some pieces for the puzzle of physical activity adherence: insights from exercise psychology...

Some Pieces for the Puzzle of Physical Some Pieces for the Puzzle of Physical Activity Adherence: Activity Adherence:

Insights from Exercise Psychology ResearchInsights from Exercise Psychology Research

Bert Carron & Craig HallBert Carron & Craig HallThe University of Western OntarioThe University of Western Ontario

London. CANADALondon. CANADA

““While the individual … is an insoluble While the individual … is an insoluble puzzle, in the aggregate [he/she] becomes a puzzle, in the aggregate [he/she] becomes a mathematical certainty. You can, for mathematical certainty. You can, for example, never foretell what any [one example, never foretell what any [one individual] will do, but you can say with individual] will do, but you can say with precision what an average number will be up precision what an average number will be up to. Individuals vary, but percentages remain to. Individuals vary, but percentages remain constant.”constant.”

The Reflections of Sherlock HolmesThe Reflections of Sherlock Holmes

Doyle, Sir Arthur Conan (1890). Doyle, Sir Arthur Conan (1890). The sign of The sign of four. four. London, Wordsorth (p. 98).London, Wordsorth (p. 98).

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OutlineOutline

1.1.General IntroductionGeneral Introduction2.2.Presentation of Research and Research-Based Presentation of Research and Research-Based GeneralizationsGeneralizations3.3.Work Shop to Discuss Ways to Use the Research-Work Shop to Discuss Ways to Use the Research-Based GeneralizationBased Generalization4.4.Repeat 2 and 3, three timesRepeat 2 and 3, three times

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Outline (cont.)Outline (cont.)The Four Areas HighlightedThe Four Areas Highlighted

The Issue of Personal The Issue of Personal PreferencesPreferences for Specific for Specific Exercise ContextsExercise ContextsThe Issue of What Exercise Context is Superior The Issue of What Exercise Context is Superior for for AdherenceAdherenceThe Issue of The Issue of Fitness Leader Fitness Leader SupportSupportThe Issue of The Issue of Class SizeClass Size

Section 1.

General Introduction Approximately 51% of Canadian adults are

inactive(Canadian Fitness & Lifestyle Research Institute, 2004)

At least 60% of the global population fails to achieve the minimum recommendation of daily physical activity

(World Health Organization , 2006)

20-50% withdrawal rate within the first 6 months of an exercise program

(Dishman, 1988; Oldridge, 1984; Ward & Morgan, 1984)

Increasing Physical Activity Behaviours?

Researchers have sought to identify factors associated with physical activity behavior

(Biddle, 1995; Manley, 1996; USDHHS, 1990)

Some researchers have focused on the context in which exercise and physical activity occur

No quick fixes, no simple solutions

Section 2.

The Issue of Personal Preferences

The most common contexts for physical activity are group-based or individually-based

Iverson, Fielding, Crow, & Christenson (1985)

What do people most prefer??What do people most prefer??

Beauchamp, Carron, McCutcheon, Beauchamp, Carron, McCutcheon, & Harper (2007) & Harper (2007)

Surveyed individuals in their 30s (n = 124), 40s (n =

222), 50s (n = 364), 60s (n = 185), and 70+ (n = 52) on their preference for exercising

a) aloneb) in groups composed mostly of people in their 20s & 30sc) in groups composted mostly of people in their 40s & 50sd) in groups composed mostly of people in their 60s & 70+

Beauchamp, et al. (cont.)

At every age, respondents showed a stronger preference to exercise in groups versus alone At every age, respondents preferred to exercise in groups with similarly aged individuals At every age, respondents showed the least preference for the most distal age category

Found:

GeneralizationsGeneralizations

People (generally) prefer to exercise with People (generally) prefer to exercise with others (in groups) rather than aloneothers (in groups) rather than alone

People (generally) prefer to exercise with People (generally) prefer to exercise with others similar in ageothers similar in age

““Birds of a feather prefer to be in flocks Birds of a feather prefer to be in flocks with similarly aged others”with similarly aged others”

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Work ShopWork Shop

How Can You Capitalize on the Issue How Can You Capitalize on the Issue of Preferences? of Preferences?

Better Exercise Better Exercise SituationsSituations

Subgroup DiscussionsSubgroup Discussions

In subgroups, discuss a)how you have been able to capitalize on the generalizations about preferences

ORb) How you can capitalize on the generalizations about preferences

Summarize the products of your subgroup discussion to share with the whole group

Section 3.

The Issue of Context & Exercise Adherence

With those animals which were With those animals which were benefited by living in close benefited by living in close association, the individuals which association, the individuals which took the greatest pleasure in society took the greatest pleasure in society would best escape various dangers would best escape various dangers while those that cared least for their while those that cared least for their comrades and lived solitary, would comrades and lived solitary, would perish in greater numbers. perish in greater numbers.

