Space heating load can be reduced by about 50%, when economically-

viable insulating measures are applied to the building envelopes, i.e. to ceiling and walls.

Need of Energy Efficient Buildings

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Energy Use Pattern in Buildings

Lighting 60% Air conditioning 32% Other applications 8%

In conventional Indian buildings, energy consumption is 200 kWh per sq. meter This energy consumption can be reduced to 120 kWh per sq. meter by applications of energy

efficient building techniques Saving up to 60% can be achieved.

(Source : TERI & BEE, Govt. of India presentations)

Heat transfer in buildings

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Energy Conservation Studies in Buildings

Energy consumption patterns can be substantially reduced by energy conserving measures

It is essential to conserve the conventional energy by developing the energy efficient buildings

In existing building, retrofitting measures should be applied for energy efficiency

% of annual electrical consumption (Commercial buildings in India)

% of annual electrical consumption (Residential buildings in India)

60%

32%

8%

Lighting (60%)

HAVC (32%)

Others (8%)

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Climatic Zones of India

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Conventional Vapor compression based system for air-conditioning

Solar cooling options Photovoltaic Solar Cooling Systems

Ranknecyle Solar cooling Systms Vapor absorption Solar Cooling systems Adsorption systems (solid and liquid desiccant cooling systems)

Thermoelectic & Thermoacoustic Solar Cooling Systems Hybrid cycles for space conditioning

Heat pipe based space conditioning

Retrofitting of existing buildings

Technologies For Solar Space conditioning

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Vapor compression cycle

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Scheme of Air-Conditioner

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Top View

Side View

Window Air-Conditioner

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Large energy is consumed ; mainly high grade energy Compression work is very high again usage of high grade energyAlthough System’s Energy efficiency is largeHigh grade energy cost is high ; huge electricity billsRefrigerants (R11,R12 etc) used are non eco friendly * Resulting in ozone layer depletion (ODP) * Large GWPLeakage of CFC’s causing environmental problem

Draw backs of conventional vapor compression refrigeration and Air Conditioning systems

Alternatives must be searched for as Montreal and Kyoto protocols demand phase out of CFCs.

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Thus both energy shortage and environmental degradation

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Instead of high grade energy, low grade energy is used Power requirement is low as compared to conventional VCR Addresses energy and environ mental problems * Solar energy can be directly utilized (Use solar as heat source) * No CFC’s leakage problem

Vapor absorption based cooling options (solar based)

Type of vapor absorption refrigeration systems for A/C Closed cycle vapor absorption solar cooling system Single effect Double EffectOpen cycle vapor absorption solar cooling systemIntermittent and continuous system operation

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Closed cycle Vapor Absorption Solar Cooling System (single effect)

2

1

7 G C

E A

H E

5

6

3

9

8 4

10 E

Schematic Diagram

P-T-X Diagram

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Closed cycle Vapor Absorption Solar Cooling System (double effect)

1

Gen I

C

E A

SHX II

2

9

10 17

E

SHX I

HEX

Gen II

3

4 5

8

11 14

12 13 15

16

6 7

Schematic Diagram P-T-X Diagram

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Ammonia – Water Absorption System Water-Lithium Bromide Absorption System

* Refrigerant - Ammonia Absorbent - Water* High operating pressures* It is suitable for refrigeration and air-

conditioning* High generation temperature* Condenser is both water cooled as

well as air cooled* Rectifier is required* COP is low (0.5 to 0.6)* No crystallization problem

* Health hazard as it is toxic* Inflammable

* Refrigerant - Water Absorbent - Lithium Bromide* Low operating pressures* It is suitable for air-conditioning

or heat pump* It is relatively lower* Only water cooling is necessary

* Rectifier is not required* COP is high (0.7 to 0.8)* Crystallization is a major

problem* It is not toxic* Not flammable

Conventional Absorption System’s working fluids

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Open Cycle Vapor Absorption Solar Cooling System

