SPECIAL ISSUE - 4

Biology International The News Magazine of the International Union of Biological Sciences (IUBS)

TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE AND MANAGEMENT OF MARINE COASTAL SYSTEMS by Dr. Robert E. JOHANNES

Professor Pierre LASSERRE Professor Scott W. NIXON Professor Jean PLlYA Professor Kenneth RUDDLE m

BIOLOGY INTERNATIONAL

The News Magazine of the International Union of Biological Sciences (1 U BS)

Editorial Board Professor E.S. AYENSU, Director, Office of Biological Conservation, Smithsonian Institution,

Washington, DC 20560, U.S.A.

Professor P. FASELLA, Director General, Scientific Research and Development, General Direc- tion 12, European Economic Community, Square 2, Méjus, Brussels, Belgium.

Professor M.S. GHILAROV. lnstitute of Evolutionary Morphology and Ecology of Animals 33 Leninsky Prospekt, Moscow 117071, U.S.S.R.

Professor E. DE ROBERTIS, Institut0 de Biologia Cellular, Facultad de Medicina, Paraguay 2155, 1121 Buenos Aires, Argentina. (Chairman).

Professor O. SOLBRIG, Gray Herbarium, Harvard University, 22 Divinity Avenue, Cam- bridge MA 02138, U.S.A.

Editor

Dr. T. YOUNES, IUBS Secretariat, 51, Boulevard de Montmorency, 75016 Paris, France.

In addition to the semi-annual issues of Biology International, special issues have been published in 1983. lncluding the present issue "Traditional Knowledge and Management of Marine Coastal Systems" by Professor P. Lasserre and Dr. K. Ruddle, "Desertification in Africa" by Professor E.S. Ayensu (No-11, "A Decade of the Tropics" by Professors Otto Solbrig and Franck B. Golley (No-2), and "Environmental Education through Biology" by Professor Péter Kelly (No-31, will also be available. Free copies for National and Scientific Members of the Union are available from the IUBS Secretariat in Paris. A postal charge of one US dollar ( S 1.00) is asked per issue. The subscription fee for individuals is twenty US dollars ( S 20.00).

Published with the financial support of "The Man and Biosphere" (MAB) Program- me of Unesco.

@ 1983 lnternational Union of Biological Sciences.

TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE AND MANAGEMENT

OF MARINE COASTAL SYSTEMS

Report o f the A d Hoc Steering Group Organised by the International Association for Biological Oceanography, IABO/IUBS

in CO-operation w i th the Unesco Division o f Marine Sciences

July 5-8, 1983 UNESCO Headquarters, Paris, France

Dr. Robert E. Johannes Principal Research Scien t is t

CSIRO, Division o f Fisheries Research Marmion, Western Australia

Professor Pierre Lasserre Station Marine de Roscoff CNRS & Université de Paris VI 29211 Roscoff, France

Professor Scott W. Nixon Graduate School o f Oceanography University o f Rhode Island Kingston, R.I. 02881, U.S.A.

Professor Jean Pl iya Université Nationale du Bénin Faculté des Lettres, Ar ts e t Sciences Humaines, B.P. 1000 Cotonou, Popular Republic o f Benin

Dr. Kenneth Ruddle National Museum o f Ethnology Sensi Expo Park Suita Osaka 565, Japan

SPECIAL ISSUE - 4

BIOLOGY INTERNATIONAL

The International Union o f Biological Sciences News Magazine

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction

General Considerations

The Role o f Modern Ecology

The Value o f Tradi t ional Knowledge

The Importance o f Tradi t ional Management Pract ices

Examples o f Tradi t ional Resource Systems

F ~ J t i i re Developrnents: A n IABO/IlJRS and IJNESCO P roject on the Tradit ional Knowledge and Management o f Coastal Systerns.

Recommendations

References C i ted

L i s t o f Part ic ipants 18

INTRODUCTION

I t is impossible not to be striick by t h e extraordinary similari ty of t h e tradit ional methods of management and conservation of coas ta l sys tems t h a t have been devised by peoples of very di f ferent origins and cul tures (Lasserre, 1979). The yields obtained frorn coral r ee f s and lagoon fisheries in Oceania, tambaks in Indonesia, ocadjas in West Africa, vallicoltura in t h e Venice region, fish-crawls on the Mediterranean and At lant ic coasts , and small-scale tradit ional f isheries al1 over t h e world, have beeri close t o t h e optimum during centuries. Al1 this should not be taken t o meari tha t tradit ional f isheries enjoyed a pe r fec t relationship with n a t i ~ r e and tliat al1 their ac t ions were governed by environmental wisdom and restraint . F o r example, in the Pac i f i c islands, erivironmental des t ruct ive pract ices coexisted, as in rnost societ ies, with e f fo r t s to conserve natiiral resources (Johannes, 1978).

Nowadays, many tradit ional f isheries appear to be sufferitig heavy over- exploitation, whereas many others a r e clearly under-utilized. A scientif ic reappraisal of traditiorial uses and rnis~ises of coas ta l zone resource systerns is, therefore, now urgent. Moreover, regional-wide act iv i t ies a r e desirable in order to fociis a t t en t ion on t h e value of gathering and recording of available inforrnation. This Repor t a t t e m p t s t a exernplified pa r t of such a n analysis.

