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Kingdom of Lesotho
Statistical Report
No.17: 2013
2012 Energy, Air and Climate Change
Bureau of Statistics P.O. Box 455 Maseru 100 Lesotho Tel: +266 22 323 852/22 326 393 Fax: +266 22 310 177 E-mail: [email protected] Website: www.bos.gov.ls
Mission: To coordinate the National Statistical System (NSS) and produce accurate, timely and reliable culturally relevant and internationally comparable statistical data for evidence-based planning, decision making, research, policy, program formulation and monitoring and evaluation to satisfy the needs of users and producers.
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Table of Contents Page
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................................ ii
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................................. ii
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 1
ENERGY STATISTICS ..................................................................................................................... 2
1.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 2
1.1 Coverage and Scope ................................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Results .......................................................................................................................................... 2
1.2.1 Generated Electricity .......................................................................................................... 2
1.2.2 Electricity Purchased ......................................................................................................... 3
1.2.3 Electricity Exported and Sales to LEC ........................................................................... 4
1.2.4 Number of LEC Customers ............................................................................................... 4
1.2.5 Electricity consumed in different sectors ...................................................................... 5
1.3 Petroleum Fuels .......................................................................................................................... 6
1.3.1 Amount of Fuel Imported .................................................................................................. 6
1.3.2 Source of Energy Used for Lighting in Urban/Rural Residence ............................. 7
1.3.3 Source of Energy for Heating in Urban/Rural Residence ......................................... 8
1.3.4 Source of Energy Used for Cooking in Urban/Rural Residence ............................. 9
1.4 Summary .................................................................................................................................... 10
AIR AND CLIMATE CHANGE ...................................................................................................... 11
2.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 11
2.1 Coverage and Scope ................................................................................................................. 11
2.2 Results ........................................................................................................................................ 11
2.2.1 Ambient air quality ........................................................................................................... 11
2.2.2 Particulate Matter (PM10) ................................................................................................. 12
2.2.3 Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) ..................................................................................................... 13
2.2.4 Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) ...................................................................................................... 14
2.2.5 Diseases Related to air pollution................................................................................... 15
2.3 Climate Change ......................................................................................................................... 15
2.3.1 Minimum and Maximum Temperatures ..................................................................... 16
2.3.2 Rainfall................................................................................................................................. 17
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2.3.3 Ozone Depleting Substances .......................................................................................... 18
2.4 Summary .................................................................................................................................... 18
References ......................................................................................................................................... 19
ANNEX ................................................................................................................................................ 20
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Electricity Purchases from Eskom, 'Muela and Mozambique by LEC.................. 4 Table 2: Number of Customers to LEC by Sectors and Period............................................... 5 Table 3: Consumption of Electricity from LEC in Megawatts by different Sectors ........... 5 Table 4: PM10 concentrations measured at the sites in µg/m³ by Season and Station . 12 Table 5: Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) concentrations measured at the sites in µg/m³ by Season and Station ......................................................................................................................... 13 Table 6: Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) concentrations measured at the sites in µg/m³ by Season and Station ......................................................................................................................... 14 Table 7: Number of patients by Type of Disease for the years 2007 to 2011 ................... 15 Table 8: Annual Rainfall in Millimetres (mm) for the Years 2007 to 2011........................ 17 Table 9: Ozone Depleting Substances in Metric Tonnes (mt) by Type for the years 2001 to 2011 ............................................................................................................................................... 18
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Electricity Generated in Megawatt hour (GWh) by Period (2007-2011) ..........3 Figure 2: Electricity Sales from 'Muela by Year ..........................................................4 Figure 3: Fuel Prices from January to 2011 December ...............................................6 Figure 4: Petroleum Fuels Imported in Lesotho by Year ..............................................7 Figure 5: Source of Energy for lighting by Urban/Rural Residence..............................8 Figure 6: Source of Energy for Heating by Urban/Rural Residence .............................9 Figure 7: Source of Energy for Cooking by Urban/Rural Residence ........................... 10 Figure 8: Maximum PM10 concentrations measured at the sites by Season and Station in µg/m³ ................................................................................................................ 13 Figure 9: Maximum Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) concentrations measured at the sites in µg/m³ by Season and Station ................................................................................. 14 Figure 10: Maximum Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) concentrations measured at the sites in µg/m³ by Season and Station ................................................................................. 15 Figure 11: Average Minimum temperatures in Degree Celsius (0C) by Month and period (2007 to 2011) ........................................................................................................ 16 Figure 12: Average Maximum Temperatures in Degree Celsius (0C) by Month and period (2007 to 2011) ............................................................................................. 17
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Introduction
Sustainability is about living well within the means that nature provides. All our energy comes ultimately from the sun and stars. The quality of our lives depends on having lots of energy to do things for us. We use energy to heat and light our homes, schools and businesses, run electric and electronic equipment such as computers, televisions and telephones. Climate change affects the entire globe. Harsh weather conditions, such as heat waves and droughts, happen more often and more severely in recent years. Developed and developing countries are working together to find solutions to climate change as it affects health and well-being of nations. Increases in molds and pollens due to warmer temperatures could cause respiratory problems such as asthma for some people.
