Energy Systems and Energy Systems and Human FitnessHuman Fitness

Fitness and training principlesFitness and training principles

FitnessFitness

The World Health Organisation defines fitness as:The World Health Organisation defines fitness as:

The ability to carry out daily tasks (work and play) with The ability to carry out daily tasks (work and play) with vigour and alertness, without undue fatigue and with vigour and alertness, without undue fatigue and with ample reserve energy, to enjoy leisure time pursuits and ample reserve energy, to enjoy leisure time pursuits and to meet unforseen emergencies. (Williams, P (et al), to meet unforseen emergencies. (Williams, P (et al), page 76, 1999)page 76, 1999)

Health refers to the absence of disease or illness Health refers to the absence of disease or illness whereas physical fitness is an individual matter related whereas physical fitness is an individual matter related to the specific needs of each individual and the to the specific needs of each individual and the requirements of their sport. requirements of their sport.

Components of FitnessComponents of Fitness 1. Health related (physiological) components

• Cardiorespiratory endurance/aerobic power

• Muscular strength• Local muscular endurance• Anaerobic power• Flexibility

• Body composition

2. Sport (motor skill) related components

• Speed• Muscular power• Agility• Coordination• Balance• Reaction time

Energy

AnaerobicAerobic

ATP-PC System Lactic Acid System Oxygen System

Anaerobic power and speed

Local muscular endurance cardio-Muscular strength

respiratoryMuscular power enduranceAgilityBalanceReaction time

Components of fitnessComponents of fitnessCardiorespiratory Endurance / Aerobic PowerCardiorespiratory Endurance / Aerobic Power

This is the ability of the heart, lungs and blood vessels This is the ability of the heart, lungs and blood vessels (circulatory and respiratory systems) to deliver oxygen and (circulatory and respiratory systems) to deliver oxygen and nutrients to the tissues of the body and to remove waste products nutrients to the tissues of the body and to remove waste products such as carbon dioxide. It is also known as aerobic endurance, such as carbon dioxide. It is also known as aerobic endurance, cardiovascular fitness or aerobic capacity.cardiovascular fitness or aerobic capacity.

Allows an individual to perform tasks involving the whole body for Allows an individual to perform tasks involving the whole body for extended periods of time at a sub maximal intensityextended periods of time at a sub maximal intensity

Fitness Test – 20-metre shuttle-runFitness Test – 20-metre shuttle-run

Muscular StrengthMuscular Strength

This is the ability of your muscles to exert a force in a single This is the ability of your muscles to exert a force in a single maximal contraction. It is important in sports where a position maximal contraction. It is important in sports where a position needs to be acquired and maintained against an opponent or needs to be acquired and maintained against an opponent or where an object has to be forcefully moved. where an object has to be forcefully moved.

Combines with speed to produce Muscular PowerCombines with speed to produce Muscular Power Fitness test – Grip strength Fitness test – Grip strength

Components of fitnessComponents of fitnessLocal Muscular EnduranceLocal Muscular Endurance

This is the ability of a muscle or group of muscles to sustain an activity for a period of time at less than maximal effort. Local fatigue (rather than general exhaustion) is the limiting factor. It includes activities such as push-ups, sit-ups and chin-ups. A major limiting factor of local muscular endurance is an athlete’s ability to tolerate lactic acid.

Fitness test: Sit-ups, push-ups and pull-ups.

Anaerobic PowerAnaerobic Power

This is the ability to produce energy quickly (without using oxygen). The efficiency of ATP-PC and lactic acid energy systems plays an important role within this fitness component. Covers two types of effort:

maximal efforts <10secs near maximal effort for up to 2 mins

Components of fitnessComponents of fitnessFlexibilityFlexibility

This refers to the range of possible movement about a joint or This refers to the range of possible movement about a joint or sequence of joints. Muscles, tendons, ligaments and joint sequence of joints. Muscles, tendons, ligaments and joint structure affect it. It is important for injury prevention. Flexibility structure affect it. It is important for injury prevention. Flexibility can be either static or dynamic. Dynamic or active flexibility is can be either static or dynamic. Dynamic or active flexibility is concerned with how easily a limb can be moved through its concerned with how easily a limb can be moved through its range of motions when executing a skill such as the arm action in range of motions when executing a skill such as the arm action in backstroke. Static flexibility is concerned with determining the backstroke. Static flexibility is concerned with determining the ability to move a joint to its maximum range of motions such as ability to move a joint to its maximum range of motions such as doing the splits.doing the splits.

The structure of a joint affects flexibility. The more stable a joint, The structure of a joint affects flexibility. The more stable a joint, the greater the strength but the less flexibility it allows. For the greater the strength but the less flexibility it allows. For example, the ball and socket joint of the hip is more stable than example, the ball and socket joint of the hip is more stable than the shoulder joint, but allows less movement. the shoulder joint, but allows less movement.