Following a recommendstion of t h e Unesco-SCOR Corisiiltative C o m m i t t e e on the Coasta l Systems, in i t s Pa r i s meeting of January 1982, Unesco, through i t s Divisiari of Marine Sciences, requested the Pres ident of t h e International Association for Biological Oceariography !IABO) t o study the objectives and organizst ion of an ad hoc Steer ing Group t o advise on t h e setting-up of a P ro jec t on the development of syntliesis of knowledge relat ing t o the tradit ional rnariagement and conservation of resource sys tems in t h e coas ta l zone. As a consequence, 1.450, in cooperation with the IUBS Secre ta r i a t and Unesco, organized the f i rs t meeting of such a s teer ing Cornmit tee a t Unesco Headquarters, Paris , during the period 5-8 July, 1983. Specialists, highly qualified in the fields of biology and ecology, f isheries and anthropology of coas ta l and island erivironrnents were invited to serve in the IABO/Unesco ad

Steering ~ r o u ~ ( i ) , and a t t ended t h e Par is meeting in t h e presence a representa t ives tif IlJBS and Unesco (see list of par t ic ipants on page 18). The t e r m s of reference of t h e -- ad hoc Steer ing Groiip were :

1. To develop a s t r a tegy fo r the compilation and consolidation of existing d a t a (published, unpuhlished and oral knowledge) ;

2. To propose an Agenda of workshops and serninars in d i f ferent reyions of t h e world ; these meetings will examine various aspec t s of tradit ional pract ices par t icular t o a region ;

3. To propose rneans of gathering such inforrnation into the curricula of the ins t i tu tes of higher learning ; and

4. To prepare t h e manuscript of an analytical synthesis on the topic, to be published a s a book. The chap te r s of t h e book will consist of comprehensive reviews on se lec ted case studies and will se rve a s a r e fe rence book.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (i) R.E. Johannes, P. Lasserre, S.E. Nixon, J. Pliya, K. Ruddle

The meet ing was opened w i t h a welcoming address by Dr. Marc Steyaert on behalf o f Unesco, Dr. Tala1 Younes on behalf o f IUBS/ICSU and by Professor P ie r re Lasserre, President o f IABO. Professor Lasserre acted as Chairman o f the Steering Group, the Rapporteur was Dr. Kenneth Ruddle. The meet ing was divided in to four one-day panel sessions dealing w i t h the terms o f reference l isted above. A half-day session was devoted t o rev iew the mater ia l available in specialised l ibrar ies in the world. Mate r ia l available a t the Cent ra l L i b ra r y and a t the Laboratoire d'lchtyologie Générale e t Appliquée of the Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, were reviewed under the guidance o f Mrs. Boudou and Ms. Hustache, Conservateurs a t the Centra l Library, and o f Professor Hureau. The comments and informations on tradi t ional fisheries given by Professor Théodore Monod were highly appreciated by the Steering Group. The members o f the IABO/Unesco ad hoc Steering Group al1 acknowledge equal contributions t o the present Report.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

Marine science and technology has become an important area for assistance and cooperation, because o f the new prominence marine resources have received, as a resul t o f developments in the L a w of the Sea negotiations and due t o the increasing knowledge of the global dynamics of the ocean frontiers.

Conf l ic ts and incompat ib i l i ty among uses o f coastal zone resources are increasingly apparent as the nations, notably o f the humid t rop ica l world, become more economically advanced. Siich incornpatibi l i t ies are the consequence o f increasing population pressure in coastal areas and long- established dependence on coastal zones fo r l iv ing space, production o f food and other commoditias, trade, and f o r waste disposal. More recent additions to these are ext ract ion o f non-renewable natura l resources, locations for heavy industry and recreation. The l a t t e r are clear ly visible in Southeast Asia where approximately 75% o f the population inhabits densely populated and intensively used coastal areas. To meet the demands of the population, which is increasing a t an average of 2.7% per year, most Southeast Asian nations are t ry ing to increase agr icul tural and industr ia l production in the i r coastal zones. Marine coastal waters are highly prodi ict ive compared t o mar i t ime areas as a whole, and support resources providing the basis for most o f the world's fisheries.

This is par t icu lar ly t rue o f cont inental shelf and many shallow inshore waters where there i s rapid replenishment o f plant nutrients, abundant sunlight and al1 impor tant mingl ing o f marine waters w i t h f e r t i l e water emerging f r om rivers. Cornpared w i t h other oceanic areas, coastal waters are disproportionately productive. Disregarding problems o f area definit ion, they are estimated t o y ie ld approximately 80% o f the world's t o ta l f ish catch. The to ta l volume o f f ish taken f r om the world's coastal waters is estimated to be more than (~S)$5,000 mil l ion/yr, and the annual value o f aquatic plants harvested in coastal waters is thought t o be about (US)$750 million. Coastal waters play an impor tant ro le i n maintaining fisheries production, beyond simply providing a

locat ion fo r fishing. Many species o f f ish and crustaceans no t normal ly caught in coastal waters come close inshore a t cer ta in stages o f the i r l i f e cycle. Mangrove swamps, sal t marshes and inshore waters provide habi tats fo r many species commercial ly exploited i n deeper waters a t la te r stages in the i r growth. Further, diadromous and anadromous species pass through coastal waters t o and f r o m freshwater environments.

Analysis o f the environmental context o f a resource systern should be accomplished by combining sc ient i f ic methods w i t h the perception and cognit ive framework o f the loca l or llclient populationI1. This dual approach w i l l y ie ld a more usefnl, pragmatic and balanced analysis o f development al ternat ives and constraints as perceived by both planner and loca l population, and i s l ike ly t o provide a mechanism whereby t rad i t ional knowledge can have a major ro le in development planning.

THE ROLE OF MODERN ECOLOGY

û n e o f the major accoinplishments o f the ecological research over the past 40 years has been an increasing awareness o f the complexi ty and subtlety o f natural ecosystems. A n impor tant par t o f this complexi ty lies in the feedback loops o f energy, nutr ients and other mater ia ls tha t have evolved as pa r t o f v i r tua l ly al1 successfill ecosystems (Kremer cK Nixon, 1978). Al though the major f lows o f energy through trophic levels have continued t o receive attention, the smaller f lows tha t regulate the behaviour o f systems, give them stab i l i ty and produce non-linear responses tha t o f ten make it d i f f i cu l t t o pred ic t the consequences o f change or intervent ion in a system, have been increasingly described and quant i f ied (Ruddle & Rondinelli, 1983). The selection o f feedback loops as a character ist ic feature o f many enduring ecosystems may also have impor tant implications fo r the design and management o f resource sytems.