This report concentrates mainly on the two sections namely Energy, Air and Climate Change.
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ENERGY STATISTICS
1.0 Introduction
Energy has always played an important role in human and economic development and society’s well being as stated in Energy Statistics manual (IEA Publications 2004). The Lesotho Highlands Development Authority (LHDA) being the sole producer of electricity in the country sells its product to the Lesotho Electricity Company (LEC) which distributes electricity to the consumers. LHDA also exports some electricity to RSA when there is excess generation since electricity cannot be stored.
"Oil is the largest traded commodity worldwide, either through crude oil or through refined products. As a consequence, it is essential to collect data as complete, accurate and timely as possible on all oil flows and products. Although oil supply continues to grow in absolute terms, its share in global total energy supply has been decreasing, from over 45% in 1973 to around 35% in recent year" (IEA Publications, 2004). Petroleum products are derived from crude oil and are therefore a secondary form of crude oil. Petroleum products are mainly used in the transport sector and households. They are not exclusively used for energy purposes, but also many can be used as raw material in different sectors (IEA Publications, 2004).
1.1 Coverage and Scope
Data collected on electricity in this section covers the years 2007 through 2012 and that of petroleum oils (Illuminating Paraffin, Diesel, Unleaded and Leaded Petrol) is from 2010 to 2011.
1.2 Results
The results on energy commodities such as electricity, petroleum fuels are given in this section.
1.2.1 Generated Electricity Lesotho produces hydroelectricity, which is mostly used nationwide and the remainder exported to South-Africa. In producing hydroelectricity, a power source (water) is used to turn a propeller-like piece called a turbine, which then turns a metal shaft in an electric generator, which is the motor that produces electricity (http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/hyhowworks.html).
Figure 1 portrays the electricity generated in 'Muela Hydro Electric Power Station in Gigawatt hour (GWh) for the period 2007 to 2011. It is observed in the figure that there was more electricity generated in 2007 (507.3 GWh) than any other year. The least amount of electricity generated was in 2011 with 489.5 GWh.
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Figure 1: Electricity Generated in Megawatt hour (GWh) by Period (2007-2011)
Source: Lesotho Electricity Company
1.2.2 Electricity Purchased
The Lesotho Electricity Company (LEC) was established to generate, transmit, distribute and supply electricity (http://www.lec.co.ls/about/). Most of the electricity purchased by LEC is that generated from 'Muela Hydro Electric Power Station. LEC also purchases electricity from Eskom and Electricidade De Mozambique (EDM).
Table 1 presents the electricity purchased by LEC in 2010 and 2011. There was a total of 700.72 GWh electricity purchased by LEC in 2010, of which 70.7 percent was from 'Muela. The remaining electricity is from Eskom and (Electricidade De Mozambique) EDM, which constituted 23.2 percent and 6.1 percent respectively.
It is further observed in Table 1 that the same pattern applies in 2011, that is, more electricity purchased from 'Muela, followed by Eskom and then EDM. There was more electricity (3.1 percent) purchased in 2011 as compared to 2010. Furthermore the proportion of electricity from Eskom greatly increased from 2010 to 2011 (from 23.2 to 32.0 percent) while in 'Muela was vice versa (from 70.7 to 62.8 percent).
507.3
503.4505.3
500.6
489.5
480.0
485.0
490.0
495.0
500.0
505.0
510.0
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Gig
awat
t Hou
r
Year
4
Table 1: Electricity Purchases from Eskom, 'Muela and Mozambique by LEC Year Eskom 'Muela EDM Total
2010 162.81 495.06 42.84
700.72
2011
230.78 453.35 38.17
722.30 Source: Lesotho Electricity Company
1.2.3 Electricity Exported and Sales to LEC 'Muela Hydro Electric Power Station sells electricity to LEC and the remainder is exported to South Africa as electricity cannot be stored.