Fitness tests: sit and reach testFitness tests: sit and reach test

Body compositionBody composition

The relative percentage of muscle, fat, bone and other tissue of The relative percentage of muscle, fat, bone and other tissue of which a body is composedwhich a body is composed

Fitness test – skin foldsFitness test – skin folds

Components of fitnessComponents of fitnessSpeedSpeed

Speed is the ability to move the whole body or a body part Speed is the ability to move the whole body or a body part from one point to another in the shortest possible time from one point to another in the shortest possible time such as sprinting, speed skating and the run up in long such as sprinting, speed skating and the run up in long jump. Can be present as whole body speed or body part jump. Can be present as whole body speed or body part speed. Speed relates to other fitness components for speed. Speed relates to other fitness components for example speed is dependant upon strength and muscular example speed is dependant upon strength and muscular power is dependent upon strength and speed. During power is dependent upon strength and speed. During speed events however, an athlete has the ability to reach speed events however, an athlete has the ability to reach maximum energy capacity.maximum energy capacity.

Fitness test – Running 40 metre sprintsFitness test – Running 40 metre sprints

Muscular PowerMuscular Power

This is the ability to use strength rapidly to produce an This is the ability to use strength rapidly to produce an explosive maximal effort. It is dependent upon the explosive maximal effort. It is dependent upon the interaction of strength and speed. Relies on anaerobic interaction of strength and speed. Relies on anaerobic energy production and white twitch muscle fibres. energy production and white twitch muscle fibres. Examples include shot put, discus, hammer throw and Examples include shot put, discus, hammer throw and jumping events as well as the rebound in basketball.jumping events as well as the rebound in basketball.

Fitness test: standing long jump and vertical jumpFitness test: standing long jump and vertical jump

Components of fitnessComponents of fitnessAgilityAgility

The ability to rapidly and accurately change the direction The ability to rapidly and accurately change the direction of the body in space. It is related to power, speed, of the body in space. It is related to power, speed, flexibility, balance and coordination. Activities that flexibility, balance and coordination. Activities that exemplify agility include dodging; weaving and turning exemplify agility include dodging; weaving and turning that are commonly seen in football, netball, tennis, squash that are commonly seen in football, netball, tennis, squash and basketball. and basketball.

Fitness test: Illinois agility testFitness test: Illinois agility test

CoordinationCoordination

This can be described as the smooth and accurate flow of This can be described as the smooth and accurate flow of movement in the execution of a physical task. It involves movement in the execution of a physical task. It involves the nervous system and the musculoskeletal system the nervous system and the musculoskeletal system working together. Examples include hand-eye and foot-working together. Examples include hand-eye and foot-eye coordination in activities such as the lay up in eye coordination in activities such as the lay up in basketball, the spike in volleyball, the racquet swing in basketball, the spike in volleyball, the racquet swing in tennis and ball control in soccer.tennis and ball control in soccer.

Fitness test: Half flip stick testFitness test: Half flip stick test

Components of fitnessComponents of fitnessBalanceBalance

This is the ability to maintain the equilibrium of the body. This is the ability to maintain the equilibrium of the body. For example static balance involves maintaining the For example static balance involves maintaining the equilibrium in one fixed position such as a gymnast equilibrium in one fixed position such as a gymnast holding on the parallel bars. Dynamic balance involves holding on the parallel bars. Dynamic balance involves maintaining the equilibrium while moving including a maintaining the equilibrium while moving including a gymnast swinging on the parallel bars.gymnast swinging on the parallel bars.

Fitness test: Standing static balanceFitness test: Standing static balance

Reaction TimeReaction Time

This refers to the athlete’s ability to process information This refers to the athlete’s ability to process information via the nervous system and react. Time elapsed between via the nervous system and react. Time elapsed between stimulus and initiation of a response to the stimulus (It stimulus and initiation of a response to the stimulus (It involves the time it takes for the brain to receive involves the time it takes for the brain to receive information from the senses, process the information, information from the senses, process the information, formulate a response and transmit this response to formulate a response and transmit this response to nerves and finally for the muscles to contract). Examples nerves and finally for the muscles to contract). Examples include the delay between the starter’s gun and the include the delay between the starter’s gun and the athlete blasting out of the blocks.athlete blasting out of the blocks.

Fitness test: Latham Reaction Time testFitness test: Latham Reaction Time test

Principles of trainingPrinciples of training

When applied to a program, training When applied to a program, training principles can positively affect an principles can positively affect an athlete’s performance. Some athlete’s performance. Some training principles include:training principles include: SpecificitySpecificity Progressive overloadProgressive overload FITT:FITT:

FrequencyFrequency IntensityIntensity TimeTime TypeType

VarietyVariety ReversibilityReversibility

Specificity Specificity The athlete must train the specific:The athlete must train the specific:

Energy systems usedEnergy systems used Fitness components usedFitness components used Muscle groups usedMuscle groups used Skills usedSkills used

This training principle also allows the athlete to This training principle also allows the athlete to choose the most suitable training methods for choose the most suitable training methods for improving performance. improving performance.

Example – an endurance athlete would include a Example – an endurance athlete would include a large amount of continuous running into their large amount of continuous running into their training program to develop aerobic capacity and training program to develop aerobic capacity and increase cardiorespiratory efficiency. On the other increase cardiorespiratory efficiency. On the other hand, a weightlifter would incorporate a significant hand, a weightlifter would incorporate a significant amount of weights into their training program to amount of weights into their training program to develop muscular strength.develop muscular strength.

Training should be specific to the physiological Training should be specific to the physiological adaptations required at the time.adaptations required at the time.