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The Evolutionary Psychology PerspectiveThe Evolutionary Psychology Perspective

Group involvement is a fundamental factor in Group involvement is a fundamental factor in successful human evolutionsuccessful human evolution Humankind developed a wide range of Humankind developed a wide range of psychological adaptations to deal with challenges psychological adaptations to deal with challenges of group livingof group living

Van Vugt, M. & Schaller, M. (2008). Evolutionary approaches to group Van Vugt, M. & Schaller, M. (2008). Evolutionary approaches to group dynamics: An introduction. dynamics: An introduction. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research & Practice, Group Dynamics: Theory, Research & Practice, 1212, 1-6., 1-6.

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The Baumeister & LearyThe Baumeister & Leary Perspective Perspective

Baumeister, R., & Leary, M. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for Baumeister, R., & Leary, M. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Psychological Bulletin, 117Bulletin, 117, 497-529., 497-529.

““The need to form and maintain … interpersonal The need to form and maintain … interpersonal relationships is innately prepared … [and] has an relationships is innately prepared … [and] has an evolutionary basis” (p. 499)evolutionary basis” (p. 499)

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1.1. Present in wide variety of situationsPresent in wide variety of situations

2.2. Have affective consequencesHave affective consequences

3.3. Influence cognitive processingInfluence cognitive processing

4.4. Lead to adverse health effects if unsatisfiedLead to adverse health effects if unsatisfied

5.5. Produce goal-directed behavior to satisfy itProduce goal-directed behavior to satisfy it

6.6. Is universal (present in all people)Is universal (present in all people)

7.7. Affects broad variety of behaviorsAffects broad variety of behaviors

Criteria for an Innate ConditionCriteria for an Innate Condition

Baumeister, R., & Leary, M. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for Baumeister, R., & Leary, M. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Psychological Bulletin, 117Bulletin, 117, 497-529., 497-529.

Undertook a meta-analysis to Undertook a meta-analysis to compare the relative merits of 4 contexts typically employed in the physical activity intervention literature:

Burke, Carron, Eys, Ntoumanis, & Burke, Carron, Eys, Ntoumanis, & Estabrooks (2006)Estabrooks (2006)

““Home-basedHome-basedprograms”programs”

““Group-basedGroup-basedprograms”programs”

Home-basedHome-basedContactContact

Home-basedHome-basedIsolationIsolation

““True” True” GroupsGroups

StandardStandardClassesClasses

18 studies containing 1,650 participants18 studies containing 1,650 participants

Drop-outsDrop-outs

AttendanceAttendance

LatenessLateness

Early departuresEarly departures

Return ratesReturn rates

AdherenceAdherenceMeasuresMeasures

Pool of StudiesStudies & Measures

..2020

.50.50

.80.80

smallsmall

mediummedium

largelarge

Effect Size ValuesEffect Size Values

Cohen, 1969, 1992The Interpretation of Effect Sizes

InterpretationInterpretation

Results

True GroupsTrue Groups

Standard ClassesStandard Classes

ES = .74

Home – IsolationHome – Isolation

ES = .72

Home – ContactHome – Contact

ES = .09

Contexts fall along a continuum of effectiveness:Contexts fall along a continuum of effectiveness:

Carron, Hausenblas, & Mack (1996)Carron, Hausenblas, & Mack (1996)

Meta-analysis of influence of social conditions on Meta-analysis of influence of social conditions on adherence behavior (adherence behavior (n n = 86 studies, 49,948 participants)= 86 studies, 49,948 participants)

Adherence in Physical ActivityAdherence in Physical Activity

With Others vs. AloneWith Others vs. Alone

ComparisonComparison Effect Size (ES)Effect Size (ES)

Socially Cohesive Classes Socially Cohesive Classes vs Standard Classesvs Standard Classes

.32.32

.25.25

Task Cohesive Classes vs Task Cohesive Classes vs Standard ClassesStandard Classes .62.62


People are innately “wired’ to join and People are innately “wired’ to join and maintain groupsmaintain groups

Adherence is vastly superior when exercise Adherence is vastly superior when exercise groups have a strong a strong sense of unity, groups have a strong a strong sense of unity, closeness, community, cohesion closeness, community, cohesion

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WorkshopWorkshop

How Can You Build a Sense of Unity/Cohesion in How Can You Build a Sense of Unity/Cohesion in Your Physical Activity GroupsYour Physical Activity Groups



In subgroups, discuss a)how you have been able to build a sense of unity, cohesiveness in your classes

ORb) What strategies might be used to build a sense of unity, cohesiveness in your classes


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Other Strategies that Have Been Successful in Exercise Psychology Interventions

1.1. Position in the RoomPosition in the RoomEncourage participants to go to the same

geographic location

2. Distinctiveness2. DistinctivenessHave the group come up with something

distinctive; e.g., common t-shirts or laces, a group chant or motto

3. Exercise Partners/Buddies3. Exercise Partners/BuddiesEncourage members to work in small units for

support, instruction, etc.

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Strategies (cont.)

4. Group Goals4. Group GoalsDevelop a collective goal; e.g., jog across Ontario

where 30 minutes of aerobic activity = 5.5 kmPost map to monitor progress

5. Sacrifice Behavior5. Sacrifice BehaviorGet each member to make a sacrifice for the

group; e.g., bringing oranges for after class

6. Group Identity6. Group IdentityHave members establish a group name/nickname

Section 4.