It is no accident that there has been a recent resuryence i n the awareness and appreciation o f the t rad i t ional resource systems used by past generations or by less technologically advanced contemporary societies. Those techniques that have survived were designed empirical ly, of tenly over cerituries, and it may be supposed tha t an impor tant element in the i r success was the inclusion o f feedback loops by which a system could be developed and maintained to provide a yield fo r human use. A t tempts t o replace such tradi t ional resource systems w i t h those based on higher technology and large fossil fue l f lows o f ten cause feedback loops to be lost, result ing in resource exploi tat ion ra ther than resource management. Such a l inear arrangement may produce high yields in the short run, bu t they are neither stable nor enduring. As yields decline, one common human response i s t o develop regulated systerns which a t tempt to keep the f lows o f the resource system smal l enough to permi t i t s support by the natura l system wi thout requiring human investment i n e i thsr i t s running or maintenance. The history o f resource management i n the industrial ized world, par t icu lar ly in the marine environment, emphasises the d i f f i cu l t y o f designing and enforcing regulated systerns, even where yields l im i t s can be estimated.

The modern challenge is, therefore, t o combine the great power o f energy subsidies and technology w i t h the approach and insight o f t radi t ional

management to produce enduring and sustainable resource systems. An impor tant aspect o f this challenge is tha t we cannot rely, as in the past, on ernpir ical methods t o design new higher energy resource systems. The urgent need for food precludes t r i a l and error, and the potent ia l serious conseqiiences o f errors i s inuch greater than w i t h low technology.

Y e t it should no t be overlooked t ha t major operational and epistemological constraints inh ib i t the ident i f icat ion o f cornponents, structures and functions o f natura l ecosystems. U i f f i c i ~ l t i e s are magnif ied when at tempts are made t o quant i fy resource systems. The f low o f energy is a pr incipal organizing character ist ic o f natura l ecosystems and one o f which permits a dist inct ion o f subsistence syste:ns. Moreover, energy f low is theoret ical ly amenable to f a i r l y precise measurements, bu t because o f both the i rnpract ical i t ies o f instrumentat ion and the overwhelrning cornplexity o f most ecosystems, only a few "energy paths" can be rneasured in human societies and between them and the biological and physical environrnent.

F r o m a srnall nucleiis o f measilred and observed relationships supplemented by estimates t o assigii empi r ica l values to those which are missing, atternpts are made to describe and explain systemic relationships. Often, when the assumptions underlying the estimates are made exp l i c i t they are sometirnes extsnsively f lawed b y c u l t i ~ r a l biases. A simple and ye t profound problem arises f r om this use o f western models, taxonomies, and methods t o measure energy f lows i n non-western human ecosystems, researchers must f i l1 i n data gaps f r om their own cognit ive appraisal o f what constitutes the "whole system". Often, the "system" appears t o be simply an association o f free- functioning elements over which an irivestigator has imposed a un i fy ing matrix. Thus the tradi t ional knowledge handed down through the generations o f operators o f resource system assumes a great role in modern management designs.

THE VALLJE OF TRADITIONAL KNOWLEOGE

Only pa r t o f what is known about the nature, exploi tat ion and sound management o f renewable natura l resources in the coastal zone can be found in libraries. On the other hand the users o f such resources are a t least an impor tant secoridary - and for some parts o f the developing world a pr imary - source o f information. It has been realised by scientists only re la t ive ly recent ly tha t such local, unrecorded and no t uncommonly encyclopedic t rad i t ional knowledge, handed down across the generations, is o f ten o f great value in coastal zone management and i n the design o f resource systems.

There are, fo r exarnple, fa r more f ish species in the tropics than occur in higher latitudes, and managing ecosystems in which they are imbedded require prodigious amounts o f knowledge about the i r natural history. Interviewing srnall-scale f ishermen and other coastal resource users has proven a valuable shortcut to the acquisit ion o f some aspects o f such knowledge. However, th is is no t to Say t ha t t rad i t ional wisdom on l i v ing aquatic resource ut i l izat ion is necessarily usefil1 t o modern resource managers as i t stands, ra ther it must be ver i f ied and blended w i t h sophisticated sc ient i f ic analysis, of, fo r example, genetics, population dynamics, metabolism and physiological - ecology,

hydrography and the l i ke before it can be pu t t o opt imum use. And this is no small undertaking. The value o f such in format ion can be exempl i f ied by the t rad i t ional knowledge o f some South Pac i f i c islanders who are an exceptionally sich source o f in format ion on the biological character ist ics o f the cora l reef and lagoon resources tha t fo r centuries have supplied the great bulk o f their animal protein.

A n example o f the k ind o f natura l h istory in format ion known t o these f ishermen for centuries, but unknown t o western-trained marine biologists un t i l re la t ive ly recently, concerns the t im ing and locat ion o f spawning o f many species o f ree f food fishes. Such species f o rm large agyregations a t precisely the same locations during the same months and on the same predictable phases o f the moon, f o r the purpose o f spawning (Johannes, 1977). Knowing the t im ing and locations of such aggregations can great ly assist fisheries biologists i n population studies, since a t other t imes individuals o f these species are so widely dispersed as not t o be amenable t o population studies. Further, because o f the i r predictable locations in t i m e and space, together w i t h the i r unusual doc i l i ty during spawning, ree f fishes are especially vulnerable to over- harvesting during the i r spawning aggregations. B u t these same characterist ics also render the exploi tat ion o f the species easier t o cont ro l through closure o f the f ishery a t the appropriate t imes and places, once the fisheries manager is fami l ia r w i t h them (Johannes, 1978). Other in format ion possessed by islanders tha t can be o f great value t o fisheries scientists concern such subjects as f ish and lobster migrations, loca l c i m e n t patterns and the impact o f pol lut ion and other environmental changes on coastal resources.

THE IMPORTANCE OF TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

Tradi t ional knowledge o f the marine environment, as applied in t rad i t ional resource management techniques, is another valuable source o f in format ion f o r modern fisheries managers, as such techniques and customs have o f ten stood the test o f t ime over centuries. These include measures to manipulate and modi fy coastal ecosystems ; fo r example, the various forms o f t rad i t ional aquacult i ire used i n the tropics (e.g., the acadjas of West Af r ica, the tambaks o f Southeast Asia) as we l l as in the temperate zone (e.g., t rad i t ional cu l ture of coastal f ish and shellf ish in Europe). Also included are various measures t o p ro tec t w i ld f ish populations f r o m over-exploitation.