Progressive OverloadProgressive OverloadImprovements in performance occur as a result of Improvements in performance occur as a result of adaptation to stress. An increase in the training adaptation to stress. An increase in the training workload will bring about physiological changes that workload will bring about physiological changes that make the body more capable of coping with make the body more capable of coping with stresses that may be placed upon it. To gain stresses that may be placed upon it. To gain maximum benefits from training, workloads must be maximum benefits from training, workloads must be gradually adjusted upwards as adaptation to stress gradually adjusted upwards as adaptation to stress occurs which is also known as progressive occurs which is also known as progressive overload. overload.

Increases in workload can lead to possible Increases in workload can lead to possible excessive stress, injury or illness. ‘No pain, no gain’ excessive stress, injury or illness. ‘No pain, no gain’ is a popular misconception. There is no need for is a popular misconception. There is no need for pain during physiological adaptations to training. pain during physiological adaptations to training. Pain is an indicator that something is wrong and Pain is an indicator that something is wrong and that training should be modified.that training should be modified.

FITT principlesFITT principlesOne way of monitoring the application of the specific One way of monitoring the application of the specific overload principle is the inclusion of the FITT principles overload principle is the inclusion of the FITT principles into a training program. into a training program.

FrequencyFrequency: refers to how often you train, specifically how : refers to how often you train, specifically how many days per week. Individuals seeking to improve their many days per week. Individuals seeking to improve their aerobic fitness must train at least 3-4 times per week. aerobic fitness must train at least 3-4 times per week.

IntensityIntensity: refers to how hard you train. To apply the : refers to how hard you train. To apply the overload principle in terms of intensity, the heart rate must overload principle in terms of intensity, the heart rate must be increased to a target heart rate. Heart rate should be increased to a target heart rate. Heart rate should remain within the target zone for at least 20 minutes remain within the target zone for at least 20 minutes fitness is to improve. It is vital that a critical threshold fitness is to improve. It is vital that a critical threshold exists and that unless that point is reached and exists and that unless that point is reached and maintained, then improvements cannot be made. maintained, then improvements cannot be made. Exercise levels that allow the heart rate to remain within Exercise levels that allow the heart rate to remain within the target zone will result in the training effect and the the target zone will result in the training effect and the body will make the appropriate adaptations. body will make the appropriate adaptations.

Critical Threshold (CT) = Resting HR (RHR) + 60% of Critical Threshold (CT) = Resting HR (RHR) + 60% of Working HR (WHR)Working HR (WHR)

WHR = MHR – RHR WHR = MHR – RHR (MHR = 220 - your age)(MHR = 220 - your age)

FITT principlesFITT principlesTimeTime: refers to how long the training : refers to how long the training session will last. To be effective, training session will last. To be effective, training sessions must last longer than 20 minutes sessions must last longer than 20 minutes and the heart rate must stay in the target and the heart rate must stay in the target zone for that period of time. The best zone for that period of time. The best results occur when training lasts from results occur when training lasts from between 30-60 minutes.between 30-60 minutes.

TypeType: Activities need to be specific for the : Activities need to be specific for the type of improvement desired. To improve type of improvement desired. To improve cardio-respiratory endurance, activities cardio-respiratory endurance, activities should be aerobic, being continuous and should be aerobic, being continuous and sustained throughout the exercise. This is sustained throughout the exercise. This is so the oxygen system is the predominant so the oxygen system is the predominant system for energy requirements. Such system for energy requirements. Such activities include jogging, cycling and activities include jogging, cycling and swimming.swimming.

FITT principlesFITT principles

Summary of FITT principles: F – times per week = 3 or > I – 75% of MHR = 220 - age x 0.75

= Target Zone T = 20-30 minutes with HR in target

zone T = continuous aerobic activity with

HR in target zone to develop cardio respiratory fitness.

Variety and ReversibilityVariety and ReversibilityVarietyVariety

Provided that the major principle of specificity is not Provided that the major principle of specificity is not ignored, variety in training activities can be ignored, variety in training activities can be beneficial. It can assist in maintaining interest and beneficial. It can assist in maintaining interest and motivation although it doesn’t specifically aid motivation although it doesn’t specifically aid performance.performance.

ReversibilityReversibility

The effects of training programs are reversible. In The effects of training programs are reversible. In the same way that the body responds to training by the same way that the body responds to training by improving the level of fitness, lack of training causes improving the level of fitness, lack of training causes the opposite to occur. The reversibility process the opposite to occur. The reversibility process applies equally to aerobic, anaerobic and strength applies equally to aerobic, anaerobic and strength training programs. training programs.

Duration of training has an effect on reversibility. A Duration of training has an effect on reversibility. A fast build up will cause a rapid loss if training fast build up will cause a rapid loss if training ceases, whereas a slow build up will result in a slow ceases, whereas a slow build up will result in a slow loss. loss.

Training MethodsTraining MethodsThese are the different types of training undertaken to These are the different types of training undertaken to achieve the desired improvements in fitness.achieve the desired improvements in fitness.

