SSUSH15 & 19

Minority Heroes Fighting Two Fronts

Minority Heroes Fighting Two Fronts

African American Soldiers in WWI

• 1917: Army Service Forces Manual M5 clarified the official position:

War Department concern with the Negro is focused directly and solely on the problem of the most effective military use of colored troops. It is essential that there is a clear understanding that the Army has no authority or intention to participate in social reform as such, but does view the problem as a matter of efficient troop utilization.

• Efficient troop utilization meant keeping black soldiers in segregated units.

• It also meant restricting them to service jobs rather than fighting in combat.

• However, pressure from prominent black leaders led to changes in Army policy.

• 1917: The U.S. Army activated the 92nd and 93rd Infantry Division (Colored).

• Initially, the Colored Divisions were assigned to the American Expeditionary

Forces and shipped overseas. They were eventually assigned to the French.

Minority Heroes Fighting Two Fronts

African American Soldiers in WWI

92nd Inf Div

“Buffalo Soldiers”

365th Inf Rgmt

366th Inf Rgmt

367th Inf Rgmt

368th Inf Rgmt

93nd Inf Div

“Blue Helmets”

369th Inf Rgmt

370th Inf Rgmt

371st Inf Rgmt

372nd Inf Rgmt

Commander of A.E.F:

Maj. Gen. John J.

“Black Jack” Pershing

Former Commander of

the 10th U.S. Cavalry

“Buffalo Soldiers”

Official Statement to White A.E.F. Officers: We must not eat with them, must not shake hands with them, seek to talk to them or to meet with them outside the requirements of military service. We must not commend too highly these troops, especially in front of white Americans”

Secret Communique to the French Commanders of 92nd & 93rd Division Troops: “I cannot commend too highly the spirit shown among the colored combat troops, who exhibit fine capacity for quick training and eagerness for the most dangerous work.”

Minority Heroes Fighting Two Fronts

369th Infantry “Harlem Hellfighters”

• Combat Service under the French

• Helped the French defeat Germany

• Awarded the French Croix de Guerre

171 members were awarded

the French Legion of Honor

Numerous Distinguished

Service Crosses Awarded

No Medal of Honors?

Minority Heroes Fighting Two Fronts

Possible Medal of Honor Recipients in WWI

Private Henry L. Johnson Co. C, 369th Inf.

14 May 1918: On a very dark night, privates Henry Johnson and Needham Roberts

were manning an outpost when a German patrol of about 24 soldiers attacked their

position and wounded Roberts. Johnson, still on his feet, defended his wounded

comrade by attacking the approaching Germans. Fighting like a whole platoon, he

fired his rifle until it ran out of ammunition and then laid out the Germans with the

butt until it splintered. Taking his bolo knife, he kept fighting until his comrades

found him with four dead Germans and thirty-two wounded ones lying all around.

Corporal Freddie Stowers Co. C, 371st Inf.

28 Sept 1918: While serving as a squad leader, his company led the attack on Hill

188 in the Champagne Marne Sector of France. As the company started forward

the enemy caught them with interlocking machine gun fire and mortar fire causing

well over fifty percent casualties. Faced with incredible enemy resistance,

Corporal Stowers took charge. With extraordinary heroism, he led his squad

toward an enemy machine gun nest. After fierce fighting, the machine gun position

was destroyed and the enemy soldiers were killed. Continuing to press the attack,

while crawling forward, he was gravely wounded. Although Corporal Stowers was

mortally wounded, he pressed forward, urging his squad on to victory, until he died.

Minority Heroes Fighting Two Fronts

African American Soldiers in WWII

• 1925: Army War College Memorandum - The Use of Negro Manpower:

The Negro is physically qualified for combat duty. He is by nature subservient and believes himself to be inferior to white man. He is most susceptible to the influence of crowd psychology. He can not control himself in the fear of danger to the extent the white man can. He has not the initiative and resourcefulness of the white man. He is mentally inferior to the white man.

