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Springer Handbookof Acoustics
Springer Handbooks providea concise compilation of approvedkey information on methods ofresearch, general principles, andfunctional relationships in physi-cal sciences and engineering. Theworld’s leading experts in the fieldsof physics and engineering will beassigned by one or several renownededitors to write the chapters com-prising each volume. The contentis selected by these experts fromSpringer sources (books, journals,online content) and other systematicand approved recent publications ofphysical and technical information.
The volumes are designed to beuseful as readable desk referencebooks to give a fast and comprehen-sive overview and easy retrieval ofessential reliable key information,including tables, graphs, and bibli-ographies. References to extensivesources are provided.
123
HandbookSpringerof Acoustics
Thomas D. Rossing (Ed.)
With CD-ROM, 962 Figures and 91 Tables
Editor:
Thomas D. RossingStanford UniversityCenter for Computer Research in Music and AcousticsStanford, CA 94305, USA
Editorial Board:
Manfred R. Schroeder, University of Göttingen, GermanyWilliam M. Hartmann, Michigan State University, USANeville H. Fletcher, Australian National University, AustraliaFloyd Dunn, University of Illinois, USAD. Murray Campbell, The University of Edinburgh, UK
Library of Congress Control Number: 2006927050
ISBN: 978-0-387-30446-5 e-ISBN: 0-387-30425-0Printed on acid free paper
c© 2007, Springer Science+Business Media, LLC New YorkAll rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in wholeor in part without the written permission of the publisher (SpringerScience+Business Media, LLC New York, 233 Spring Street, New York,NY 10013, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews orscholarly analysis. Use in connection with any form of information storageand retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar ordissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden. Theuse in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similarterms, even if they are not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expressionof opinion as to whether or not they are subject to proprietary rights.
The use of designations, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply,even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt fromthe relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for generaluse.
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Production and typesetting: LE-TeX GbR, LeipzigHandbook Manager: Dr. W. Skolaut, HeidelbergTypography and layout: schreiberVIS, SeeheimIllustrations:schreiberVIS, Seeheim & Hippmann GbR, SchwarzenbruckCover design: eStudio Calamar Steinen, BarcelonaCover production: WMXDesign GmbH, HeidelbergPrinting and binding: Stürtz AG, Würzburg
SPIN 11309031 100/3100/YL 5 4 3 2 1 0
V
Foreword
Prof. Dr. M. R. SchroederUniversity ProfessorSpeach and Acoustics LaboratoryUniversity of Göttingen,Germany
The present handbook covers a very wide field. Its 28 chapters range from the historyof acoustics to sound propagation in the atmosphere; from nonlinear and underwa-ter acoustics to thermoacoustics and concert hall acoustics. Also covered are musicalacoustics, including computer and electronic music; speech and singing; animal (in-cluding whales) communication as well as bioacoustics in general, psychoacousticsand medical acoustics. In addition, there are chapters on structural acoustics, vibrationand noise, including optical methods for their measurement; microphones, their cali-bration, and microphone and hydrophone arrays; acoustic holography; model analysisand much else needed by the professional engineer and scientist.
Among the authors we find many illustrious names: Yoichi Ando, Mack Breazeale,Babrina Dunmire, Neville Fletcher, Anders Gade, William Hartmann, William Kuper-man, Werner Lauterborn, George Maling, Brian Moore, Allan Pierce, Thomas Rossing,Johan Sundberg, Eric Young, and many more. They hail from countries around theworld: Australia, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, Japan, Korea, Sweden, theUnited Kingdom, and the USA. There is no doubt that this handbook will fill manyneeds, nay be irreplaceable in the art of exercising today’s many interdisciplinary tasksdevolving on acoustics. No reader could wish for a wider and more expert coverage.I wish the present tome the wide acceptance and success it surely deserves.
Göttingen, March 2007 Manfred R. Schroeder
VII
Preface
Prof. em. T. D. RossingNorthern Illinois UniversityPresently visiting Professorof Music at Stanford University
“A handbook,” according to the dictionary, “is a book capable of being convenientlycarried as a ready reference.” Springer has created the Springer Handbook series onimportant scientific and technical subjects, and we feel fortunate that they have includedacoustics in this category.