Figure 2 depicts electricity sales from ‘Muela. The amount of electricity sold to LEC and that exported to South Africa is reflected in the figure. 2011 was the year in which most electricity was exported (39.2 GWh) and the least sales (450.3 GWh) to LEC was made. The most amount of electricity (511.6 GWh) sold to LEC was in 2008.
Figure 2: Electricity Sales from 'Muela by Year
Source: Lesotho Electricity Company
1.2.4 Number of LEC Customers There are numerous sectors in Lesotho that utilize electricity from LEC, and these include Special Domestic Consumer, General Purpose Special, Commercial, Industrial, LHDA, Pre-paid Domestic and Pre-paid General Purpose.
Table 2 shows the number of customers to LEC by Sectors and period. It is observed in the table that the majority of customers (over 90.0 percent) are in the Pre-paid
478.7511.6
488.9 495.1450.3
3.9 8.2 4.0 8.539.2
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Gig
awat
t hou
r
Year
Sales to LEC
Exports
5
Domestic sector across all the years. It was followed by those in the Prepaid General Purpose sector who constituted 8.1 percent in 2009/2010, 6.9 percent in 2010/2011 and 6.1 percent in 2011/2012.
Table 2: Number of Customers to LEC by Sectors and Period Customers 2009/2010 2010/2011 2011/2012 Number of Special Domestic Consumers 5 5 5 General Purpose Special 30 30 30
Commercial 194 203 203 Industrial 148 150 150
LHDA 10 10 10 Pre-paid Domestic 79,782 97,859 119,962
Pre-paid General Purpose 7,021 7,263 7,819
Total 87,190 105,520 128,179 Source: Lesotho Electricity Company
1.2.5 Electricity consumed in different sectors There are a number of industries in Lesotho which consequently result in much of the consumption of electricity every year. Due to development in accessibility, more and more people, even in rural areas are beginning to enjoy electricity.
It is observed in Table 3 that from 2009 to 2012 much of the electricity from LEC is consumed by the Industrial, Pre-paid Domestic, Commercial and Prepaid General Purpose sector. It is further observed that electricity consumed in the Prepaid sector has been steadily increasing from 2009/2010 to 2011/2012, for example, from 2009/2010 to 2010/2011, there was an increase of 10.9 percent and from 2010/2011 to 2011/2012 an increase of 11.1 percent was observed. There was an increase in consumption of electricity over the years in the Commercial sector.
Table 3: Consumption of Electricity from LEC in Megawatts by different Sectors Consumption in Megawatts 2009/2010 2010/2011 2011/2012 Special Domestic Consumption 752 626 648 Special General Purpose 2,655 2,355 2,292 Commercial 96,538 104,887 116,441 Industrial 202,087 217,964 214,290 LHDA 6,462 6,098 6,311 Pre-paid Domestic 174,237 193,210 214,584 Pre-paid General Purpose 85,663 89,728 90,880
Total 568,394 614,868 645,446 Source: Lesotho Electricity Company
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1.3 Petroleum Fuels
Petroleum products include transportation fuels, fuel oils for heating and electricity generation, asphalt and road oil and the feedstocks used to make chemicals, plastics and synthetics materials found in nearly everything we use today (www.ela.gov/tools/faqs/).
Figure 3 depicts the cost of petroleum fuels from January to December of 2011 in cents per litre. It is observed from the figure that Diesel is the most expensive fuel, followed by Petrol (Leaded and Unleaded petrol) and then Illuminating Paraffin. Fuel prices were highest in December, where petrol cost M9.55/l, Diesel cost M10.80/l and Paraffin cost M7.90/l.
Figure 3: Fuel Prices from January to December 2011
Source: Petroleum Fund
1.3.1 Amount of Fuel Imported Lesotho does not produce crude oil or any of the byproducts hence why all of the petroleum fuels are imported. Tetra ethyl lead is a killer chemical, nowadays banned in the west for use in car fuel (www.gaurdian.co.uk/business/2010/jun/30/lead-bribery-octel), that is why there is reduction in imported leaded petrol.
Figure 4 depicts petroleum fuels imported in Lesotho by year. There was a decrease of 0.4 percent in volume of the total imported fuels. Despite that, there was a higher proportion of imported Unleaded petrol (27.3 percent) and Diesel (35.9 percent) in
0
200
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1,200
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Cent
s Petrol(Leaded & Unleaded)Diesel
Illuminating Paraffin
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2011 than there was in 2010. The proportions of leaded petrol and illuminating paraffin decreased to 19.8 and 17.1 percent respectively in 2010.