Continuous TrainingContinuous TrainingThis type of training involves performing an activity for an This type of training involves performing an activity for an extended period of time, (usually longer than 20 minutes) extended period of time, (usually longer than 20 minutes) at a required intensity, without a rest period. It is sub at a required intensity, without a rest period. It is sub maximal and requires an intensity of 65 – 85% of HR maximal and requires an intensity of 65 – 85% of HR max. This is called the max. This is called the Target Training ZoneTarget Training Zone. . Continuous training works the aerobic energy system and Continuous training works the aerobic energy system and examples include swimming, jogging, rowing, cross-examples include swimming, jogging, rowing, cross-country skiing and cycling. country skiing and cycling.

Overloading continuous Training:Overloading continuous Training:To incur physiological adaptations progressive overload is To incur physiological adaptations progressive overload is necessary and can be implemented by manipulating the necessary and can be implemented by manipulating the following variables:following variables:

Increase the duration of work (length)Increase the duration of work (length) Increase the intensity of work by:Increase the intensity of work by:

Increasing the distance Increasing the distance Decreasing the time taken to complete the same distance.Decreasing the time taken to complete the same distance. FrequencyFrequency

Interval trainingInterval trainingThis is a type of training in which periods of work are This is a type of training in which periods of work are alternated with periods of rest or recovery. Each energy alternated with periods of rest or recovery. Each energy system can be developed, depending on the length of the system can be developed, depending on the length of the work and rest periods. The design of this training allows work and rest periods. The design of this training allows for periods of activity where the energy fuels ATP and PC for periods of activity where the energy fuels ATP and PC are depleted. By following the work period with a rest are depleted. By following the work period with a rest period there is time for the replenishment of these fuels. period there is time for the replenishment of these fuels. This provides the athlete with enough energy to perform This provides the athlete with enough energy to perform at a high intensity during the work period and recover at a high intensity during the work period and recover during the rest period. The length and time of the work during the rest period. The length and time of the work interval determines which energy system and fitness interval determines which energy system and fitness components are predominately trained.components are predominately trained.

Interval training produces very specific training effects Interval training produces very specific training effects including efficiency in the desired energy system. The including efficiency in the desired energy system. The depletion-replenishment pattern allows the capacity of the depletion-replenishment pattern allows the capacity of the ATP-PC and lactic acid system to be increased. When ATP-PC and lactic acid system to be increased. When developing interval training, the following factors can be developing interval training, the following factors can be altered to meet the specific needs of each sport:altered to meet the specific needs of each sport:

Variable Description Example

Work interval distance The distance of the work 60 metres

Work interval time Time in which work must be completed 8 seconds

Rest interval time Time between work intervals 40 secs

Rest interval type The nature of rest between work intervals Walk

Work intensity How hard work is to be done (% of HR) 95%

Repetitions Number of work periods in a sequence 8

Sets Number of repetition sequences 3

Frequency Number of training sessions per week 3

Planning Interval trainingPlanning Interval training

Examples of Interval training Examples of Interval training for runningfor running

Energy system

Interval distance

Interval time

Work intensity

Reps Sets Rest interval

Work to rest ratio

Training frequency

Suitable sports

ATP-PC

60m 8 secs 95% HR max

8 3 40 sec 1:5 3 100mTeam Sports

Lactic Acid

400m 75 secs

85% HR max

4 2 150 sec

1:2 3 400mTeam Sports

Aerobic

1000m

180 secs

75 - 85% HR max

3 2 180 sec

1:1 4 - 5 1500m10 kmTeam Sports

Work to rest ratioWork to rest ratio

Is established by breaking an activity into work and rest Is established by breaking an activity into work and rest components. It indicates how much work is completed in components. It indicates how much work is completed in an activity in proportion to how much rest is available.an activity in proportion to how much rest is available.

Formula for developing an Interval Training Program:Formula for developing an Interval Training Program:1.1. Divide the personal best time by the percentage of HR Divide the personal best time by the percentage of HR

max to calculate the work interval time (7.5 sec / 95% = max to calculate the work interval time (7.5 sec / 95% = 7.8 seconds)7.8 seconds)

2.2. Multiply the work interval time by the appropriate energy Multiply the work interval time by the appropriate energy system ratio to establish rest interval timesystem ratio to establish rest interval time

3.3. Use a higher number of repetitions and sets for shorter Use a higher number of repetitions and sets for shorter work intervalswork intervals

1:5 Phosphate energy system (ATP-PC)1:2 Lactic Acid Energy system1:1 Aerobic Energy system

Overloading Interval TrainingOverloading Interval Training

To incur physiological adaptations To incur physiological adaptations progressive overload is necessary progressive overload is necessary and can be implemented by and can be implemented by manipulating the following variables:manipulating the following variables:

Increase the duration of workIncrease the duration of work Increase the intensity of work by:Increase the intensity of work by:

Decreasing the duration of restDecreasing the duration of rest Increasing the number of sets per Increasing the number of sets per

sessionsession Increasing the number of repetitions per Increasing the number of repetitions per

set.set.