Acoustics, the science of sound, is a rather broad subject to be covered in a singlehandbook. It embodies many different academic disciplines, such as physics, mechan-ical and electrical engineering, mathematics, speech and hearing sciences, music, andarchitecture. There are many technical areas in acoustics; the Acoustical Society ofAmerica, for example, includes 14 technical committees representing different areasof acoustics. It is impossible to cover all of these areas in a single handbook. We havetried to include as many as possible of the “hot” topics in this interdisciplinary field, in-cluding basic science and technological applications. We apologize to the reader whosefavorite topics are not included.
We have grouped the 28 chapters in the book into eight parts: Propagation ofSound; Physical and Nonlinear Acoustics; Architectural Acoustics; Hearing and SignalProcessing; Music, Speech, and Electroacoustics; Biological and Medical Acoustics;Structural Acoustics and Noise; and Engineering Acoustics. The chapters are of varyinglength. They also reflect the individual writing styles of the various authors, all of whomare authorities in their fields. Although an attempt was made to keep the mathematicallevel of the chapters as even as possible, readers will note that some chapters are moremathematical than others; this is unavoidable and in fact lends some degree of richnessto the book.
We are indebted to many persons, especially Werner Skolaut, the manager of theSpringer Handbooks, and to the editorial board, consisting of Neville Fletcher, FloydDunn, William Hartmann, and Murray Campbell, and for their advice. Each chapterwas reviewed by two authoritative reviewers, and we are grateful to them for their ser-vices. But most of all we thank the authors, all of whom are busy people but devotedmuch time to carefully preparing their chapters.
Stanford, April 2007 Thomas D. Rossing
IX
List of Authors
Iskander AkhatovNorth Dakota State UniversityCenter for Nanoscale Science and Engineering,Department of Mechanical Engineering111 Dolve HallFargo, ND 58105-5285, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Yoichi Ando3917-680 Takachiho899-6603 Makizono, Kirishima, Japane-mail: [email protected]
Keith AttenboroughThe University of HullDepartment of EngineeringCottingham RoadHull, HU6 7RX, UKe-mail: [email protected]
Whitlow W. L. AuHawaii Institute of Marine BiologyP.O. Box 1106Kailua, HI 96734, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Kirk W. BeachUniversity of WashingtonDepartment of SurgerySeattle, WA 98195, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Mack A. BreazealeUniversity of MississippiNational Center for Physical Acoustics027 NCPA Bldg.University, MS 38677, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Antoine ChaigneUnité de Mécanique (UME)Ecole Nationale Supérieure de TechniquesAvancées (ENSTA)Chemin de la Hunière91761 Palaiseau, Francee-mail: [email protected]
Perry R. CookPrinceton UniversityDepartment of Computer Science35 Olden StreetPrinceton, NJ 08540, USAe-mail: [email protected]
James CowanResource Systems Group Inc.White River Junction, VT 85001, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Mark F. DavisDolby Laboratories100 Potrero Ave,San Francisco, CA 94103, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Barbrina DunmireUniversity of WashingtonApplied Physics Laboratory1013 NE 40th Str.Seattle, WA 98105, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Neville H. FletcherAustralian National UniversityResearch School of Physical Sciences andEngineeringCanberra, ACT 0200, Australiae-mail: [email protected]
Anders Christian GadeTechnical University of DenmarkAcoustic Technology, Oersted.DTUBuilding 3522800 Lyngby, Denmarke-mail: [email protected],[email protected]
Colin GoughUniversity of BirminghamSchool of Physics and AstronomyBirmingham, B15 2TT, UKe-mail: [email protected]
X List of Authors
William M. HartmannMichigan State University1226 BPS BuildingEast Lansing, MI 48824, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Finn JacobsenØrsted DTU, Technical University of DenmarkAcoustic TechnologyØrsteds Plads, Building 3522800 Lyngby, Denmarke-mail: [email protected]
Yang-Hann KimKorea Advanced Institute of Scienceand Technology (KAIST)Department of Mechanical EngineeringCenter for Noise and Vibration Control (NOVIC)Acoustics and Vibration Laboratory373-1 Kusong-dong, Yusong-guDaejeon, 305-701, Koreae-mail: [email protected]
William A. KupermanUniversity of California at San DiegoScripps Institution of Oceanography9500 Gilman DriveLa Jolla, CA 92093-0701, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Thomas KurzUniversität GöttingenFriedrich-Hund-Platz 137077 Göttingen, Germanye-mail: [email protected]
Marc O. LammersHawaii Institute of Marine BiologyP.O. Box 1106Kailua, HI 96734, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Werner LauterbornUniversität GöttingenDrittes Physikalisches InstitutFriedrich-Hund-Platz 137077 Göttingen, Germanye-mail:[email protected]
Björn LindblomStockholm UniversityDepartment of Linguistics10691 Stockholm, Swedene-mail: [email protected],[email protected]
George C. Maling, Jr.Institute of Noise Control Engineering of the USA60 High Head RoadHarpswell, ME 04079, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Michael McPhersonThe University of MississippiDepartment of Physics and Astronomy123 Lewis HallP. O. Box 1848University, MS 38677, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Nils-Erik MolinLuleå University of TechnologyExperimental MechanicsSE-971 87 Luleå, Swedene-mail: [email protected]
Brian C. J. MooreUniversity of CambridgeDepartment of Experimental PsychologyDowning StreetCambridge, CB2 3EB, UKe-mail: [email protected]