Figure 4: Petroleum Fuels Imported in Lesotho by Year
Source: Petroleum Fund
1.3.2 Source of Energy Used for Lighting in Urban/Rural Residence Lesotho has about 23.0 percent of its population residing in urban areas and the remaining 77.0 percent in rural areas. Most of the population in rural areas is not within reach to access electricity due to bad terrain or simply because they cannot afford electricity. Figure 5 shows the percentage distribution usage of different sources of energy used for lighting in urban and rural residences. It is observed in the figure that the majority of households in the rural areas (64.1 percent) use paraffin for lighting. In urban areas most residents use electricity and paraffin with 44.6 and 44.8 percent respectively.
23.024.5
33.1
19.3
27.3
19.8
35.9
17.1
0.0
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10.0
15.0
20.0
25.0
30.0
35.0
40.0
Unleaded petrol leaded Petrol Diesel Illuminated Paraffin
Perc
enta
ge
Petroleum
2010
2011
8
Figure 5: Source of Energy for lighting by Urban/Rural Residence
Source: Bureau of Statistics LDS 2011
1.3.3 Source of Energy for Heating in Urban/Rural Residence
More than two billion people depend on wood energy for cooking and/or heating, particularly in households in developing countries. It represents the only domestically available and affordable source of energy. Fuel wood and charcoal production is often the predominant use of woody biomass in developing countries and economies in transition (http://www.fao.org/forestry/energy/en/).
Figure 6 portrays the energy sources used for heating by Urban/Rural residence. It is observed in the figure that the primary source for heating in the rural areas is wood constituting 66.6 percent. Other commonly used sources for heating in the rural households include paraffin (20.4 percent) and dung (3.8 percent). The main sources of energy used for heating in urban areas are paraffin, electricity and wood with 64.0, 11.2 and 8.1 percent respectively.
44.6
0.4
44.8
10.2
0.0
9.5
0.3
64.1
26.0
0.10
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Electricity Gas Paraffin Candle Other
Perc
ent
Source of Energy for Lighting
urban
Rural
9
Figure 6: Source of Energy for Heating by Urban/Rural Residence
Source: Bureau of Statistics LDS 2011
1.3.4 Source of Energy Used for Cooking in Urban/Rural Residence The burning of dung, firewood (woody biomass), charcoal and other forms of bio energy have long been important for cooking and the heating of homes. Biomass is an important source of household energy for many people around the world, especially in rural communities of developing countries such as the global South, and may serve as the main source of energy for perhaps half of all households worldwide (http://www.bioenergywiki.net/Household_energy_use/). Figure 7 portrays energy sources used for cooking by Urban/Rural residence. It is shown in the figure that 71.3 percent of rural residents use wood for cooking, followed by those who use gas and paraffin with 15.7 and 7.9 percent respectively. The main sources for cooking in the urban areas are gas, paraffin and electricity with 47.8, 22.6 and 21.4 percent respectively.
11.2
2.7
64.0
1.0
8.1
0.3 0.0
12.6
0.01.4 0.7
20.4
1.0
66.6
3.8 0.26.0
0.10
10
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30
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50
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70Pe
rcen
tage
Source Energy for Heating
Urban
Rural
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Figure 7: Source of Energy for Cooking by Urban/Rural Residence
Source: Bureau of Statistics LDS 2011
1.4 Summary
Lesotho exported about 3.0 percent of all the electricity that was generated in "Muela since 2006 until 2011. Most LEC customers are in the Prepaid Domestic sector, which its proportion has been increasing from 2009 to 2012. Much of the electricity from LEC is consumed by industries. Other major consumers of electricity include the Prepaid Domestic, Commercial and Prepaid General Purpose sectors.
Petroleum fuel prices were highest in December 2011, for example, a litre of diesel during this time cost M10.80. There was a decrease from 2010 to 2011 in the overall imported petroleum.
The main source of energy used for cooking and heating in the rural areas was wood and paraffin was used for lighting. In the urban areas, paraffin and electricity were mainly used for lighting and cooking while gas and paraffin were mainly used for cooking.
21.4
47.8
22.6
0.0
8.0
0.1 0.0 0.12.7
15.7
7.9
0.1
71.3
1.9 0.3 0.10
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Electricity Gas Paraffin Coal Wood Dung Crop waste
Other
Perc
enta
ge
Source of Energy for Cooking
Urban
Rural
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AIR AND CLIMATE CHANGE
2.0 Introduction
Air Statistics refers to data on factors affecting the quality of air such as emissions of greenhouse gases and their sources, population and their effects on the environment. Air emissions predominantly arise from the combustion of fossil fuels mainly in; transport, agricultural industries and manufacturing, and other kind of fuel combustion activities. Other gases that have negative impact on the atmosphere are ozone depleting substances which are found in refrigeration, air conditioning, foam blowing, cleaning of electronics components and solvents. These activities generate a variety of air pollutants.
