stephanie m. fuehr - mitrou...mike galaty, thank you so much for all the advice and guidance over...
TRANSCRIPT
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Isotopic study of diet during the Bronze and Early Iron Ages at Mitrou and Tragana Agia
Triada, Greece
By TITLE PAGE
Stephanie M. Fuehr
A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Mississippi State University
in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts
in Applied Anthropology in the Department of Anthropology and Middle Eastern Cultures
Mississippi State, Mississippi
August 2016
Copyright by COPYRIGHT PAGE Stephanie M. Fuehr
2016
Isotopic study of diet during the Bronze and Early Iron Ages at Mitrou and Tragana Agia
Triada, Greece
By APPROVAL PAGE Stephanie M. Fuehr
Approved:
____________________________________ Michael L. Galaty (Major Professor)
____________________________________ Nicholas P. Herrmann (Committee Member)
____________________________________ Molly K. Zuckerman (Committee Member)
____________________________________ David M. Hoffman
(Graduate Coordinator)
____________________________________ Rick Travis
Interim Dean College of Arts & Sciences
Name: Stephanie M. Fuehr ABSTRACT
Date of Degree: August 12, 2016
Institution: Mississippi State University
Major Field: Applied Anthropology
Major Professor: Michael L. Galaty
Title of Study: Isotopic study of diet during the Bronze and Early Iron Ages at Mitrou and Tragana Agia Triada, Greece
Pages in Study 124
Candidate for Degree of Master of Arts
The stable isotopes carbon and nitrogen from 18 skeletal and 51 dental samples
from various burial contexts at the Bronze and Iron Age sites of Mitrou and Tragana Agia
Triada are examined to understand diet in prehistoric central Greece. The samples are
compared by cultural period, site, and burial type in order to determine if diet was
affected by changes in society or by social status as determined by burial form. In
addition, isotopic data from across Greece is compared to understand diet from the
Neolithic to Iron Age and in different regions of the country. The results of the Mitrou-
TAT study indicate no change in diet through time or between the two sites. No
significant differences were found between diet and burial types as well. When applied
to the broader aspect of societal change, these results suggest that, even with a significant
societal change, diet is not significantly influenced.
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DEDICATION
To my parents
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Nick Herrmann, I can’t express enough my gratitude for your help and guidance.
It has been an honor being your student for the majority of my graduate career. Thank
you for bringing me to Mitrou the summer before I started graduate school and the
following two summers, as well as Cyprus. Thank you for always pushing me to be a
better researcher. You have provided me with so many research opportunities during my
time at MSU, from which I have learned a lot. And especially, thank you for teaching me
everything I need to know about Thermopylae - based on the bald guy from 300 - and
that it is totally acceptable to transport thesis samples in an origami box.
Mike Galaty, thank you so much for all the advice and guidance over the past few
years. I would never have made as much progress on my thesis proposal had it not been
for the independent studies I took with you. Molly Zuckerman, thank you for the advice
and edits on my thesis, your comments are always beneficial.
A huge thanks to Shane Miller. I can’t thank you enough for all the stats help.
That portion of my thesis would have taken a much longer time if it wasn’t for you.
Thank you for also helping me make my maps. And of course, thanks for all the Ham
visits!
David Hoffman, thank you for being a phenomenal graduate coordinator. Jimmy
Hardin, thanks for always being willing to talk soccer and I can’t thank you enough for
convincing me to coach with Starkville Soccer Association. A huge thank you to Dr.
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Kecia Johnson and Dr. Nicole Rader for being incredibly understanding when it came to
my TA duties and finishing my thesis.
Thank you to AMEC, the Cobb, and the University of Tennessee Classics
Department for funding my trips to Greece. Thank you to Dr. Nick Herrmann for paying
for half the isotope analysis and Dr. Aleydis Van de Moortel for using INSTAP funds for
the other half. Also, thank you to the 14th Ephorate of Prehistoric and Classical
Antiquities for giving us permission to do destructive analysis.
To my wonderful parents, thank you for always being supportive and allowing me
to follow my dreams. Thank you for sitting for hours looking at all of my pictures,
without too much complaining, after every trip of mine to Europe, and for not being
grossed out whenever I talk about bones or show you pictures of them. To quote our
favorite show, you “are my twin pillars without whom I could not stand.”
Jeremy, Christopher, and Michael, you have always been my role models and I’m
so glad to have you as my brothers. Christopher and Michael, I’ll be forever grateful to
the both of you for making me a Tennessee fan. Go Vols!
Teri Welgan, I cannot thank you enough for your influence in my life, it is
because of you that I am doing what I am. You introduced me to the Greek world and
archaeology and I can never express enough how grateful I am for that. Amy Mundorff, I
was so lucky to have you as my professor for osteology and thank you for always
challenging me. You have been so supportive throughout my undergraduate and
graduate career. Aleydis Van de Moortel, thank you for allowing me to do my thesis
research on remains from Mitrou and always being supportive while I was at UT and
MSU.
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Thanks to my friends for their patience and understanding during the times when I
was freaking out about thesis samples, writing, and everything else. I wouldn’t have
been able to do this without y’all. Thank you so much to Monica Warner for showing me
how to prep my thesis samples and for assisting me with half of the sample preparation.
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION .................................................................................................................... ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................... iii
LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................... viii
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................ x
CHAPTER
I. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................1
Problem Statement .................................................................................................2
II. BACKGROUND LITERATURE .........................................................................7
Archaeological Background Description ..............................................................7 Review of Greek Archaeology and Chronology ............................................7 Mitrou ..........................................................................................................13
Tragana Agia Triada ...................................................................................15 Isotopic Background Description ........................................................................17
Carbon .........................................................................................................18 Nitrogen .......................................................................................................20 Prior Isotopic Analyses in Greece ...............................................................21
III. RESEARCH DESIGN ........................................................................................23
Hypothesis 1 ........................................................................................................23 Hypothesis 2 ........................................................................................................25
Hypothesis 3 ........................................................................................................27
IV. MATERIALS AND METHODS ........................................................................29
Samples ................................................................................................................29 Sample Preparation ..............................................................................................34 Data Collection and Analysis/Procedures ...........................................................35
Statistics Used .....................................................................................................37
V. RESULTS ...........................................................................................................39
vii
Hypothesis 1 Results ...........................................................................................41
Early Periods vs Bronze Age .......................................................................41 All Bronze Age Periods vs. Iron Age ...........................................................44 Bronze Age/Iron Age Transition ..................................................................47 Mitrou Comparative Study ..........................................................................50
Central Greece .........................................................................................51 All of Greece ...........................................................................................55
Hypothesis 2 Results ...........................................................................................60 LH Mitrou and LH TAT ...............................................................................61
Hypothesis 3 Results ...........................................................................................65 Burial Style at Mitrou and TAT ...................................................................65 Burial Style at Mitrou ..................................................................................66
VI. DISCUSSION .....................................................................................................71
Hypothesis 1 ........................................................................................................71 Central Greece Comparison .......................................................................73 All of Greece Comparison ...........................................................................74
Hypothesis 2 ........................................................................................................75 Hypothesis 3 ........................................................................................................77
VII. CONCLUSION ...................................................................................................79
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................. 82
APPENDIX
A. STABLE ISOTOPE ANALYSIS SAMPLES PER SITE ..................................88
viii
LIST OF TABLES
1.1 Greek Chronology Chart ....................................................................................4
2.1 Greek Chronology and Background Chart ........................................................9
4.1 Mitrou Dental Remains ....................................................................................30
4.2 TAT Dental Remains .......................................................................................31
4.3 Mitrou Skeletal Remains..................................................................................33
5.1 Mitrou Shapiro-Wilk ........................................................................................39
5.2 TAT Shapiro-Wilk ...........................................................................................40
5.3 TAT (separated) Shapiro-Wilk ........................................................................41
5.4 T-Tests for Early Periods vs. Late Helladic .....................................................42
5.5 T-tests for Bronze Age vs. Iron Age ................................................................45
5.6 T-tests for the Bronze Age-Iron Age Transition ..............................................48
5.7 One-way ANOVA for Central Greece Data ....................................................52
5.8 Tukey post-hoc – Ordered Differences Report for Central Greece Data .........53
5.9 One-way ANOVA by Cultural Period for All of Greece ................................55
5.10 One-way ANOVA for All of Greece by Cultural Period and Region .............57
5.11 Tukey post-hoc – Ordered Differences Report for All of Greece ...................59
5.12 T-tests for LH Mitrou and LH TAT .................................................................61
5.13 T-tests for LH Mitrou and LH TAT (separated) ..............................................63
5.14 MANOVA on Burial Style at Mitrou and TAT ...............................................65
5.15 MANOVA Contrast and Mean on Burial Style at Mitrou and TAT ...............66
ix
5.16 MANOVA on Burial Style at Mitrou ..............................................................67
5.17 MANOVA Contrast and Mean on Burial Style at Mitrou ...............................67
5.18 Follow-up ANOVA for Burial Style at Mitrou................................................69
5.19 Follow-up Discriminant Function Analysis for Burial Style at Mitrou ...........69
A.1 Mitrou Thesis Samples ....................................................................................89
A.2 TAT Thesis Samples ........................................................................................92
A.3 Comparative Isotopic Samples from Petroutsa and Manolis 2010 ..................94
A.4 Comparative Isotopic Samples from Vika 2011 ............................................106
A.5 Comparative Isotopic Samples from Vika 2015 ............................................107
A.6 Comparative Isotopic Samples from Iezzi 2005 and 2015 ............................109
A.7 Comparative Isotopic Samples from Richards and Hedges 2008 ..................110
A.8 Comparative Isotopic Samples from Papathanasiou et al. 2009 ....................113
A.9 Comparative Isotopic Samples from Papthanasiou 2001 ..............................114
A.10 Comparative Isotopic Samples from Triantaphyllou et al. 2008 ...................118
A.11 Comparative Isotopic Samples from Panagiotopoulou and Papathanasiou 2015 ...........................................................................120
A.12 Mitrou Faunal Samples ..................................................................................124
x
LIST OF FIGURES
1.1 Map of Greece with Mitrou and TAT (base map from Google Maps) ..............3
2.1 Map of Mitrou Burials .....................................................................................14
2.2 TAT Chamber tomb plan view (from Iezzi 2005) ...........................................16
5.1 Histogram of Mitrou δ15N Shapiro-Wilk .........................................................40
5.2 Early vs. LH Boxplot of δ13C collagen by Cultural Period .............................43
5.3 Early vs. LH Boxplot of δ13C apatite by Cultural Period ................................43
5.4 Early vs. LH Boxplot of δ15N by Cultural Period ............................................44
5.5 BA vs. IA Boxplot of δ13C collagen by Cultural Period ..................................46
5.6 BA vs. IA Boxplot of δ13C apatite by Cultural Period.....................................46
5.7 BA vs. IA Boxplot of δ15N by Cultural Period ................................................47
5.8 BA/IA Transition Boxplot of δ13C collagen by Cultural Period ......................49
5.9 BA/IA Transition Boxplot of δ13C apatite by Cultural Period.........................49
5.10 BA/IA Transition Boxplot of δ15N by Cultural Period ....................................50
5.11 Map of Greece with Comparative Sites ...........................................................51
5.12 Central Greece Boxplot of δ13C collagen by Cultural Period ..........................53
5.13 Central Greece Boxplot for δ15N by Cultural Period .......................................54
5.14 Scatterplot for Central Greece .........................................................................54
5.15 Scatterplot for All of Greece by Cultural Period .............................................56
5.16 All of Greece Boxplot for δ13C by Cultural Period and Region ......................58
5.17 All of Greece Boxplot for δ15N by Cultural Period and Region ......................58
xi
5.18 Scatterplot for All of Greece by Cultural Period and Region ..........................60
5.19 LH Mitrou and TAT Boxplot for δ13C apatite .................................................62
5.20 LH Mitrou and LH TAT (separated) Boxplot δ13C apatite ..............................64
5.21 Scatterplot for LH Mitrou and TAT.................................................................64
5.22 Burial Style MANOVA for Mitrou and TAT ..................................................66
5.23 Burial Style MANOVA for Mitrou..................................................................68
5.24 Discriminant Function Analysis Plot for Burial Style at Mitrou .....................70
1
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Minimal archaeological research has been performed in central Greece,
particularly examining the periods of later prehistory, beginning in Greece around 6800
B.C. with the Neolithic Age (Papathanasiou, 2005). The Neolithic is characterized by the
earliest transition to domesticated plants and animals in Europe, decreased mobility, and
various technological changes, such as the introduction of fixed hearths and storage
facilities (Papathanasiou, 2001; 2005; Papathanasiou et al., 2009). The Bronze Age, ca.
3100-1070 B.C., follows the Neolithic, during which the first urban communities
developed (Tartaron, 2008; Rutter 1993; Morris, 1989; Papathanasiou et al., 2009).
Finally the Iron Age, ca. 1070-900 B.C., follows the Bronze Age, but little is known
about societies during this period, especially during the Early Iron Age (Tartaron, 2008;
Rutter 1993; Morris, 1989). What is known is that the shift from the Bronze Age to the
Iron Age was dramatic, so much so that it is often characterized as a collapse.
This research examines the differences between the Bronze and Early Iron Ages
in central Greece, and particularly the transition between the two, by analyzing isotopic
reconstructions of diet generated from skeletal remains and their relation to burial style.
The social order appears to have changed during this transition. My thesis tests whether
diet changed as well. Diet can be inferred by studying certain archaeological remains,
such as fish hooks or depictions on pottery, and from the presence of faunal remains;
2
however, the presence of these items does not necessarily make them representative of
the entire diet, or any part of the diet at all. Rather, archaeologists must also look to
human bones to reconstruct ancient diets more fully. By combining an analysis of
isotopes and skeletal remains, this research will provide an understanding of diet as it
relates to the individuals at the main study sites and in prehistoric Greece as a whole.
This research focuses on the Bronze and Early Iron Age sites of Mitrou and
Tragana Agia Triada. These sites are important for better understanding the BA and EIA
periods because there has been very little bioarchaeological research performed at them.
Additionally, the wider region of central Greece is not often studied, in particular as
compared to other areas of the country, like the Argolid or Messenia. Mitrou is an
especially important site because it seems to have a continuous occupation through the
Bronze Age and Early Iron Age transition, which is very rare anywhere in Greece.
Problem Statement
This research examines diet using stable isotope values from burial samples
obtained from two central Greek archaeological sites, Mitrou and Tragana Agia Triada
[Figure 1.1]. Dental and skeletal remains collected from Mitrou and Tragana Agia Triada
(TAT) will be used to evaluate the dietary profiles of these past populations. These data
will also be examined diachronically to assess dietary changes during the transition from
the Bronze Age (BA) to the Early Iron Age (EIA). Evaluating the dietary patterns at
these sites will help answer questions about the nature of the Bronze Age-Early Iron Age
transition in central Greece and whether social changes during this time had an effect on
diet. This research is particularly important for central Greece as most dietary isotope
work in the country has taken place in the southern region of Greece. In southern Greece,
3
social change appears to have caused substantial modifications to the diet of particular
individuals by limiting the availability of certain foods, such as meat (See e.g.: Schepartz
et al., 2013; Triantaphyllou et al., 2008; Petroutsa and Manolis, 2010; Richards and
Hedges, 2008).
Figure 1.1 Map of Greece with Mitrou and TAT (base map from Google Maps)
The archaeological sites of Mitrou and TAT are located in East Lokris, Greece
and are separated by 3 kilometers. The burials from Mitrou date to the Middle Helladic
(MH) and Late Helladic (LH) periods of the Bronze Age, and the Protogeometric (PG)
period of the Early Iron Age, with a concentration in the Late Helladic period [Table 1.1].
The burials from TAT date solely to the Late Helladic period. Due to the close proximity
4
of the sites and the orientation of the TAT tombs, it is likely that Mitrou and TAT are
associated, and that TAT may have served as a Mycenaean necropolis associated with
Mitrou (Fossey, 1990).
Table 1.1 Greek Chronology Chart
Chronology Early Helladic 3100-2000 BC Middle Helladic 2000-1680 BC Late Helladic 1680-1070 BC Protogeometric 1070-900 BC Bronze Age 3100-1070 BC Early Iron Age 1070-900 BC Prepalatial 3100-1415 BC Palatial 1415-1070 BC Post-Palatial 1070-900 BC
References: Tartaron, 2008; Rutter, 1993; Morris, 1989; Pedley, 2007
While TAT was only used as a burial site during the LH, architecture and artifacts
suggest that Mitrou was continuously occupied from the Early Helladic (EH) through the
Protogeometric (PG) periods. The complete depositional sequence at Mitrou from the
EH period to the PG makes it rare amongst most prehistoric Greek sites. Occupations
were typically disrupted at the end of the Late Helladic (Van de Moortel and Zahou,
2005), when Mycenaean palatial society collapsed and lifestyles changed throughout
Greece. When cultures change there is the distinct possibility that diet will alter as a new
society is formed. I used stable isotope analysis to examine if there is evidence of dietary
change across the Bronze Age to EIA transition and to observe if the isotope values
correlate with different burial styles at Mitrou and TAT. The second part of this research
applies isotopic analysis to the acknowledged interpretations of burial styles and social
5
status in prehistoric Greece. It is an attempt to determine if diet varies between social
statuses.
Two isotopes, carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) are utilized in this study to
reconstruct the diet of the prehistoric inhabitants of Mitrou and TAT in central Greece.
This analysis provides a means to define dietary inputs by determining the isotopic ratios
from osseous and dental tissues, which reflect the consumed diet (Larsen, 1999). Carbon
and nitrogen isotopes provide information for the reconstruction of diets by expressing
the values of δ13Ccollagen, δ13Capatite, and δ15N in the human remains, which reveal
consumed food components (Bogaard, 2013; Keenleyside et al., 2006; Garvie-Lok, 2009;
Price et al., 2002; Dupras and Schwarcz, 2001).
This study examines dental and skeletal remains to determine ancient dietary
patterns for Middle Helladic, Late Helladic, and Protogeometric individuals from Mitrou
and Tragana Agia Triada. In particular, dietary differences and similarities between the
cultural periods and between the two sites are examined. Additionally, the Mitrou and
TAT isotopic values are compared with previously published isotopic data from multiple
archaeological sites throughout Greece. This study addresses the following three
research questions about diet, ancient Greek society, and mortuary patterns:
1) Does diet, reconstructed by isotopic values, change over time during the
occupied periods at Mitrou, particularly from the BA to EIA?
1a) If so, what were those changes at Mitrou?
2) Is there a difference in isotopic values between Late Helladic Mitrou and Late
Helladic TAT?
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3) Does diet, reconstructed by isotopic values, correlate with burial style and
social status?
The results from this study provide significant amounts of new isotopic data for
central Greece specifically, as well as for mainland Greece in general. These new results
are compared to the data gathered from other parts of Greece, thus allowing for a better
understanding of prehistoric diet in Greece, regionally and overall, as well as temporally.
7
CHAPTER II
BACKGROUND LITERATURE
Archaeological Background Description
Review of Greek Archaeology and Chronology
The Greek prehistoric chronology encompasses the Bronze Age, ca. 3100-1070
B.C., and the Early Iron Age, ca. 1070-900 B.C., which are further divided into the Early
Helladic, Middle Helladic, Late Helladic, and Protogeometric periods (Tartaron, 2008;
Rutter 1993; Morris, 1989). The archaeological sites included in this research study span
all four of these periods; however, this research project is focused on the Middle Helladic
(MH), Late Helladic (LH), and Protogeometric (PG) periods. These periods are
subdivided into phases indicated by changes in the material culture, such as pottery styles
and sequence. The Middle Helladic contains three phases, Middle Helladic I, II, and III.
The Late Helladic also contains three phases, Late Helladic I, II, and III. These are
further subdivided into various sub-phases. These sub-phases pertain to pottery
sequences and therefore are not extensively used in relation to the dental and skeletal
remains of this study. However, these sub-phases will be discussed throughout this
research since they help to contextualize aspects of culture and society in Bronze Age
Greece, such as providing context for the burials.