Alan D. PierceBoston UniversityCollege of EngineeringBoston, MA , USAe-mail: [email protected]
Thomas D. RossingStanford UniversityCenter for Computer Research in Music andAcoustics (CCRMA)Department of MusicStanford, CA 94305, USAe-mail: [email protected]
List of Authors XI
Philippe RouxUniversité Joseph FourierLaboratoire de Geophysique Interne etTectonophysique38041 Grenoble, Francee-mail: [email protected]
Johan SundbergKTH–Royal Institute of TechnologyDepartment of Speech, Music, and HearingSE-10044 Stockholm, Swedene-mail: [email protected]
Gregory W. SwiftLos Alamos National LaboratoryCondensed Matter and Thermal Physics GroupLos Alamos, NM 87545, USAe-mail: [email protected]
George S. K. WongInstitute for National Measurement Standards(INMS)National Research Council Canada (NRC)1200 Montreal RoadOttawa, ON K1A 0R6, Canadae-mail: [email protected]
Eric D. YoungJohns Hopkins UniversityBaltimore, MD 21205, USAe-mail: [email protected]
XIII
Contents
List of Abbreviations ................................................................................. XXI
1 Introduction to AcousticsThomas D. Rossing................................................................................... 11.1 Acoustics: The Science of Sound ..................................................... 11.2 Sounds We Hear ............................................................................ 11.3 Sounds We Cannot Hear: Ultrasound and Infrasound ...................... 21.4 Sounds We Would Rather Not Hear: Environmental Noise Control..... 21.5 Aesthetic Sound: Music .................................................................. 31.6 Sound of the Human Voice: Speech and Singing ............................. 31.7 How We Hear: Physiological and Psychological Acoustics ................. 41.8 Architectural Acoustics ................................................................... 41.9 Harnessing Sound: Physical and Engineering Acoustics ................... 51.10 Medical Acoustics .......................................................................... 51.11 Sounds of the Sea ......................................................................... 6References .............................................................................................. 6
Part A Propagation of Sound
2 A Brief History of AcousticsThomas D. Rossing................................................................................... 92.1 Acoustics in Ancient Times ............................................................. 92.2 Early Experiments on Vibrating Strings, Membranes and Plates ....... 102.3 Speed of Sound in Air .................................................................... 102.4 Speed of Sound in Liquids and Solids ............................................. 112.5 Determining Frequency ................................................................. 112.6 Acoustics in the 19th Century ......................................................... 122.7 The 20th Century ........................................................................... 152.8 Conclusion .................................................................................... 23References .............................................................................................. 23
3 Basic Linear AcousticsAlan D. Pierce .......................................................................................... 253.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 273.2 Equations of Continuum Mechanics ................................................ 283.3 Equations of Linear Acoustics ......................................................... 353.4 Variational Formulations ............................................................... 403.5 Waves of Constant Frequency ......................................................... 453.6 Plane Waves.................................................................................. 47
XIV Contents
3.7 Attenuation of Sound .................................................................... 493.8 Acoustic Intensity and Power ......................................................... 583.9 Impedance ................................................................................... 603.10 Reflection and Transmission .......................................................... 613.11 Spherical Waves ............................................................................ 653.12 Cylindrical Waves .......................................................................... 753.13 Simple Sources of Sound ................................................................ 823.14 Integral Equations in Acoustics ...................................................... 873.15 Waveguides, Ducts, and Resonators ............................................... 893.16 Ray Acoustics ................................................................................ 943.17 Diffraction .................................................................................... 983.18 Parabolic Equation Methods .......................................................... 107References .............................................................................................. 108
4 Sound Propagation in the AtmosphereKeith Attenborough ................................................................................. 1134.1 A Short History of Outdoor Acoustics ............................................... 1134.2 Applications of Outdoor Acoustics ................................................... 1144.3 Spreading Losses ........................................................................... 1154.4 Atmospheric Absorption................................................................. 1164.5 Diffraction and Barriers ................................................................. 1164.6 Ground Effects .............................................................................. 1204.7 Attenuation Through Trees and Foliage .......................................... 1294.8 Wind and Temperature Gradient Effects on Outdoor Sound ............. 1314.9 Concluding Remarks ...................................................................... 142References .............................................................................................. 143