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Cold stream

Vacuum pump

Water vapor

SHE

Main tap water

Solar collector regenerator

CT

Absorber Evaporator

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Desiccant based cooling system offers an environmentally benign alternative to conventional system based on vapor compression refrigeration system

Adsorption Based Cooling Systems(Solid and liquid desiccant based cooling system)

SOLID DESICCANT LIQUID DESICCANT

*Adsorption is surface absorption –a physical phenomenon

* Less degree of dehumidification* Inexpensive materials like Silica gel, molecular sieve, alumina * System is compact* Pressure drop is higher* Poor heat exchange between air

streams* Adsorption – desorption is not

continuous* Easily coupled with conventional V-

C&AC system

* Absorption is volume absorption –a chemical phenomenon

* More drying capability* Costly materials like LiBr,LiCl,Cacl2

Glycols with water* It is bulky* Pressure drop is lower* Good heat exchange

* Adsorption – desorption is continuous* Modifications are necessary for

coupling

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Open and closed cycle cooling option

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Scope of desiccant cooling

Desiccant cooling systems are useful when latent heat load is larger than the sensible heat load. A thermal energy input is used to regenerate the desiccant.

Advantages of desiccant cooing system:

* Since ,only air and water are used as working fluids and no fluorocarbons are required thus there is no danger to ozone layer depletion

* Significant potential for energy savings and reduced consumption of fossil fuels achieved. Electrical energy requirements are 25% less than the conventional V-C refrigeration system. Source of input thermal energy are diverse viz solar, waste heat and natural gas.

* IAQ is improved due to higher ventilation rates and the capability of desiccants to remove air pollutants.

* Since Desiccant systems operate at near atmospheric pressure, their construction and maintenance is simple

* Desiccant systems can be used for summer/ monsoon air conditioner as well as winter heating when regeneration energy can be used for heating

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Desiccant based cyclesSolid desiccant cycles

Ventilation cycle (Pennington)Ventilation Dunkel cycle (recirculation)Modified Ventilation cycle (Dhar)Novel solid desiccant cycle (Kaushik)

Liquid desiccant Cycles

LOFGupta & GandhidasanLiquid desiccant system for ERM Godara and Jain cycles

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Pennington Ventilation cycle

Psychromteric diagram

Block diagram

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Dunkle ventilation cycle (recirculation )


Block diagram

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Modified ventilation Cycle

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Block diagram


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Novel Solid Desiccant Cycle (Kaushik et al)

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Schematic Diagram of Liquid Desiccant System (LOF)

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Block diagram

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Solar Space Conditioning system Using liquid Desiccant Cycle (Gupta and Gandhidasan)

Psychromteric diagramBlock diagram

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Liquid Desiccant Cooling system (ERM)

Block diagram


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New Liquid Desiccant Cycle (Godara)

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Block diagram


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Hybrid Cycles for Air ConditioningUseful for capacity up gradation and energy conservation (e.g. high latent load conditions as in Supermarkets).

Dehumidifier Cooler

Rejected heat

Hot, Dry

Warm, humid

Heat input

Outside air Supply air

Cool, dry

Solid desiccant based hybrid cycle (V-C + Solid Desiccant cycle)Liquid desiccant based hybrid cycle (V-C + Liquid Desiccant cycle)

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Conventional VC Air conditioner

Desiccant Air conditioner Hybrid Air conditioner

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Hybrid desiccant cooling system

Block diagram Psychromteric diagram

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Solid Desiccant Hybrid space Conditioning(recirculation/condenser cycle)

Block diagram Psychromteric diagram

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Liquid Desiccant Hybrid Space Conditioning

Psychromteric diagramBlock diagram

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Heat Pipe Based Building Space Conditioning

Heat pipe is passive, novel heat transfer device emerged as a major energy conservation device. It is popularly used as waste heat recovery device.In HVAC system, used as summer winter application, hot and humid climate and in combination with indirect evaporative cooling is used.Various applications like Hospitals, Library buildings, Shopping complex e.t.c witnessed the potential as energy saverHeat pipe’s presence is being felt in HVAC industry.