Prior to the Bronze Age is the Neolithic period. The Neolithic is characterized by
an introduction to agriculture and animal domestication. According to Papathanasiou and
8
colleagues (2009; Papathanasiou, 2005), this period began in Greece around 6800 B.C.,
making it one of the earliest transitions to agriculture in Europe. This period and
transition were followed by increasing urbanism during the Bronze Age (Papathanasiou
et al., 2009).
The Bronze Age began with the Early Helladic (EH) period in ca. 3100 B.C. and
lasted until ca. 2000 B.C. (Rutter, 1993; Tartaron, 2008). The EH material from Mitrou
will not be analyzed in this study, however it is important to acknowledge that the end of
the EH period brought settlement abandonment and a decrease in population across
Greece (Papadimitriou, 2010; Zavadil, 2010).
Following the Early Helladic is the Middle Helladic period [Table 2.1]. The
Middle Helladic period lasted around 400 years, from ca. 2000 B.C. to 1680 B.C. (Rutter,
1993; Hale, 2015; Tartaron, 2008). Similar pottery styles from EH and MH sites show
that there was some degree of cultural continuity from one period to the next (Wright,
2006; Papadimitriou, 2010). Settlements in this period are characterized by being more
nucleated than those in the Early Helladic and having more highly organized social
networks (Papadimitriou, 2010).
9
Table 2.1 Greek Chronology and Background Chart
Mainland Pottery Phase Calendar Dates Period
Characteristics Mortuary Patterns
Middle Helladic
2000-1680 BC destruction of sites, villages, no monumental buildings, formative
intramural, cist graves, pit graves
Late Helladic 1680-1070 BC social hierarchy, palatial society, dietary restrictions, Linear B, fortifications, monumental buildings
shaft graves, cist graves, tholos tombs, rich grave goods, chamber tombs
Protogeometric 1070-900 BC mudbrick buildings, villages, reduced long distance trade, no more writing, no monumental buildings
intramural, cist graves
References: Morris, 1989; Tartaron, 2007; Morris & Powell, 2010; Pedley, 2007; Rutter, 1993
The most widely used burial methods in the Middle Helladic period are cist and
pit graves, which commonly appear within settlements (Phialon, 2010). During this
period, most burials were single and intramural and are often associated with houses in
MH settlements, like Asine, Argos, and Lerna (Milka, 2010). The exact definition of
“intramural” is unclear, as it has been used to describe various archaeological contexts
including any burial within a settlement, burials within or near current houses, and burials
placed in earlier/abandoned houses. The practice of burying individuals in abandoned
10
houses and then rebuilding over them is seen at Lerna and at other sites in the Argolid
(Voutsaki et al., 2010).
The burial and skeletal analyses from Thebes, one of the closest large settlements
to Mitrou, provides a valuable comparison to Mitrou. At Thebes there have been at least
150 Middle Helladic graves recovered, which are believed to have come from three main
cemeteries (Aravantinos, 2010). Most of these graves are single burials and tend to date
to the late Middle Bronze Age and early Late Bronze Age (Aravantinos, 2010). These
burials were found either under floors, in the walls of houses, or in free areas between
buildings (Aravantinos, 2010). These single burials are similar to other Middle Helladic
burials at Mitrou and in Greece.
The Late Helladic period, ca. 1680 B.C. to 1070 B.C. (Rutter, 1993; Tartaron,
2008; Pedley, 2007), coincides with the formative period of the Mycenaean palatial
system, as well as the palatial period (Van de Moortel and Zahou, 2012) [Table 2.1].
During the transition from MH III to LH I an increase in the population of Greece and in
settlement sizes is observed (Iezzi, 2005). During this time there was also an increase in
fortifications at settlements, indicating a greater need for protection (Maran, 1995).
The majority of burials in the Late Helladic period can be classified as simple
graves. Simple graves are defined as “all Mycenaean burial constructions that are not
monumental and were intended for single burials” (Lewartowski, 2000). This definition
includes pit and cist graves, pot burials, burials found in caves, and most shaft graves
(Lewartowski, 2000). Changes in burial patterns occurred throughout the Late Helladic.
The period from MHIII to LHI is known as the Shaft Grave period. The rich grave goods
from this type of grave, especially at Mycenae, have been interpreted as suggesting the
11
existence of a social hierarchy and ruling upper class (Maran, 1995). During the
transition from MH III/LH I to LHII/LHIIIA1, all of the typical Mycenaean burial forms
were in use (Lewartowski, 2000). This changed during the LHIIIA1 to LHIIIB periods,
when there was a spread of chamber tombs. In LHIIIC, the use of chamber tombs
declined and simple graves became more frequently used (Lewartowski, 2000).
The Late Helladic period is when major political economies were prominent in
Greece. Major economic centers during this time period included Thebes and the
southern sites of Mycenae and Pylos. These large centers are thought to have had
regional dominance over and been surrounded by smaller settlements (Pullen, 2010).
However, especially when looking at Mycenae, there are several substantial nearby
centers, e.g. Tiryns, Midea, and Argos (Pullen, 2010). Recent studies have examined the
relationship between these major centers and the smaller but substantial settlements. For
instance, Wright (2006) states that research questions should focus on the nature of these
secondary settlements and their relationships with each other and the major centers.
Excavation and subsequent research leads to the belief that Mitrou was one of these
smaller substantial settlements, particularly because of the presence of monumental
architecture during the LH and ceramic roof tiles, which are very uncommon in mainland
Greece (Van de Moortel and Zahou, 2012).
The Late Helladic ends with consecutive destructions and societal changes that
seem to have affected the ruling class rather than the smaller communities (Lewartowski,
2000). Mitrou is an example of this and demonstrates how smaller settlements continued
to exist after the downfall of the Mycenaean palatial system. The end of Mycenaean
society was caused partially by a shift in trade patterns away from the control of the
12
Mycenaean elite, which in turn destroyed their primary power source (Galaty and
Parkinson, 2007). A shift in trade patterns is a plausible cause for the destruction of
Mycenaean palatial society because the collapse seems to have occurred at different
Mycenaean centers at different times and a shift in trade would not suddenly affect every
settlement at the same time (Galaty and Parkinson, 2007). This is evident at Mitrou in
the form of limited building destruction and rebuilding around the same time as the fall of
the palatial system (Van de Moortel and Zahou, 2012). The occupation at Mitrou
continued from the Bronze Age to the Early Iron Age.
The end of the Late Helladic brought with it the end of the Bronze Age in
mainland Greece and the beginning of the Iron Age. The beginning of the Early Iron Age
is referred to as the Protogeometric period, named because of the simple geometric
designs that are common on the pottery of this period [Table 2.1]. The Protogeometric
(PG) period dates from ca. 1070 B.C. to 900 B.C (Morris, 1989; Tartaron, 2008). This
period is characterized by decreases in population and settlement numbers along with a
decline in wealth and foreign trade (Fossey, 1990; Iezzi, 2005).
Mortuary analysis of the PG period reveals a wide variety of burial practices and
stylistic elements both within and between PG communities (Lemos, 2002). Single burial
tombs appear to be the most common burial practice during the PG. These tombs were
skillfully made and the construction likely required a great deal of labor (Lemos, 2002).
However, multiple inhumation burials continued to be used during this time in Thessaly
and at some sites in Central Greece (Lemos, 2002). While a PG settlement has not been
identified through excavation at Thebes, there is evidence of a few PG tombs (Lemos,
13
2002). The existence of these tombs implies that Thebes was occupied continuously
from the palatial period to the Early Iron Age.
Mitrou
Mitrou was surveyed by the Cornell Halai and East Lokris Project (CHELP) in
1988 and 1989. Based on surface finds it was considered to be an important Late Bronze
Age settlement (Kramer-Hajos and O’Neill, 2008; Kramer-Hajos, 2008) [Figure 2.1].
Excavations at Mitrou began in 2004 and ended in 2009 (Van de Moortel, 2007), with
study seasons ongoing since the end of excavation. These excavations yielded
settlements and artifacts that span the Bronze and Early Iron Age (Van de Moortel and
Zahou, 2005). No architectural remains associated with the LHIIIA2 subphase have been
identified at Mitrou, however it is unlikely that the settlement was abandoned during this
time because there is abundant pottery from this phase (Van de Moortel, 2007; Van de
Moortel and Zahou, 2012). The LHIIIA2 early subphase at Mitrou was ended by a major
catastrophe – potentially a fire – that caused a decrease in building activity in the
following subphase (Vitale, 2008; Van de Moortel and Zahou, 2012).
14
Figure 2.1 Map of Mitrou Burials
Map of Mitrou excavation and burials.
In the LHIIIC period at Mitrou, a rebuilding of the settlement occurred. Based on
the construction layout, Van de Moortel and Zahou (2012) suggest that the prepalatial
organization was revived rather than a new settlement plan developed. Near the end of
this period, Mitrou experienced a change from urban to rural characteristics and the
building styles changed (Van de Moortel and Zahou, 2012). This could be due to the
downfall of the palace system and therefore changes in the organizational structure of
society. Intramural burials reappear and are seen in the ruins of earlier buildings (Van de
Moortel and Zahou, 2012).
The graves present at Mitrou mostly consist of cist graves. During the Late
Helladic I period, a large chamber tomb was built in the center of the settlement and there
is a formal cemetery in the northeast portion of the island. The rural settlement continued
15
through the Protogeometric period and cist graves are found in the ruins of Bronze Age
buildings (Van de Moortel and Zahou, 2012).
Tragana Agia Triada
The 14th Ephorate of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities excavated Tragana
Agia Triada as a salvage project from 1992 to 1997. The TAT salvage project recovered
burials from nine Mycenaean chamber tombs that were cut into the rock in the hills south
of Mitrou (Kramer-Hajos, 2008) [Figure 2.2]. Based on Iezzi’s (2005) initial partial
skeletal analysis, the minimum number of individuals for tombs 1 to 5, 7, and 8 is 74.
However, the remains from all of the tombs are currently being reexamined. These
tombs are generally classified as LHIII (Kramer-Hajos, 2008; Iezzi, 2015), but the
artifacts have not been fully analyzed. Therefore these are tentative dates.
16
Figure 2.2 TAT Chamber tomb plan view (from Iezzi 2005)
With the exception of Tomb III, all tomb entrances faced north (Kramer-Hajos,
2008). It is difficult to determine where individuals were placed in each tomb due to
looting that occurred and the necessity of rapid excavation protocols. Many of the
chamber tombs had cists inside of them and are described as secondary burials; however,
this practice is uncommon for the area in the Late Bronze Age and could be evidence for
foreign influence (Kramer-Hajos, 2008). Foreign influences are seen in Atalanti, a town
about 12 km from Tragana, during the Protogeometric period, based on the presence of
two sarcophagi (Lemos, 2002).
17
Isotopic Background Description
Stable isotopes are variations of chemical elements that have the same number of
protons but differ in the number of neutrons (Bethard, 2012). When applied to human
skeletal remains, stable isotope analyses greatly enhance reconstructions of past human
diets (Larsen, 1999). While the simplest explanation for understanding the relationship
between isotopic analysis and diet is that “you are what you eat,” in reality it is a far more
complicated process. While stable isotope values do not provide a complete
reconstruction of ancient diet (i.e. the specific foods eaten), they do enable the
identification of consumption profiles of different kinds of foods eaten by past
populations (Larsen, 1999).
For dietary isotopic studies, two forms of tissue can be used, biological apatite
and collagen. Biological apatite, or bioapatite, is the inorganic, mineral component of
bone and tooth enamel (Bethard, 2012). This tissue comprises approximately 70% of dry
bone (Bethard, 2012). Because of continual remodeling, bioapatite from bone represents
an average diet from the past ten years of an individual’s life (Van der Merwe and Vogel,
1978; Bethard, 2012; Manolagas, 2000; Keenleyside et al., 2006). From tooth enamel,
bioapatite provides an examination of enamel formation from the period of growth and
development and thus can be used to reconstruct early-life diet because teeth do not
remodel (Bethard, 2012). Collagen is the organic component of bone and comprises the
remaining 30% of dry bone (Bethard, 2012). The composition of collagen is
characteristic of the diet averaged over the last 5 to 10 years of life (Richards and
Hedges, 1999).
18
Analysis of both apatite from dental enamel and bone collagen are performed in
this study to provide a detailed portrait of the prehistoric Greek diet at Mitrou and TAT.
While most elements that contain dietary significance are present in the inorganic
(apatite) rather than organic (collagen) component of bone, bone apatite is more
problematic because of the stronger influence of diagenesis (Larsen, 1999; Szostek et al.,
2011). Diagenesis is the alteration of the organic and inorganic components of body
tissues post-mortem (Szostek et al., 2011). Because of diagenesis, it is useful to perform
multiple analyses on different parts of the skeleton.
Carbon
Carbon is a light stable isotope and can exist in three forms: oxidized, elemental,
and reduced (Sharp, 2007). Carbon is the fourth most abundant element and was the first
stable isotope to be studied in anthropology (Faure and Mensing, 2005; Bethard, 2012).
This isotope has several applications, such as in the estimation of variation in past
temperatures, photosynthetic pathways, diet, metabolic pathways, and variations in
greenhouse gas abundances (Sharp, 2007). For this study, carbon will be used to
reconstruct the diet of skeletons from Mitrou and Tragana Agia Triada. Ratios of carbon
isotopes provide a long-term record of the proportions of C3 and C4 resources that have
been consumed by a given individual (Ambrose et al., 2003). Carbon values derived
from collagen (δ13Ccollagen) are more reflective of protein sources, whereas values from
bioapatite (δ13Cap) are reflective of an individual’s whole diet, including carbohydrates,
fats, and protein (Bethard, 2012; Larsen, 1999; Ambrose et al., 2003). Following
established standards, the values are presented relative to the international Pee Dee
Belemite (PDB) limestone fossil standard (Turner, 2008; Papathanasiou et al., 2000).
19
More positive values indicate the carbon is enriched relative to the standard, while more
negative values suggest depletion of 13C (Faure and Mensing, 2005). The PDB standard
is a calcium carbonate marine shell that is rich in δ13C, thus isotopic analyses of most
mammalian tissues are negative relative to PDB (Krueger and Sullivan, 1984).
Carbon (δ13C) isotopes can be used to differentiate between terrestrial and marine
protein consumption. They also provide information on the sources of three dietary
protein categories, specifically diets based on marine resources, diets that consist mostly
of C3 plants, and diets that consist of mostly C4 plants (Papathanasiou et al., 2009;
Keenleyside et al., 2006; Ingvarsson-Sundstrom et al., 2013). C3 plants are considered to
be part of the Calvin Photosynthetic Pathway. C4 plants are part of the Hatch-Slack
Photosynthetic Pathway (Bethard, 2012). C3 plants are commonly found in temperate
climate regions and consist of high latitude grasses, such as wheat, barley, and quinoa
(Sharp, 2007; Bethard, 2012). The average value for δ13C of the C3 pathway is -26.5‰;
however, coastal δ13C values from the Neolithic onwards tend to be less negative and
average around -18‰ to -23‰ (Bethard, 2012; Larsen, 1999). C4 plants are located in
more tropical climates and the average δ13C value is -12.5‰ (Bethard, 2012). Examples
of C4 plants are millet, maize, sugarcane, and sorghum (Sharp, 2007; Petroutsa and
Manolis, 2010; Bethard, 2012). Typically for Greece, any C4 values are attributed to
millet; however, there is no isotopic evidence for systematic cultivation and consumption
of this crop in Greece and it only appears sporadically in human and animal samples
throughout prehistoric Greek sites (Papathanasiou, 2015). The ratios of the isotopes from
the tissues are expressed in parts per million (‰ or ppm) because the numbers of isotopes
20
needed to distinguish between dietary resources is low (Papathanasiou et al., 2000;
Larsen, 1999).
Nitrogen
Nitrogen is a stable isotope used for quantifying trophic level positions and
reconstructing diet (Sharp, 2007). Originally, nitrogen studies focused on trophic level
distinctions in the food chain, particularly for marine environments (Bethard, 2012).
Trophic levels are the position in the food chain that a group of organisms occupies, with
each successive trophic level consuming the ones below (Sharp, 2007). Additionally,
nitrogen isotopes are used to differentiate between plant and animal proteins, as well as
terrestrial versus marine protein (Bethard, 2012; Schepartz et al., 2013). Nitrogen
analysis is used together with carbon analysis to better understand the ancient diet from
the two central Greek archaeological sites. Nitrogen (δ15N) values represent the trophic
levels for samples and when combined with δ13C can be used to distinguish between
proteins derived from marine or terrestrial resources because marine plants are more
enriched for δ15N than are terrestrial plants (Keenleyside et al., 2006; Bethard, 2012;
Schepartz et al., 2013). Nitrogen levels are usually associated with an organism’s
position in the food chain and typically increase by 2 to 3‰ per trophic level (Bethard,
2012). Because of this, consumers of marine protein have significantly enriched δ15N
values when compared with terrestrial consumers (Bethard, 2012). Following established
standards, the values are presented relative to the atmospheric nitrogen standard, also
known as the Ambient Inhalable Reservoir (AIR) (Papathanasiou et al., 2000;
Papathanasiou, 2001).
21
While nitrogen analysis can provide information on marine versus terrestrial food
sources, there are several problems associated with this method of analysis. One of the
biggest problems with nitrogen is that researchers do not know how much individual
nitrogen variation there is between humans, even if they have the same dietary input
(Hedges and Reynard, 2007; O’Connell et al., 2012). Another problem is that the
isotopic values for most food components are unknown, with the exception of a few
domesticated animals (Hedges and Reynard, 2007). These are significant problems, but
they have not stopped analyses from being performed. Valuable information pertaining
to diet can still be ascertained from nitrogen, such as identifying weaning patterns (Fuller
et al., 2006a; Fuller et al., 2006b), and hopefully with more analyses the above problems
can be addressed and solved.
Prior Isotopic Analyses in Greece
In most isotopic studies performed in Greece, collagen derived carbon and
nitrogen assays are compared to create a more holistic understanding of ancient diet.
Reviewing case studies and previous research from other sites in Greece aid in
determining the relevance of the isotope data from Mitrou.
An interesting pattern involving carbon values is that there tends to be a higher
carbon signature than nitrogen in human remains at coastal sites, which is intriguing since
these sites have easy access to the sea. It would be more logical if coastal sites had
higher trophic levels from nitrogen in their diets – expressing a high intake of marine
foods – but this is not the case. This is also apparent at the LH sites of Aghia Triada
(Elis), Almyri, Zeli, and Kalapodi (Petroutsa and Manolis, 2010). Petroutsa and Manolis
(2010) state that there are no individuals from prehistoric Greece with δ13C and δ15N
22
isotopic values that represent marine intake, regardless of their proximity to the Aegean
Sea. This result is also seen in burials examined by Papathanasiou and colleagues (2000)
from Neolithic Alepotrypa Cave in southern Greece. Although this site is close to the
sea, the δ13C values were very negative, which indicates that the diet was almost
exclusively based on terrestrial C3 plants and animals (Papathanasiou et al., 2000).
Minimal isotopic research has been conducted on the remains from the TAT
tombs. As part of her dissertation research, Iezzi (2005, 2015) examined diet and health
of coastal and inland sites in central Greece. She analyzed the remains of four
individuals from TAT. The isotopic results for TAT showed similar isotopic values as
other published Late Bronze Age samples and are indicative of a C3 plant based diet
(Iezzi, 2015).
Proskynas is a Neolithic and Bronze Age settlement in central Greece near
Mitrou. Papathanasiou and colleagues (2009) performed an analysis of health, disease,
and lifestyle from skeletal indicators along with a reconstruction of diet. This study
measured the carbon and nitrogen values of bone collagen to gain information about the
sources of protein in the diet (Papathanasiou et al., 2009). The isotope results indicated
that the sampled individuals consumed primarily terrestrial protein from a C3 ecosystem
(Papathanasiou et al., 2009). This study is a valuable comparison for the isotopic study
of burials from Mitrou because of the close proximity of the two sites.
23
CHAPTER III
RESEARCH DESIGN
This research focuses on isotopic analysis of human dental and skeletal remains
from the Greek archaeological sites of Mitrou and Tragana Agia Triada. Isotopic results
are compared between these two sites as well as against isotopic values from sites across
Greece. By comparing the Mitrou and TAT data, this study adds to what is known of
Bronze Age central Greece. The hypotheses described below are designed to test carbon
and nitrogen isotopic signatures and the relationship between the occupied periods at
Mitrou and TAT with regard to diet, burial styles, and social change.