5 Underwater AcousticsWilliam A. Kuperman, Philippe Roux ........................................................ 1495.1 Ocean Acoustic Environment .......................................................... 1515.2 Physical Mechanisms ..................................................................... 1555.3 SONAR and the SONAR Equation ...................................................... 1655.4 Sound Propagation Models ............................................................ 1675.5 Quantitative Description of Propagation ......................................... 1775.6 SONAR Array Processing .................................................................. 1795.7 Active SONAR Processing ................................................................. 1855.8 Acoustics and Marine Animals ........................................................ 1955.A Appendix: Units ............................................................................ 201References .............................................................................................. 201
Part B Physical and Nonlinear Acoustics
6 Physical AcousticsMack A. Breazeale, Michael McPherson ..................................................... 2076.1 Theoretical Overview ..................................................................... 2096.2 Applications of Physical Acoustics ................................................... 219
Contents XV
6.3 Apparatus ..................................................................................... 2266.4 Surface Acoustic Waves .................................................................. 2316.5 Nonlinear Acoustics ....................................................................... 234References .............................................................................................. 237
7 ThermoacousticsGregory W. Swift ...................................................................................... 2397.1 History .......................................................................................... 2397.2 Shared Concepts ............................................................................ 2407.3 Engines......................................................................................... 2447.4 Dissipation.................................................................................... 2497.5 Refrigeration ................................................................................. 2507.6 Mixture Separation ........................................................................ 253References .............................................................................................. 254
8 Nonlinear Acoustics in FluidsWerner Lauterborn, Thomas Kurz, Iskander Akhatov .................................. 2578.1 Origin of Nonlinearity .................................................................... 2588.2 Equation of State .......................................................................... 2598.3 The Nonlinearity Parameter B/A ..................................................... 2608.4 The Coefficient of Nonlinearity β .................................................... 2628.5 Simple Nonlinear Waves ................................................................ 2638.6 Lossless Finite-Amplitude Acoustic Waves ....................................... 2648.7 Thermoviscous Finite-Amplitude Acoustic Waves............................. 2688.8 Shock Waves ................................................................................. 2718.9 Interaction of Nonlinear Waves ...................................................... 2738.10 Bubbly Liquids .............................................................................. 2758.11 Sonoluminescence ........................................................................ 2868.12 Acoustic Chaos .............................................................................. 289References .............................................................................................. 293
Part C Architectural Acoustics
9 Acoustics in Halls for Speech and MusicAnders Christian Gade .............................................................................. 3019.1 Room Acoustic Concepts ................................................................. 3029.2 Subjective Room Acoustics ............................................................. 3039.3 Subjective and Objective Room Acoustic Parameters ........................ 3069.4 Measurement of Objective Parameters ............................................ 3149.5 Prediction of Room Acoustic Parameters ......................................... 3169.6 Geometric Design Considerations ................................................... 3239.7 Room Acoustic Design of Auditoria for Specific Purposes .................. 3349.8 Sound Systems for Auditoria .......................................................... 346References .............................................................................................. 349
XVI Contents