• 1941: U.S. War Department Memorandum:

Negroes have been notably a loyal and patriotic group. One of their outstanding characteristics is the single-mindedness of their patriotism. They have not other country to which they owe or feel any degree of allegiance. Therefore, they have built in America a fine record of loyalty and a willingness to support and defend their native land.

Minority Heroes Fighting Two Fronts

761st Tank Battalion “Black Panthers”

• Combat Service under George S. Patton

• Helped defeat Germans around Bastogne

• Awarded Presidential Unit Citation (1978)

• No Medal of Honors?

African American Soldiers in WWII

Minority Heroes Fighting Two Fronts

Patton on African American Soldiers in WWII

Lieutenant General

George S. Patton

Patton’s Speech to the Men of the 761st Tk Bn:

“Men, you're the first Negro tankers to ever fight in the American Army. I would never have asked for you if you weren't good. I have nothing but the best in my Army. I don't care what color you are as long as you go up there and kill those Kraut sons of bitches. Everyone has their eyes on you and is expecting great things from you. Most of all your race is looking forward to your success. Don't let them down and damn you, don't let me down!”

On returning to his headquarters following the review, he remarked:

"They gave a good first impression, but I have no faith in the inherent fighting ability of the race."

After the War:

"Individually they were good soldiers, but I expressed my belief at the time, and have never found the necessity of changing it, that a colored soldier cannot think fast enough to fight in armor."

Minority Heroes Fighting Two Fronts

Possible Medal of Honor Recipients in WWII Staff Sergeant Reuben Rivers 761st Tank Bn.

10 Nov, 1944: Sergeant Warren G.H. Crecy fought through enemy positions to aid

his men until his tank was destroyed. He immediately took command of another

vehicle, armed with only a .30-caliber machine gun, and liquidated the enemy

position that had destroyed his tank. Still under heavy fire, he helped eliminate

the enemy forward observers who were directing the artillery fire that had been

pinning down the American infantry. Later that day, he again exposed himself to

enemy fire as he wiped out several machine-gun nests and an anti-tank position

with only his machine gun. The more fire he drew, the harder he fought.

15-19 Nov 1944: During an armored advanced on a German held town, Sergeant

Rivers' tank hit a mine at a railroad crossing. Though severely wounded in the leg

during the assault, Sergeant Rivers refused medical treatment and evacuation.

Taking command of another tank, Sergeant Rivers continued to direct his tank's

fire at enemy positions through the morning of 19 Nov 1944. At dawn, Company

A's tanks were stopped by enemy fire. Sergeant Rivers, joined by another tank,

opened fire on the enemy tanks, covering company A as they withdrew. While

doing so, Sergeant River's tank was hit, killing him and wounding the crew.

Sergeant Warren Crecy 761st Tank Bn.

Minority Heroes Fighting Two Fronts

African American Airmen in WWII

332nd Fighter Group:

Tuskegee Airmen

June 1941: The U.S. Army Air Corps established a Flight Training Program for African American pilots at Tuskegee, Alabama.

992 African Americans were commissioned as pilots (1941-1946)

66 Pilots were Killed in Action

272 German Aircraft Destroyed

96 Distinguished Flying Crosses

2 Officers became Generals

Gen. Benjamin O. Davis, Jr.

Gen. Daniel “Chappie” James

Minority Heroes Fighting Two Fronts

African American Sailors in WWII

• Jul 1940: Policy Letter from the Secretary of the Navy:

Experience has proven, that when given supervisory responsibility, the Negro is unable to maintain discipline among white subordinates with the result that teamwork, harmony, and ship's efficiency suffers. The Negro, therefore, needs to be segregated from the white sailor. All-black units are impossible because the service's training and distribution system demands that a man in any particular rating be available for any duty required of that rating.

• Initially, the U.S. Navy continued its policy of allowing Negro Sailors to serve only as Mess or Laundry Stewards.

• Mar 1944: Destroyer Escort USS Mason was commissioned with a predominantly black crew (except for its white officers).

• Nicknamed “Eleanor’s Folly” because many white leaders expected them to fail.

• Successfully escorted numerous convoys.