Again, the South Pac i f i c islands can be used to i l lus t ra te the application o f t rad i t ional knowledge t o fisheries management. The sea's produce is dependable around t rop ica l Pac i f i c islands, bu t o f ten clear ly l im i ted because product ive shallow, inshore waters are frequent ly rest r ic ted to a narrow encirc l ing band o f r ee f and lagoon. Possessing a f ishery which was readily perceived as being l imited, islanders therefore viewed marine resources i r i a way fundamentally d i f fe ren t f r o m cont inental peoples who possessed abundant ter rest r ia l sources o f animal prote in and who had access t o wide cont inental shelves.

In the industrialised western civil isations, however, the great çea fisheries were largely perceived o f as being inexhaiistible, un t i l some 90 years ago, when a t t i t i ~ d e s began to change and marine fisheries conservation measures

were gradually introduced, par t icu lar ly i n Europe. In contrast, Pac i f i c islanders had known fo r centuries tha t their marine resources could be easily depleted and so had devised a var iety o f rneastires t o guard against this eventuality, including TURFs ( te r r i to r ia l use r ights i n fisheries), closed areas or seasons, and size restrictions, among other devices (Johannes, 1978). One widespread t rad i t ional measure, TURFs, t ha t can be o f singiilar valiie as a fisheries conservation device has, nevertheless, been overlooked by modern fisheries managers u n t i l recent ly (Christy, 1982).

The foregoing should no t be taken to imply t ha t the Pac i f i c islanders enjoyed an idy l l ic relationship w i t h nature and that al1 the i r resource management actions were governed by eravironmental wisdorn and restraint. Environrnental ly destructive pract ices CO-existed, as they do in most societies, w i t h e f fo r ts t o conserve marine resources. B u t it is important to realise that the existence o f the former does no t diministi the signif icance o f the lat ter. Today there i s a growing awareness in Oceania that island govern:nerits should rnake greater e f fo r ts t o understand, record and support the best o f those t rad i t ional management custorns, and to ta i lor environmental legislation where feasible t o harmonize w i t h loca l fishiny customs tha t have stood the test o f time. Governrnents o f other coastal nations would do wel l t o repl icate this and t o p r o f i t f rorn the o f ten sophisticated knowledge used t o manage and sustain t radi t ional resource systerns in the i r own countries.

EXAMPLES OF TRADITIONAL RESOURCE SYSTEMS IN THE COASTAL ZONE

l t is highly s igni f icant tha t s imi lar t rad i t ional methods o f management and conservation o f coastal systerns have been devised by peoples l iv ing under very d i f ferent environmental conditions and corning frorn widely diversgent c i i l t i i ra l backgrounds. The yields obtained f r om the reef and lagoon fisheries i n Oceania, tambaks i n Indonesia, acadjas o f West Afr ica, va l l ico l tura in the Adriat ic, among numerous other examples, have been close t o opt imum over centuries, w i t h l i t t l e or no evidence o f over-exploitation.

Al though many such t rad i t ional ernpir ical models are capable o f fur ther ref inement and irnprovernent, they can also serve fo r new low-cost investment schemes in both tropical and ternperate lands. But, w i thout exception, a great deal more must be learned about such tirne-honoured systems before any headlong rush is made in to investment.

Some Traditional Uses of coastal Lagoons around the Mediterranean Basin.

F r o m the twe l f t h century onwards, the lagoons o f the Adr ia t i c coast were developed by the Venetians. Their conversion in to giant f ish nurseries began in the f i f teen th and sixteenth centuries, and the f i r s t 'valli ' were bu i l t i n the Comacchio lagoons on the Adr ia t i c shoreline. The 'valli1 o f the Adr ia t i c are si tuated where the tides rise more than 1 metre. Communications w i t h the adjoining marine environment is designed such tha t young f ish enter the pools bu t cannot get out. A 'fossa circondarial surrounds the shallow parts, and i n this 2 met re deep Channel, f ish shelter f rorn the surnmer heat or the sever i ty o f winter. Since the natural migrat ion o f the f ish in to the 'valli ' is insuf f ic ient

for restocking purposes, they a r e regularly replenished with juveniles f rom t h e s e a and f rom adjacent lagoons which have not been set up a s 'valli'. The fish, which include grey mullet, s e a bream, sea bass, ee l s and flatfish, a r e caught in a 'lavoriero' which is a kind of fish-crawl or labyrinthine dam located in t h e communicating channels between t h e lagoon and t h e s e a and in which t h e only openings a r e c a t c h chambers.

Up t o the end of t h e nineteenth century, more than 4,000 hec ta res of 'valli' had been established in t h e lagoons of t h e Adria t ic seaboard and near t h e mouth of the P o and Adige. Present-day instal lat ions for an a r e a of 300 t o 500 hec ta res consist of a complex network of dykes, g a t e s and pumps which adjust t h e salinity r a t e and oxygen content of the w a t e r and control t h e inflow of young fish.

A t more or less the s a m e t ime t h a t 'vallicoltura' was being developed in the I tal ian lagoons, t h e f i r s t 'cherfia' (fixed fishing grounds enclosed by paml-front hedges) were being built in the lagoons of t h e Maghreb. I t has been es t ima ted t h a t t h e Kerbenah islands alone had about 1,000 such 'cherfias'. Fish-crawl sys tems a r e of more recen t date. These a r e dammed enclosures with openings equipped with concave basketwork trel l ises which admit young and adul t fish but prevent large fish f rom escaping. These sys tems which a r e similar t o t h e I tal ian 'lavoriero' a r e installed in large number a t t h e mouths of t h e Mediterranean iagoons, part icularly in Tunisia and in t h e lagoons on t h e seaboard of t h e Languedoc and Roussillon in France. Along t h e 'lidos' of t h e Mediterranean and t h e Adriatic, the orientat ion of t h e villages is an indication of t h e dominant sphere of tradit ional ac t iv i ty ; some of them focus on t h e lagoon, o the r f a c e ou t t o t h e sea. The marketing of fish products is s t i l l not highly organized and is primarily concerned with supplying t h e regional and local marke t through a small number of wholesale fish-merchants. Over t h e pas t f ew years, t h e s y t e m s have been renovated and a t t e m p t s made t o introduce industrial-type marketing.