As these air pollutants are emitted to the atmosphere, they cause the sun’s heat being trapped more than the earth actually needs, hence this causes climate change. Climate change is characterized by the occurrence of natural disasters (extreme weather conditions, floods and storm).
2.1 Coverage and Scope
The report will cover data on ambient air and climate change. Ambient air data was collected from selected places in Maseru and Maputsoe. The following indicators were used when assessing ambient air: Particulate matter, Nitrogen Dioxide and Sulphur Dioxide. Data on diseases related to air pollution and climate covers the whole country.
2.2 Results
This section consists of results on ambient air quality and climate change. The results cover ambient air quality where the indicators are: Particulate matter, Oxides of Nitrogen, Sulphur Dioxide and Diseases related to air pollution. Time frame for ambient air data is from November 2006 to February 2007 in summer and from July to November 2007 in winter. Diseases related to air pollution data is from 2007 to 2011. Climate change will also be covered with the following indicators: Temperatures, Rainfall and Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS). For the temperatures and rainfall, data is for the period 2007 to 2011 and for ODS data is from 2001 to 2011.
2.2.1 Ambient air quality Ambient air is the outdoor air in which humans and other organisms live and breathe. The content and quality of ambient air is directly affected by the day-to-day activities of humans. In turn, ambient air quality has a direct effect on both public health and the welfare of the Earth's ecosystems.
The quality of ambient air is measured in urban city, industrial city and background site. Urban city is the largest city in the country or a city in which a notable portion (5 to 10 percent) of the population is concentrated. Industrial city is a city where a significant
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number of inhabitants have been exposed to the high levels of industrial pollution, while background site is an area remote to both industrial activities and high population densities.
2.2.2 Particulate Matter (PM10) Particulate matter describes solids or liquids that are very small and usually found in the air, in which case they also can be referred to as particulate pollution. The size of a particle can range from only two or three molecules to pieces that are clearly visible to the human eye, although still small. There are two types of particulate matter, primary and secondary. Primary particles are created directly from a source and are somehow launched into the air, where they can remain suspended for anywhere from hours to weeks, depending on the size. Secondary particles actually form in the air when different molecules and conditions create chemical reactions.
Table 4 presents PM10 concentrations measured at the site in µg/m³ by season and station. It can be observed from the table that for winter, average concentrations of PM10 were high in all stations. The highest average concentrations were in Maseru2 (138.83µg/m³) whereas the lowest were in Maseru6 (66.55µg/m³).
Table 4: PM10 Concentrations measured at the sites in µg/m³ by Season and Station
Season Maseru1 Maseru2 Maseru3 Maseru4 Maseru5 Maseru6 Maputsoe1 Maputsoe2
Summer Average 20.79 43.13 34.73 49.36 45.65 17.03 58.00 34.49
Minimum BDL BDL BDL BDL BDL BDL BDL BDL
Winter Average 93.38 138.83 105.90 115.04 72.44 66.55 86.01 76.20
Minimum 20.58 24.93 0.80 33.88 21.44 13.77 0.87 0.87 Source: Baseline Data on Ambient Air Quality Assessment in Maseru and Maputsoe BDL: below detection limit Maseru1: Ha Thetsane at the chief’s house Maseru2: Ha Ts’osane next to municipality dumpsite Maseru3: Ha Matala, at S Chopo’s house Maseru4: Maseru Industrial area (opposite CTM) Maseru5: Thetsane Private Hospital Maseru6: UNESCO Building, town center Maputsoe1: Ha Nyenye (Chief Mantsi’s place) Maputsoe2: Chief Mabaso’s place (between two industrial sites)
Figure 8 portrays maximum PM10 concentrations measured at the site by season and station in µg/m³. For all the stations, winter maximum concentrations were high except in Maseru5 and Maputsoe1. The highest concentrations were in Maseru3 with 496.01µg/m³. The concentrations in Maseru4 did not differ that much for winter and summer.
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Figure 8: Maximum PM10 concentrations measured at the sites by Season and Station in µg/m³
Source: Baseline Data on Ambient Air Quality Assessment in Maseru and Maputsoe
2.2.3 Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) Nitrogen dioxide is a reddish-brown gas with a pungent, irritating odour. It absorbs light and leads to the yellow-brown haze sometimes seen hanging over cities. It is one of the important components of smog. Nitrogen oxides occur naturally and also are produced by man's activities. In nature, they are a result of bacterial processes, biological growth and decay, lightning, forest and grassland fires. The primary source of man-made nitrogen oxides is from the burning of fossil fuels.