10 Concert Hall Acoustics Based on Subjective Preference TheoryYoichi Ando ............................................................................................. 35110.1 Theory of Subjective Preference for the Sound Field ........................ 35310.2 Design Studies .............................................................................. 36110.3 Individual Preferences of a Listener and a Performer ...................... 37010.4 Acoustical Measurements of the Sound Fields in Rooms .................. 377References .............................................................................................. 384
11 Building AcousticsJames Cowan........................................................................................... 38711.1 Room Acoustics ............................................................................. 38711.2 General Noise Reduction Methods .................................................. 40011.3 Noise Ratings for Steady Background Sound Levels.......................... 40311.4 Noise Sources in Buildings ............................................................. 40511.5 Noise Control Methods for Building Systems .................................... 40711.6 Acoustical Privacy in Buildings ....................................................... 41911.7 Relevant Standards ....................................................................... 424References .............................................................................................. 425
Part D Hearing and Signal Processing
12 Physiological AcousticsEric D. Young ........................................................................................... 42912.1 The External and Middle Ear .......................................................... 42912.2 Cochlea ......................................................................................... 43412.3 Auditory Nerve and Central Nervous System .................................... 44912.4 Summary ...................................................................................... 452References .............................................................................................. 453
13 PsychoacousticsBrian C. J. Moore ...................................................................................... 45913.1 Absolute Thresholds ...................................................................... 46013.2 Frequency Selectivity and Masking ................................................. 46113.3 Loudness ...................................................................................... 46813.4 Temporal Processing in the Auditory System ................................... 47313.5 Pitch Perception ............................................................................ 47713.6 Timbre Perception ......................................................................... 48313.7 The Localization of Sounds ............................................................. 48413.8 Auditory Scene Analysis ................................................................. 48513.9 Further Reading and Supplementary Materials ............................... 494References .............................................................................................. 495
14 Acoustic Signal ProcessingWilliam M. Hartmann .............................................................................. 50314.1 Definitions .................................................................................... 50414.2 Fourier Series ................................................................................ 505
Contents XVII
14.3 Fourier Transform .......................................................................... 50714.4 Power, Energy, and Power Spectrum .............................................. 51014.5 Statistics ....................................................................................... 51114.6 Hilbert Transform and the Envelope ............................................... 51414.7 Filters ........................................................................................... 51514.8 The Cepstrum ................................................................................ 51714.9 Noise ............................................................................................ 51814.10 Sampled data ............................................................................... 52014.11 Discrete Fourier Transform ............................................................. 52214.12 The z-Transform............................................................................ 52414.13 Maximum Length Sequences .......................................................... 52614.14 Information Theory ....................................................................... 528References .............................................................................................. 530
Part E Music, Speech, Electroacoustics
15 Musical AcousticsColin Gough ............................................................................................ 53315.1 Vibrational Modes of Instruments .................................................. 53515.2 Stringed Instruments ..................................................................... 55415.3 Wind Instruments ......................................................................... 60115.4 Percussion Instruments ................................................................. 641References .............................................................................................. 661