The West African Acadjas.

In West Africa, lagoon fishing is st i l l very traditional, and t h e family s t ruc tu re of t h e small groups living on t h e Coast, t h e pressing demands of eking out a living, and t h e diff icult ies entai led in conserving fish o r agricultural products a r e al1 fac to r s contributing to t h e survival of r a t h e r rudimentary practices. The Baga of Guinea and the Malimba and Batanga in t h e south of t h e United. Republic of Cameroon fish with harpoons f rom dug-out canoes. The Tofinnu or "men of t h e water" founded in t h e eighteenth century, Ganvié, a se t t l ement built on piles in t h e Nokoué lagoon north of t h e present-day por t of Cotonou, in Benin. They have devised highly ingenious fish-farming methods.

T h e technique employed in t h e 'acadja' is a combination of fishing and fish- farming, and consists of immersing heaps of branches in the lagoon and a t t ach ing them t o t h e bottom. Two quali t ies of wood a r e needed for t h e purpose : a hard rot-proof wood fo r the ou te r enclosure and a s o f t wood which decays easily fo r filing t h e space inside. When they a r e f i rs t set in place, t h e acadja a c t both a s a refuge and a trap. The fish g e t into t h e habit of withdrawing into them fo r shel ter f rom predators. They soon s t a r t reproducing in them, and obtain a substantial secondary source of food f rom t h e a lgae and t o t h e decomposing branches inside t h e enclosures. The natura l mortal i ty,

especially o f , young fish, is much lower i n these sanctuary environments than i n open water. Fishing starts i n the acadjas af ter a period ranging f rom four to eight months, and takes place twice a year i n the medium-sized enclosures, which measure some 3,000 square metres, and once a year i n the larger acad jas.

The fishing method is simple : the acadja is surrounded by nets or basket-work frames which allow only the small and very young fish to escape. The branches are then removed f rom the inside, and the fish held back by the outer enclosure are caught w i th nets o f various kinds, harpoons, and so on. Most o f the catch is composed of 'Hemochromis', 'Tilapia', 'Chrysichtys' and mullets. I n 1959, there were more than 35,000 acadjas covering a tota l area o f 433 hectares, or 3 to 4 per cent o f the tota l lagoon surface. Average yields amounted to more than 10 tonnes per hectare per year. I n the experts' view, Dahoman fishermen, using a well-tested ancestral method, managed to secure yields that were close to the optimum without any evidence o f over-fishing. The same would be true today i f recent development schemes in the por t o f Cotonou and the entrances to the Nokoué and Porto Novo lagoons had not caused a swi f t decline i n the overall productivity of the lagoons. Al1 i n all, the number o f acadjas has fallen by half, and production has plummeted by 80 per cent. From 1959 to 1969, i.e. over a ten-year period, output f rom the lagoon complex fe l l f rom 15,000 tonnes to 5,000 tonnes, and this has compelled some o f the fishermen to emigrate to Nigeria. Over the past years, the high value o f this fish farming technique has been rehabilitated and the acadja technique becomes, nowadays, more and more popular and attempts are made to introduce the acadja technique i n other West Afr ican countries (Pliya, 1980).

From salt pans t o fish-farming in brackish water.

Early i n the eighteenth century, Netherlands engineers wi th the support o f the local authorities by a t times in the face of the hosti l i ty o f the populations, embarked on the systematic reclamation of salt marshes throughout Europe. Withe the assistance o f these engineers, the aristocrats who owned the Salt pans on the At lant ic coast o f France, and were fervent adepts of the Jean- Jacques Rousseau's ideas on nature, conceived the idea of converting their salt pans into fish ponds. These fish reservoir schemes flourished al1 through the nineteenth century righy up to the end o f the Second World War, and they s t i l l occupy large areas of marshland on the French At lant ic coast. The breeding- ponds have a characteristic shape : channels or ditches measuring 1,5 to 2 metres i n depth feed large expandses known as 'flats', each of which covers an area ranging f rom 1,000 to 10,000 square metres. These flats, 50 centimetres deep, are separated f rom each other by ridges formed o f the mud or sand removed when the ditches were being dug. Al1 inflows and outflows can be regulated by sluices located a t intervals along these embakments. A t high tide the sluices are manoeuvred i n such a way that a current is created and the fish, both juvenile and adult, are drawn up into the reservoirs. These fish nurseries thrived in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, but they have since gone into decline because of the scarcity of labour and unwarranted loss o f interest i n this type of extensive aquaculture. Current yields f rom these systems, which are s t i l l worked by tradit ional methods, range between 100 and 200 Kilograms of adult fish per hectare per year. Recent scientif ic research points to the possibility o f obtaining yields between 500 and 800 kilograms per hectare per year o f high priced fish, such as sea bass and lemon sole. There is a revivaI o f interest i n f ish reservoirs, which are very similar i n conception t o the I ta l ian vall icoltura and the Indonesian tambaks.

The Indonesian tarnbaks.

In Asia and the East Indies, the del ta systems and their numerous coastal lagoons have been the s i t e of highly sophisticated fish-farming practices, based on ancient empirical knowledge. The creation of these brackish water fish-ponds, known a s tambaks, dates back as fa r as tlie f i f teenth century. The tambaks form a particularly propitious medium for raising Perieid shrirnps, Chanos (milkfish) and yrey rnullets. The functioning and production of t he tambaks depend on sufficient siipplies of sea water, fry and shrirnp larvae. A perirneter trench of 5 t o 10 met res in width and averaging from 60 cent imeters t o 1 me t r e in depth surrounds a centra l platform immersed in water t o a depth of 30 to 40 centimetres. The ea r th removed when the ditch is dug is used to build up an embankment around the pond. A slilice ga t e l e f t in the embankment links the tambak directly with the sea, or else with a river or connecting channel. The working unit needed t o raise a stock of Chanos f rom tlie f ry s tage to tha t of fully-grown fish is usually 5 hectares. But the re a r e much larger tambaks, covering as rnuch a s 20 t o 30 hectares. The compartrnentalized arrangement makes i t possible to staqger the fish-harvest over a period of several moriths by fishing in a l t e rna te coinpartments which have previously been replenished with f ry and young shrimps. I t has proved possible t o control the breeding of the species reared in the tambaks, and this factor further enhance the advaiitages of this type of fish-farrning in lagoons and shallow bays. fish-farrning in the tambaks accounts approximately 120,000 t o 150,000 tonnes per year, in Indonesia. This profitable pract ice co~i ld be applied in other sirnilar brackish-water environments in South-East Asia.