IIT Delhi

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Heat Pipe

- Transfers heat from a source to a sink with minimumtemperature gradient- Passive heat transfer device with high effective thermal conductivity

EVAPORATOR CONDENSER

VAPOR

LIQUID

WICK

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HEAT PIPE WORKING

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A T-S Diagram of working fluid circulation in the heat pipe

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Components of Heat pipe

• Container (usually aluminum and copper ), • Wicking structure (capillary effect)

• Working Fluid (water, ammonia e.t.c)

Main Features of Heat Pipes

Heat transfer with small temperature drop Small pressure drop between the evaporator and the

condenser Isothermal boiling-condensing cycle No moving parts -- high reliability and long life

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Characteristics of Heat Pipe

Very high thermal conductance, Ability to act as thermal transformer, Isothermalisation of surface, Variable thermal conductance (ability to

control) LHP (Loop heat pipe) Thermal diode and thermal switch Flexibility and construction simplicity

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• computer industry (note book cooling/laptop),

• automotive industry (vehicle brake system cooling, engine air pre-cooling),

• aeronautical industry (airplane anti icing system)

• aerospace industry (Iso Thermalisation of large surfaces, electronics component cooling, satellite radiators)

• manufacturing industry (die-casting and injection molding)

• HVAC industry (waste heat recovery in air conditioning)

Various Applications

• Electronics Industry

IIT Delhi

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Heat Pipe Heat Exchanger(Waste heat recovery)

Gay (1929) Thermosyphon based HPHE

Noju (1968) Thermosyphon Heat Exchanger with fins

Joshi (1993) Studies HPHE in HVAC

Noie-Baghban and Majideian (2000) HPHE for surgery rooms

Mulauci (2006)Thermosyphon based HPHE for A/C application

You (2006) HPHE for Building A/C

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Heat Pipe used in Heat Pipe Heat Exchanger

Heat Pipe Heat Exchanger

Heat Pipe

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HVAC applications

Operation of HPHE during summer and winter

Heat pipe based system for hot and humid climate Indirect evaporative cooling systems with HPHE

* Ventilation * Combination with Direct Evaporative cooler * Coupled with standard Air Conditioning

IIT Delhi

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HPHE Operation during summer and winter


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Summer time, the HPHE pre-cools the hot supply air stream before it enters the cooling coil. Thus reducing the size of the cooling coil as compared to what would have been without using HPHE. This system helps in reducing temperature and increases RH. Evaporative cooler could also be used if required.

Winter time, the HPHE preheats the cold supply air stream before it enters the heating coil. Thus reducing the size of the heating coil.

“For both seasons HPHE achieved savings in terms of electricity bills. This kind of HPHE basically recovers heat and helps in reducing the cost of equipment by downsizing the system requirement.”

IIT Delhi

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Benefits

* No external energy required* No modification in ducts required

Energy savings

* Heating Equipment savings* Cooling equipment savings* Heating operating savings* Cooling operating savings* Indirect Evaporative cooling savings

Summer and Winter operating benefits and energy savings

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Indian Context Dehumidifier is good in hot and humid climate South India is the region where average relative humidity

(70-90%) And average temperature (> 30oC) Relative humidity control is necessary

Heat pipe based dehumidifier for A/C application:Hot & Humid climateHumidity control for material processing, space conditioning of habitable buildings, and industrial drying consumes significant quantities of energy, predominantly electrical energy. Cost of energy is heavy so it is always favorable to recover energy.