Fartlek trainingFartlek trainingFartlek training is a variation of continuous training. Fartlek training is a variation of continuous training. It involves continuous activity with short bursts of It involves continuous activity with short bursts of intense work at regular stages throughout the intense work at regular stages throughout the activity (changes in the intensity or adjustments to activity (changes in the intensity or adjustments to the training environment). Fartlek is a Swedish the training environment). Fartlek is a Swedish term meaning ‘speed play’. The changes in term meaning ‘speed play’. The changes in intensity use all three energy systems, which can intensity use all three energy systems, which can resemble specific activities and simulates the nature resemble specific activities and simulates the nature of team sports. An example is an athlete, while of team sports. An example is an athlete, while running, performs 5-10 seconds of intense work running, performs 5-10 seconds of intense work every 3-4 minutes. every 3-4 minutes.

Overloading Fartlek training: Overloading Fartlek training: Increasing the frequency of the intense burstsIncreasing the frequency of the intense bursts Increasing the duration of the intense burstsIncreasing the duration of the intense bursts Increasing the distance coveredIncreasing the distance covered Covering the same distance in a reduced timeCovering the same distance in a reduced time Running against the windRunning against the wind Running in sandRunning in sand

Circuit trainingCircuit training

Circuit training involves working at a number of Circuit training involves working at a number of activity stations in a sequence. There are generally activity stations in a sequence. There are generally 5 – 15 stations that focus on specific components of 5 – 15 stations that focus on specific components of fitness. Circuits are able to develop a number of fitness. Circuits are able to develop a number of fitness components, including aerobic power, fitness components, including aerobic power, strength, power, local muscular endurance and strength, power, local muscular endurance and agility. agility.

There are three types of circuit:There are three types of circuit: Fixed load – each station has a set number of reps to Fixed load – each station has a set number of reps to

be completedbe completed Fixed time – completion of as many reps as possible Fixed time – completion of as many reps as possible

in the allotted time.in the allotted time. Individual load – individually designed where the Individual load – individually designed where the

person performs the maximum reps at each station person performs the maximum reps at each station for one minute. These are then halved and the for one minute. These are then halved and the person completes the circuit 3 times to determine an person completes the circuit 3 times to determine an initial time. Target time is then set at two thirds of the initial time. Target time is then set at two thirds of the initial time.initial time.

Circuit TrainingCircuit TrainingStations 1 min

scoreHalf score Date Date

Skipping 50 25

Sit-ups 60 30

Push-ups 50 25

Agility run 6 3

Basketball throw 20 10

Step-ups 50 25

Medicine ball throw 20 10

Ladder climb 6 3

Shuttle run 10 5

Initial time 21 min

Target time 14 min

Overloading Circuit TrainingOverloading Circuit Training

Increasing the resistanceIncreasing the resistance Increasing the repetitionsIncreasing the repetitions Increasing the repetitions but decreasing Increasing the repetitions but decreasing

the time it takes to complete themthe time it takes to complete them Increasing the number of laps of the circuit.Increasing the number of laps of the circuit. Changing the length or type of recovery.Changing the length or type of recovery.

The variety of this type of training is The variety of this type of training is particularly beneficial plus not a lot of particularly beneficial plus not a lot of equipment is required. equipment is required.

Strength/Weight/Resistance TrainingStrength/Weight/Resistance TrainingBuilds strength, power, or local muscular endurance by exercising muscle Builds strength, power, or local muscular endurance by exercising muscle groups against a resistance. It is important to identify the muscle groups groups against a resistance. It is important to identify the muscle groups involved and the actions performed that reflect the needs of your sport. involved and the actions performed that reflect the needs of your sport. Strength training needs to be performed a minimum of 3 times a week for at Strength training needs to be performed a minimum of 3 times a week for at least 30 minutes for a minimum of 6 weeks, for adaptation to occur. least 30 minutes for a minimum of 6 weeks, for adaptation to occur. Generally it is high weights and low reps for strength and low weights – high Generally it is high weights and low reps for strength and low weights – high reps for endurance.reps for endurance.There are 3 types of resistance training:There are 3 types of resistance training:

1.1. ISOTONIC (free weights)ISOTONIC (free weights) Dynamic and involves lifting a set weight through the range of motion of a Dynamic and involves lifting a set weight through the range of motion of a

joint.joint. There are two distinct phases, the There are two distinct phases, the concentric phaseconcentric phase (where the muscle (where the muscle

contracts against the force of gravity) and the contracts against the force of gravity) and the eccentric phaseeccentric phase (where the (where the muscle lengthens under tension with the force of gravity)muscle lengthens under tension with the force of gravity)

The muscle is not being trained maximally at the strongest point of The muscle is not being trained maximally at the strongest point of contraction.contraction.

2.2. ISOMETRIC (fixed resistance)ISOMETRIC (fixed resistance) Holding a muscle in one position while it contracts against a resistance.Holding a muscle in one position while it contracts against a resistance. Tension in the muscle increases but the muscle stays the same lengthTension in the muscle increases but the muscle stays the same length Effective in improving strength but only in the static positionEffective in improving strength but only in the static position Examples include pushing against a stationary resistance (handstand, crucifix Examples include pushing against a stationary resistance (handstand, crucifix

on the roman rings, martial arts and wrestling).on the roman rings, martial arts and wrestling).