Hypothesis 1
The carbon and nitrogen signatures from Mitrou will suggest that all inhabitants
had a similar diet within each occupied period (Early/Middle Helladic,
Late Helladic, and Protogeometric).
This hypothesis examines the carbon and nitrogen isotopic values for each period
(Early/Middle Helladic, Late Helladic, and Protogeometric) to determine whether each
occupied period had its own specific diet. Carbon and nitrogen isotopes are used in order
to identify the components of diet and the C3 or C4 levels of the samples in order to
determine the community’s diet (Sharp, 2007).
The purpose of investigating this hypothesis is to learn and understand more about
the culture and society of each period separately. To do so, the isotopic values are
24
compared with each other in order to understand the relationship of Mitrou to TAT, while
also being compared with isotopic signatures derived from previous studies of sites
located in central Greece. Specifically, the isotopic results from Papathanasiou et al.’s
(2009) study at Proskynas is of great value given that site is located only 4 km from
Mitrou.
Petroutsa and Manolis (2010) used similar methods to examine dietary patterns of
four Late Bronze Age sites in central and southern Greece. The results of this study
indicate mostly similar isotopic values, however the values from Kalapodi, a temple site
near Mitrou, demonstrate a greater consumption of animal protein (Petroutsa and
Manolis, 2010). The results from Kalapodi could indicate a regional difference and also
might be seen in the Late Helladic samples from Mitrou and TAT, where higher levels of
animal protein might also have been consumed during the LBA.
Isotopic values from these three periods are then compared in order to examine
the transitional phases at Mitrou. The Middle Helladic-Late Helladic and Late Helladic-
Protogeometric transitions represent changing social structures within Bronze Age
Greece and are crucial to understanding how these societies functioned. These
transitional periods are marked by changes in pottery style and/or architectural change or
destruction. If social systems changed during these transitional periods, then diet may
have changed as well. The data from this analysis allows comparison of Bronze Age
central Greece and to the relatively well-studied Bronze Age in southern Greece.
25
Hypothesis 2
The carbon and nitrogen signatures will express a difference in diet between Late
Helladic Mitrou and Late Helladic Tragana Agia Triada.
The second part of this research aims to examine dietary signatures between LH
Mitrou and TAT. Isotope analysis enables dietary information to be collected for both
individuals and the broader community (Petroutsa and Manolis, 2010), so for this
hypothesis the focus is on the individuals of these two sites during their corresponding
time period.
It is believed that the TAT burials have a more varied diet than the burials at
Mitrou. This information is used to better understand the separation of burials for the two
sites. The isotopic values will support the possibility that the TAT burials were an elite
group in the area during the Late Helladic period.
The presence of an elite group at Mitrou during the LHI period is determined by
the abundance of LHI pottery – which is not commonly found at other sites in the region
– indicating that Mitrou was a center for elites during this period (Kramer-Hajos, 2008).
This concept of an elite center can be qualified by the presence of monumental
architecture on Mitrou at this time (Kramer-Hajos, 2008; Van de Moortel and Zahou,
2012). There is no way to definitively correlate grave goods with a person’s living social
status because burial customs can make the dead appear richer or more important than
they really were (Lewartowski, 2000). Differing diets within a community could indicate
a social distinction between two or more groups of people, which would add another –
and possibly more reliable – component to the estimation of social status. For example,
26
maize consumption relating to social status is seen in Mesoamerica and in the
southeastern United States (Larsen, 1999; Ambrose et al. 2003) and a similar approach
can be used as a basis for examining differing isotopic values in relation to social status
and burial type.
This hypothesis addresses Late Helladic palatial society and the possibility that
individuals at Mitrou could have had a more restricted (or less varied) diet than those at
TAT, as was also the case at Mycenae. The dietary study at Mycenae indicates that there
could have been variability in food consumption between the different grave areas.
Specifically, the carbon and nitrogen isotopic values for Grave Circles A and B were
more positive than those from the Mycenaean chamber tombs (Richards and Hedges,
2008). Richards and Hedges (2008) argue that this relates to higher marine food
consumption, resulting in more positive carbon and nitrogen values. This means that
these individuals consumed a greater amount of dietary protein. The isotopic values from
the chamber tombs indicated little or no marine food intake (Richards and Hedges, 2008).
The difference in isotopic values could be caused by a shift in diet over time – the
grave circles date to ca. 16th century B.C. while the chamber tombs date to ca. 1600-1200
B.C. – or that marine foods were eaten only by the elite in the society (Richards and
Hedges, 2008). The grave circles of Mycenae are known to have held many golden
artifacts, including golden death masks. The rich grave goods inside these burials, but
not in any others, suggests the grave circles represented the elites or people of higher
authority. Voutsaki (2010) states that Mycenae maintained strict control over ivory and
gold manufacture, so it is possible that the state also controlled food sources. The
27
conclusion that the people buried in these grave circles had different diets is supported by
the results of the isotopic analysis (Richard and Hedges, 2008).
Based on Richard and Hedges’ (2008) analysis, I expect the isotope data indicates
a more varied diet at TAT as compared to the LH burials from Mitrou. However,
considering Iezzi’s (2005) previous isotopic results from TAT, there may be no
significant difference in the diet.
Hypothesis 3
Burial construction styles will correlate with distinct ranges of isotopic values.
Studies of graves, burial customs, and mortuary symbolism aid in understanding
past cultures (Lewartowski, 2000), which is a goal of this research and a focus of this
third hypothesis. It is expected that differing ranges of isotopic signatures correspond to
the three forms of burials present at Mitrou and TAT: pit, cist, and chamber tomb. Some
researchers are certain that tomb type strongly indicates an individual’s social status
(Lewartowski, 2000). Some consider that chamber tombs were for the elite and simple
graves were for poorer individuals (Lewartowski, 2000). If chamber tombs are normally
associated with the elite, then potentially they would have a more varied diet than the
poorer burials. This hypothesis aims to determine if the isotopic values reflect social
status by burial style.
This hypothesis aims to determine if burial style can help identify differences in
society. This analysis aids in understanding the relationship between burial style and diet
at Mitrou.
28
The results from these analyses aid in explaining Mitrou’s history and how the
settlement developed in the Mycenaean Bronze and Iron Ages, particularly during the
transitional periods. Since there are no PG settlement remains found at Thebes (Lemos,
2002), the information gained from Mitrou and TAT augments knowledge of prehistoric
central Greece.
29
CHAPTER IV
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Samples
The materials for this study were collected during the Mitrou excavation seasons
of 2004 to 2009 and the rescue excavations of the TAT tombs from 1992 to 1997. The
human skeletal and dental samples were selected from burials at different locations on the
island that correspond to the occupied periods of the site. Overall, the main goal of the
sampling process was to select samples that span the studied time periods and that
represent a variety of burial styles, and thus address my specific research questions.
A sample of 51 human teeth was brought to Mississippi State University from
Tragana, Greece in August 2013 after being selected by Dr. Nicholas Herrmann. These
teeth were chosen for δ13Cap (δ13C from mineral carbonate apatite) isotopic analysis.
Twenty-nine of these teeth are from Mitrou [Table 4.1] and 22 teeth are from TAT [Table
4.2]. Regarding the teeth from Mitrou, one dates to the Middle Helladic, 18 to the Late
Helladic, and ten to the Protogeometric. The 22 teeth from TAT are from the Late
Helladic II period.
30
Table 4.1 Mitrou Dental Remains
Grave Burial TRSU Tooth Type of Tooth
Development Period
6 9 LN786-028-014 18 2nd molar Late PG 10 13 LF790-017 3 1st molar Early PG 12 17 LH792-010-017 6 Canine Early PG 15 20 LM792-042-023 27 Canine Early LH 22 28 LD791-040-012 5 1st premolar Early PG 22 28 LD791-092-011 26 Incisor Early PG 23 27 LG784-087-018 14 1st molar Early LH 24 29 LE795-087-017 70 Deciduous
2nd molar Early LH
25 30 LE792-092-022 5 1st premolar Early LH 25 30 LE792-092-022 9 Incisor Early LH 29 33 LN782-172 18 2nd molar Late PG 31 32 LE793-013-014 11 Canine Early LH 31 32 LE793-013-014 12 1st premolar Early LH 33 34 LP785-019-016 19 1st molar Early PG 41 44 LE792-065-031 15 2nd molar Late MH/L
H 42 49 LP785-080-019 19 1st molar Early PG 48 51 LO782-220-014 19 1st molar Early PG 50 53 LR797-029-011 18 2nd molar Late LH 52 LO782-224-
013/017 19 1st molar Early LH
55 56 LR797-028-016 5 1st premolar Early LH 55 56 LR797-028-016 12 1st premolar Early LH 56 57 LX784-030 30 1st molar Early LH 65 64 LR797-051-020 13 2nd
premolar Early LH
66 66 LR797-057 30 1st molar Early LH 73 74 LN783-455 18 2nd molar Late LH 73 74 LN783-502-012 19 1st molar Early LH 73 74 LO784-859-019 18 2nd molar Late LH 74 76 LN783-577-
011A 15 2nd molar Late LH
74 77 LN783-577-011B
22 Canine Early LH
31
Table 4.2 TAT Dental Remains
Tomb Box Bone ID Tooth #
Type of Tooth
Development Period
1 om2n 3742 28 1st premolar Early LH 1 om2n 3692 8 Incisor Early LH VI om3 138 30 1st molar Early LH 1 om2n 3690 8 Incisor Early LH 1 om2n 3651 9 Deciduous
incisor Early LH
1 om2a 1044 10 Incisor Early LH 1 om2a 1045 10 Incisor Early LH 1 om2a 1050 27 Canine Early LH 1 om2a 1048 25 Incisor Early LH 1 om2n 3671 11 Canine Early LH 1 om2n 3673 27 Canine Early LH III om2 13 2492 26 Incisor Early LH III om3 13 2484 25 Incisor Early LH V OM4a 2 552 6 Canine Early LH V OM4a 2 541 22 Canine Early LH V OM4a 2 542 23 Incisor Early LH V OM4a 2 531 10 Incisor Early LH V OM5a 2909 18 2nd molar Late LH V 2 23 24 Incisor Early LH VII OM6
4 301 26 Incisor Early LH
VII OM7
5 815 26 Incisor Early LH
VII OM6
4 309 25 Incisor Early LH
Bone ID numbers assigned during NP Herrmann’s analysis from 2010-2012.
Human skeletal samples were also collected during the 2013 summer study
season and brought to Mississippi State University in August 2013 with the dental
samples. Eighteen bone samples, consisting of ribs and metatarsals, from Mitrou were
chosen for bone collagen analysis [Table 4.3]. One of the bone samples represents the
Middle Helladic, 14 samples are from the Late Helladic, and three samples date to the
32
Protogeometric. Along with the above mentioned samples, C14 dates and δ13C and δ15N
bone collagen values have been obtained from three additional burials from Mitrou
(Herrmann, personal communication). These values are included in this isotopic
analysis.
In order to support the nitrogen analysis of human remains, a faunal comparison
from Mitrou is referenced. It is important that the faunal remains originate from the same
site and area as the human remains so that they will be representative of the same
geographic and environmental context (Papathanasiou, 2015). The animals represented
from Mitrou consist of four pigs and one dog. More information on these samples is
provided in the Appendix.
33
Table 4.3 Mitrou Skeletal Remains
Grave Burial TRSU Bone Weight (mg) Period 6 9 LN786-028-014 L rib 3-9 9000 PG 10 13 LF790-019-
015/016 2 R ribs 3-9 A: 4290
B: 3980 LH
15 20 LH792-042-023 R & L ribs 3-9 A: 2500 B: 2600 C: 2530
LH
22 28 LD791-040-012 R rib 3-9 5730 PG 23 27 LG789-087-018 R rib 3-7 3930 LH 24 29 LE795-087-015 R ribs 3-9 A: 1590
B: 1470 C: 1240 D: 1330
LH
25 30 LE792-092-022 R femur – diaphysis fragment
12960 LH
31 32 LE793-013-014 R ribs 3-9 A: 3160 B: 3990 C: 3360
LH
33 34 LP785-019-016 L femur fragment 22010 PG 41 44 LE792-065 L rib 3-9 6910 MH/LH - 52 LO782-224-013 L ribs 3-9 A: 3030
B: 1640 LH
56 57 LX784-031-013 R femur – distal 1/3 diaphysis fragment
10380 LH
66 66 LR797-057 R rib 3-9 4980 LH 73 74 LO784-859-014 L 1st metatarsal 7290 LH 73 74 LN783-429-013 L 1st metatarsal 4680 LH 73 74 LO784-859-014 L 1st metatarsal 5190 LH 74 76 LN783-577-
011A R 1st metatarsal 4760 LH
74 77 LN783-577-011B
R 5th metatarsal 5870 LH
In addition to the results from three previously analyzed Mitrou samples
(Herrmann, personal communication), isotopic data from multiple archaeological sites
throughout Greece are examined for comparative purposes. The isotopic values from
34
these sites allow for further analysis of prehistoric diet for the region of central Greece. I
also compare values for central Greece (including the Mitrou and TAT data) to values
from southern Greece. I compare the stable carbon and nitrogen isotope values from 22
Neolithic, Bronze Age, and/or Iron Age sites in Greece. Twelve of these sites are located
in the southern region of the country and ten are in central Greece (two of these ten are
additional Mitrou and TAT samples from previous studies). The isotopic signatures and
general information about these sites can be seen in the Appendix.
Sample Preparation
The dental samples were prepared for isotopic analysis in the Biological
Anthropology Research Laboratory (BARL) and the Biological Anthropology Teaching
Laboratory at Mississippi State University. Methods of preparation of the δ¹³Cap samples
were adapted from Turner (2008). The teeth were cleaned in glass beakers with acetone,
deionized water, and a sonicator. After being cleaned, a dremel tool with a Tungsten tip
was used to remove the dentin and break up the enamel. Hydrochloric acid was used to
clean the drill tip of the dremel between each sample to ensure that the samples were not
contaminated. A saw attachment was added to the dremel to remove roots when they
were present. The broken pieces of enamel were re-sonicated to clean them again and to
remove any additional dentin. After the fragments dried they were powdered with an
agate mortar and pestle until the enamel was a fine powder. Using a scoopula, the
enamel powder (5-20 mg) was placed in δ¹³C marked microcentrifuge tubes before being
sent to the isotope laboratories. No preparation was required for the selected bone
samples, they were sent to the laboratories in complete form.
35
After sample preparation was complete, specific samples were chosen to be sent
to the isotope labs. Samples sent were chosen by considering which would be the most
beneficial to answering the research questions and hypotheses. The main factors used to
determine which samples to send included the associated time period of the sample and
its location on the island. Not all samples (18 skeletal, 29 Mitrou dental, and 22 TAT
dental) were sent because of lab costs and a limited budget for analysis; however, 28
bone samples were sent for collagen analysis to the University of Georgia CAIS,
representing 18 from Mitrou, five Mitrou faunal, and five from TAT. Thirty-nine dental
samples were sent for δ13Cap enamel analysis to the University of California Santa Cruz
Stable Isotope Laboratory, including 25 from Mitrou, five Mitrou faunal, and nine from
TAT. The specific details on these samples are provided in the Appendix.
Data Collection and Analysis/Procedures
Powdered enamel samples were sent to the University of California Santa Cruz
Stable Isotope Laboratory for δ¹³C analysis. This analysis examined the apatite of the
tooth enamel. For this analysis, this facility used a Kiel IV Carbonate Device with a
ThermoScientific MAT-253 dual-inlet isotope ratio mass spectrometer (IRMS).
The 39 dental samples were processed by Colin Carney, a specialist at the UC
Santa Cruz Stable Isotope Laboratory. The preparation for tooth enamel carbonate
samples followed the recommended procedure produced by the Santa Cruz Laboratory
and began with the addition of 1 ml of 30% H202 to 10 mg of the powdered enamel. The
sealed microcentrifuge tubes were agitated for 30 to 60 seconds before the lids were
loosened to allow the gas to escape. To allow for a chemical reaction to occur, the tubes
sat and were agitated frequently for 24 hours. The samples were put in a centrifuge to
36
take the H202 away and then rinsed with 1 ml of MilliQ water. This step was done
repeatedly for five rinses. Two ml of 1M acetic acid with calcium acetate were added to
the samples, which were then agitated and left to react for another 24 hours. The samples
were centrifuged again to allow for the acetic acid buffer to aspirate. The samples were
rinsed again with 1 ml of MilliQ water and agitated. The previous two steps were
performed four more times. After this was done, aluminum foil was placed with a small
hole over the open microcentrifuge tubes and the samples were frozen for approximately
twenty-five minutes. The samples were then placed overnight on a freeze dryer and then
weighed out to be between .5 and 1 mg. The samples were vacuum roasted for around
one hour at 65°C before being analyzed with the mass spectrometer.
Skeletal samples were sent to the University of Georgia Center for Applied
Isotope Studies (CAIS) for collagen analysis of bone. An EA mass spectrometer system
Coltech-Delta V+ was used to perform this analysis. Collagen is also being used because
it largely reflects the δ13C protein component of diet (Larsen, 1999).
Preparation of the δ¹³C and δ15N skeletal samples were adapted from Ambrose
(1990) and were performed by Dr. Alexander Cherkinsky, at CAIS. The bone samples
were cleaned using an ultrasonic bath. After cleaning, the dried bone was gently crushed
to small fragments and treated with diluted 1N acetic acid to remove surface absorbed
and secondary carbonates. Periodic evacuation insured that evolved carbon dioxide was
removed from the interior of the sample fragments, and that fresh acid was allowed to
reach the interior micro-surfaces. The chemically cleaned sample was then reacted under
a vacuum with 1N HCl to dissolve the bone mineral and release carbon dioxide from the
bioapatite. The residue was filtered, rinsed with deionized water, and under slightly acid
37
conditions (pH=3), heated at 80ºC for 6 hours to dissolve collagen and leave humic
substances in the precipitate. The collagen solution was then filtered to isolate the pure
collagen and dried out. The δ13C and δ15N samples are expressed as δ13C with respect to
PDB, with an error of less than 0.1‰, and δ15N with respect to atmospheric air nitrogen
with an error of less than 0.2‰. The quality of collagen was determined by the C/N ratio
and any value below 3 and above 3.6 was discarded.
Statistics Used
Several forms of statistics are used in this analysis. The Mitrou and TAT data
were initially tested for normality with the Shapiro-Wilk test and for homogeneity of
variance with a Levene’s test. Testing for normality is done to determine if the
distribution of the data set is significantly different from a normal distribution (Field et
al., 2012). This is important because the analysis here involves comparing groups (Field
et al., 2012). A Levene’s test is used to test that the values are roughly equal in different
groups and is specifically used when comparing groups (Field et al., 2012).
A t-test and one-way ANOVA were applied to the hypotheses to determine
differences in the data according to the research questions. Depending on the variables, a
t-test and one-way ANOVA were used to compare means. A t-test was used when two
variables were being analyzed and an ANOVA was used when three or more variables
were being analyzed. When results were significantly different a Tukey post-hoc test was
performed to compare the means of all combinations of pairs in the sample (Field et al.,
2012). Scatterplots with convex hull ellipses were created to better understand the results
from the t-test and ANOVA.
38
A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was also performed when
multiple variables were being considered. The MANOVA is used to examine several
dependent variables simultaneously, which allows for any correlation between the
dependent variables to be observed (Field et al., 2012). When the MANOVA results
were significant, specific post-hoc tests were performed. The follow-up analysis for
MANOVAs includes both an ANOVA of the dependent variables and discriminant
function analysis. The purpose of the follow-up ANOVA is to determine if the
significant MANOVA was reflective of all the dependent variables or just one (Field et
al., 2012). The discriminant function analysis (DFA) shows the relationships between the
dependent variables as well as the relationship between the dependent variables and the
overall group (Field et al., 2012).