Ricef ield freshwater f isheries in Southeast Asia.

So f a r we have disciissed only coastal resource systerns in inshore waters. But it should not be forgotten t ha t t he coastal zone also extends inland. In Southeast Asia the principal use of coastal plains is for r ice cultivation, and over much of the region, ricefield fisheries a r e comrnonplace.

The integrated cultivation of r ice and fish, the two dietary rnainstays, is a traditional pract ice in many par ts of South and Southeast Asia, and one t ha t represents a sophisticated use of limited resources and abundant family labour. Although ricefield capture and ciilture fisheries have declined seriously throughout the reyion in recerit years - in large par t a s a consequence of the spread of high yielding varieties of r ice and their associated technologies - the growing interest of scientists and rural developmerit administrators in integrated farming systems has stimiilated a re-evaluation of the potential of ricefield fisheries t o satisfy par t of the dernand for relatively inexpensive animal protein for low-income rural and urban popiilations.

Al1 techniques of f!ooded-field r ice cultivation c r e a t e aquatirs conditions during periods of t he cultivation cycle and such conditions, which may last f o r only a few weeks or can involve continuous flooding for many months, during which rnarsh-like habi ta ts can arise, permit t he development of an aquatic fauna in the ricefields and their associated irrigation and drainage canals and ditches. The human exploitation of t he rich, naturally occuring ricefield fauna, which includes, inter alia, aquatic birds, frogs, snails, fish and shrimp, is probably a s ancient as r ice ciiltivation itself; i-e. some 6000 years BP in par t s of South and Southeast Asia.

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FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS:

A Unesco/IABO(IUBS) P ro jec t on t he Tradi t ional Knowledge and Management o f Coastal Systems.

It was recog~i ised by the IABO/i lnesco Steering Group tha t the t rad i t ional and ofteri ancient methods devised t o manage and conserve coastal systems by societies l iv ing under widely d i f fe ren t socio-ci i i tural and biophysical conditions reveal an extraordinary degree o f s imi lar i ty and, not uncommonly, a high degree of sophistication.

The main objective o f on internat ional Pro jec t on the tradi t ional knowledge and management o f coastal and island systems should be t o undertake an integrated scient i f ic appraisal o f the tradi t ional management o f coastal zone resource systems throughout the world. It would ernbrace biological, physical, socio-cultural and econornic factors, and would serve the pract ica l purposes of local developrnent. Siich a pro ject was deemed essential and urgent i f we are no t to witness the complete disappearance o f many such t rad i t ional systems before they have been properly evaluated, the i r age-old wisdom dist i l led and publicized, and the tested rnodels t ha t they represent applied t o the solution o f contemporary and simi lar probleins i n various parts o f the world.

It was fucther recommended that the pro ject meet i t s objectives by :

1. sponsoring regional seminars of 15-20 part ic ipants tha t will, by means of inv i ted papers, compile and consolidate exist ing data (piiblished, unpublished and oral knowledge) on the t rad i t ional uses and management and t rad i t ional knowledge concerning coastal zone resources w i th in the regions o f the world ; specify prirnary research on the topics tha t should be done i n the regions ; and develop a strateqy f o r building such in format ion in to the educational inst i tut ions w i th in the reqions ;

2. publish a sc ient i f ic handbook t ha t w i l l provide an analyt ical synthesis and detai led case studies o f the topic worldwide ; and

3. piiblish a l e s specialized book on the subject w i t h the object ive o f raising the general leve l o f awareness among planners and decision-makers o f the valiie and modern appl icabi l i ty o f t rad i t ional resource systems i n the world's coastal zones;

4. helping t o promote strongly needed dialogue between the young and the i r elders in fa l ter ing t rad i t ional cultures ; it is proposed tha t Unesco inst i tutes annual internat ional scholarships fo r the best universi ty and secondary school research reports on any aspect o f t rad i t ional knowledge of /or t rad i t ional management o f natural resources i n coastal and island systems.

Regional Seminars.

Due t o the considerable mass o f published, unpublished and ora l knowledge, it i s highly recommended that regional seminars be organized during the fol lowing years.

The IABO/Unesco Steer ing Group will a c t a s a re fe ree cornmit tee in t h e organization of t h e planned regional seminars. One o r two mernbers of t h e group will a c t a s sc ient i f ic convenor(s) for each rneeting(ll). In order t o have a coordinated action, and t o preserve high quality in t h e results of t h e seminars, i t is proposed t o organize t h e programmes along t h e following guidelines :

a) describe those elernents of tradit ional coas ta l resource management of probable valiie in resource rnanagement in the future, e.g., t radit ional fishing rights, functional taboos, closed seasons, closed areas. Col lec t published, unpublished and oral d a t a on ancient ' aquaculture, incliiding seaweeds, molluscs, crus taceans and fish. I t is not intended t o produce comprehensive description of tradit ional resource ilse practices, but, instead, t o deal with se lec ted aspec t s t h a t a r e important in t h e con tex t of modern managernent;

b) review existing endogenous knowledge concerning coas ta l marine resources of pc~tent ia l value in modern resoiJrce management, e.g., information on migrations, reproductive behaviours, feeding habits of marine species and seasonali ty of thei r availability, local current regimes and their relat ion t o coastal resource use;

c) identify e lements of tradit ional socie t ies which must be taken into consideration in any successfiil resource management programme, e.g., t h e difficiilty of introducing commercial ly oriented resource use pat terns requiring individualistic and compet i t ive behaviour into communal cul tures where such behaviour is not socially acceptable;

d) describe t h e educational ac t iv i t ies concerning tradit ional knowledge and management of natura l coas ta l resources in educational inst i tut ions in t h e region. Provide an annota ted bibliography of relevant l i te ra ture , including unpublished reports and sources of useful records fo r t h e region.