16 The Human Voice in Speech and SingingBjörn Lindblom, Johan Sundberg ............................................................. 66916.1 Breathing ..................................................................................... 66916.2 The Glottal Sound Source ............................................................... 67616.3 The Vocal Tract Filter ...................................................................... 68216.4 Articulatory Processes, Vowels and Consonants ............................... 68716.5 The Syllable................................................................................... 69516.6 Rhythm and Timing ....................................................................... 69916.7 Prosody and Speech Dynamics ....................................................... 70116.8 Control of Sound in Speech and Singing ......................................... 70316.9 The Expressive Power of the Human Voice ...................................... 706References .............................................................................................. 706
17 Computer MusicPerry R. Cook ........................................................................................... 71317.1 Computer Audio Basics .................................................................. 71417.2 Pulse Code Modulation Synthesis ................................................... 71717.3 Additive (Fourier, Sinusoidal) Synthesis .......................................... 71917.4 Modal (Damped Sinusoidal) Synthesis ............................................ 72217.5 Subtractive (Source-Filter) Synthesis............................................... 72417.6 Frequency Modulation (FM) Synthesis ............................................. 72717.7 FOFs, Wavelets, and Grains ............................................................ 728
XVIII Contents
17.8 Physical Modeling (The Wave Equation) .......................................... 73017.9 Music Description and Control ........................................................ 73517.10 Composition .................................................................................. 73717.11 Controllers and Performance Systems ............................................. 73717.12 Music Understanding and Modeling by Computer ........................... 73817.13 Conclusions, and the Future .......................................................... 740References .............................................................................................. 740
18 Audio and ElectroacousticsMark F. Davis........................................................................................... 74318.1 Historical Review ........................................................................... 74418.2 The Psychoacoustics of Audio and Electroacoustics .......................... 74718.3 Audio Specifications ...................................................................... 75118.4 Audio Components ........................................................................ 75718.5 Digital Audio ................................................................................. 76818.6 Complete Audio Systems ................................................................ 77518.7 Appraisal and Speculation ............................................................. 778References .............................................................................................. 778
Part F Biological and Medical Acoustics
19 Animal BioacousticsNeville H. Fletcher .................................................................................... 78519.1 Optimized Communication ............................................................. 78519.2 Hearing and Sound Production ...................................................... 78719.3 Vibrational Communication ........................................................... 78819.4 Insects .......................................................................................... 78819.5 Land Vertebrates ........................................................................... 79019.6 Birds............................................................................................. 79519.7 Bats .............................................................................................. 79619.8 Aquatic Animals ............................................................................ 79719.9 Generalities .................................................................................. 79919.10 Quantitative System Analysis.......................................................... 799References .............................................................................................. 802
20 Cetacean AcousticsWhitlow W. L. Au, Marc O. Lammers .......................................................... 80520.1 Hearing in Cetaceans ..................................................................... 80620.2 Echolocation Signals ...................................................................... 81320.3 Odontocete Acoustic Communication .............................................. 82120.4 Acoustic Signals of Mysticetes ......................................................... 82720.5 Discussion ..................................................................................... 830References .............................................................................................. 831
21 Medical AcousticsKirk W. Beach, Barbrina Dunmire ............................................................. 83921.1 Introduction to Medical Acoustics ................................................... 841
Contents XIX