The results for each hypothesis are presented below. For all statistical tests, the
level of significance is p = .05. Because the hypotheses are not directionally focused and
only seek to determine if there is a difference or not in diet, the probability of absolute t
will be used instead of the probability > or < t.
39
CHAPTER V
RESULTS
Initially, the Mitrou samples and TAT samples were tested for normality using a
Shapiro-Wilk test, with the collagen, apatite, and nitrogen values separated, as well as
separated by site. All of the values for Mitrou were normal, which can be seen in Table
5.1. The Mitrou δ13C collagen values and apatite values had no outliers but the δ15N had
four outliers. The presence of outliers provides useful information since the data overall
is normal. Of these four outliers, one was below the second standard deviation and three
were above, as can be seen in Figure 5.1. The lower value is from Grave 25 Burial 30.
The values from Grave 24 Burial 29 and one from Grave 73 Burial 74 are above the
second standard deviation and the points are clustered together. The last outlier is
another sample from Grave 73 Burial 74 and it has the highest δ15N of all the Mitrou
samples. The values for TAT can be seen in Table 5.2. While the TAT δ13C apatite and
δ15N were normal and had no outliers, the δ13C collagen was not normal and had one
outlier. The outlier is from Tomb VIII and has a value of -17.4‰. After the normality
was tested, homogeneity of variance was assessed by using a Levene’s test.
Table 5.1 Mitrou Shapiro-Wilk
Isotope W value P value δ13C collagen (n=20) .98017 .9363 δ13C apatite (n=25) .96941 .6302 δ15N (n=20) .94034 .2434
40
Figure 5.1 Histogram of Mitrou δ15N Shapiro-Wilk
Table 5.2 TAT Shapiro-Wilk
Isotope W value P value δ13C collagen (n=9) .79559 .0182 δ13C apatite (n=13) .86884 .0505 δ15N (n=9) .94115 .5940
Since the outlier in the TAT data were from Iezzi’s (2005; 2015) previous
analyses, the TAT data were separated based on her data and the data I sampled here.
This was done to ensure that the TAT collagen data were not normal only because of the
one outlier. After re-running the TAT data separately, Table 5.3 shows that the TAT data
are indeed normal except for the one outlier. Separating the data, and thus limiting the
overall sample size, causes the TAT apatite values to have one outlier. However, since
the apatite values do not produce outliers when they are all combined, this outlier is not a
concern.
41
Table 5.3 TAT (separated) Shapiro-Wilk
TAT Isotope W value P value δ13C collagen (n=5) .83725 .1575 δ13C apatite (n=9) .91419 .3463 δ15N (n=5) .95097 .7441 TAT_Iezzi Isotope W value P value δ13C collagen (n=4) .65744 .0033 δ13C apatite (n=4) .95236 .7309 δ15N (n=4) .98477 .9294
Hypothesis 1 Results
To restate, hypothesis 1 proposes that the carbon and nitrogen signatures from
Mitrou will suggest that all inhabitants had a similar diet within each occupied period
(Early/Middle Helladic, Late Helladic, and Protogeometric). Results of H1 are broken up
into several sections: the early periods of the Bronze Age vs. the Late Helladic period, the
entire Mitrou BA sample set vs. the Iron Age sample set, the Late Helladic period vs. the
Iron Age period, and a regional comparative study. The first section briefly examines the
transition from the Middle Helladic to the Late Helladic. The second section looks at all
the samples from the Bronze Age at Mitrou against the Iron Age samples, and more
specifically, section three looks at the transition between the Late Helladic and Iron Age
periods. The fourth section examines how Mitrou and TAT fit within the region of
central Greece and the country as a whole.
Early Periods vs Bronze Age
The first part of the hypothesis compares the early periods of the Bronze Age
(Early Helladic and Middle Helladic) to the Late Helladic period. A t-test was performed
42
on these periods and their respective δ13Cap, δ13Ccollagen, and δ15N isotopic values. The
results can be seen in Table 5.4. No significant difference was found between the Bronze
Age periods for any of the isotopes. As represented by the sampled individuals, this
suggests there is no significant difference in diet throughout the Bronze Age. The high p-
value is supported by a visual interpretation of the box plots [Figures 5.2-5.4], in which
the values from the Early periods fall within the range of the LH values. As represented
by the sampled individuals, these results indicate a homogenous diet throughout the
various periods of the Bronze Age at Mitrou.
Table 5.4 T-Tests for Early Periods vs. Late Helladic
LH-Early Assuming equal variances δ13Ccollagen (n=17) Difference -0.3567 t Ratio -1.0935 Standard Error Diff
0.3262 DF 15
Upper CL Diff 0.3385 Prob > |t| 0.2914 Lower LC Diff -1.0519 Prob > t 0.8543 Confidence 0.95 Prob < t 0.1457 δ13Cap (n=17) Difference -0.0131 t Ratio -0.028 Standard Error Diff
0.469 DF 15
Upper CL Diff 0.9865 Prob > |t| 0.978 Lower LC Diff -1.0127 Prob > t 0.511 Confidence 0.95 Prob < t 0.489 δ15N (n=17) Difference 0.1098 t Ratio 0.13596 Standard Error Diff
0.8073 DF 15
Upper CL Diff 1.8305 Prob > |t| 0.8937 Lower LC Diff -1.611 Prob > t 0.4468 Confidence 0.95 Prob < t 0.5532
43
Figure 5.2 Early vs. LH Boxplot of δ13C collagen by Cultural Period
Figure 5.3 Early vs. LH Boxplot of δ13C apatite by Cultural Period
44
Figure 5.4 Early vs. LH Boxplot of δ15N by Cultural Period
All Bronze Age Periods vs. Iron Age
The second part of this hypothesis compares the entire Bronze Age to the Early
Iron Age. Again, a t-test was performed on these two groups and the three analyzed
isotopes. The results of the t-test can be seen in Table 5.5. As with the first part, no
significant difference occurs between the entire Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age. As
can be seen with the box plots [Figures 5.5-5.7], both time periods have similar values,
indicating no difference in diet.
45
Table 5.5 T-tests for Bronze Age vs. Iron Age
BA-IA Assuming equal variances δ13Ccollagen (n=20) Difference -0.13961 t Ratio -0.45235 Standard Error Diff 0.30863 DF 18 Upper CL Diff 0.50879 Prob > |t| 0.6564 Lower LC Diff -0.78801 Prob > t 0.6718 Confidence 0.95 Prob < t 0.3282 δ13Cap (n=25) Difference 0.24860 t Ratio 1.205664 Standard Error Diff 0.20620 DF 23 Upper CL Diff 0.67515 Prob > |t| 0.2402 Lower LC Diff -0.17795 Prob > t 0.1201 Confidence 0.95 Prob < t 0.8799 δ15N (n=20) Difference -0.4271 t Ratio -0.57983 Standard Error Diff 0.7365 DF 18 Upper CL Diff 1.1203 Prob > |t| 0.5692 Lower LC Diff -1.9744 Prob > t 0.7154 Confidence 0.95 Prob < t 0.2846
46
Figure 5.5 BA vs. IA Boxplot of δ13C collagen by Cultural Period
Figure 5.6 BA vs. IA Boxplot of δ13C apatite by Cultural Period
47
Figure 5.7 BA vs. IA Boxplot of δ15N by Cultural Period
Bronze Age/Iron Age Transition
The next part of this first hypothesis examines the cultural transition between the
Bronze Age and the Iron Age. While similar to the second part, this analysis includes
only the Late Helladic samples and the Iron Age samples. A t-test was performed and the
results can be seen in Table 5.6. The results for this part are similar to the second part.
This is mostly because excluding the Early periods from the analysis only removed three
samples. The result of the transition provides isotopic patterns similar to the overall
Bronze Age. As seen with the p-values and the box plots [Figures 5.8-5.10], there is no
significant difference in the isotopic values between these two periods, indicating that, as
represented by the sampled individuals, diet was homogenous and did not change, even
when it appears that the culture changed.
48
Table 5.6 T-tests for the Bronze Age-Iron Age Transition
BA/IA Assuming equal variances δ13Ccollagen (n=17) Difference -0.07667 t Ratio -0.23535 Standard Error Diff
0.32576 DF 15
Upper CL Diff 0.61767 Prob > |t| 0.8171 Lower LC Diff -0.77101 Prob > t 0.5914 Confidence 0.95 Prob < t 0.4086 δ13Cap (n=24) Difference 0.24937 t Ratio 1.171189 Standard Error Diff
0.21292 DF 22
Upper CL Diff 0.69095 Prob > |t| 0.2541 Lower LC Diff -0.19220 Prob > t 0.1270 Confidence 0.95 Prob < t 0.8730 δ15N (n=17) Difference -0.4464 t Ratio -0.54854 Standard Error Diff
0.8139 DF 15
Upper CL Diff 1.2883 Prob > |t| 0.5914 Lower LC Diff -2.1811 Prob > t 0.7043 Confidence 0.95 Prob < t 0.2957
49
Figure 5.8 BA/IA Transition Boxplot of δ13C collagen by Cultural Period
Figure 5.9 BA/IA Transition Boxplot of δ13C apatite by Cultural Period
50
Figure 5.10 BA/IA Transition Boxplot of δ15N by Cultural Period
Mitrou Comparative Study
The Mitrou comparative study is broken down into two sections: isotopic data
focusing strictly on central Greece and isotopic data that encompasses the entire country
of Greece. The comparative samples include sites from the Neolithic, Bronze Age, and
Iron Age. While Mitrou does not have any Neolithic burials, Neolithic period sites are
included in this analysis as a way to visually acknowledge the dietary signatures from the
period preceding the Bronze Age. The comparative sites are shown below in Figure 5.11.
The Appendix contains the references and isotopic values of these sites.
51
Figure 5.11 Map of Greece with Comparative Sites
Modified from Papathanasiou and Fox (2015) and Papathanasiou (2001)
Central Greece
A one-way ANOVA and scatterplot were run for this analysis and the results can
be seen in Table 5.7. Since the data were statistically significant, a Tukey post-hoc test
52
was run [Table 5.8]. This analysis shows that, as represented by the sampled individuals,
the Neolithic period in central Greece is statistically different from the Bronze Age and
the Iron Age. This can be seen in the results of the Tukey as well as by the ellipses on the
scatterplot [Figures 5.12-5.14]. The graphs indicate a less varied diet during the
Neolithic for these individuals, indicating lesser amounts of animal protein and plants.
Even though the diet is not significantly different between the Bronze Age and Iron Age,
the scatterplot indicates that individuals from the Bronze Age had the most varied diet of
the three periods, by having a wider range of δ13C values that indicate both C3 and C4
influences.
Table 5.7 One-way ANOVA for Central Greece Data
δ13Ccollagen (n=203) Analysis of Variance Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F Cultural Period
2 2.643503 1.32175 3.6184 0.0286
Error 200 73.056852 0.36528 C. Total 202 75.700355 δ15N (n=203) Analysis of Variance Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F Cultural Period
2 31.64882 15.8244 11.3042 <.0001
Error 200 279.97330 1.3999 C. Total 202 311.62212
53
Table 5.8 Tukey post-hoc – Ordered Differences Report for Central Greece Data
δ13Ccollagen (n=203) Level - Level Difference Std Err
Dif Lower CL
Upper CL
p-value
3 IA 1 Neolithic 0.3192 0.1289 0.0147 0.6238 0.0375* 2 BA 1 Neolithic 0.2793 0.1146 0.0086 0.5499 0.0413* 3 IA 2 BA 0.0399 0.1001 -0.1964 0.2764 0.9159
δ15N (n=203)
Level - Level Difference Std Err Dif
Lower CL
Upper CL
p-value
3 IA 1 Neolithic 1.1874 0.2525 0.5912 1.7837 <.0001* 2 BA 1 Neolithic 0.8218 0.2243 0.2920 1.3516 0.0009* 3 IA 2 BA 0.3655 0.1960 -0.0972 0.8284 0.1516
Figure 5.12 Central Greece Boxplot of δ13C collagen by Cultural Period
54
Figure 5.13 Central Greece Boxplot for δ15N by Cultural Period
Figure 5.14 Scatterplot for Central Greece
55
All of Greece
As with the analysis above, an ANOVA and scatterplot were produced for this
analysis. A statistically significant difference was identified for both the collagen and
nitrogen data. Initially, the data were run considering just the broad cultural period. The
results for this ANOVA and scatterplot can be seen in Table 5.9 and Figure 5.15. The
ANOVA for the δ13Ccollagen and δ15N values presents a slight trend over time from the
Neolithic period through to the Iron Age. This suggests a slight decrease in diet
variability for the sampled individuals.
Table 5.9 One-way ANOVA by Cultural Period for All of Greece
δ13Ccollagen (n=421) Analysis of Variance Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F Cultural Period
2 12.65639 6.32819 7.4609 0.0007*
Error 418 354.53808 0.84818 C. Total 420 367.19447 δ15N (n=415) Analysis of Variance Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F Cultural Period
2 38.10014 19.0501 12.0947 <.0001*
Error 412 648.93195 1.5751 C. Total 414 687.03209
56
Figure 5.15 Scatterplot for All of Greece by Cultural Period
The presence of this trend is unexpected so further analysis was done. Following
the ANOVA by broad cultural period, an ANOVA and scatterplot by broad cultural
period and region was performed. The results of the one-way ANOVA and scatterplot
can be seen in Table 5.10 and Figures 5.16-5.18. When separated by broad cultural
period and region, the data remain statistically different. A Tukey post-hoc test was run
to determine the specific differences within the data. The results of the Tukey are
included in Table 5.11. As seen, the Central IA, Southern BA, Central BA, and Central
Neolithic group together. The Southern Neolithic is the factor that makes the data
statistically significant. There is not much of a difference between the Southern Bronze
57
Age and Central Bronze Age or the Central Iron Age and Central Bronze Age. No
difference is seen between the Central Iron Age and Southern Bronze Age data. These
results then indicate that cultural period might not play as important a role in diet for
these individuals as presumed, nor does the region within the country. The only
exception to this is represented by the Southern Neolithic.
Table 5.10 One-way ANOVA for All of Greece by Cultural Period and Region
δ13Ccollagen (n=421) Analysis of Variance Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F Region & Period
4 13.88833 3.47208 4.0882 0.0029*
Error 416 353.30614 0.84929 C. Total 420 367.19447 δ15N (n=415) Analysis of Variance Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F Cultural Period 4 53.64050 13.4101 8.6805 <.0001* Error 410 633.39159 1.5449 C. Total 414 687.03209
58
Figure 5.16 All of Greece Boxplot for δ13C by Cultural Period and Region
Figure 5.17 All of Greece Boxplot for δ15N by Cultural Period and Region
59
Table 5.11 Tukey post-hoc – Ordered Differences Report for All of Greece
δ13Ccollagen (n=421) Level - Level Difference Std Err
Dif Lower CL
Upper CL
p-value
C IA S Neolithic 0.5538 0.1849 0.0472 1.0604 0.0242* S BA S Neolithic 0.5530 0.1529 0.1338 0.9721 0.0031* C BA S Neolithic 0.5138 0.1613 0.0716 0.9560 0.0135* C IA C Neolithic 0.3192 0.1966 -0.2195 0.8581 0.4832 S BA C Neolithic 0.3184 0.1670 -0.1390 0.7760 0.3152 C BA C Neolithic 0.2793 0.1747 -0.1994 0.7580 0.4993 C Neolithic S Neolithic 0.2345 0.2035 -0.3230 0.7921 0.7783 C IA C BA 0.0399 0.1526 -0.3783 0.4582 0.9990 S BA C BA 0.0391 0.1118 -0.2674 0.3457 0.9968 C IA S BA 0.0008 0.1437 -0.3930 0.3946 1.0000
The scatterplot [Figure 5.18] by broad cultural period shows how the periods
relate overall; however, by running another scatterplot by the broad cultural period
associated with region, a more detailed explanation is visible. This second scatterplot
follows what is described in the Tukey post-hoc results and allows them to be visualized.
This plot shows how the isotopic values change relative to broad cultural periods and the
corresponding regions. This plot aids in depicting the decrease in dietary variability
within the Iron Age. One potential problem is that in this sample only two Iron Age sites
were included, both from central Greece, so the existence of this trend will need to be
explored in future research.
60
Figure 5.18 Scatterplot for All of Greece by Cultural Period and Region
Hypothesis 2 Results
Hypothesis 2 states that the carbon and nitrogen signatures will express a
difference in diet between Late Helladic Mitrou and Late Helladic Tragana Agia Triada.
The results of hypothesis 2 are focused on Late Helladic Mitrou and TAT in order to
determine if the presence of these two sites and their close proximity are indicative of a
social divide.
61
LH Mitrou and LH TAT
A t-test was performed on the LH Mitrou and TAT data. The results can be seen
in Table 5.12. As is seen in Table 5.12, the p-value for δ13Cap is .0156, indicating the
apatite signatures are statistically different for the two sites. A Tukey post-hoc test was
run to try to determine a specific difference. However, when examining the plot [Figure
5.19], the high values were introduced by Iezzi’s (2005) bone apatite samples. Bone
apatite and dental apatite are different, so the samples were rerun without Iezzi’s four
samples.
Table 5.12 T-tests for LH Mitrou and LH TAT
TAT-Mitrou Assuming equal variances δ13Ccollagen (n=23) Difference 0.31889 t Ratio 1.143201 Standard Error Diff
0.27894 DF 21
Upper CL Diff 0.89898 Prob > |t| 0.2658 Lower LC Diff -0.26121 Prob > t 0.1329 Confidence 0.95 Prob < t 0.8671 δ13Cap (n=29) Difference 0.80466 t Ratio 2.579971 Standard Error Diff
0.31189 DF 27
Upper CL Diff 1.44461 Prob > |t| 0.0156* Lower LC Diff 0.16472 Prob > t 0.0078* Confidence 0.95 Prob < t 0.9922 δ15N (n=23) Difference 0.2547 t Ratio 0.487738 Standard Error Diff
0.5222 DF 21
Upper CL Diff 1.3406 Prob > |t| 0.6308 Lower LC Diff -0.8312 Prob > t 0.3154 Confidence 0.95 Prob < t 0.6846
62
Figure 5.19 LH Mitrou and TAT Boxplot for δ13C apatite
When the samples were analyzed excluding Iezzi’s samples, the δ13Cap results
were similar to the other results presented above. These results can be seen in Tables
5.13. Within the apatite data there was one outlier but, after looking at the box plot
[Figure 5.20], it is still within the overall range from Mitrou. The scatterplot [Figure
5.21] shows that TAT fits in the middle of the Mitrou data. The results from the
statistical tests indicate a homogenous diet for the sampled individuals for both LH
Mitrou and TAT, thus rejecting the hypothesis.
63
Table 5.13 T-tests for LH Mitrou and LH TAT (separated)
TAT-Mitrou_Separated Assuming equal variances δ13Ccollagen (n=19) Difference 0.34600 t Ratio 1.369857 Standard Error Diff
0.25258 DF 17
Upper CL Diff 0.87890 Prob > |t| 0.1886 Lower LC Diff -0.18690 Prob > t 0.0943 Confidence 0.95 Prob < t 0.9057 δ13Cap (n=25) Difference 0.13646 t Ratio 0.749611 Standard Error Diff
0.18204 DF 23
Upper CL Diff 0.51303 Prob > |t| 0.4611 Lower LC Diff -0.24012 Prob > t 0.2305 Confidence 0.95 Prob < t 0.7695 δ15N (n=19) Difference 0.2876 t Ratio 0.425144 Standard Error Diff
0.6764 DF 17
Upper CL Diff 1.7147 Prob > |t| 0.6761 Lower LC Diff -1.1395 Prob > t 0.3380 Confidence 0.95 Prob < t 0.6620
64
Figure 5.20 LH Mitrou and LH TAT (separated) Boxplot δ13C apatite
Figure 5.21 Scatterplot for LH Mitrou and TAT
65
Hypothesis 3 Results
Hypothesis 3 focuses on the burial styles and states that these variables will
correlate with similar dietary isotopic signature ranges. This hypothesis examines the
three main burial styles from Mitrou and TAT in order to examine whether different
isotopic signatures correlate with the different burial types.