Unesco scholarships and audiovisual &formation.

Valuable tradit ional information is being Iost rapidly a s a result of industrialization, i~ rban iza t ion and t h e concomitant alienation of t h e young from thei r traditions. Recording th is knowledge is thus an urgent mat ter . Allowing i t t o vanish arnounts t o throwing away centur ies of priceless pract ica l experience. But t h e sc ient i f ic rnanpower t h a t is available t o gather it. is trivial compared with t h e s i ze of t h e job. An init iat ive by Unesco and TABO(IUBS) is therefore proposed t o help remedy th is situation.

I t is proposed t h a t Unesco ins t i tu tes annual international scholarships for t h e bes t i~nivers i ty and secondary school research repor ts on any aspect of tradit ional knowledge or tradit ional management of natural resources in t h e coas ta l zone. People associated with Unesco act iv i t ies in t h e coas ta l zone would be asked t o use their c o n t a c t s t o publicize these scholarships and

............................................................................... ( i i ) ~ r o p o s e d sc ient i f ic coordinators. E a s t Asia: K. Ruddle; Oceania: R.Johannes; West and E a s t Africa: J. Pliya; North Arnerica: S. W. Nixon; Europe: P.Lasserre; coordinators for t h e Arab countries and Lat in Amer ica should b e appointed as soon a s possible.

encourage the appropriate agencies t o establish national and provir icial contests. The national winners w o i ~ l d be candidates for ilnesco's i n t e r n a t i o h l scholarships.

l n addit ion to announcing these scholarships i n the appropriate Unesco and IUf3S publications, Unesco shni~ ld also prodiice ari announcement i n leaf le t forrn that w o i ~ l d be sent t o appropriate Educatiori Departrnen t throughout the world. Mul t ip le copies shovld also be sent to rnembers o f the IAHO/Unesco Steering Group to use i n proinoting relevant projects i n t!ieir respective regions. Members o f the Steering Group would also judge andior nominate judges o f projects of fered i n competi t ion for the scholarships.

Many people are i n the process today o f rediscovering ethnic pride and the wisdom tha t resides i n tradition. By means o f the scholarships proposed here Unesco coii ld harness this growitig awareness and chanriel i t inexpensively in to numerous projects which could :

a) increase environmental awareness ;

b) prornote badly needed dialogue between the young and the i r elders i n fal ter ing tradi t ional cultures ;

c) help t o locate and preserve what would becorne, over a period o f years, priceless national l ibraries o f indigerious environmental knowledge and unique reference sources fo r coastal zone planners and scientists.

It is anticipated ti-iat the Unesco/IABO(IUBS) Pro jec t on the tradi t ional knowledge and management o f coaçtal syste;ns w i l l provide a basis fo r cooperative interactions between specialists o f d i f ferent countries. The IAHO/Unesco Steering Grotip will cooperate w i t h the act iv i t ies o f non- governmental and governmental organisations. Fo r example, a logical interact ion is w i t h the Unesco Major Programmes X - 4: the Ocean and i t s Resources, and X - 5: Management o f Caastal and Island Regions, also, w i t h the Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme and the IUHS Decade o f the Tropics Prog ramme.

RECOMMENDATIONS

The IABOiUnesco Steering Group on Tradi t ional Managernent and Conservation o f Coastal Systerns,

- that a scientific reappraisal o f traditional man uses and misuses o f marine ecosystems including biological, ecological, cultural and economic constraints is highly appropriate,

- tha t a great cleal can be learnt frorn traditional models,

- that valuable traditional information is being lost rapidly as a result o f industrializa tion, urbanization and the concomitant aliena tion o f the young from their traditions,

RECOMMENDS,

1. that ICSU/IUBS and Unesco establish through ZAB0 a Working Group on Traditional Knowledge and Management of Coastal Systems that will be responsible for :

a) proposing an Agenda o f regional workshops to examine. various aspects o f traditional practices and knowledge particular to a region("l);

b) developing and implementing, within the various regions, strategies for the compilation and consolidation of existing data;

C ) proposing a means of introducing pertinent information into the curricula of national education systems;

d ) re f ereeing, editing and preparing publica tions(iv);

e) serving as a scientific advisory Committee to ZAB0 and its sponsoring bodies Unesco, IUBS, ICSU.

2. that Unesco supports the activities of the Working Croup listed in 1. in addition to the support required for regional ~erninars.(~)

3. a) that Unesco institutes annual international scholarships for the best Universities and Secondary schools research reports on any aspect of traditional knowledge o f , or traditional management of na tural resources in the coastal and island sy-stems. Unesco national Commissions and al1 organization associated with Unesco activities would be asked to use their contacts to publicize these scholarships and encourage the appropriate agencies to establish national and provincial contests. The national winners would be candidates for Unesco's international scholarships.

b) that members o f the IABO/Unesco Working Group woilld also judge and/or nominate judges o f projects o f f ered in competition for the scholarships.

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( i i i ) ~ h e f i r s t regional Workshop of the ser ies will be organized in December 1983, a t t h e Unesco Regional Of f i ce fo r Science and Technology, in Jakar ta . A second regional workshop is planned in 1984, in West Africa. Other Workshops should include North Africa, Lat in America, North America and Europe.

( i v ) ~ o t a b l ~ a synthet ic i l lustrated book within 3 years, proceedings of regional serninars and a cornprehensive volume to b e produced within 6 t o 7 years, using mater ia ls frorn regional meetings.

(v) Support of t h e ac t iv i t ies of the Working Group should include : field research a s required by t h e Working Group members for d a t a acquisition, editorial work, secre tar ia t .