21.2 Medical Diagnosis; Physical Examination ........................................ 84221.3 Basic Physics of Ultrasound Propagation in Tissue ........................... 84821.4 Methods of Medical Ultrasound Examination .................................. 85721.5 Medical Contrast Agents ................................................................. 88221.6 Ultrasound Hyperthermia in Physical Therapy ................................. 88921.7 High-Intensity Focused Ultrasound (HIFU) in Surgery ....................... 89021.8 Lithotripsy of Kidney Stones ........................................................... 89121.9 Thrombolysis ................................................................................. 89221.10 Lower-Frequency Therapies ........................................................... 89221.11 Ultrasound Safety .......................................................................... 892References .............................................................................................. 895
Part G Structural Acoustics and Noise
22 Structural Acoustics and VibrationsAntoine Chaigne ...................................................................................... 90122.1 Dynamics of the Linear Single-Degree-of-Freedom (1-DOF)
Oscillator ...................................................................................... 90322.2 Discrete Systems ............................................................................ 90722.3 Strings and Membranes ................................................................. 91322.4 Bars, Plates and Shells................................................................... 92022.5 Structural–Acoustic Coupling .......................................................... 92622.6 Damping ....................................................................................... 94022.7 Nonlinear Vibrations ..................................................................... 94722.8 Conclusion. Advanced Topics .......................................................... 957References .............................................................................................. 958
23 NoiseGeorge C. Maling, Jr................................................................................. 96123.1 Instruments for Noise Measurements ............................................. 96523.2 Noise Sources ................................................................................ 97023.3 Propagation Paths ......................................................................... 99123.4 Noise and the Receiver .................................................................. 99923.5 Regulations and Policy for Noise Control ......................................... 100623.6 Other Information Resources .......................................................... 1010References .............................................................................................. 1010
Part H Engineering Acoustics
24 Microphones and Their CalibrationGeorge S. K. Wong.................................................................................... 102124.1 Historic References on Condenser Microphones and Calibration ....... 102424.2 Theory .......................................................................................... 102424.3 Reciprocity Pressure Calibration ..................................................... 102624.4 Corrections .................................................................................... 1029
XX Contents
24.5 Free-Field Microphone Calibration ................................................. 103924.6 Comparison Methods for Microphone Calibration ............................ 103924.7 Frequency Response Measurement with Electrostatic Actuators ....... 104324.8 Overall View on Microphone Calibration ......................................... 104324.A Acoustic Transfer Impedance Evaluation ......................................... 104524.B Physical Properties of Air ............................................................... 1045References .............................................................................................. 1048
25 Sound IntensityFinn Jacobsen.......................................................................................... 105325.1 Conservation of Sound Energy ........................................................ 105425.2 Active and Reactive Sound Fields ................................................... 105525.3 Measurement of Sound Intensity.................................................... 105825.4 Applications of Sound Intensity ...................................................... 1068References .............................................................................................. 1072
26 Acoustic HolographyYang-Hann Kim ...................................................................................... 107726.1 The Methodology of Acoustic Source Identification .......................... 107726.2 Acoustic Holography: Measurement, Prediction and Analysis ........... 107926.3 Summary ...................................................................................... 109226.A Mathematical Derivations of Three Acoustic Holography Methods
and Their Discrete Forms................................................................ 1092References .............................................................................................. 1095
27 Optical Methods for Acoustics and Vibration MeasurementsNils-Erik Molin ........................................................................................ 110127.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 110127.2 Measurement Principles and Some Applications.............................. 110527.3 Summary ...................................................................................... 1122References .............................................................................................. 1123