Table 5 presents nitrogen dioxide concentrations measured at the site in µg/m³ by season and station. The concentrations differ from station to station, but for all the stations except Maseru3, average concentrations in winter are higher than in summer.
Table 5: Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) concentrations measured at the sites in µg/m³ by Season and Station
Maseru1 Maseru2 Maseru3 Maseru4 MAseru5 Maseru6 Maputsoe1 Maputsoe2
Summer
Average 9.69 8.82 10.92 16.83 6.22 8.09 6.71 9.73
Minimum 1.45 1.16 1.16 2.34 1.37 0.97 1.40 1.13
Winter
Average 37.35 14.84 10.25 20.57 9.43 29.76 40.26 12.44
Minimum 2.34 1.03 0.37 2.15 4.28 2.06 31.85 1.78 Source: Baseline Data on Ambient Air Quality Assessment in Maseru and Maputsoe
Figure 9 portrays maximum nitrogen dioxide concentrations measured at the site in µg/m³ by season and station. In Maseru3, summer and winter concentrations differ by 1.9 percent, reflecting a slight difference in these seasons. The highest increase was in Maputsoe1 from 8.74µg/m³ in summer to 48.67µg/m³ in winter.
0100200300400500600
mic
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ams
per
cubi
c m
eter
Station
Summer
Winter
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Figure 9: Maximum Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) concentrations measured at the sites in µg/m³ by Season and Station
2.2.4 Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) Sulphur dioxide is a colourless gas, released from burning fossil fuels like coal and oil. It is also found naturally in the air at low concentrations from natural releases such as volcanoes and forest fires. Sulphur dioxide can cause breathing difficulties and is toxic to plants as it causes acid rain when reacting with moisture in the air.
Table 6 shows sulphur dioxide concentrations measured at the sites in µg/m³ by season and station. It can be observed from the table that the concentrations of sulphur dioxide are high in winter. The highest average concentrations were in Maseru1 with 42.58µg/m³ while the least were in Maseru3 with 1.44µg/m³.
Table 6: Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) concentrations measured at the sites in µg/m³ by Season and Station
Maseru1 Maseru2 Maseru3 Maseru4 Maseru5 Maseru6 Maputsoe1 Maputsoe2
Summer
Average 1.12 0.46 0.80 1.66 1.65 1.29 0.77 0.55
Minimum 0.08 0.10 0.21 0.33 0.62 0.25 0.16 0.13
Winter
Average 42.58 2.57 1.44 12.97 10.97 7.59 36.50 4.36
Minimum 3.25 1.43 0.52 2.99 5.95 2.86 5.29 2.47 Source: Baseline Data on Ambient Air Quality Assessment in Maseru and Maputsoe
Figure10 illustrates maximum sulphur dioxide concentrations measured at the sites in µg/m³ by season and station. Maximum concentrations for summer were not noteworthy for all the stations, while in winter Maseru1, Maseru4 and Maputsoe1 registered noticeable figures. The highest maximum concentrations were in Maseru1 with 119.17µg/m³.
0.0010.0020.0030.0040.0050.0060.0070.0080.0090.00
Maseru1 Maseru2 Maseru3 Maseru4 Maseru5 Maseru6 Maputsoe1Maputsoe2mic
ro g
ram
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r cu
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er
Station
Summer
Winter
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Figure 10: Maximum Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) concentrations measured at the sites in µg/m³ by Season and Station
Source: Baseline Data on Ambient Air Quality Assessment in Maseru and Maputsoe
2.2.5 Diseases Related to air pollution Air pollution is a mixture of natural and man-made substances in the air that we breathe such as fine particles produced by burning of fossil fuels, ground-level ozone, which is a reactive form of oxygen that is a primary component of urban smog. The health effects of air pollution include respiratory diseases such as asthma, cardiovascular diseases and changes in lung function.
Table 7 shows number of patients by type of disease from 2007 to 2011. It can be observed from the table that the number of patients with Asthma was high for all the years. The number of patients with Asthma has been increasing except in 2009, where a decrease was observed from 7,649 patients in 2008 to 7,024 patients in 2009. The highest number of patients with Lung Cancer and Allergies were high in 2008 with 15 and 30 patients respectively.