REFERENCES CITE0

Christy, F. 1982. Territorial ilse rights in marine-fisheries: definitions and conditions. FAO Fish. Tech. Pap. n0227, 10 p.

Johannes, R.E., 1978. Reproductive s t ra tegies of coasta l rnarine fishes in the tropics. Environ. Biol. Fishes 3, 65-84.

Johannes, R.E. 1978. Traditional marine conservation rnethods in Oceania and their dernise. Ann. Kev. Ecol. Syst. 9, 349-364.

Johannes R.E., 1981. Words of the Lagoon, Fishing and Marine L-ore in the Palau Distririt of Microriesia. Univ. California Press, Berkeley.

Kremer J.N. (3c S.W. Nixon, 1978. A Coasta l Marine Ecosystern. Springer Verlag Berlin.

Lasserre P. 1979. Coasta l i agoons : Sanctuary Ecosysterns, Cradles of Cul t i~ re , Targets for Economic Growth. Nature and Resoi~rces,(Unesco), 15, 4, 2-20.

Pliya, J. 1980.1-a Pêclie dans le Sud-Ouest du Bénin. Agence de Coopération Culturelle et Technique, Paris..

Ruddle, K. and T. 8. Grandstaff. 1978. The International Potent ia l of Traditional Resource Systems in Marginal Areas. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 11, 119-130

Ruddle, K. 1982. Traditional Integrated Farming Systerns and Rural Developrnent: The example of Ricefield Fisheries in Southeast Asia. Agricultural Administration, 10, 1-11.

Ruddle, K. and 0. A. Rondinelli. 1983. Transforrning Natural Resources for Human Development: A Resource Systems Framework for Development Policy. United Nations University, Tokyo.

LIST OF PARTICIPANTS

Dr. Rober t E. Johannes Pr inc ipa l Research Scientist CSIHO Divis ion o f Fisheries Research Marmion, Western Aust ra l ia

Professor P ie r re Lasserre (Chair man) Presiden t o f IABO D i rec to r Stat ion Marine de Roscof f CNRS and Univers i ty o f Par is V I 29211 Roscoff, France

Professor Théodore Monod Laboratoire d'Ichtyologie Générale e t Appliquée Muséum Nat ional d'Histoire Nature l le 43 rue Cuvier 75231 Par is 05

Professor Sco t t W. Nixon Graduate School o f Oceanography Universi ty o f Rhode Island Kingston, R.I. 02881, U.S.A.

Professor Jean P l i y a Universiti: Nat ionale du Bénin Facul te des Lettres, A r t s e t Sciences Humaines B.P. 1000 Cotonou, Popular Republic o f Benin

Professor Kenneth Ruddle (Rapporteur) Nat ional Museum o f Ethnology Senri Expo Park Suita Osaka 565, Japan

Dr. Tala1 Younes IUHS Secretar iat 5 1 boulevard de Montmorency 75016 Paris, France

Dr. Marc Steyaert Div is ion o f Marine Sciences Unesco 7 Place de Fontenoy 75700 Paris, France

Dr. Dirk Troost Divis ion o f Marine Sciences Unesco 7, Place de Fontenoy 75700 Paris, France

Dr. Rob in Harger KOSTSEA Unesco Jakarta, Indonesia

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The International Union of Biological Sciences is a non-governmental, non-profit organization, established in 1919. Its objectives are to promote the study of biological sciences, to initiate, facilitate, and coordinate research and other scientific activities that require international cooperation, to ensure the discussion and dissemination of the results of cooperative research, to promote the organization of international conferences and to assist in the publication of their reports.

The membership of IUBS presently consists of 47 national members, each country adhering through its Academy of Science, National Research Council, national science associations or similar organizations, and of 66 scientific members, al1 of which are international scientific associations, societies or commissions in the various biological disciplines.

NATIONAL ADHERING ORGANIZATIONS ARGENTINA - Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones JAPAN - Science Council of Japan

Cientificas y Technicas JORDAN - Yarmouk University, Amman AUSTRALIA - Australian Academv of Science LEBANON - Conseil National de la Recherche Scien- AUSTRIA - Osterreichische Akademie der Wissen- tifique

schaften MEXICO - Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Technologia BELGIUM - Académie Royale de Belgique MONACO - Centre Scientifique de Monaco BRAZIL - Conselho Nacional de Pesquisas BULGARIA - Bulgarian Academy of Sciences

NETHERIANDS - Koninklijke Nederlandse Acade-

CANADA - National Research Council mie van Wetenschappen

NEW ZEALAdD - The Royal Society of New Zea- CHlLE - Sociedad de Biologia de Chile land COSTA RICA - Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones

NORWAY - Det Norske.Videnskaps-Academi Cientificas y Tecnologicas CUBA - Academia de Ciencias PHILIPPINES - National Research Council of the

Philippines CZECHOSLOVAKIA - Czeûhoslovak Academy of POLAND - Academy of sciences Sciences

DENMARK - Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes - Academ~ the socialist Re~ublic

Selskab of Romania EGYPT - Academy of &ientific Reçearch and T@- SAUDl ARABIA - Saudi Biological Society

noloav SOUTH AFRICA - Council for Scientific and Indus- FINLA~D - Societas Scientarum Fennica trial Research FRANCE - Académie des Sciences SPAIN - Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cien- GERMAN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC - Deutsche tificas

Akademie der Wissenschaften SUDAN - National Council for Research GERMANY (FEDERAL REPUBLIC) - Deutsche For- SWEDEN - Kunglige Vetenskapsakademien

schungsgemeinschaft SWITZERLAND - Société Helvétique des Sciences GHANA - Ghana Science Association Naturelles HUNGARY - Academy of Sciences

INDIA - lndian National Science Academy IRAQ - Scientific Research Foundation IRELAND - Royal Irish Academy ISRAEL - Academy of Sciences and Humanities ITALY - Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche

TAIWAN - Academy of Sciences THAILAND - National Research Council UNITED KINGDOM -The Royal Society U.S.A. - National Research Council U.S.S.R. - Academy of Sciences YUGOSLAVIA - Union of Biological Sciences