3.3. ISOKINETIC (resistance by machines)ISOKINETIC (resistance by machines) Undertaken on Nautiliaus, Cybex, Biodex, or Hydrogym equipment.Undertaken on Nautiliaus, Cybex, Biodex, or Hydrogym equipment. Machines create resistance so that the muacles are worked maximally Machines create resistance so that the muacles are worked maximally

through the full range not just the weakest points.through the full range not just the weakest points. Machines control momentum, velocity and direction of movement so complete Machines control momentum, velocity and direction of movement so complete

specificity is not possible.specificity is not possible.

Overloading Resistance Overloading Resistance TrainingTraining

Increase the resistance Increase the resistance Increase the repetitions Increase the repetitions Increasing the number of sets Increasing the number of sets Increasing the frequencyIncreasing the frequency Changing the length or type of Changing the length or type of

recovery.recovery.

PlyometricsPlyometrics

Aims to increase muscular power by firstly stretching a Aims to increase muscular power by firstly stretching a muscle, then contracting it in the shortest possible time. It muscle, then contracting it in the shortest possible time. It is known as a stretch reflex or stretch shortening cycle. is known as a stretch reflex or stretch shortening cycle. Plyometrics trains this reflex to make it faster and more Plyometrics trains this reflex to make it faster and more forceful.forceful.There is a general concern about the safety and There is a general concern about the safety and appropriateness of plyometrics. The following table appropriateness of plyometrics. The following table outlines the different stress levels and recovery time:outlines the different stress levels and recovery time:

Rating Recovery time Example

1 Very low stress Very rapid Jump rope, ankle bounces

2 Low stress 1 day Tuck jumps

3 Moderate stress 1 – 2 days Stair jumps, short jumps

4 High stress 2 days Hops, bounds, long jumps

5 Very high stress 3 days Depth jumps

Flexibility TrainingFlexibility Training

Flexibility training improves the range of motion (ROM) at desired joints. It Flexibility training improves the range of motion (ROM) at desired joints. It is important for maximum performance. The requirements of flexibility vary is important for maximum performance. The requirements of flexibility vary for each sport. In some sports, large range of joint motion is required in for each sport. In some sports, large range of joint motion is required in order to perform certain skills. For improvements to occur training order to perform certain skills. For improvements to occur training frequency needs to be 3 – 4 times per week for a minimum of 4 weeks. frequency needs to be 3 – 4 times per week for a minimum of 4 weeks. There are 4 types of stretching techniques, which can be used:There are 4 types of stretching techniques, which can be used:

Static/ Passive stretching – taking the joint to its full range of motion and Static/ Passive stretching – taking the joint to its full range of motion and holding it for 20-30 seconds. This is the safest method and is most holding it for 20-30 seconds. This is the safest method and is most effective in warm-down after exercise.effective in warm-down after exercise.

Active stretching – stretching as far as possible ten slowly contracting the Active stretching – stretching as far as possible ten slowly contracting the agonist while relaxing the antagonist.agonist while relaxing the antagonist.

Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) – involves fully Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) – involves fully lengthening the muscle. A partner moves your muscle through the full lengthening the muscle. A partner moves your muscle through the full ROM until the first hint of discomfort, then provides resistance as your ROM until the first hint of discomfort, then provides resistance as your muscle is contracted isometrically this is held for 6 seconds. muscle is contracted isometrically this is held for 6 seconds.

Ballistic stretching – involves moving through ROM using the momentum Ballistic stretching – involves moving through ROM using the momentum created rather than muscle contractions (rhythmically bouncing to created rather than muscle contractions (rhythmically bouncing to gradually increase the range of motion). This is potentially dangerous and gradually increase the range of motion). This is potentially dangerous and only specifically conditioned athletes such as dancers and gymnasts only specifically conditioned athletes such as dancers and gymnasts should use this type of stretching. should use this type of stretching.

Training ProgramsTraining ProgramsTraining programs are designed to improve the Training programs are designed to improve the physiological capacity of an athlete that results in a physiological capacity of an athlete that results in a personal best performance. Undertaking an activity personal best performance. Undertaking an activity analysis identifies the demands of the sport, and analysis identifies the demands of the sport, and training must be designed to develop physiological training must be designed to develop physiological capacity to meet these demands. capacity to meet these demands.

When designing a training program for an athlete or When designing a training program for an athlete or team, it is vital to identify the following:team, it is vital to identify the following:

Predominant energy systems Predominant energy systems Major muscle groupsMajor muscle groups Required fitness components Required fitness components

Once these factors have been identified, Once these factors have been identified, appropriate training methods can be decided. appropriate training methods can be decided. Individual training sessions and the entire training Individual training sessions and the entire training year must be also developed and are detailed in the year must be also developed and are detailed in the following sections.following sections.

Training SessionsTraining SessionsEach training session should include a warm up which includes Each training session should include a warm up which includes flexibility exercises, followed by conditioning which includes skill flexibility exercises, followed by conditioning which includes skill development and tactics and finally a cool down to enable development and tactics and finally a cool down to enable recovery.recovery.

Warm Up and StretchingWarm Up and Stretching A warm up stimulates the central nervous system and prepares the A warm up stimulates the central nervous system and prepares the

body physiologically and psychologically including activating the body physiologically and psychologically including activating the required energy systems, major joints and muscles. The athlete required energy systems, major joints and muscles. The athlete should experience increased blood flow, raised muscle temperature should experience increased blood flow, raised muscle temperature and sweating in response to a warm up. and sweating in response to a warm up.