Burial Style at Mitrou and TAT
A MANOVA test was run on the δ13Ccollagen and δ15N data for Mitrou and TAT,
with no regard to time period. This test, Tables 5.14 and 5.15, shows that the collagen
and nitrogen values correlate similarly with burial style. The δ13Ccollagen mean values for
the three burial styles are all very similar, almost identical. There is a slight decrease in
δ15N for the pit burials. This relationship can be seen in Figure 5.22. Figure 5.22 shows
the degree of similarity between the isotopic values and the corresponding burial styles;
the cists and chamber tombs cannot be differentiated in the plot. Even though Figure
5.22 shows a differentiation of the pit burials, Table 5.15 indicates no statistically
significant differences in isotopic ranges between the burial styles.
Table 5.14 MANOVA on Burial Style at Mitrou and TAT
Burial Style δ13Ccollagen δ15N Chamber tomb -19.43875 9.55125 Cist -19.532222 9.01222222 Pit -19.548 8.096
66
Table 5.15 MANOVA Contrast and Mean on Burial Style at Mitrou and TAT
Test Value Exact F NumDF DenDF Prob>F F Test 0.2615553 2.4848 2 19 0.1100 Univar unadj Epsilon
1 2.4848 2 19 0.1100
Univar G-G Epsilon
1 2.4848 2 19 0.1100
Univar H-F Epsilon
1 2.4848 2 19 0.1100
Figure 5.22 Burial Style MANOVA for Mitrou and TAT
Burial Style at Mitrou
A second MANOVA was produced that excluded the TAT burials in order to
analyze only the burials on Mitrou. This analysis was performed to determine if any
differences occurred when just considering the Mitrou burials.
This test, with results shown in Tables 5.16 and 5.17, demonstrates that the
collagen and nitrogen values correlate similarly with the burial styles. The mean
δ13Ccollagen values for the three burial styles are almost identical. As with the previous
67
analysis, there is a slight decrease in δ15N for the pit burials. Table 5.17 indicates that
there is a statistically significant difference between the isotope values and burial style.
This is supported in Figure 5.23.
Table 5.16 MANOVA on Burial Style at Mitrou
Burial Style δ13Ccollagen δ15N Chamber tomb -19.73 9.84666667 Cist -19.532222 9.01222222 Pit -19.548 8.096
Table 5.17 MANOVA Contrast and Mean on Burial Style at Mitrou
Test Value Exact F NumDF DenDF Prob>F F Test 0.5454807 3.8184 2 14 0.0475* Univar unadj Epsilon
1 3.8184 2 14 0.0475*
Univar G-G Epsilon
1 3.8184 2 14 0.0475*
Univar H-F Epsilon
1 3.8184 2 14 0.0475*
68
Figure 5.23 Burial Style MANOVA for Mitrou
Since the results of the MANOVA were significant, two standard follow-up
analyses were performed. The ANOVA [Tables 5.18] for carbon and nitrogen provide
non-significant results. The discriminant function analysis [Table 5.19] correctly
classified 71% of the burial styles by isotopic value. The accuracy of this percentage is
supported by the pattern visible in Figure 5.24. Table 5.19 illustrates that of the three
chamber tombs, one was misclassified as a pit burial. Of the nine cist graves, one was
misclassified as a chamber tomb and one was misclassified as a pit burial. Of the five pit
burials, two were misclassified as cist graves. Figure 5.24 illustrates the placement of
burial types along two axes for carbon and nitrogen. As stated from the other analyses,
the nitrogen values are driving the pattern that is seen. While the follow-up ANOVA did
not indicate a significant difference, the DFA supports the hypothesis that isotope values
by burial style do form a pattern that indicates a difference between isotopic signatures
and burials. The results of the DFA suggest that isotopic values can differ by burial
69
styles, which could potentially be used to understand more about social status in
prehistoric Greece.
Table 5.18 Follow-up ANOVA for Burial Style at Mitrou
δ13Ccollagen Source DF Sum of
Squares Mean Square
F Ratio Prob > F
Burial Style 2 0.0920115 0.046006 0.1547 0.8581 Error 14 4.1628356 0.297345 C. Total 16 4.2548471 δ15N Source DF Sum of
Squares Mean Square
F Ratio Prob > F
Burial Style 2 6.032258 3.01613 2.7641 0.0973 Error 14 15.276542 1.09118 C. Total 16 21.308800
Table 5.19 Follow-up Discriminant Function Analysis for Burial Style at Mitrou
Score Summaries Source Count #
Misclassified % Misclassified
Entropy RSquare
-2LogLikelihood
Training 17 5 29.4118 0.14628 29.106 Actual Predicted Burial Style
Chamber tomb
Cist Pit
Chamber tomb
2 0 1
Cist 1 7 1 Pit 0 2 3 Groups Burial Style
Count
Chamber tomb
3
Cist 9 Pit 5
70
Figure 5.24 Discriminant Function Analysis Plot for Burial Style at Mitrou
71
CHAPTER VI
DISCUSSION
Hypothesis 1
Overall, the time periods represented at Mitrou by the sampled individuals
indicate a homogenous diet of C3 plant protein. Statistically, there is no significant
difference in the diet throughout the Bronze Age at Mitrou or between the Bronze Age
and Iron Age. Sample size could be an issue since there are only three samples from the
early Bronze periods and three samples from the Early Iron Age. However, when
comparing other sites, this trend tends to be normal for the time period and region (see
comparative data and analysis). When examining the raw data a few differences in the
isotopic values can be seen. These differences in values are slight and limited in
occurrence, thus explaining why there is no significant difference statistically. All of the
Mitrou samples, except one sample and regardless of time period, fall within the range of
δ13Ccollagen -20.64‰ to -19.00‰, thus reflecting a C3 plant-based diet. The one exception,
sample 1327, has a δ13Ccollagen value of -18.87‰. This less negative value could indicate
that the individual had possibly incorporated C4 plants in their diet or, more likely,
because of an increased intake of animal products, had a more enriched C3 value. This
incorporation could be due to the consumption of C4 plants, such as millet or, the
consumption of animals that feed on C4 plants (Iezzi, 2015; Papathanasiou, 2015).
72
For this analysis, three range categories for δ15N values were used, adapted from
Petroutsa and Manolis (2010) and Papathanasiou et al. (2009), in order to understand the
meanings of the isotopic signatures. Values of around 4 to5‰ indicate that all protein in
the diet is from plants, 6 to 8‰ indicates that the diet is primarily based on plant protein,
and 9 to 10‰ indicates that some animal protein was included in the diet. While these
values are close together, trophic levels typically increase by 2 to 3‰ (Bethard, 2013).
When applying these ranges, two Iron Age samples and nine Bronze Age samples fall
into the category representing a diet that was primarily based on plant protein. One Iron
Age sample and eight Bronze Age samples suggest a diet that included animal protein.
Based on the δ15N data from Mitrou, the diet is evenly distributed between both the time
periods and the consumption of plant and animal protein.
Within the δ15N data, there are some discrepancies. Two of the individuals,
samples 1307 and 1308, are 3 to 5 and 1 to 2 years of age. Given these ages and the
elevated δ15N values, weaning and its effects must be considered. Weaning is sometimes
thought of as a single moment in time when a child no longer requires breast milk;
however, in reality weaning is a gradual process of introducing solid foods to an infant’s
diet, which can occur for months or even years (Davies and O’Hare, 2004). This is why,
archaeologically, individuals from birth to around five years of age are considered to
have isotopic effects from weaning. Infants that are breastfeeding will have isotopic
values one trophic level higher than their mother, generally 2 to 3‰ higher (Fuller et al.,
2006a; Fuller et al., 2006b). Once weaning begins, the δ15N levels begin to drop because
the solid food will have less protein than breast milk. When a child is completely
weaned, the δ15N values should match the mother’s δ15N values (Fuller et al., 2006a;
73
Fuller et al., 2006b). Judging by the δ15N values of these two individuals compared with
the standard δ15N values from Mitrou, it can be assumed that these two individuals were
still being breastfed.
As is seen in the results and data, no significant difference occurs between the
sampled individuals from the entire Bronze Age (all periods) and the Early Iron Age.
The box plots assist in showing that both time periods have similar values indicating no
difference in diet. However, to obtain more representative results, more Iron Age
samples need to be analyzed in future work. In this study, only three samples were
analyzed for δ13Ccollagen and δ15N, and this small sample size limits the representativeness
of the results for communities living during this time period. Eight samples were
analyzed for δ13Cap and results from this analysis provide similar results, indicating that
the diet was homogenous through the transition. Future work employing more samples
would allow better interpretation of this result.
Central Greece Comparison
The first part of the comparative study focused on archaeological sites in central
Greece. Dietary differences were found and are discussed here. The δ13Ccollagen ANOVA
shows an increase in isotopic values from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age with a very
slight decrease for the Iron Age. However, BA to IA is not significantly different,
possibly due to the difference in sample size between the two periods. The scatterplot
indicates that the BA had the most varied diet of the three periods. The BA has some
potential instances of consumption of C4 in the diet, which is supported by data shown in
the scatterplot, specifically the presence of several outliers outside of the ellipses.
74
The δ15N ANOVA shows similar results as the δ13Ccollagen. In the Neolithic,
sampled individuals appear to be eating mostly plant protein with some animal protein
and those in the BA and IA appear to be consuming more animal protein. This δ15N
analysis suggests that the dietary difference is not exactly the result of what these
individuals were eating but rather the quantity of the consumed foods.
The δ13Ccollagen results indicate the existence of a C3 plant based diet for the three
periods with a few samples indicating C4 consumption by these individuals. As with the
δ15N results, it seems that the type of foods that the individuals were eating was not
different but the amount consumed varied. This is supported by the plot and ellipses that
show a less varied diet for the Neolithic compared with the BA and IA.
All of Greece Comparison
This second part of the comparative study brought more interesting results.
Initially the data were analyzed by period, as was done with the central Greece data. The
δ13Ccollagen ANOVA by period shows a decrease in variability from the Neolithic to the
IA, with the Neolithic having the most varied diet. This is intriguing, since the results for
central Greece alone suggested the exact opposite. For δ13Ccollagen, the individuals from
the Neolithic and BA mostly consumed a C3 plant based diet, however individuals from
the two periods do have several values indicating there was some potential consumption
of C4 plants. The IA data suggest that only C3 plants were consumed.
The δ15N values are continuous with what was seen in central Greece, with the
exception that the three periods are all statistically different from one another. The box
plots show that BA individuals ate a wider variety of plant and animal protein than those
from the Neolithic and IA.
75
When analyzing these data by period alone generated more questions than
answers, they were further divided by period and region. The results of this additional
analysis provide a more clear understanding of diet throughout Greece from the Neolithic
to the Early Iron Age as represented by the sampled individuals. A post-hoc test showed
that individuals from the southern Neolithic period represent the source of significant
differences in the data. This helps to explain why the results of this ANOVA were so
different from those of the ANOVA for central Greece. When examining the δ13Ccollagen
ANOVA, a vast difference is seen between individuals from the central Neolithic and the
southern Neolithic, suggesting that individuals from the southern Neolithic had access to
a greater variety of C3 and C4 plants. The central and southern BA values are fairly equal
and indicate a C3 plant based diet with minimal C4 consumption in these individuals.
Unfortunately there were no southern IA sites to compare with the central IA data. The
δ15N ANOVA shows that values from the central BA and IA are similar and thus indicate
a plant and animal protein consumption for these individuals. In future work, more IA
studies need to be performed, especially for southern Greece, to understand better if diet
does indeed stay consistent over time.
Hypothesis 2
This hypothesis examined LH Mitrou and TAT. Like hypothesis 1, overall the
samples suggest a homogenous C3 based diet. All of the TAT samples, excluding one
sample, fall within the range of δ13Ccollagen -20.00‰ to -19.09‰, indicating a C3 plant-
based diet. The exception, sample Tr4 from Iezzi’s (2005) data, has a δ13Ccollagen value of
-17.4‰. This value, with an even less negative value than that from the single Mitrou
individual, suggests that the individual consumed C4 plants or that they had enriched C3
76
values due to eating more animal products. When the comparative faunal data are
included, the isotopic analysis of the dog reveals a C4 diet as well with a δ13Ccollagen value
of -18.25‰. The isotopic value from the dog can be compared to the human values
because both animals and humans would have consumed the same animal protein source
(Papathanasiou, 2015). That the three samples indicate some C4 plants were being
consumed suggests that those plants were available but either were not eaten often or
were not found in abundance. A botanical report from Mitrou is forthcoming from
Angeliki Karathanou and will hopefully identify specific plants and expand upon these
isotopic results.
Both the data analyzed here and Iezzi’s (2005) TAT data contain δ13Cap values
and the statistical tests showed that there was a statistical difference in the isotopic
values. The post-hoc test revealed that the cause for the difference were the values of the
samples from Iezzi. A clear explanation for this major difference in values is that Iezzi
analyzed δ13Cap from bone while here, δ13Cap from dental enamel was analyzed.
Comparison of apatite from enamel and bone can be useful to examine diet from
childhood to adulthood because of remodeling rates (Bethard, 2012). Unfortunately, this
comparison could not be done here because the samples analyzed were not from the same
individual. While samples were chosen by placement in the same tombs, due to
commingling of remains it was not possible to determine the individuals sampled.
The δ15N value range for TAT is 8.05‰ to 10.75‰ and the range for samples
from LH Mitrou is the same as above, 6.93‰ to 11.42‰. Following the same δ15N
categories as described above, three TAT samples and six of the LH Mitrou samples
indicate a diet primarily based on plant protein. The isotopic signatures from the four
77
analyzed pigs support this result. Three of the pigs fall within the first δ15N category,
indicating all dietary protein was from plants. The remaining pig values are in the second
category, indicating a diet primarily based on plant protein. The isotopic signatures from
the pigs can be used in comparison with the human values because herbivore values
represent the values of the animal protein that was consumed by humans, as well as the
value of the plants, which they were fed (Papathanasiou, 2015). Six TAT samples and
the other seven LH Mitrou samples suggest a diet with animal protein. From examining
these numbers, it appears that some TAT and LH Mitrou individuals might have
consumed slightly more animal protein, but the difference is not statistically significant.
Overall, the diet of LH Mitrou and TAT was made up of plant protein but with some
evidence of consumption of animal protein, either from the meat directly or from
byproducts such as milk and cheese.
Hypothesis 3
The δ13Ccollagen values for the three burial forms are all very similar. However, the
one sample from Mitrou that suggests a C4 influence represents one of the individuals
from the monumental built chamber tomb on the island. It is intriguing that the only
individual with a C4 value was buried in what is considered to be the elite tomb at Mitrou.
However, the other two samples from that tomb suggested a C3 diet similar to the other
burials on the island. Additionally, the chamber tombs of TAT did not reveal any
significant dietary changes from the other kinds of burials.
The δ15N values provide slightly more information with regard to difference in the
burial styles. While statistically there is no significant difference between the burial
styles of Mitrou and TAT, when considering the δ15N categories there is a slight decrease
78
in δ15N for the pit burials. When examining the DFA plot a pattern is evident, and as
stated above, this trend is driven by the nitrogen values. In the DFA plot, from left to
right, the burials are ordered by pit, cist, and chamber tomb. Even though there are a few
burials that were misclassified in the analysis, a pattern does exist and indicates that
burial styles could be influenced by diet and social status. Social status is related to diet.
Elite members of society have access to a wider variety of foods, therefore a correlation
should exist between dietary signatures and burial style. It is sometimes agreed that pit
burials were indicative of members of a low social strata, which supports these results,
however this is very subjective (Lewartowski, 2000). More analyses examining this
relationship need to be done in order to determine if the pattern seen here exists at other
sites. If so, this type of analysis could be an additional way to analyze social status of
burials. Overall though, statistically the results indicate a homogenous diet, regardless of
burial style.
79
CHAPTER VII
CONCLUSION
Studies are conducted continuously throughout the Aegean that examine the diets
of communities in prehistoric Greece. However, most of these studies have been done in
the southern portion of the country, providing little information about past diets in the
central and northern portions. In response, isotopic research in central Greece is growing
and more studies are beginning to be published. This study contributes to this emergent
body of scholarship, specifically by examining the diet of past communities at Mitrou and
TAT and the similarities or differences that existed between them.
As stated before, the research questions for this thesis are: 1) Does diet,
reconstructed by isotopic values, change over time during the occupied periods at Mitrou,
particularly from the BA to EIA? 1a) If so, what were those changes at Mitrou? 2) Is
there a difference in isotopic values between Late Helladic Mitrou and Late Helladic
TAT? 3) Does diet, reconstructed by isotopic values, correlate with burial style and
social status?
To answer these research questions, stable isotopic analyses of carbon and
nitrogen were performed. Overall, the isotopic results suggest a homogenous C3 plant
protein based diet in the sampled individuals, with some inclusion of animal protein. In
this study there was no indication of marine consumption, regardless of the close
proximity of the sites to the Euboean Gulf. Throughout the Bronze Age and into the Iron
80
Age there were no statistically significant dietary changes at Mitrou, based on the
sampled individuals. The same results appear from examination of LH Mitrou and LH
TAT.
When comparing Neolithic, BA, and IA sites throughout all of central Greece, the
isotopic values from Mitrou and TAT fit well within the regional signature, reported in
other publications (see Appendix). Based on the collective results of these analyses, the
past communities of central Greece appear to have consumed a C3 plant based diet with a
few samples indicating possible consumption of C4 plants. Overall, it seems that the
composition of these individuals’ diets were not different but the amount of these
contributions consumed did differ. Through examination of other published isotopic
analyses from central and southern Greece, and comparison of those results to those
presented here, this study was able to examine the diet of communities from prehistoric
Greece employing a much larger sample size than is commonly found in the literature for
prehistoric Greece. Importantly, this larger sample size allowed for better comparisons to
be made, while also showing where further research is needed, such as for communities
from the southern Greek Iron Age. Further, this analysis demonstrated that the diet of
sampled communities from the southern Neolithic was statistically different from that of
other periods and regions, suggesting that these communities had access to a wider
variety of C3 and C4 plants. The central and southern BA values are fairly equal and
indicate a C3 based diet, with plant and animal protein consumption, and with minimal C4
consumption.
The results of this thesis help contextualize cultural changes in a society. It is
mostly observed and assumed that when a controlling power ceases to exist, society
81
should change due to fewer restrictions. This is the general hypothesis for dietary studies
focusing on the Bronze and Early Iron Ages of prehistoric Greece. This thesis
demonstrates that not all settlements of prehistoric Greece followed this general trend of
increasing dietary variability once the main power source was removed. When applied to
broader discussions of societal change, the results of this thesis suggest that, even when a
significant societal collapse or change occurs, diet is not always significantly influenced.
Overall, as represented by the sampled individuals, this study shows that diet at
Mitrou and TAT did not change during the Bronze Age and Iron Age transition, nor was
diet significantly different between the sites or between burial styles.
82
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STABLE ISOTOPE ANALYSIS SAMPLES PER SITE
89
Tabl
e A
.1
Mitr
ou T
hesi
s Sam
ples
Gra
ve
Bur
ial
δ13C
colla
gen/
δ15N
Sa
mpl
e #
δ13C
apat
ite
Sam
ple
# U
GA
MS
# U
CSC
#
Bur
ial
Styl
e C
ultu
ral
Perio
d δ13
C
colla
gen
δ13C
ap
atite
δ15
N
C:N
R
atio
6 9
1301
12
01
2241
8 M
itrou
_Hum
an_1
201
Cis
t PG
-1
9.44
-1
2.5
8.71
3.
2
10
13
1302
12
02
2241
9 M
itrou
_Hum
an_1
202
Cis
t PG
-1
9.92
-1
3.16
8.
01
3.22
15
20
1304
12
04
2242
0 M
itrou
_Hum
an_1
204
Cis
t LH
-2
0.64
-1
2.17
8.
8 3.
57
22
28
1305
12
05
2242
1 M
itrou
_Hum
an_1
205
Cis
t PG
-1
9.7
-12.
23
9.2
3.22
22
28
12
06
M
itrou
_Hum
an_1
206
Cis
t PG
-12.
08
23
27
1307
12
07
2242
2 M
itrou
_Hum
an_1
207
Cis
t LH
-1
9.32
-1
3.62
9.