Table 7: Number of patients by Type of Disease for the years 2007 to 2011
Type of Disease
Years
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Lung Cancer 5 15 9 9 6
Asthma 6,773 7,649 7,024 7,491 9,236
Allergies 28 30 19 16 20 Source: Ministry of Health
2.3 Climate Change
Climate includes patterns of temperature, precipitation, humidity, wind and seasons. "Climate change" affects more than just a change in the weather; it refers to seasonal changes over a long period of time. These climate patterns play a fundamental role in
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shaping natural ecosystems, and the human economies as well as cultures that depend on them. The results of minimum and maximum temperatures will be discussed below together with rainfall.
2.3.1 Minimum and Maximum Temperatures Maximum temperature is the maximum air temperature observed at the site and minimum temperature is the minimum air temperature observed at the site.
Figure 11 portrays the average minimum temperature in degree Celsius (0C) by month and period (2007 to 2011). The lowest average minimum temperature was recorded in July 2009 with -2.50C and the highest was in January 2009 with 13.50C.
Figure 11: Average Minimum temperatures in Degree Celsius (0C) by Month and period (2007 to 2011)
Source: Lesotho Meteorological Services
Figure 12 depicts average maximum temperatures in degree Celsius (0C) by month and period (2007 to 2011). It can be observed from the figure that the highest maximum temperature was in February 2007 with 27.60C and the lowest was in July 2011 with 12.30C.
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Figure 12: Average Maximum Temperatures in Degree Celsius (0C) by Month and period (2007 to 2011)
Source: Lesotho Meteorological Services
2.3.2 Rainfall Rainfall is precipitation that occurs when water vapor in the atmosphere condenses into droplets that can no longer be suspended in the air.
Table 8 shows annual rainfall in millimeters (mm) for the years 2007 to 2011. The amount of rainfall in Lesotho has been increasing throughout the years, where the highest increase was observed from 2009 (762mm) to 2010 (865mm) constituting 13.5 percent.
Table 8: Annual Rainfall in Millimetres (mm) for the Years 2007 to 2011
District 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Botha-Bothe 759 753 951 1132 1068
Leribe 738 583 646 826 785
Berea 643 524 811 901 1022
Maseru 539 625 770 969 799
Mafeteng 544 619 712 767 840
Mohale's Hoek 630 846 877 793 799
Quthing 668 775 804 669 985
Qacha's Nek 721 758 896 882 809
Mokhotlong 500 641 478 918 583
Thaba-Tseka 563 599 676 795 810
Lesotho 630 672 762 865 956 Source: Lesotho Meteorological Services
0.0
5.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
25.0
30.0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
0 C
Month
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
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2.3.3 Ozone Depleting Substances Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS) generally contain chlorine, flourine, bromine, carbon and hydrogen in varying propotions and are ofen described by the general term halocarbons. Chloroflourocarbons (CFCs), carbon tetrachloride and methyl chloroform are important human-produced ozone-depleting gases that have been used in many applications including refrigeration, air conditioning, foam blowing, cleaning of electronics components and solvents. Another important group of human-produced halocarbons is the halons, which contain carbon, bromine, flourine and (in some cases) chlorine and have been used mainly as fire extinguishers (www.ec.gc.ca).
Table 9 shows ozone depleting substances in metric tonnes by type for the years 2001 to 2011. The imports of the following Ozone Depleting Substances; CFCs, Halons and Methyl Bromide are no longer existent. The HCFCs are still imported and the highest amount was in 2009 with 3.8mt followed by 2008 with 3.3mt. The least of HCFCs amount imported was in 2001, 2003 and 2004 with 0.9mt in each year.
Table 9: Ozone Depleting Substances in Metric Tonnes (mt) by Type for the years 2001 to 2011
Ozone depleting substances
Year
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
CFCs 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Halons 1.2 1.8 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
HCFCs 0.9 1.0 0.9 0.9 1.1 1.9 2.0 3.3 3.8 3.1 2.5
Methyl Bromide 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Source: Lesotho Meteorological Services
2.4 Summary
In general, for ambient air, winter concentrations were higher than those of summer. The maximum PM10 concentrations were high in Maseru3 (496.01µg/m³) and minimum concentrations were also low in Maseru3 (0.80µg/m³). Maseru3 was the only station where NO2 average summer concentrations (10.92µg/m³) were higher than winter concentrations (10.25µg/m³).
The lowest average minimum temperature was recorded in July 2009 with -2.50C and the highest average maximum temperature was in February 2007 with 27.6 0C. Lesotho’s rainfall has been increasing throughout the years where the highest rainfall was recorded in 2011 with 956mm.