Stretching is necessary so that the range of motion around a joint Stretching is necessary so that the range of motion around a joint can be increased. It also reduces the risk of injury and is more can be increased. It also reduces the risk of injury and is more beneficial after a warm up when the body is warm. beneficial after a warm up when the body is warm.

ConditioningConditioning This period incorporates most of the training session. It includes skill This period incorporates most of the training session. It includes skill

development, game tactics, demonstrations, technique analysis and development, game tactics, demonstrations, technique analysis and discussion. It is designed on the specific requirements of the sport discussion. It is designed on the specific requirements of the sport being played.being played.

Cool Down/RecoveryCool Down/Recovery This period follows conditioning and is the reverse of the warm up. This period follows conditioning and is the reverse of the warm up.

This is achieved through gradually reducing the intensity of the This is achieved through gradually reducing the intensity of the activity and incorporating flexibility work. Cool down assists in activity and incorporating flexibility work. Cool down assists in recovery by dissipating lactic acid reducing muscle soreness and stiff recovery by dissipating lactic acid reducing muscle soreness and stiff joints.joints.

Activity Components Time (minutes)No. of music

tracks

1. Warm-upLight aerobic activity using those

parts of the body required in later vigorous movements ie legs, trunk, shoulders, arms

5 minutes2 tracks

1. StretchingSlow, controlled stretching of body

parts to be used: may use PNF or static stretches

5 minutes2 tracks

1. AerobicExercise routines, jogging,

running, dance exercises using large muscle groups: non stop exercise

15 – 20 minutes6 tracks

1. Strength / tone

Using gravity, weights, sandbags or partners for resistance: exercises designed to improve strength/tone of muscles

10 minutes3 tracks

1. Cool-downRecovery exercises to assist in

cardiovascular adjustments; includes stretching to prevent muscle soreness and maintain flexibility

5 – 10 minutes2 tracks

Framework for developing an Framework for developing an aerobic floor class.aerobic floor class.

The training year and The training year and periodisationperiodisation

The training year can be divided into three main The training year can be divided into three main periods including pre-season, competition and post periods including pre-season, competition and post season. season.

Pre-season (the Preparatory phase)Pre-season (the Preparatory phase) This period aims at providing a solid fitness This period aims at providing a solid fitness

foundation for the competition phase.foundation for the competition phase. Subphase 1 generally lasts 4 – 10 weeks and places Subphase 1 generally lasts 4 – 10 weeks and places

emphasis on the aerobic energy system. The volume emphasis on the aerobic energy system. The volume of training is high, but the intensity begins low and of training is high, but the intensity begins low and increases very slowly. Specialised programs to increases very slowly. Specialised programs to remedy any specific weaknesses should be continued remedy any specific weaknesses should be continued in this phase. in this phase.

Subphase 2 lasts from 2 – 6 weeks and is a more Subphase 2 lasts from 2 – 6 weeks and is a more specific preparatory phase. There is a shift towards specific preparatory phase. There is a shift towards more specific game related fitness and skill work. more specific game related fitness and skill work. There is an increase in intensity with a slow decrease There is an increase in intensity with a slow decrease in volume. in volume.

Fitness testing is also carried out during this phase so Fitness testing is also carried out during this phase so that weaknesses can be amended. that weaknesses can be amended.

The training year and The training year and periodisationperiodisationCompetition (the in-season phase)Competition (the in-season phase) This stage generally lasts 4 – 6 months with an emphasis on skill This stage generally lasts 4 – 6 months with an emphasis on skill

and strategy, whilst maintaining pre-season fitness. Because of and strategy, whilst maintaining pre-season fitness. Because of the demands of competition, not every session should be long the demands of competition, not every session should be long and intense. Sessions later in the week should be lighter and and intense. Sessions later in the week should be lighter and less intense so that players are not still recovering from fatigue less intense so that players are not still recovering from fatigue on competition day. Intensity of activity and drills performed on competition day. Intensity of activity and drills performed should be aimed to have the same intensity as the competition. should be aimed to have the same intensity as the competition.

Post Season (the transition or off-season phase)Post Season (the transition or off-season phase) The off-season phase generally lasts 6 – 12 weeks and should The off-season phase generally lasts 6 – 12 weeks and should

be both a psychological and physical break from your sport. be both a psychological and physical break from your sport. Athletes need to gradually reduce the level of activity but also Athletes need to gradually reduce the level of activity but also

avoid detraining. Maintenance of a suitable level of fitness and avoid detraining. Maintenance of a suitable level of fitness and ‘playing weight’ is required. ‘playing weight’ is required.

The off-season period should also include specialised weight The off-season period should also include specialised weight training and skill development to remedy any diagnosed training and skill development to remedy any diagnosed weaknesses. This may include low intensity weight training and weaknesses. This may include low intensity weight training and running twice a week, supplemented by active recreational running twice a week, supplemented by active recreational games for enjoyment. games for enjoyment.

The training yearThe training year

Pre-season In-season Off-season

Pre-season: Develop energy systemsPractice individual skillsDevelop team play patterns(3 months)

In-season:Practice individual skills and team play

Maintain energy systems (5 months)

Off-season: Remain physically activeRemedy diagnosed weaknesses in physical profile(4 months)

Physiological Responses and Physiological Responses and Adaptations to ExerciseAdaptations to Exercise

Responses Adaptations

HEART

Heart rate increases.Cardiac output increases.SV increases from resting level.Coronary circulation increases.Max HR may be achieved.