13
3.24
24
29
1308
2242
3
Dis
turb
ed
LH
-19.
24
10
.93
3.6
25
30
1309
12
09
2242
4 M
itrou
_Hum
an_1
209
Pit
LH
-20.
15
-13.
32
6.93
3.
17
29
33
12
11
M
itrou
_Hum
an_1
211
Cis
t PG
-11.
78
31
32
1313
12
13
2242
5 M
itrou
_Hum
an_1
213
Pit
LH
-18.
77
-12.
48
8.77
3.
3
33
34
12
14
M
itrou
_Hum
an_1
214
Cis
t PG
-13.
45
41
44
1315
12
15
2242
7 M
itrou
_Hum
an_1
215
Cis
t Ea
rly
-19.
26
-12.
82
8.93
3.
22
90
Tabl
e A
.1 (c
ontin
ued)
42
49
12
16
M
itrou
_Hum
an_1
216
Cis
t PG
-12.
9
48
51
12
17
M
itrou
_Hum
an_1
217
Cis
t PG
-12.
57
50
53
12
18
M
itrou
_Hum
an_1
218
Cis
t LH
-12.
89
- 52
13
19
1219
22
428
Mitr
ou_H
uman
_121
9 Pi
t LH
-1
9.49
-1
2.93
7.
76
3.22
55
56
12
20
M
itrou
_Hum
an_1
220
Cis
t LH
-12.
96
55
56
12
21
M
itrou
_Hum
an_1
221
Cis
t LH
-11.
8
56
57
1322
12
22
2242
9 M
itrou
_Hum
an_1
222
Pith
os
LH
-19.
83
-13.
11
8.42
3.
2
65
64
12
23
M
itrou
_Hum
an_1
223
Cis
t LH
-12.
97
66
66
1324
12
24
2243
0 M
itrou
_Hum
an_1
224
Cis
t LH
-1
9.31
-1
2.49
9.
13
3.29
73
74
1325
12
25
2243
1 M
itrou
_Hum
an_1
225
Cha
mbe
r to
mb
LH
-20.
27
-12.
9 11
.42
3.12
73
74
1326
12
26
2243
2 M
itrou
_Hum
an_1
226
Cha
mbe
r to
mb
LH
-20.
05
-13.
29
7.15
3.
25
73
74
1327
12
27
2243
3 M
itrou
_Hum
an_1
227
Cha
mbe
r to
mb
LH
-18.
87
-12.
73
10.9
7 3.
42
74
76
1328
12
28
2243
4 M
itrou
_Hum
an_1
228
Con
text
un
know
n LH
-1
9.81
-1
3.11
9.
25
3.27
74
77
1329
12
29
2243
5 M
itrou
_Hum
an_1
229
Con
text
un
know
n LH
-1
9.59
-1
2.56
8.
75
3.2
91
Tabl
e A
.1 (c
ontin
ued)
Β36
0602
Cis
t Ea
rly
-19
9.
4
Β36
0604
Pit
Early
-1
9.5
8.
6
Β36
1289
Cis
t LH
-1
9.2
9.
8
Gra
ve 3
3 B
uria
l 34
was
ana
lyze
d fo
r δ13
Cco
llage
n but
due
to th
e ex
trem
ely
high
C:N
ratio
(37.
82) i
t was
exc
lude
d fr
om a
naly
sis.
The
last
thre
e M
itrou
sam
ples
in th
is ta
ble
wer
e ob
tain
ed fr
om D
r. N
icho
las H
errm
ann
thro
ugh
pers
onal
com
mun
icat
ion.
Apa
tite
sam
ples
for M
itrou
orig
inat
ed fr
om to
oth
enam
el.
92
Tabl
e A
.2
TAT
Thes
is S
ampl
es
Gra
ve
δ13C
colla
gen/
δ15
N
Sam
ple
#
δ13C
apat
ite
Sam
ple
# Ie
zzi
Sam
ple
# U
GA
MS
# U
CSC
#
Bur
ial
Styl
e C
ultu
ral
Perio
d δ13
C
colla
gen
δ13C
ap
atite
δ15
N
C:N
R
atio
Tom
b V
I 13
32
1232
2244
1 TA
T_H
uman
_123
2 Cha
mbe
r to
mb
LH
-19.
57
-12.
68
10.7
5 3.
24
Tom
b I
1337
12
37
22
442
TAT_
Hum
an_1
237 C
ham
ber
tom
b LH
-1
9.4
-12.
7 10
.23
3.25
Tom
b I
1340
12
40
22
443
TAT_
Hum
an_1
240 C
ham
ber
tom
b LH
-1
9.14
-1
1.89
8.
05
3.09
Tom
b III
12
41
TAT_
Hum
an_1
241 C
ham
ber
tom
b LH
-12.
51
Tom
b V
1244
TA
T_H
uman
_124
4 Cha
mbe
r to
mb
LH
-1
2.74
Tom
b V
13
47
1247
2244
4 TA
T_H
uman
_124
7 Cha
mbe
r to
mb
LH
-19.
09
-12.
57
9.05
3.
08
Tom
b V
II
12
49
TAT_
Hum
an_1
249 C
ham
ber
tom
b LH
-13.
12
Tom
b V
II
1350
12
50
22
445
TAT_
Hum
an_1
250 C
ham
ber
tom
b LH
-1
9.12
-1
2.73
8.
79
3.08
Tom
b V
II
12
51
TAT_
Hum
an_1
251 C
ham
ber
tom
b LH
-13.
33
Tom
b I
Tr1
Cha
mbe
r to
mb
LH
-20
-10.
8 9.
2
Tom
b I
Tr2
Cha
mbe
r to
mb
LH
-19.
9 -1
0.5
9.5
Tom
b III
Tr3
Cha
mbe
r to
mb
LH
-20
-11.
2 10
.4
93
Tabl
e A
.2 (c
ontin
ued)
Tom
b III
Tr
4
C
ham
ber
tom
b LH
-1
7.4
-9.6
8.
1
The
last
four
TA
T sa
mpl
es c
ome
from
Iezz
i 200
5 an
d 20
15. T
he a
patit
e sa
mpl
es fr
om Ie
zzi o
rigin
ated
from
bon
e, w
hile
the
rem
aini
ng a
patit
e sa
mpl
es fo
r TA
T or
igin
ated
from
toot
h en
amel
.
94
Tabl
e A
.3
Com
para
tive
Isot
opic
Sam
ples
from
Pet
rout
sa a
nd M
anol
is 2
010
Site
B
uria
l R
egio
n of
G
reec
e B
uria
l Sty
le
Cul
tura
l Pe
riod
Bro
ad
Cul
tura
l Pe
riod
δ13C
colla
gen
δ15N
C
:N
Rat
io
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE0
1 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-19.
8 7.
3 3.
1
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE0
2 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-19.
3 6.
1 3.
1
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE0
3 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-21.
5 6.
8 3.
1
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE0
4 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-19.
6 7.
1 3.
1
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE0
5 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-19.
7 7.
3 3.
2
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE0
6 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-20
6.8
3.3
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE0
7 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-19.
3 7.
8 3.
1
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE0
8 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-20.
4 7.
4 3
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE0
9 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-19.
5 7
3.1
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE1
0 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-18.
1 8.
1 3.
2
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE1
1 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-19.
7 7.
3 3.
3
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE1
2 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-18.
6 6.
1 3.
3
95
Tabl
e A
.3 (c
ontin
ued)
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE1
3 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-19.
5 6.
6 3.
1
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE1
4 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-20.
2 7.
9 3.
1
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE1
5 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-20.
1 7.
3 3.
1
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE1
6 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-19.
5 7.
5 3.
4
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE1
7 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-21.
7 7.
4 3.
2
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE1
9 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-19.
4 7.
6 3.
1
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE2
0 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-19.
3 8
3.1
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE2
1 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-19.
4 7.
8 3.
1
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE2
2 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-19.
8 7.
1 3.
2
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE2
3 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-20.
5 7
3.1
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE2
4 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-20.
5 7.
1 3.
1
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE2
6 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-21.
7 6.
5 3.
1
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE2
7 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-20.
9 7
3.4
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE2
8 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-20.
8 6.
2 3.
1
96
Tabl
e A
.3 (c
ontin
ued)
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE2
9 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-19.
9 6.
5 3.
3
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE3
1 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-20.
7 6.
7 3.
1
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE3
3 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-20.
4 7.
2 3.
1
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE3
4 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-22.
5 6.
4 3.
2
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE3
5 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-20.
5 7.
5 3.
2
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE3
6 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-19.
7 7.
5 3.
2
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE3
7 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-19.
9 7.
9 3.
2
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE3
8 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-19.
8 6.
9 3.
3
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE3
9 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-20
6.9
3.1
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE4
0 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-20
6.4
3.6
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE4
1 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-20.
8 7.
1 3.
1
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE4
3 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-19.
7 6.
6 3.
6
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE4
4 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-19.
7 7.
1 3.
3
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE4
5 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-19.
7 7.
1 3.
2
97
Tabl
e A
.3 (c
ontin
ued)
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE4
6 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-19.
6 7
3.3
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE4
7 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-19.
5 7.
9 3
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE4
8 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-19.
5 6.
4 3.
4
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE4
9 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-19.
7 6.
5 3.
2
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE5
0 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-19.
8 7.
8 3.
1
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE5
1 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-21.
4 6.
8 3.
3
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE5
3 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-19.
9 6.
7 3.
1
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE5
4 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-21.
9 7.
7 3.
1
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE5
6 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-20.
1 7.
7 3.
2
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE5
7 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-19.
7 7.
7 3.
2
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE5
8 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-19.
8 7
3.2
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE5
9 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-19.
4 7.
3 3
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE6
0 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-19.
4 7.
5 3
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE6
1 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-20
7.5
3.1
98
Tabl
e A
.3 (c
ontin
ued)
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE6
2 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-19.
5 7.
9 3
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE6
3 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-19.
8 7.
6 3
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE6
4 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-19.
5 7
3
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE6
5 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-20
7.1
3.3
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE6
8 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-19.
6 7.
4 3.
2
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE6
9 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-19.
8 7.
6 3.
3
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE7
0 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-19.
8 8.
6 3.
1
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE7
2 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-19.
9 8
3.4
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE7
3 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-17.
8 8.
1 3.
3
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE7
4 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-19.
8 7.
3 3.
1
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE7
5 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-19.
5 7.
2 3.
3
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE7
6 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-19.
8 7.
2 3.
3
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE7
7 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-19.
8 6.
3 3.
4
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE7
8 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-19.
4 7.
3 3.
2
99
Tabl
e A
.3 (c
ontin
ued)
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE7
9 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-19.
9 7.
4 3.
3
Agh
ia
Tria
da
SAE8
0 So
uthe
rn
thol
os to
mbs
with
co
mm
ingl
ed b
uria
ls
LH
2 B
A
-19.
8 7.
7 3.
3
Zeli
ZL01
C
entra
l pi
t tom
bs
LH II
IA2
- LH
IIIC
2
BA
-1
9.6
8.1
3.3
Zeli
ZL02
C
entra
l pi
t tom
bs
LH II
IA2
- LH
IIIC
2
BA
-1
9.8
7.3
3.3
Zeli
ZL03
C
entra
l pi
t tom
bs
LH II
IA2
- LH
IIIC
2
BA
-1
9.7
8.1
3.4
Zeli
ZL04
C
entra
l pi
t tom
bs
LH II
IA2
- LH
IIIC
2
BA
-1
9.4
8.5
3.3
Zeli
ZL05
C
entra
l pi
t tom
bs
LH II
IA2
- LH
IIIC
2
BA
-1
9.8
8.5
3.3
Zeli
ZL06
C
entra
l pi
t tom
bs
LH II
IA2
- LH
IIIC
2
BA
-2
0 9.
7 3.
4
Zeli
ZL07
C
entra
l pi
t tom
bs
LH II
IA2
- LH
IIIC
2
BA
-2
0.1
8.2
3.5
Zeli
ZL08
C
entra
l pi
t tom
bs
LH II
IA2
- LH
IIIC
2
BA
-1
9.7
9.1
3.3
Zeli
ZL09
C
entra
l pi
t tom
bs
LH II
IA2
- LH
IIIC
2
BA
-1
9.3
8.6
3.3
Zeli
ZL10
C
entra
l pi
t tom
bs
LH II
IA2
- LH
IIIC
2
BA
-1
9.8
9.6
3.5
Zeli
ZL11
C
entra
l pi
t tom
bs
LH II
IA2
- LH
IIIC
2
BA
-1
9.7
8.7
3.4
Zeli
ZL12
C
entra
l pi
t tom
bs
LH II
IA2
- LH
IIIC
2
BA
-1
9.5
8.8
3.3
100
Tabl
e A
.3 (c
ontin
ued)
Zeli
ZL13
C
entra
l pi
t tom
bs
LH II
IA2
- LH
IIIC
2
BA
-1
9.4
8.2
3.3
Zeli
ZL14
C
entra
l pi
t tom
bs
LH II
IA2
- LH
IIIC
2
BA
-2
0 7.
7 3.
4
Zeli
ZL15
C
entra
l pi
t tom
bs
LH II
IA2
- LH
IIIC
2
BA
-1
9.5
7.7
3.3
Zeli
ZL16
C
entra
l pi
t tom
bs
LH II
IA2
- LH
IIIC
2
BA
-1
9.7
8.5
3.3
Zeli
ZL17
C
entra
l pi
t tom
bs
LH II
IA2
- LH
IIIC
2
BA
-2
0.1
8.6
3.3
Zeli
ZL18
C
entra
l pi
t tom
bs
LH II
IA2
- LH
IIIC
2
BA
-1
9.6
7.9
3.4
Zeli
ZL19
C
entra
l pi
t tom
bs
LH II
IA2
- LH
IIIC
2
BA
-1
9.5
9 3.
3
Zeli
ZL20
C
entra
l pi
t tom
bs
LH II
IA2
- LH
IIIC
2
BA
-2
0.2
8.1
3.5
Kal
apod
i K
L01
Cen
tral
thol
os to
mbs
LH
IIB-
IIIA
1 2
BA
-1
9.9
9.3
3.4
Kal
apod
i K
L02
Cen
tral
thol
os to
mbs
LH
IIB-
IIIA
1 2
BA
-1
9.6
8.3
3.3
Kal
apod
i K
L03
Cen
tral
thol
os to
mbs
LH
IIB-
IIIA
1 2
BA
-1
9 7.
1 3.
3
Kal
apod
i K
L04
Cen
tral
thol
os to
mbs
LH
IIB-
IIIA
1 2
BA
-1
9.2
7.2
3.3
Kal
apod
i K
L05
Cen
tral
thol
os to
mbs
LH
IIB-
IIIA
1 2
BA
-1
9.7
8.7
3.4
Kal
apod
i K
L06
Cen
tral
thol
os to
mbs
LH
IIB-
IIIA
1 2
BA
-2
0 9.
4 3.
5
101
Tabl
e A
.3 (c
ontin
ued)
Kal
apod
i K
L07
Cen
tral
thol
os to
mbs
LH
IIB-
IIIA
1 2
BA
-2
0 8
3.3
Kal
apod
i K
L08
Cen
tral
thol
os to
mbs
LH
IIB-
IIIA
1 2
BA
-1
9.8
8.2
3.4
Kal
apod
i K
L09
Cen
tral
thol
os to
mbs
LH
IIB-
IIIA
1 2
BA
-2
0.3
7.3
3.4
Kal
apod
i K
L10
Cen
tral
thol
os to
mbs
LH
IIB-
IIIA
1 2
BA
-1
9.9
9.4
3.7
Kal
apod
i K
L11
Cen
tral
thol
os to
mbs
LH
IIB-
IIIA
1 2
BA
-1
9.9
7.6
3.3
Kal
apod
i K
L12
Cen
tral
thol
os to
mbs
LH
IIB-
IIIA
1 2
BA
-1
9.1
10.4
3.
2
Kal
apod
i K
L13
Cen
tral
thol
os to
mbs
LH
IIB-
IIIA
1 2
BA
-1
9.7
9.9
3.3
Kal
apod
i K
L14
Cen
tral
thol
os to
mbs
LH
IIB-
IIIA
1 2
BA
-1
9.2
8.6
3.2
Alm
yri
AL0
1 So
uthe
rn
som
e th
olos
ar
chite
ctur
e La
te
Bro
nze
Age
2 B
A
-19.
1 9.
3 3.
3
Alm
yri
AL0
2 So
uthe
rn
som
e th
olos
ar
chite
ctur
e La
te
Bro
nze
Age
2 B
A
-19.
4 8.
7 3.
3
Alm
yri
AL0
3 So
uthe
rn
som
e th
olos
ar
chite
ctur
e La
te
Bro
nze
Age
2 B
A
-19.
3 9
3.2
Alm
yri
AL0
4 So
uthe
rn
som
e th
olos
ar
chite
ctur
e La
te
Bro
nze
Age
2 B
A
-19.
3 9.
3 3.
2
102
Tabl
e A
.3 (c
ontin
ued)
Alm
yri
AL0
5 So
uthe
rn
som
e th
olos
ar
chite
ctur
e La
te
Bro
nze
Age
2 B
A
-19.
2 9.
2 3.
2
Alm
yri
AL0
6 So
uthe
rn
som
e th
olos
ar
chite
ctur
e La
te
Bro
nze
Age
2 B
A
-19.
3 9.
5 3.
2
Alm
yri
AL0
7 So
uthe
rn
som
e th
olos
ar
chite
ctur
e La
te
Bro
nze
Age
2 B
A
-19.
4 8.
6 3.
2
Alm
yri
AL0
8 So
uthe
rn
som
e th
olos
ar
chite
ctur
e La
te
Bro
nze
Age
2 B
A
-19.
6 9.
2 3.
2
Alm
yri
AL0
9 So
uthe
rn
som
e th
olos
ar
chite
ctur
e La
te
Bro
nze
Age
2 B
A
-19.
2 9.
6 3.
2
Alm
yri
AL1
0 So
uthe
rn
som
e th
olos
ar
chite
ctur
e La
te
Bro
nze
Age
2 B
A
-18.
8 9.
5 3.
2
Alm
yri
AL1
1 So
uthe
rn
som
e th
olos
ar
chite
ctur
e La
te
Bro
nze
Age
2 B
A
-19.
5 9.
2 3.
2
Alm
yri
AL1
2 So
uthe
rn
som
e th
olos
ar
chite
ctur
e La
te
Bro
nze
Age
2 B
A
-19.
4 9.
4 3.
3
Alm
yri
AL1
3 So
uthe
rn
som
e th
olos
ar
chite
ctur
e La
te
Bro
nze
Age
2 B
A
-19.
3 9.
2 3.
2
103
Tabl
e A
.3 (c
ontin
ued)
Alm
yri
AL1
4 So
uthe
rn
som
e th
olos
ar
chite
ctur
e La
te
Bro
nze
Age
2 B
A
-19.
5 9.
6 3.
3
Alm
yri
AL1
5 So
uthe
rn
som
e th
olos
ar
chite
ctur
e La
te
Bro
nze
Age
2 B
A
-19.
3 9.
2 3.
2
Alm
yri
AL1
6 So
uthe
rn
som
e th
olos
ar
chite
ctur
e La
te
Bro
nze
Age
2 B
A
-19.
7 8.
5 3.
2
Alm
yri
AL1
7 So
uthe
rn
som
e th
olos
ar
chite
ctur
e La
te
Bro
nze
Age
2 B
A
-18.
8 9.
3 3.
3
Alm
yri
AL1
8 So
uthe
rn
som
e th
olos
ar
chite
ctur
e La
te
Bro
nze
Age
2 B
A
-19
9.1
3.4
Alm
yri
AL1
9 So
uthe
rn
som
e th
olos
ar
chite
ctur
e La
te
Bro
nze
Age
2 B
A
-19.
1 9.
6 3.
3
Alm
yri
AL2
0 So
uthe
rn
som
e th
olos
ar
chite
ctur
e La
te
Bro
nze
Age
2 B
A
-19.
4 9.
3 3.
3
Alm
yri
AL2
1 So
uthe
rn
som
e th
olos
ar
chite
ctur
e La
te
Bro
nze
Age
2 B
A
-18.