The Issue of Fitness Leader Support

“the exercise leader is the pivot on which the success or failure of a program will depend”

(Oldridge, 1977)

“the exercise leader is the single most important variable [from among the 30 we tested] influencing drop out behavior”

Franklin (1988)

Fitness Leader (cont.)Fitness Leader (cont.)

Heinzelmann & Bagley asked exercise Heinzelmann & Bagley asked exercise participants what were the most important participants what were the most important features of a programfeatures of a program

Factor Factor Percent Percent

Organization & leadershipOrganization & leadership 32%32%

Exercise in generalExercise in general 31%31%

RecreationRecreation 29%29%

SocialSocial 26%26%

• Instructor behavior was manipulated to create Instructor behavior was manipulated to create a socially enriched or a bland environmenta socially enriched or a bland environment• 46 women recruited for participation in a ballet 46 women recruited for participation in a ballet class randomly assigned to one of two groups:class randomly assigned to one of two groups:• Enriched environmentEnriched environment• Bland environmentBland environment• Both groups taught same lesson plan, etc.Both groups taught same lesson plan, etc.

Fitness Leader (cont.)

Turner, Rejeski, & Brawley (1997)Turner, Rejeski, & Brawley (1997)

Provided specific Provided specific feedbackfeedback

e.g., “your plies is e.g., “your plies is excellent”excellent”

In the Enriched Environment … In the Enriched Environment … the Instructorthe Instructor

Gave frequent individual Gave frequent individual attentionattention

Provided specific Provided specific reinforcementreinforcement

e.g. “great turn Lisa”e.g. “great turn Lisa”

Focused on the positiveFocused on the positive

during instruction e.g., “make during instruction e.g., “make sure you point your feet sure you point your feet Mary”Mary”

Used participants’ Used participants’ namesnames

Engaged in general Engaged in general communication before, communication before, during and after class, e.g., during and after class, e.g., “how’s the ball and chain “how’s the ball and chain Hazel?”Hazel?”

In the Bland Environment … In the Bland Environment … the Instructorthe Instructor

No direct praise or No direct praise or attention to any attention to any individualindividual

Ignored accomplishmentsIgnored accomplishments

Focused on the negativeFocused on the negative

during instruction e.g., during instruction e.g., “don’t bend your knees”“don’t bend your knees”

Gave vague feedback, Gave vague feedback, e.g., “that was fine”e.g., “that was fine”

Avoided non-class related Avoided non-class related conversationsconversations

Found: participants in the enriched environment … Found: participants in the enriched environment …

1. Rated instructor as more enjoyable1. Rated instructor as more enjoyable2. Had greater self efficacy beliefs2. Had greater self efficacy beliefs3. Scored higher on ratings of energy3. Scored higher on ratings of energy4. Scored higher on ratings of enthusiasm4. Scored higher on ratings of enthusiasm5. Scored lower on ratings of tiredness 5. Scored lower on ratings of tiredness 6. Scored higher on feelings of tranquility6. Scored higher on feelings of tranquility

ResultsResults


Fitness leaders are fundamental to adherenceFitness leaders are fundamental to adherence

Fitness leaders who work toward an enriched Fitness leaders who work toward an enriched (i.e., positive, personable, involved) class setting (i.e., positive, personable, involved) class setting are more effective are more effective

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WorkshopWorkshop

How Do You Enrich Your Class How Do You Enrich Your Class Environment?Environment?



In subgroups, discuss a)how you have been able to provide an enriched class environment

ORb) What strategies might be used to build an enriched class environment


Section 5.

The Issue of Class Size

Class size is associated with perceptions of instructor effectiveness.

(Prossin & Carron, 1989)

Class size is associated with group cohesiveness

(Carron & Spink 1990)

Class size is associated with individual adherence.

(Carron, Brawley, & Widmeyer , 1990)

Small (>20) Large (< 40) Small (>20) Large (< 40)

Class SizeClass Size

Perceptions of Instructor Effectiveness

Positive

Negative

Perceptions of Instructor EffectivenessPerceptions of Instructor Effectiveness



Class Cohesion

High

Low

Class CohesionClass Cohesion



Adherence

High

Low

AdherenceAdherence

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WorkshopWorkshop

How Can you Try to Manage Class Size?How Can you Try to Manage Class Size?



In subgroups, discuss how you might capitalize on the principle that less participants is better?


A Concluding ObservationA Concluding Observation

We need to find ways to make exercise a little more enjoyable.

Yes. Yes. Of Yes. Yes. Of course. But course. But can you give can you give us something us something to make us to make us healthier?? healthier??

Final Questions???Final Questions???

some pieces for the puzzle of physical activity adherence: insights from exercise psychology...

Documents

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issue of preferences

issue of class size

generalizations people

physical activity behaviours

researchbased generalizations

issue of personal preferences

specific exercise contexts