IIT Delhi

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Conclusions

For building air conditioning option new technology are fastly coming up . These are addressing the need of less energy & more comfort

Environmental concerns raised by VCRS are properly addressed by solar options using VAR and desiccant based cooling system

Hybrid systems are energy efficient for air conditioning

Heat pipe technology a new viable option of energy conservation. HVAC industry will be reaping benefit from the passive heat pipe technology.

Retrofitting of building is desirable for energy conservation point of view.

IIT Delhi

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Thanks for Your Kind Attention

Your questions aremost welcome

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Heat Pipe Based Building Space Conditioning

Heat pipe is passive, novel heat transfer device emerged as a major energy conservation device. It is popularly used as waste heat recovery device.In HVAC system, used as summer winter application, hot and humid climate and in combination with indirect evaporative cooling is used.Various applications like Hospitals, Library buildings, Shopping complex e.t.c witnessed the potential as energy saverHeat pipe’s presence is being felt in HVAC industry.

IIT Delhi

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Heat Pipe

- Transfers heat from a source to a sink with minimumtemperature gradient- Passive heat transfer device with high effective thermal conductivity

EVAPORATOR CONDENSER

VAPOR

LIQUID

WICK

IIT Delhi

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HEAT PIPE WORKING

IIT Delhi

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A T-S Diagram of working fluid circulation in the heat pipe

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Components of Heat pipe

• Container (usually aluminum and copper ), • Wicking structure (capillary effect)

• Working Fluid (water, ammonia e.t.c)

Main Features of Heat Pipes

Heat transfer with small temperature drop Small pressure drop between the evaporator and the

condenser Isothermal boiling-condensing cycle No moving parts -- high reliability and long life

IIT Delhi

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Characteristics of Heat Pipe

Very high thermal conductance, Ability to act as thermal transformer, Isothermalisation of surface, Variable thermal conductance (ability to

control) LHP (Loop heat pipe) Thermal diode and thermal switch Flexibility and construction simplicity

IIT Delhi

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• computer industry (note book cooling/laptop),

• automotive industry (vehicle brake system cooling, engine air pre-cooling),

• aeronautical industry (airplane anti icing system)

• aerospace industry (Iso Thermalisation of large surfaces, electronics component cooling, satellite radiators)

• manufacturing industry (die-casting and injection molding)

• HVAC industry (waste heat recovery in air conditioning)

Various Applications

• Electronics Industry

IIT Delhi

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Heat Pipe Heat Exchanger(Waste heat recovery)

Gay (1929) Thermosyphon based HPHE

Noju (1968) Thermosyphon Heat Exchanger with fins

Joshi (1993) Studies HPHE in HVAC

Noie-Baghban and Majideian (2000) HPHE for surgery rooms

Mulauci (2006)Thermosyphon based HPHE for A/C application

You(2006) HPHE for Building A/C

IIT Delhi

72IIT Delhi

Heat Pipe used in Heat Pipe Heat Exchanger


Heat Pipe

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HVAC applications

Operation of HPHE during summer and winter

Heat pipe based system for hot and humid climate Indirect evaporative cooling systems with HPHE

* Ventilation * Combination with Direct Evaporative cooler * Coupled with standard Air Conditioning

IIT Delhi

74IIT Delhi

HPHE Operation during summer and winter


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Summer time, the HPHE pre-cools the hot supply air stream before it enters the cooling coil. Thus reducing the size of the cooling coil as compared to what would have been without using HPHE. This system helps in reducing temperature and increases RH. Evaporative cooler could also be used if required.

Winter time, the HPHE preheats the cold supply air stream before it enters the heating coil. Thus reducing the size of the heating coil.

“For both seasons HPHE achieved savings in terms of electricity bills. This kind of HPHE basically recovers heat and helps in reducing the cost of equipment by downsizing the system requirement.”