8 9.
9 3.
3
Alm
yri
AL2
2 So
uthe
rn
som
e th
olos
ar
chite
ctur
e La
te
Bro
nze
Age
2 B
A
-19
9.6
3.2
104
Tabl
e A
.3 (c
ontin
ued)
Alm
yri
AL2
3 So
uthe
rn
som
e th
olos
ar
chite
ctur
e La
te
Bro
nze
Age
2 B
A
-19.
1 9.
2 3.
2
Alm
yri
AL2
4 So
uthe
rn
som
e th
olos
ar
chite
ctur
e La
te
Bro
nze
Age
2 B
A
-19.
3 8.
7 3.
2
Alm
yri
AL2
5 So
uthe
rn
som
e th
olos
ar
chite
ctur
e La
te
Bro
nze
Age
2 B
A
-19.
4 9.
3 3.
3
Alm
yri
AL2
6 So
uthe
rn
som
e th
olos
ar
chite
ctur
e La
te
Bro
nze
Age
2 B
A
-19.
1 9.
3 3.
2
Alm
yri
AL2
7 So
uthe
rn
som
e th
olos
ar
chite
ctur
e La
te
Bro
nze
Age
2 B
A
-18.
9 9.
8 3.
2
Alm
yri
AL2
8 So
uthe
rn
som
e th
olos
ar
chite
ctur
e La
te
Bro
nze
Age
2 B
A
-19
9.4
3.3
Alm
yri
AL2
9 So
uthe
rn
som
e th
olos
ar
chite
ctur
e La
te
Bro
nze
Age
2 B
A
-19.
1 9.
6 3.
2
Alm
yri
AL3
0 So
uthe
rn
som
e th
olos
ar
chite
ctur
e La
te
Bro
nze
Age
2 B
A
-19.
2 9.
6 3.
3
Alm
yri
AL3
1 So
uthe
rn
som
e th
olos
ar
chite
ctur
e La
te
Bro
nze
Age
2 B
A
-18.
8 9.
5 3.
3
105
Tabl
e A
.3 (c
ontin
ued)
Alm
yri
AL3
2 So
uthe
rn
som
e th
olos
ar
chite
ctur
e La
te
Bro
nze
Age
2 B
A
-19.
2 9.
4 3.
2
Alm
yri
AL3
3 So
uthe
rn
som
e th
olos
ar
chite
ctur
e La
te
Bro
nze
Age
2 B
A
-19
9.6
3.3
Alm
yri
AL3
4 So
uthe
rn
som
e th
olos
ar
chite
ctur
e La
te
Bro
nze
Age
2 B
A
-18.
6 9.
5 3.
3
In th
e 20
10 p
ublic
atio
n th
e δ1
3Cco
llage
n val
ue fo
r sam
ple
SAE4
6 w
as li
sted
as 1
9.6.
Afte
r exa
min
ing
thei
r sca
tterp
lot,
I cha
nged
the
valu
e to
-19.
6.
106
Tabl
e A
.4
Com
para
tive
Isot
opic
Sam
ples
from
Vik
a 20
11
Site
B
uria
l R
egio
n of
G
reec
e B
uria
l St
yle
Cul
tura
l Per
iod
Bro
ad C
ultu
ral
Perio
d δ1
3Cco
llage
n δ1
5N
C:N
Rat
io
Theb
es
OSE
10
Cen
tral
pit
Early
and
Mid
dle
Bro
nze
Age
2
BA
-1
9.6
9.1
3.4
Theb
es
OSE
2 C
entra
l pi
t Ea
rly a
nd M
iddl
e B
ronz
e A
ge
2 B
A
-19.
5 7.
8 3.
3
Theb
es
OSE
7 C
entra
l pi
t Ea
rly a
nd M
iddl
e B
ronz
e A
ge
2 B
A
-18.
9 10
.1
3.4
Theb
es
OSE
8 C
entra
l pi
t Ea
rly a
nd M
iddl
e B
ronz
e A
ge
2 B
A
-19.
8 7.
9 3.
3
Theb
es
OSE
1 C
entra
l pi
t Ea
rly a
nd M
iddl
e B
ronz
e A
ge
2 B
A
-19.
7 8.
1 3.
3
Theb
es
OSE
12
Cen
tral
pit
Early
and
Mid
dle
Bro
nze
Age
2
BA
-1
9.6
8.8
3.4
Theb
es
OSE
13
Cen
tral
pit
Early
and
Mid
dle
Bro
nze
Age
2
BA
-1
9.4
10.1
3.
3
Theb
es
OSE
14
Cen
tral
pit
Early
and
Mid
dle
Bro
nze
Age
2
BA
-1
9.2
9.7
3.4
Theb
es
OSE
15
Cen
tral
pit
Early
and
Mid
dle
Bro
nze
Age
2
BA
-2
1.7
5.9
3.5
Theb
es
OSE
3 C
entra
l pi
t Ea
rly a
nd M
iddl
e B
ronz
e A
ge
2 B
A
-19.
4 7.
7 3.
3
Theb
es
OSE
5 C
entra
l pi
t Ea
rly a
nd M
iddl
e B
ronz
e A
ge
2 B
A
-19.
2 8.
1 3.
3
Theb
es
OSE
6 C
entra
l pi
t Ea
rly a
nd M
iddl
e B
ronz
e A
ge
2 B
A
-18.
8 10
.4
3.3
107
Tabl
e A
.5
Com
para
tive
Isot
opic
Sam
ples
from
Vik
a 20
15
Site
B
uria
l R
egio
n of
G
reec
e B
uria
l St
yle
Cul
tura
l Pe
riod
Bro
ad
Cul
tura
l Pe
riod
δ13C
colla
gen
δ15N
C
:N R
atio
Theb
es
THO
P1
Cen
tral
mas
s bu
rial,
tum
ulus
EH
2 B
A
-19.
4 9.
6 3.
3
Theb
es
THO
P3
Cen
tral
mas
s bu
rial,
tum
ulus
EH
2 B
A
-19.
8 9.
4 3.
3
Theb
es
THO
P4
Cen
tral
mas
s bu
rial,
tum
ulus
EH
2 B
A
-19.
7 11
3.
4
Theb
es
THO
P5
Cen
tral
mas
s bu
rial,
tum
ulus
EH
2 B
A
-19.
7 10
.9
3.3
Theb
es
THO
P9
Cen
tral
mas
s bu
rial,
tum
ulus
EH
2 B
A
-19.
8 10
3.
3
Theb
es
THO
P14
Cen
tral
mas
s bu
rial,
tum
ulus
EH
2 B
A
-20.
5 8.
8 3.
3
Theb
es
THO
P15
Cen
tral
mas
s bu
rial,
tum
ulus
EH
2 B
A
-19.
6 9.
7 3.
4
Theb
es
THO
P24
Cen
tral
mas
s bu
rial,
tum
ulus
EH
2 B
A
-19.
9 9.
8 3.
3
108
Tabl
e A
.5 (c
ontin
ued)
Theb
es
THO
P25
Cen
tral
mas
s bu
rial,
tum
ulus
EH
2 B
A
-19.
9 10
.1
3.4
Theb
es
THO
P28
Cen
tral
mas
s bu
rial,
tum
ulus
EH
2 B
A
-20
9.5
3.4
Theb
es
THO
P40
Cen
tral
tum
ulus
M
H
2 B
A
-20
9.3
3.5
Theb
es
THO
P41
Cen
tral
tum
ulus
M
H
2 B
A
-19.
6 8.
5 3.
4 Th
ebes
TH
OP4
2 C
entra
l tu
mul
us
MH
2
BA
-2
0.2
8.5
3.4
Theb
es
THO
P43
Cen
tral
tum
ulus
M
H
2 B
A
-19.
7 8.
3 3.
4 Th
ebes
TH
OP4
4 C
entra
l tu
mul
us
MH
2
BA
-1
9.7
8.3
3.3
Theb
es
THO
P45
Cen
tral
tum
ulus
M
H
2 B
A
-19.
7 8.
4 3.
3 Th
ebes
TH
OP4
6 C
entra
l tu
mul
us
MH
2
BA
-1
9.5
8.4
3.3
Theb
es
THO
P47
Cen
tral
tum
ulus
M
H
2 B
A
-19.
8 8.
7 3.
3 Th
ebes
TH
OP4
8 C
entra
l tu
mul
us
MH
2
BA
-1
8.5
10.8
3.
3 Th
ebes
TH
OP4
9 C
entra
l tu
mul
us
MH
2
BA
-2
0 10
.8
3.4
Theb
es
THO
P50
Cen
tral
tum
ulus
M
H
2 B
A
-19.
4 8.
8 3.
3 Th
ebes
TH
OP5
1 C
entra
l tu
mul
us
MH
2
BA
-1
9.7
9.2
3.3
109
Tabl
e A
.6
Com
para
tive
Isot
opic
Sam
ples
from
Iezz
i 200
5 an
d 20
15
Site
B
uria
l R
egio
n of
G
reec
e B
uria
l Sty
le
Cul
tura
l Pe
riod
Bro
ad
Cul
tura
l Pe
riod
δ13C
colla
gen
δ13C
apat
ite
δ15N
C
:N
Rat
io
Ata
lant
i A
t1
Cen
tral
cham
ber t
omb
LHII
IB-
IIIC
2
BA
-1
9.7
-10.
4 8
Ata
lant
i A
t2
Cen
tral
cham
ber t
omb
LHII
IB-
IIIC
2
BA
-2
1.7
-13.
1 6.
5
Ata
lant
i A
t3
Cen
tral
cham
ber t
omb
LHII
IB-
IIIC
2
BA
-2
0.4
-13.
7 8.
1
Ata
lant
i A
t4
Cen
tral
cham
ber t
omb
LHII
IB-
IIIC
2
BA
-2
0 -1
2.4
8.3
Kol
aka
Ko1
C
entra
l ch
ambe
r tom
b LH
IIIB
-II
IC
2 B
A
-15.
9 -9
.2
7.1
Kol
aka
Ko2
C
entra
l ch
ambe
r tom
b LH
IIIB
-II
IC
2 B
A
-19.
3 -1
1.7
7.1
Kol
aka
Ko3
C
entra
l ch
ambe
r tom
b LH
IIIB
-II
IC
2 B
A
-19.
3 -1
0.9
10.3
Kol
aka
Ko4
C
entra
l ch
ambe
r tom
b LH
IIIB
-II
IC
2 B
A
-18.
6 -1
0.6
6.8
Mod
i M
o1
Cen
tral
cham
ber t
omb
LHII
IB-
IIIC
2
BA
-1
9 -1
2.7
6.2
Mod
i M
o2
Cen
tral
cham
ber t
omb
LHII
IB-
IIIC
2
BA
-1
9.7
-12.
7 8.
9
Mod
i M
o3
Cen
tral
cham
ber t
omb
LHII
IB-
IIIC
2
BA
-1
9.1
-13.
9 7.
9
Mod
i M
o4
Cen
tral
cham
ber t
omb
LHII
IB-
IIIC
2
BA
-1
9.2
-12.
5 6.
2
The
TAT
sam
ples
from
thes
e pu
blis
hed
wor
ks a
re in
clud
ed in
Tab
le A
.2.
110
Tabl
e A
.7
Com
para
tive
Isot
opic
Sam
ples
from
Ric
hard
s and
Hed
ges 2
008
Site
B
uria
l R
egio
n of
G
reec
e B
uria
l Sty
le
Cul
tura
l Pe
riod
Bro
ad C
ultu
ral
Perio
d δ1
3Cco
llage
n δ1
5N
C:N
Rat
io
Myc
enae
G
C-A
M
663
Sout
hern
gr
ave
circ
le
MH
III-
LHI
2 B
A
-18.
5 10
.8
3.38
6058
Myc
enae
G
C-A
M
664
Sout
hern
gr
ave
circ
le
MH
III-
LHI
2 B
A
-18.
7 11
.1
3.38
538
Myc
enae
G
C-A
M
665
Sout
hern
gr
ave
circ
le
MH
III-
LHI
2 B
A
-18.
3 10
.7
3.36
0505
Myc
enae
G
C-A
M
667
Sout
hern
gr
ave
circ
le
LHI
2 B
A
-18.
8 10
3.
2706
75
Myc
enae
G
C-A
M
662
Sout
hern
gr
ave
circ
le
MH
III-
LHI
2 B
A
-17.
8 11
.2
3.35
7324
Myc
enae
G
C-A
M
668
Sout
hern
gr
ave
circ
le
LHI
2 B
A
-19.
7 7.
8 3.
3803
55
Myc
enae
G
C-A
M
675
Sout
hern
gr
ave
circ
le
MH
-LH
I 2
BA
-1
8.7
10.5
3.
3795
14
Myc
enae
G
C-A
M
676
Sout
hern
gr
ave
circ
le
MH
-LH
I 2
BA
-1
8.5
11.5
3.
3754
99
Myc
enae
G
C-A
M
677
Sout
hern
gr
ave
circ
le
MH
-LH
I 2
BA
-1
8.4
10.8
3.
3908
43
Myc
enae
G
C-B
M
YC
608
Sout
hern
gr
ave
circ
le
MH
-LH
I 2
BA
-1
9.9
6.6
3.56
8971
Myc
enae
G
C-B
M
YC
608
Sout
hern
gr
ave
circ
le
MH
-LH
I 2
BA
-2
0.1
5.6
3.59
4798
Myc
enae
G
C-B
B
MY
C60
8 So
uthe
rn
grav
e ci
rcle
M
H-L
HI
2 B
A
-19.
9 6.
4 3.
3124
43
Myc
enae
G
C-B
M
YC
611
Sout
hern
gr
ave
circ
le
MH
-LH
I 2
BA
-1
9.8
10.3
3.
6209
53
111
Tabl
e A
.7 (c
ontin
ued)
Myc
enae
G
C-B
B
MY
C61
2 So
uthe
rn
grav
e ci
rcle
M
H-L
HI
2 B
A
-19.
5 10
.1
3.45
3008
Myc
enae
G
C-B
M
YC
620
Sout
hern
gr
ave
circ
le
MH
-LH
I 2
BA
-1
8.2
10.7
3.
4247
62
Myc
enae
G
C-B
M
YC
616
Sout
hern
gr
ave
circ
le
MH
-LH
I 2
BA
-1
8.8
9.8
3.52
6679
Myc
enae
G
C-B
B
MY
C61
4 So
uthe
rn
grav
e ci
rcle
M
H-L
HI
2 B
A
-19.
1 9.
7 3.
3560
72
Myc
enae
G
C-B
M
YC
618
Sout
hern
gr
ave
circ
le
MH
-LH
I 2
BA
-1
9.6
8.1
3.56
6046
Loup
ouno
B
MY
C63
0 So
uthe
rn
cham
ber
tom
b LH
I-LH
III
2 B
A
-19.
3 8.
5 3.
3541
31
Mon
astir
aki
BM
YC
631
Sout
hern
ch
ambe
r to
mb
LHI-
LHII
I 2
BA
-1
9.6
6.5
3.40
6702
Bat
sora
chi
BM
YC
632
Sout
hern
ch
ambe
r to
mb
LHI-
LHII
I 2
BA
-1
9.4
8.5
3.31
9527
Bat
sora
chi
MY
C63
3 So
uthe
rn
cham
ber
tom
b LH
I-LH
III
2 B
A
-19.
5 7.
6 3.
4197
99
Bat
sora
chi
BM
YC
634
Sout
hern
ch
ambe
r to
mb
LHI-
LHII
I 2
BA
-1
9.4
9.4
3.25
413
Bat
sora
chi
MY
C63
5 So
uthe
rn
cham
ber
tom
b LH
I-LH
III
2 B
A
-19.
5 7.
7 3.
4023
58
Loup
ouno
M
YC
636
Sout
hern
ch
ambe
r to
mb
LHI-
LHII
I 2
BA
-1
9.1
9.8
3.38
8278
Loup
ouno
M
YC
637
Sout
hern
ch
ambe
r to
mb
LHI-
LHII
I 2
BA
-1
9.1
8.6
3.38
2794
Bat
sora
chi
MY
C63
8 So
uthe
rn
cham
ber
tom
b LH
I-LH
III
2 B
A
-19.
5 8.
1 3.
3839
72
112
Tabl
e A
.7 (c
ontin
ued)
Bat
sora
chi
MY
C63
9 So
uthe
rn
cham
ber
tom
b LH
I-LH
III
2 B
A
-19.
1 6.
9 3.
3484
48
Bat
sora
chi
MY
C64
0 So
uthe
rn
cham
ber
tom
b LH
I-LH
III
2 B
A
-19.
2 6.
9 3.
3597
78
113
Tabl
e A
.8
Com
para
tive
Isot
opic
Sam
ples
from
Pap
atha
nasi
ou e
t al.
2009
Site
B
uria
l R
egio
n of
G
reec
e B
uria
l Sty
le
Cul
tura
l Pe
riod
Bro
ad C
ultu
ral
Perio
d δ1
3Cco
llage
n δ1
5N
C:N
Rat
io
Pros
kyna
s A
P1
Cen
tral
Fi
nal
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c -1
9.62
9.
25
3.28
Pros
kyna
s A
P2
Cen
tral
M
H
2 B
A
-19.
05
8.97
3.
35
Pros
kyna
s A
P3
Cen
tral
M
H
2 B
A
-20.
13
6.52
3.
42
Pros
kyna
s A
P4
Cen
tral
Fi
nal
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c -1
9.81
7.
84
3.39
Pros
kyna
s A
P5
Cen
tral
M
H
2 B
A
Pr
osky
nas
AP6
C
entra
l
Fina
l N
eolit
hic
1 N
eolit
hic
Pros
kyna
s A
P7
Cen
tral
Fi
nal
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c
Pros
kyna
s A
P8
Cen
tral
M
H
2 B
A
-19.
49
5.3
3.16
Pr
osky
nas
AP9
C
entra
l
Fina
l N
eolit
hic
1 N
eolit
hic
-19.
11
7.57
3.
14
Pros
kyna
s A
P10
Cen
tral
M
H
2 B
A
-19.
49
8.22
3.
17
Pros
kyna
s A
P11
Cen
tral
M
H
2 B
A
-21.
51
4.52
3.
28
Pros
kyna
s A
P12
Cen
tral
M
H
2 B
A
-19.
46
8.37
3.
18
Pros
kyna
s A
P13
Cen
tral
Fi
nal
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c -1
9.49
8.
49
3.18
114
Tabl
e A
.9
Com
para
tive
Isot
opic
Sam
ples
from
Pap
than
asio
u 20
01
Site
B
uria
l R
egio
n of
G
reec
e B
uria
l St
yle
Cul
tura
l Pe
riod
Bro
ad
Cul
tura
l Pe
riod
δ13C
colla
gen
δ13C
apat
ite
δ15N
C
:N R
atio
Ale
potry
pa
AP1
103
Sout
hern
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c -1
9.7
-12.
98
8.09
3.
06
Ale
potry
pa
AP1
104
Sout
hern
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c -1
9.95
-1
2.67
7.
92
3.04
A
lepo
trypa
A
P110
5 So
uthe
rn
N
eolit
hic
1 N
eolit
hic
-19.
92
-12.
21
6.7
3.07
A
lepo
trypa
A
0110
6 So
uthe
rn
N
eolit
hic
1 N
eolit
hic
-20.
29
-14.
4 5.
64
3.02
A
lepo
trypa
A
P110
7 So
uthe
rn
N
eolit
hic
1 N
eolit
hic
-19.
27
-10.
48
7.47
3.
03
Ale
potry
pa
AP1
109
Sout
hern
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c -1
9.95
-1
2.99
7.
21
3.06
A
lepo
trypa
A
P111
0 So
uthe
rn
N
eolit
hic
1 N
eolit
hic
-20.
33
-12.
54
6.62
3.
2 A
lepo
trypa
A
P111
1 So
uthe
rn
N
eolit
hic
1 N
eolit
hic
-12.
52
A
lepo
trypa
A
P111
2 So
uthe
rn
N
eolit
hic
1 N
eolit
hic
-20.
13
-14.
77
7.82
3.
17
Ale
potry
pa
AP1
113
Sout
hern
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c -2
1.55
-1
3.72
4.