The number of patients with Asthma was higher than that of patients with other diseases.
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References
International Energy Agency, (2004). Energy Statistics Manual, 4, 69.
USGS, Hydroelectric Power: How it works. Retrieved from http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/hyhowworks.html
The Guardian, Killer chemicals and greased palms-the deadly 'end game' for lead. retrieved from http://www.guardian.co.uk/business/2010/jun/30/lead-bribery-octel
LEC, Background Information. Retrieved from http://www.lec.co.ls/about/index.php?id=background.htm
Bioenergy Wiki, Household energy use. Retrieved from http://www.bioenergywiki.net/Household_energy_use
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Wood Energy. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/forestry/energy/en/
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ANNEX
Table 1: Electricity Generated from 'Muela sold to LEC and Exported for the period 2007 to 2011 Gigawatt hours 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Generation 507.3 503.4 505.3 500.6 489.5 Sales to LEC 498.8 499.6 503.5 495.1 450.3 Exports 8.5 3.8 1.8 8.5 39.2
Source: Lesotho Electricity Company
Table 2: Fuel Prices from January to December 2011
2011
Fuel Petrol(Leaded and
Unleaded) Diesel Illuminating Paraffin January 740 775 540 February 795 840 585 March 840 905 650
April 880 965 690 May 920 985 715 June 910 950 685
July 880 945 675 August 910 960 685 September 910 960 685 October 950 995 715
November 970 1,030 750 December 955 1,080 790
Source: Petroleum Fund
Table 3: 2010 Petroleum Sales (Volume in kilolitres)
2010
Petroleum Fuel
Unleaded Petrol Leaded Petrol Diesel Illuminating Paraffin January 4,094 4,250 5,105 2,410 February 3,726 3,824 4,645 2,230 March 4,563 4,729 5,947 2,454 April 4,136 4,368 5,689 3,085 May 3,794 4,198 5,416 4,083 June 3,882 4,294 6,286 5,573 July 3,937 4,663 6,124 4,859 August 4,077 4,680 5,945 3,722
September 3,233 5,524 5,891 6,632 October 3,893 4,113 6,653 2,142 November 4,809 3,977 7,764 2,207 December 5,827 4,507 6,461 2,570
Total 49,971 53,127 71,926 41,967 Source: Petroleum Fund
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Table 4: 2011 Petroleum Sales (Volume in Kilolitres)
2011
Petroleum Fuel
Unleaded Petrol Leaded Petrol Diesel Illuminating Paraffin January 4,725 3,911 5,872 2,777
February 4,393 3,294 5,798 2,134
March 5,101 3,890 6,864 2,895 April 4,638 3,540 5,393 2,797
May 4,746 3,551 7,340 4,289
June 4,315 3,259 6,320 4,991 July 5,282 3,504 6,504 4,661
August 5,074 3,537 6,812 4,183
September 5,002 3,529 6,967 2,225 October 4,808 3,390 5,209 1,767
November 4,966 3,348 7,632 2,240
December 5,982 3,942 6,797 1,968
Total 59,032 42,695 77,508 36,927 Source: Petroleum Fund
Table 5: Households distribution by Urban/Rural Residence and Main Fuel for Lighting
Residence
Source for Lighting
Total Electricity Gas Paraffin Candle Other
Urban
60,061
602
60,444
13,689
18 134,814
Rural
29,804
1,080
200,530
81,416
178 313,008
Total
89,865
1,682
260,974
95,105
196 447,822 Source: Bureau of Statistics LDS 2011
Table 6: Households distribution by Urban/Rural Residence and Main Fuel for Heating
Place of Residence
Source for Heating
Electricity Gas Paraffin Coal Wood Dung
Crop waste None Other Total
Urban 15,068 3,707 86,284 1,383 10,883 468 27 16,983 8 134,811
Rural 4,310 2,098 63,819 3,125 208,312
11,837 590 18,694 218 313,003
Total 19,378 5,805 150,103 4,508 219,195 12,305 617 35,677 226 447,814 Source: Bureau of Statistics LDS 2011
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Table 7: Households distribution by Urban/Rural Residence and Main Fuel for Cooking
Residence
Source for Cooking
Total Electricity Gas Paraffin Coal Wood Dung Crop
waste Other Urban 28,824 64,417 30,416 22 10,820 134 59 124 134,816
Rural 8,430 49,172 24,703 469 223,114 5,946 901 272 313,007
Total 37,254 113,589 55,119 491 233,934 6,080 960 396 447,823 Source: Bureau of Statistics LDS 2011