IIT Delhi

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Benefits

* No external energy required* No modification in ducts required

Energy savings

* Heating Equipment savings* Cooling equipment savings* Heating operating savings* Cooling operating savings* Indirect Evaporative cooling savings

Summer and Winter operating benefits and energy savings

IIT Delhi

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Indian Context Dehumidifier is good in hot and humid climate South India is the region where average relative humidity

(70-90%) And average temperature (> 30oC) Relative humidity control is necessary

Heat pipe based dehumidifier for A/C application:Hot & Humid climateHumidity control for material processing, space conditioning of habitable buildings, and industrial drying consumes significant quantities of energy, predominantly electrical energy. Cost of energy is heavy so it is always favorable to recover energy.

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Air Conditioning processes for controlling Humidity

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Schematic Diagram And Psychrometrics

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Heat pipe based dehumidifier for air-conditioning application:A Novel Design

Heat pipe based dehumidifier employed heat pipe around the cooling coil. This Heat pipe is applied to Air Conditioning process. Heat pipe is fitted around an air conditioning cooling coil, one end is placed in front of the coil and other is placed after the coil. Evaporator section which pre-cools the incoming warm and moist air, this pre-cooled air passes over the cooling coil, temperature and moisture is reduced and condenser portion of heat pipe, which lies in the downstream side, releases the same amount of heat which is extracted from the upstream side of air thus reheating is done in a novel way and leads to saving in high grade energy. Coming slide shows the basic design of system and its principle on psychrometric chart.

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(Evaporator)

Precool

(Condenser)

Reheat

AC coil

1 2 3 4Dry and dehumidified air

Hot &Humid air

Principle of Heat pipe based Dehumidifier Air conditioner

12

3 4

Humi d i t y

Reheating

Pre cooling

Dry BulbTemperature

Psychrometrics of Heat pipe based Dehumidifier

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Indirect evaporative cooling systems with HPHEThis system is the latest development in the use of HPHE. It not only slashed the power consumption but also reduces the mechanical A/C equipment VentilationNeed of reduction of temperature rather than air conditioning is obtained using HPHE Combination with Direct Evaporative coolerIndirect evaporative cooler is used with direct evaporative cooler to cool the space and add moisture where average humidity is low Coupled with standard Air ConditioningMakeup air is essential to meet the biological conditions for the required space. HPHE recovers energy from the return air & pre cools the fresh air. Thus reducing the sensible heat of the fresh air enables design of more economically

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HPHE with Indirect Evaporative Cooling

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Energy saving using Heat pipe (HP) based system for A/C

Air conditioning has been energy exhaustive industry. For comfort, temperature as well as humidity level must be maintained. Various studies reported energy savings using HPHE

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Conclusions

For building air conditioning option new technology are fastly coming up . These are addressing the need of less energy & more comfort

Environmental concerns raised by VCRS are properly addressed by solar options using VAR and desiccant based cooling system

Hybrid systems are energy efficient for air conditioning

Heat pipe technology a new viable option of energy conservation. HVAC industry will be reaping benefit from the passive heat pipe technology.

Retrofitting of building is desirable for energy conservation point of view.

IIT Delhi

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Large hydro 58.23%

Biomass heat 17.08 %

Geothermal elec 0.72 %

Small hydro 5.12 %

Wind power 4.58 %

Biomass elec 3.42 %

Photovoltaic 0.42 %

Solar heat 6.83 %

Geothermal heat 2.17 %

Bioetharnol fuel 0.16 %

Biodiesel fuel 1.21 %

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NEW AND RENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY-POTENTIAL AND CUMULATIVE ACHIEVEMENT (AS ON 31.12.2004)

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Renewable Energy Monitor

Sources Units Potential Installation

Wind Power MW 45,000 1,870

Small Hydro Power MW 15,000 1,519.28

Biomass Power MW 19,500 537.17

Urban & Industrial Waste

MW 1700 25.75

Solar PV MW/ sq km 20

Solar Water Heating Mn. sq m 140 0.70

Biogas Plants Mn. 12 3.440

Improved Cookstoves (Chulhas)

Mn. 120 35.20

Source: MNES

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