Resting HR decreases.SV increases during rest & work.Blood supply to heart muscle increases during rest & work.Volume of left ventricle increases after aerobic training.Hypertrophy of the left ventricle after anaerobic training.Max HR remains the same.HR at sub-max workloads falls.Cardiac output at max workloads increases.

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Systolic blood pressure increases.Speed of blood flow increases.Body temperature increases.Arterio-venous O2 diff increases.Vasodilation occurs.Redistribution of blood flow.

Maintained elasticity of artery walls.Diminished fatty deposits.Low risk of high blood pressure and cardiovascular disease.Capillary supply to heart and skeletal muscles increases.Blood volume increases.Hemoglobin count increases.Oxygen-carrying capacity of blood increases.

Responses Adaptations

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Breathing rate increases. TV rises from 0.5L to a max of 5L per

breath. Pulmonary diffusion increases. Lung ventilation increases from

7.5L/min to a max of 150L/min.

Efficiency of intercostals muscles increases.

Elasticity of lungs improves. Lung volumes increase. Pulmonary diffusion increases.

MUSCULAR SYSTEM

Motor unit recruitment increases, leading to greater strength of contraction.

Temp increases due to increased blood flow.

ATP production increases. Phosphates in muscle cell increase. O2 supply to muscles increase. Enzyme activity increases. Glycogen, triglycerides and PC all

deplete to produce ATP. Production of LA, CO2 and other by-

products increases.

Aerobic Training Effects Capillarisation to muscles increase. Mitochondria increase in size and

number. Myoglobin concentration increases. Triglyceride stores increase. Glycogen stores increase. Oxidative enzymes increase. Lactic acid tolerance increases. Red muscle fibres hypertrophy to a

small degree. Glycogen sparing as fats are used in

preference during sub-max efforts.Anaerobic Training Effects Hypertrophy of muscles occur (size

increase of fast twitch). Glycogen stores increase. Capillarisation increases. PC stores increase. Muscle stores of ATP increase. Production of LA at sub-max workload

falls. Speed and force of contraction

increases. Ability to recruit motor units increases. Connective tissue strength (tendons

and ligaments) increases.

OTHER

Perspiration rate increases.Oxygen consumption increases.

Arterio-venous oxygen difference increases slightly at maximal efforts.VO2 max increases by up to 30%.Recovery HR returns to resting levels faster.Lactate thresholds increases.

Evaluating Training ProgramsEvaluating Training ProgramsTo evaluate a training program efficiently, it is critical that To evaluate a training program efficiently, it is critical that accurate and valid pre-tests and post-tests fitness are accurate and valid pre-tests and post-tests fitness are conducted. Results of before the training program and conducted. Results of before the training program and after completing the training program should give a good after completing the training program should give a good guide as to whether or not the program is successful.guide as to whether or not the program is successful.

Key factors in evaluating a training program include:Key factors in evaluating a training program include: Has there been improvement in:Has there been improvement in:

Test results?Test results? Performance?Performance?

Did I achieve my training program goals?Did I achieve my training program goals? Have any factors enhanced participation in the training Have any factors enhanced participation in the training

program?program? Was the training schedule adhered to?Was the training schedule adhered to? How can the training program be improved?How can the training program be improved?

Choose a different or more suitable method of training or modify Choose a different or more suitable method of training or modify the current method?the current method?

Apply the principles of training (specificity, overload, frequency Apply the principles of training (specificity, overload, frequency etc) more effectively? How?etc) more effectively? How?

Add more interest or variety?Add more interest or variety?

BibliographyBibliography

Information has been taken from the following resources Information has been taken from the following resources for an educational purpose only.for an educational purpose only.

Bradford, M., (1998), Bradford, M., (1998), Queensland Health and Physical Queensland Health and Physical EducationEducation, Macmillan Education Australia, South Yarra., Macmillan Education Australia, South Yarra.

Fitzgibbon, L. (et al), (1992), Fitzgibbon, L. (et al), (1992), Outcomes: Studies in PersonalOutcomes: Studies in Personal Development, Health and Physical EducationDevelopment, Health and Physical Education, The , The Jacaranda Press, Milton.Jacaranda Press, Milton.

Griffin, R., (1981), Griffin, R., (1981), The Biology Colouring BookThe Biology Colouring Book, Barnes and , Barnes and Noble Books, New York.Noble Books, New York.

Parker, R., (et al), (2000), Parker, R., (et al), (2000), Health Moves 2Health Moves 2, Heinemann, , Heinemann, Melbourne.Melbourne.

Williams, P., (et al), (1999), Williams, P., (et al), (1999), Physical Education for Years 11 Physical Education for Years 11 and 12and 12, Nelson Thomas Learning, South Melbourne., Nelson Thomas Learning, South Melbourne.

Wright, P., (et al), (2000), Wright, P., (et al), (2000), Inside and Out 3rd EditionInside and Out 3rd Edition, John , John Wiley and Sons, Milton.Wiley and Sons, Milton.