46
3.19
A
lepo
trypa
A
P111
4 So
uthe
rn
N
eolit
hic
1 N
eolit
hic
-19.
85
-11.
83
7.47
3.
14
Ale
potry
pa
AP1
115
Sout
hern
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c -2
0.03
-1
2.95
8.
73
3.28
A
lepo
trypa
D
A1
Sout
hern
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c -2
0 -1
2.6
6 3.
22
Ale
potry
pa
DA
2 So
uthe
rn
N
eolit
hic
1 N
eolit
hic
-20
-12.
8 7
3.16
A
lepo
trypa
D
A3
Sout
hern
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c -1
9.8
-12.
33
8.12
3.
14
Ale
potry
pa
DA
4 So
uthe
rn
N
eolit
hic
1 N
eolit
hic
-20.
17
-14.
13
7.65
3.
19
Ale
potry
pa
DA
5 So
uthe
rn
N
eolit
hic
1 N
eolit
hic
-20
-13.
8 8
3.18
A
lepo
trypa
D
A6
Sout
hern
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c -1
9.7
-13.
1 6.
9 3.
18
Ale
potry
pa
DA
7 So
uthe
rn
N
eolit
hic
1 N
eolit
hic
-19.
9 -1
3.5
5.8
3.21
A
lepo
trypa
D
A8
Sout
hern
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c -1
9.5
-12.
8 7.
4 3.
19
Ale
potry
pa
DA
9 So
uthe
rn
N
eolit
hic
1 N
eolit
hic
-19.
5 -1
3.1
8.1
3.14
A
lepo
trypa
D
A10
So
uthe
rn
N
eolit
hic
1 N
eolit
hic
-20
-13.
6 6.
9 3.
17
Ale
potry
pa
DA
11
Sout
hern
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c -2
0 -1
1.9
7.2
3.19
Fr
anch
thi
AP1
121
Sout
hern
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c -1
4.21
Fran
chth
i A
P112
2 So
uthe
rn
N
eolit
hic
1 N
eolit
hic
-19.
3 -1
2.53
8.
16
3.27
115
Tabl
e A
.9 (c
ontin
ued)
Fran
chth
i A
P112
3 So
uthe
rn
N
eolit
hic
1 N
eolit
hic
-18.
96
-13.
92
9.74
3.
09
Fran
chth
i A
P112
4 So
uthe
rn
N
eolit
hic
1 N
eolit
hic
-19.
64
-12.
62
8.16
3.
17
Fran
chth
i A
P112
5 So
uthe
rn
N
eolit
hic
1 N
eolit
hic
-18.
63
-13.
53
9.08
3.
12
Fran
chth
i A
P112
6 So
uthe
rn
N
eolit
hic
1 N
eolit
hic
-14.
38
Fr
anch
thi
AP1
127
Sout
hern
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c -1
7.77
-1
1.78
10
.44
3.3
Fran
chth
i A
P112
8 So
uthe
rn
N
eolit
hic
1 N
eolit
hic
-18.
18
-12.
23
9.52
3.
34
Fran
chth
i A
P112
9 So
uthe
rn
N
eolit
hic
1 N
eolit
hic
-20.
74
-14.
14
Fran
chth
i A
P113
0 So
uthe
rn
N
eolit
hic
1 N
eolit
hic
-19.
23
-12.
47
7.79
3.
28
Fran
chth
i A
P113
2 So
uthe
rn
N
eolit
hic
1 N
eolit
hic
-19.
14
-13.
83
8.38
3.
33
Fran
chth
i A
P113
3 So
uthe
rn
N
eolit
hic
1 N
eolit
hic
-18.
97
-12.
56
7.84
3.
32
Fran
chth
i A
P113
5 So
uthe
rn
N
eolit
hic
1 N
eolit
hic
-18.
43
-11.
79
8.3
3.37
Fr
anch
thi
AP1
138
Sout
hern
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c -1
6.96
-1
4.9
14.1
1 3.
32
Kep
hala
A
P113
9 So
uthe
rn
N
eolit
hic
1 N
eolit
hic
-27.
56
-11.
61
3.
3 K
epha
la
AP1
140
Sout
hern
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c -1
8.59
-1
0.93
8.
68
3.34
K
epha
la
AP1
141
Sout
hern
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c -2
7.01
-1
3.53
3.2
Kep
hala
A
P114
7 So
uthe
rn
N
eolit
hic
1 N
eolit
hic
-21.
11
-12.
31
3.
1 K
epha
la
AP1
149
Sout
hern
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c -1
9.26
-1
3.84
10
.56
3.32
K
epha
la
AP1
153
Sout
hern
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c -1
8.52
-1
3.44
7.
98
3.36
K
epha
la
AP1
155
Sout
hern
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c -1
7.94
-1
0.27
9.
65
3.34
K
epha
la
AP1
156
Sout
hern
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c -2
1.15
-1
4.82
8.
98
3.49
Th
arro
unia
A
P116
5 C
entra
l
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c -1
9.92
-1
1.36
8.
75
3.44
Th
arro
unia
A
P116
6 C
entra
l
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c -2
0.16
-1
1.87
8.
38
3.47
Th
arro
unia
A
P116
7 C
entra
l
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c -2
0.28
-1
2.84
7.
55
3.42
Th
arro
unia
A
P116
8 C
entra
l
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c -1
9.55
-1
2.47
9.
41
3.45
Th
arro
unia
A
P116
9 C
entra
l
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c -1
9.9
-12.
09
6.93
3.
43
Thar
roun
ia
AP1
170
Cen
tral
N
eolit
hic
1 N
eolit
hic
-19.
99
-13.
19
8.93
3.
47
Thar
roun
ia
AP1
171
Cen
tral
N
eolit
hic
1 N
eolit
hic
-19.
77
-11.
04
8.6
3.43
Th
arro
unia
A
P117
2 C
entra
l
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c -2
0.31
-1
1.04
7.
47
3.43
116
Tabl
e A
.9 (c
ontin
ued)
Thar
roun
ia
AP1
173
Cen
tral
N
eolit
hic
1 N
eolit
hic
-20.
02
-11.
27
8.24
3.
46
Thar
roun
ia
AP1
174
Cen
tral
N
eolit
hic
1 N
eolit
hic
-19.
72
-12.
68
8.2
3.45
Th
arro
unia
A
P117
5 C
entra
l
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c -1
9.97
-1
1.87
7.
92
3.43
Th
arro
unia
A
P117
6 C
entra
l
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c -2
0.09
-1
0.15
7.
57
3.48
Th
arro
unia
A
P117
7 C
entra
l
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c -2
0.27
-1
2.79
8.
71
3.46
Th
arro
unia
A
P117
8 C
entra
l
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c -2
0 -1
2.74
7.
79
3.43
Th
arro
unia
A
P117
9 C
entra
l
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c -1
9.83
-1
3.34
8.
52
3.43
Th
arro
unia
A
P118
0 C
entra
l
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c -2
0.09
-1
2.35
6.
77
3.43
Th
arro
unia
A
P118
1 C
entra
l
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c -1
9.55
-1
2.36
7.
72
3.44
Th
arro
unia
A
P118
2 C
entra
l
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c -2
0.17
-1
0.04
7.
68
3.46
Th
arro
unia
A
P118
3 C
entra
l
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c -2
0.24
-1
1.38
7.
54
3.44
Th
arro
unia
A
P118
4 C
entra
l
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c -1
9.98
-9
.74
8.15
3.
45
Theo
petra
A
P118
5 C
entra
l
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c -2
0.39
-1
2.77
7.
81
3.46
Th
eope
tra
AP1
186
Cen
tral
N
eolit
hic
1 N
eolit
hic
-20.
23
-10.
85
7.69
3.
44
Theo
petra
A
P118
7 C
entra
l
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c -1
9.32
-1
3.8
8.36
3.
41
Theo
petra
A
P118
8 C
entra
l
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c -2
0.01
-1
1.1
7.55
3.
43
Theo
petra
A
P118
9 C
entra
l
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c -2
0.15
-1
2.93
7.
29
3.39
Th
eope
tra
AP1
190
Cen
tral
N
eolit
hic
1 N
eolit
hic
-19.
89
-10.
82
7.68
3.
4 Th
eope
tra
AP1
191
Cen
tral
N
eolit
hic
1 N
eolit
hic
-19.
8 -1
3.68
8.
7 3.
42
Theo
petra
A
P119
2 C
entra
l
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c -2
0.3
-10.
94
7.24
3.
45
Theo
petra
A
P119
3 C
entra
l
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c -2
0.51
-1
4.62
6.
71
3.42
Th
eope
tra
AP1
194
Cen
tral
N
eolit
hic
1 N
eolit
hic
-20.
4 -1
1.97
7.
14
3.45
Th
eope
tra
AP1
196
Cen
tral
N
eolit
hic
1 N
eolit
hic
-17.
22
-10.
23
4.38
3.
39
Theo
petra
A
P119
7 C
entra
l
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c -2
0.13
-1
3.7
7.48
3.
38
Theo
petra
A
P119
8 C
entra
l
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c -1
9.46
-1
2.51
8.
13
3.4
Kou
vele
iki
AP1
199
Sout
hern
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c -2
1.78
-1
0.31
3.33
K
ouve
leik
i A
P120
1 So
uthe
rn
N
eolit
hic
1 N
eolit
hic
-27.
3 -1
2.92
3.08
K
ouve
leik
i A
P120
2 So
uthe
rn
N
eolit
hic
1 N
eolit
hic
-19.
86
-11.
87
8.32
3.
39
117
Tabl
e A
.9 (c
ontin
ued)
Kou
vele
iki
AP1
203
Sout
hern
Neo
lithi
c 1
Neo
lithi
c -1
9.81
-1
2.88
7.
85
3.39
Th
e fo
llow
ing
sam
ples
wer
e re
mov
ed fr
om th
e ta
ble
for t
his s
tudy
due
to in
suff
icie
nt C
:N ra
tio a
mou
nts:
APl
l08
from
Ale
potry
pa;
AP1
131,
AP1
134,
AP1
136,
AP1
137
from
Fra
ncht
hi; A
P114
2, A
P114
3, A
P114
4, A
P114
5, A
P114
6, A
P115
0, A
P115
1, A
P115
2,
AP1
154
from
Ke p
hala
; AP1
195
from
The
opet
ra.
118
Tabl
e A
.10
Com
para
tive
Isot
opic
Sam
ples
from
Tria
ntap
hyllo
u et
al.
2008
Site
B
uria
l R
egio
n of
G
reec
e B
uria
l Sty
le
Cul
tura
l Pe
riod
Bro
ad C
ultu
ral
Perio
d δ1
3Cco
llage
n δ1
5N
C:N
Rat
io
Lern
a 1L
er
Sout
hern
MH
III
2 B
A
-19.
4 9.
6 3.
2 Le
rna
4Ler
So
uthe
rn
M
HII
I 2
BA
-1
9.4
8.2
3.2
Lern
a 7L
er
Sout
hern
MH
II
2 B
A
-19.
4 8.
2 3.
2 Le
rna
8Ler
So
uthe
rn
M
HII
I 2
BA
-1
9 8.
3 3.
2 Le
rna
9Ler
So
uthe
rn
M
HII
I 2
BA
-1
9.5
7.6
3.2
Lern
a 16
Ler
Sout
hern
MH
II
2 B
A
-19.
2 8.
7 3.
2 Le
rna
17Le
r So
uthe
rn
M
HII
2
BA
-2
0 8.
2 3.
2 Le
rna
20Le
r So
uthe
rn
M
HII
2
BA
-1
9.3
7.7
3.2
Lern
a 33
Ler
Sout
hern
MH
II
2 B
A
-19.
6 8.
1 3.
3 Le
rna
38Le
r So
uthe
rn
M
HI
2 B
A
-20
8 3.
3 Le
rna
43Le
r So
uthe
rn
M
HII
2
BA
-1
9.9
8.3
3.2
Lern
a 44
Ler
Sout
hern
MH
II
2 B
A
-19.
7 8.
5 3.
2 Le
rna
46Le
r So
uthe
rn
M
HII
2
BA
-1
9.9
7.5
3.2
Lern
a 48
Ler
Sout
hern
MH
II
2 B
A
-19.
7 7.
5 3.
2 Le
rna
53Le
r So
uthe
rn
M
H
2 B
A
-19.
2 8.
2 3.
2 Le
rna
55Le
r So
uthe
rn
M
HII
I 2
BA
-1
9.7
7.2
3.2
Lern
a 56
Ler
Sout
hern
MH
I 2
BA
-2
0.3
8.3
3.4
Lern
a 57
Ler
Sout
hern
MH
II
2 B
A
-19.
1 9.
2 3.
2 Le
rna
69Le
r So
uthe
rn
M
HII
I 2
BA
-1
9.7
8.8
3.2
Lern
a 77
Ler
Sout
hern
MH
I 2
BA
-1
9.6
9.1
3.3
Lern
a 81
Ler
Sout
hern
Shaf
t Gra
ve
Era
2 B
A
-19.
5 9.
5 3.
4
Lern
a 82
Ler
Sout
hern
Post
Sha
ft G
rave
Era
2
BA
-1
9.7
9.9
3.4
Lern
a 86
Ler
Sout
hern
MH
III
2 B
A
-18.
8 10
.5
3.3
Lern
a 87
Ler
Sout
hern
MH
II
2 B
A
-19.
4 8.
5 3.
3
119
Tabl
e A
.10
(con
tinue
d)
Lern
a 91
Ler
Sout
hern
MH
I 2
BA
-1
9.3
8.4
3.2
Lern
a 93
Ler
Sout
hern
MH
III
2 B
A
-19.
7 8.
2 3.
3 Le
rna
115L
er
Sout
hern
MH
III
2 B
A
-19.
7 9.
4 3.
3 Le
rna
122L
er
Sout
hern
Shaf
t Gra
ve
Era
2 B
A
-20.
1 7.
5 3.
2
Lern
a 12
7Ler
So
uthe
rn
M
HII
I 2
BA
-1
9.2
8.4
3.2
Lern
a 12
9Ler
So
uthe
rn
M
HII
2
BA
-1
9.1
8.5
3.2
Lern
a 13
9Ler
So
uthe
rn
M
HII
2
BA
-1
9.6
8.1
3.2
Lern
a 15
7Ler
So
uthe
rn
LH
I 2
BA
-1
9.1
9.8
3.3
Lern
a 17
5Ler
So
uthe
rn
M
HII
I 2
BA
-1
9.7
7.8
3.2
Lern
a 20
1Ler
So
uthe
rn
M
HII
I 2
BA
-1
9.9
8.1
3.2
Lern
a 20
3Ler
So
uthe
rn
M
HII
2
BA
-1
9.6
7.7
3.2
Lern
a 20
8Ler
So
uthe
rn
M
HII
2
BA
-1
9.8
8 3.
2 Le
rna
213L
er
Sout
hern
MH
2
BA
-1
9.7
8.3
3.3
Lern
a 21
4Ler
So
uthe
rn
M
H
2 B
A
-19.
4 7.
7 3.
2 Le
rna
215L
er
Sout
hern
MH
2
BA
-1
9.5
7.9
3.2
It ap
pear
s the
re w
as a
typo
in th
e or
igin
al d
ata
tabl
e fo
r the
δ13
Cco
llage
n for
sam
ple
9Ler
. A
fter o
bser
ving
the
scat
terp
lot,
the
valu
e ap
pear
s to
be -1
9.5
and
is th
e va
lue
I use
in m
y an
alys
is.
120
Tabl
e A
.11
Com
para
tive
Isot
opic
Sam
ples
from
Pan
agio
topo
ulou
and
Pap
atha
nasi
ou 2
015
Site
B
uria
l R
egio
n of
G
reec
e B
uria
l Sty
le
Cul
tura
l Pe
riod
Bro
ad C
ultu
ral
Perio
d δ1
3Cco
llage
n δ1
5N
C:N
Rat
io
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
065a
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-1
8.64
10
.7
3.29
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
065b
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-1
9.03
10
.79
3.23
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
066a
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-1
8.97
8.
54
3.33
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
066b
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-1
8.68
8.
12
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
067a
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-1
9.59
10
3.
36
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
067b
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-1
9.85
9.
86
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
068a
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-1
9.85
9.
33
3.41
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
068b
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-1
9.56
9.
04
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
070a
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-1
9.54
9.
75
3.4
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
070b
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-2
0.11
9.
52
3.34
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
071a
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-1
9.52
8.
99
3.48
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
071b
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-1
9.03
8.
07
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
072a
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-1
8.71
8.
84
3.29
121
Tabl
e A
.11
(con
tinue
d)
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
072b
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-1
9.32
8.
91
3.21
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
073a
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-1
9.47
11
.36
3.4
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
073b
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-2
0.18
10
.9
3.45
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
074a
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-1
9.27
10
.4
3.43
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
074b
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-2
0.18
10
.35
3.41
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
075a
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-1
8.88
10
.47
3.28
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
075b
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-1
8.56
10
.17
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
076a
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-1
9.22
10
.71
3.26
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
076b
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-1
9.55
10
.67
3.22
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
077a
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-1
9.03
11
.6
3.26
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
077b
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-1
9.17
11
.45
3.18
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
078a
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-2
0.3
8.41
3.
55
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
078b
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-2
0.46
8.
08
3.49
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
082a
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-1
9.46
8.
13
3.27
122
Tabl
e A
.11
(con
tinue
d)
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
082b
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-1
9.67
8.
08
3.23
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
084a
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-1
9.94
6.
91
3.37
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
084b
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-2
0.29
6.
66
3.32
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
085a
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-1
9.61
9.
02
3.46
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
085b
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-2
0.16
8.
64
3.42
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
087b
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-1
9.23
8.
66
3.21
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
088a
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-1
8.67
8.
87
3.4
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
088b
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-1
9.27
8.
66
3.35
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
089a
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-1
9.84
6.
38
3.27
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
089b
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-2
0.61
6.
12
3.25
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
090a
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-1
9.73
7.
8 3.
48
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
090b
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-2
0.41
7.
43
3.39
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
092a
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-1
9.35
9.
25
3.38
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
092b
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-1
9.64
9.
11
3.3
123
Tabl
e A
.11
(con
tinue
d)
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
093a
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-1
9.31
9.
07
3.36
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
093b
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-1
9.23
9.
15
3.28
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
095a
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-1
9.45
8.
65
3.5
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
095b
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-1
9.82
8.
57
3.43
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
096a
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-1
9.46
8.
73
3.38
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
096b
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-2
0.21
8.
68
3.29
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
097a
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-1
9.41
8.
74
3.45
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
097b
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-2
0.31
8.
54
3.46
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
098a
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-1
9.54
8.
41
3.43
Agi
os
Dim
itrio
s S-
EVA
12
098b
C
entra
l
Geo
met
ric
3 IA
-2
0.06
8.
36
3.36
124
Tabl
e A
.12
Mitr
ou F
auna
l Sam
ples
Site
δ1
3Cco
llage
n/δ1
5N
Sam
ple
#
δ13C
apat
ite
Sam
ple
# U
GA
MS
# U
CSC
#
Ani
mal
R
egio
n of
G
reec
e C
ultu
ral
Perio
d δ1
3C
colla
gen
δ13C
ap
atite
δ1
5N
C:N
R
atio
Mitr
ou
1352
12
52
2243
6 M
itrou
_Fau
nal
_125
2
Dog
C
entra
l EH
-1
8.25
-1
2.08
10
.12
3.21
Mitr
ou
1355
12
55
2243
7 M
itrou
_Fau
nal
_125
5
Pig
Cen
tral
LH
-20.
71
-13.
95
5.6
3.27
Mitr
ou
1360
12
60
2243
8 M
itrou
_Fau
nal
_126
0
Pig
Cen
tral
MH
-2
1.55
-1
2.14
4.
29
3.24
Mitr
ou
1361
12
61
2243
9 M
itrou
_Fau
nal
_126
1
Pig
Cen
tral
MH
-2
0.33
-1
2.27
7.
15
3.25
Mitr
ou
1362
12
62
2244
0 M
itrou
_Fau
nal
_126
2
Pig
Cen
tral
LH
-20.
17
-11.
71
5.75
3.
28