Minority Heroes Fighting Two Fronts

Possible Medal of Honor Recipients in WWII

Mess Attendant 2nd Class

Doris “Dorie” Miller

7 Dec 1941: Doris Miller was collecting laundry when the alarm for general

quarters sounded during the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. He headed for

his battle station, only to discover that torpedo damage had wrecked it.

Because of his physical prowess, he was assigned to carry wounded sailors to

safety. Reporting to the ship’s bridge, he carried the mortally wounded

Captain of the ship to a place of safety. He then manned a 50 caliber anti-

aircraft machine gun, which he had not been trained to fire, and proceeded

to shoot down enemy aircraft until he ran out of ammunition and was ordered

to abandon ship.

12–13 Nov 1942: With persistent disregard for his own personal safety,

Leonard Roy Harmon rendered invaluable assistance to the ship’s wounded

during combat against the Japanese in the Solomon Islands. In addition to

displaying unusual loyalty to and protection of his injured Executive Officer,

he deliberately exposed himself to hostile gunfire in order to protect a

shipmate and, as a result of this courageous deed, was killed in action.

Mess Attendant 1st Class

Leonard Roy Harmon

Minority Heroes Fighting Two Fronts

Japanese American Soldiers in WWII

442nd Regimental Combat Team Dec 1941: Pearl Harbor caused the United States to categorize all Japanese Americans as 4C (Enemy Aliens) & place them in relocation camps.

1942: The War Department called for the removal of all Japanese American Soldiers from active military service. Jun 1942: The War Department

authorized the formation of an all Japanese-American Combat Unit (100th Infantry Battalion).

Japanese American Volunteers were recruited from the many relocations camps in the U.S.

Feb 1944: The 442nd Regimental Combat Team was formed from the 100th Infantry Battalion.

Minority Heroes Fighting Two Fronts

Japanese American Soldiers in WWII

442nd Regimental Combat Team

The 442nd Regimental Combat Team became known as the “Nisei Regiment.”

The Regimental Motto was “Go for Broke.”

May 1944: They Landed at Anzio, Italy

It became the most decorated unit in the Army during WWII.

Only 1 Medal of Honor Awarded?

Minority Heroes Fighting Two Fronts

Possible Medal of Honor Recipients in WWII

5 Apr 1945: Private Sadao Menemori’s unit was pinned down by grazing fire from

strong enemy defense when command of his squad devolved upon him. Making

frontal, one-man attacks through direct fire, he knocked out two machine guns

with grenades. Withdrawing under murderous fire and showers of grenades from

enemy emplacements, a grenade bounced of his helmet and rolled toward his

helpless comrades. He immediately dove onto the grenade and smothered its

blast with his body, saving the lives of his team at the cost of his own life and

did much to clear the path for his company's victorious advance."

Private 1st Class Sadao Munemori

442nd RCT

29 Nov 1943: Private Mikio Hasemoto and his squad leader challenged an enemy

force of approximately 40 soldiers attacking the left flank of their platoon.

Initially, they killed two of the attacking German Machine Gunners. After firing

four magazines and killing nearly 20 more of the approaching enemy, his weapon

was shot and damaged. Securing another rifle, he continued to fire, killing 10

more enemy soldiers unitl his weapon jammed. He quickly secured another rifle.

With only three enemy soldiers left, he and his squad leader charged forward,

courageously killing one, wounding another, and capturing the last one.

Private Mikio Hasemoto

442nd RCT

Minority Heroes Fighting Two Fronts

Eventual Recognition

1990: U.S. Army investigation on awards discrimination during WWI uncovered a recommendation for a Medal of Honor

1991: Corporal Freddie Stowers was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor, 73 years after his heroic deeds.

1992: Department of Defense commissioned Shaw University to conduct a study on WWII Racial Discrimination

1997: President Bill Clinton awarded 7 African American WWII soldiers the Medal of Honor (posthumously).

Staff Sergeant Rueben Rivers was one of the seven soldiers.

1996: Study commission ordered by Congress investigated WWII Racial Discrimination against Asian Americans.

2000: President Bill Clinton awarded 22 Asian American Soldiers the Medal of Honor.

21 of the awards were given to members of the 442nd RCT.