28 Modal AnalysisThomas D. Rossing................................................................................... 112728.1 Modes of Vibration ........................................................................ 112728.2 Experimental Modal Testing ........................................................... 112828.3 Mathematical Modal Analysis ......................................................... 113328.4 Sound-Field Analysis ..................................................................... 113628.5 Holographic Modal Analysis ........................................................... 1137References .............................................................................................. 1138
Acknowledgements ................................................................................... 1139About the Authors ..................................................................................... 1141Detailed Contents ...................................................................................... 1147Subject Index ............................................................................................. 1167
XXI
List of Abbreviations
A
ABR auditory brainstem responsesAC articulation classACF autocorrelation functionADC analog-to-digital converterADCP acoustic Doppler current profilerADP ammonium dihydrogen phosphateAM amplitude modulatedAMD air moving deviceAN auditory nerveANSI American National Standards InstituteAR assisted resonanceASW apparent source widthAUV automated underwater vehicle
B
BB bite blockBEM boundary-element methodBER bit error rateBF best frequencyBR bass ratio
C
CAATI computed angle-of-arrival transientimaging
CAC ceiling attenuation classCCD charge-coupled deviceCDF cumulative distribution functionCMU concrete masonry unitCN cochlear nucleusCND cumulative normal distributionCSDM cross-spectral-density matrix
D
DAC digital-to-analog converterDL difference limenDOF degree of freedomDRS directed reflection sequenceDSL deep scattering layerDSP digital speckle photographyDSP digital signal processingDSPI digital speckle-pattern interferometry
E
EARP equal-amplitude random-phaseEDT early decay time
EDV end diastolic velocityEEG electroencephalographyEOF empirical orthogonal functionEOH electro-optic holographyERB equivalent rectangular bandwidthESPI electronic speckle-pattern interferometry
F
FCC Federal Communications CommissionFEA finite-element analysisFEM finite-element methodFERC Federal Energy Regulatory CommissionFFP fast field programFFT fast Fourier transformFIR finite impulse responseFM frequency modulatedFMDL frequency modulation detection limenFOM figure of meritFRF frequency response functionFSK frequency shift keying
G
GA genetic algorithm
H
HVAC heating, ventilating and air conditioning
I
IACC interaural cross-correlation coefficientIACF interaural cross-correlation functionIAD interaural amplitude differenceICAO International Civil Aircraft OrganizationIF intermediate frequencyIFFT inverse fast Fourier transformIHC inner hair cellsIIR infinite impulse responseIM intermodulationIRF impulse response functionISI intersymbol interferenceITD interaural time differenceITDG initial time delay gap
J
JND just noticeable difference
XXII List of Abbreviations
K
KDP potassium dihydrogen phosphate
L
LDA laser Doppler anemometryLDV laser Doppler vibrometryLEF lateral energy fractionLEV listener envelopmentLL listening levelLOC lateral olivocochlear systemLP long-play vinyl recordLTAS long-term-average spectra
M
MAA minimum audible angleMAF minimum audible fieldMAP minimum audible pressureMCR multichannel reverberationMDOF multiple degree of freedomMEG magnetoencephalogramMEMS microelectromechanical systemMFDR maximum flow declination rateMFP matched field processingMIMO multiple-input multiple-outputMLM maximum-likelihood methodMLS maximum length sequenceMOC medial olivocochlear systemMRA main response axisMRI magnetic resonance imagingMTF modulation transfer functionMTS multichannel television soundMV minimum variance
N
NDT nondestructive testingNMI National Metrology InstituteNRC noise reduction coefficient
O
OAE otoacoustic emissionODS operating deflexion shapeOHC outer hair cellsOITC outdoor–indoor transmission classOR or operationOSHA Occupational Safety and Health
Administration
P
PC phase conjugationPCM pulse code modulation
PD probability of detectionPDF probability density functionPE parabolic equationPFA probability of false alarmPIV particle image velocimetryPL propagation lossPLIF planar laser-induced fluorescentPM phase modulationPMF probability mass functionPS phase steppingPS peak systolicPSD power spectral densityPSK phase shift keyingPTC psychophysical tuning curvePVDF polyvinylidene fluoridePZT lead zirconate titanate
Q
QAM quadrature amplitude modulation
R
RASTI rapid speech transmission indexREL resting expiratory levelRF radio frequencyRIAA Recording Industry Association of
AmericaRMS root-mean-squareROC receiving operating characteristicRUS resonant ultrasound spectroscopy
S
s.c. supporting cellsS/N signal-to-noiseSAA sound absorption averageSAC spatial audio codingSAW surface acoustic waveSBSL single-bubble sonoluminescenceSDOF single degree of freedomSE signal excessSEA statistical energy analysisSG spiral ganglionSI speckle interferometrySIL speech interference levelSIL sound intensity levelSISO single-input single-outputSL sensation levelSM scala mediaSNR signal-to-noise ratioSOC superior olivary complexSP speckle photographySPL sound pressure levelSR spontaneous discharge rateST scala tympani
List of Abbreviations XXIII
STC sound transmission classSTI speech transmission indexSV scala vestibuliSVR slow vertex response
T
TDAC time-domain alias cancellationTDGF time-domain Green’s functionTHD total harmonic distortionTL transmission lossTLC total lung capacityTMTF temporal modulation transfer functionTNM traffic noise modelTR treble ratioTR time reversalTTS temporary threshold shiftTVG time-varied gain
U
UMM unit modal mass
V
VBR variable bitrateVC vital capacity
W
WS working standard
X
XOR exclusive or