stratigraphic and morphologic constraints on the

STRATIGRAPHIC AND MORPHOLOGIC CONSTRAINTS ON THE WEICHSELIAN GLACIAL HISTORY OF NORTHERN

Geografiska Annaler · 82 A (2000) · 4 455

STRATIGRAPHIC AND MORPHOLOGIC CONSTRAINTS ON THE WEICHSELIAN GLACIAL

HISTORY OF NORTHERN PRINS KARLS FORLAND, WESTERN SVALBARD

BYTORBJÖRN ANDERSSON1, STEVEN L. FORMAN2, ÓLAFUR INGÓLFSSON1 and

WILLIAM F. MANLEY 3

1 Earth Sciences Centre, Göteborg University, Sweden2 Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, USA

3 Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research, University of Colorado at Boulder, USA

Andersson T., Forman, S.L., Ingólfsson, Ó. and Manley, W.F.,2000: Stratigraphic and morphologic constraints on the Weichse-lian glacial history of northern Prins Karls Forland, western Sval-bard. Geogr. Ann., 82 A (4): 455–470.

ABSTRACT. Uncertainty remains if ice-free marginal areas ex-isted on the west coast of Svalbard during the Late Weichselian.Field mapping and correlation to well dated raised beach sequenc-es on nearby Brøggerhalvøya reveal the existence of two gener-ations of raised beach deposits on northern Prins Karls Forland.Distinct beach ridges rise up to the inferred Late Weichselian ma-rine limit at 18 m a.s.l. Discontinuous pre-Late Weichselian beachdeposits rise from the Late Weichselian marine limit up to ap-proximately 60 m a.s.l. Expansion of local glaciers during the LateWeichselian is indicated by the limited distribution of a till thatoverlies parts of the older beach sequence. Stratigraphic data andchronological control indicate deposition in a shallow marine en-vironment before 50 ka BP. Correlation to stratigraphic sites onwestern Svalbard suggests deposition at c. 70±10 ka. Glaciotec-tonic structures disclose expansion of local glaciers into the For-landsundet basin during stage 4 or late stage 5 high relative sealevel. Palaeotemperature estimates derived from amino acid ra-tios indicate that during the time interval c. 70 to 10 ka the areawas exposed to cold subaerial temperatures with low rates of ra-cemization. Pedogenesis and frost-shattered clasts at the contactbetween c. 70 ka deposits and Holocene deposits further indicatea prolonged period of subaerial polar desert conditions during thistime interval. The evidence suggests that the Barents Sea ice sheetdid not extend across northern Prins Karls Forland during theWeichselian. It is inferred that during the Late Weichselian, icewas drained throughout the major fjords on the west coast of Sval-bard and that relatively large marginal areas experienced polardesert conditions and minor expansions of local glaciers.

IntroductionThe concept of a restricted Late Weichselian glaci-ation with potential ice-free marginal areas on thewest coast of Svalbard (Salvigsen 1977; Boulton1979; Troitsky et al. 1979; Salvigsen and Nydal1981; Boulton et al. 1982; Miller 1982; Formanand Miller 1984; Forman 1989; Miller et al. 1989;

Larsen et al. 1991; Lehman and Forman 1992) isquestioned in a recent synthesis by Landvik et al.(1998). Based on integrated terrestrial and marinegeological investigations on the west coast of Sval-bard (Mangerud and Svendsen 1990; Mangerud etal. 1992; Svendsen et al. 1992, 1996; Elverhøi et al.1995; Andersen et al. 1996; Solheim et al. 1996),Landvik et al. (1998) conclude that the Late Weich-selian Barents Sea ice sheet over Svalbard extendedto the shelf edge off Isfjorden (Fig. 1A). However,based on evidence of Late Weichselian groundedice streams in the Kongsfjorden (Lehman et al. un-published, cited in Landvik et al. 1998) and Isfjor-den troughs (Svendsen et al. 1992, 1996), Landviket al. (1998) further conclude that not only the fjordtroughs were glaciated, but that ice moved on abroad front over the west coast of Svalbard and thatonly the highest mountains on Prins Karls Forlandcould have remained ice-free during the LateWeichselian. The glaciological reconstructions ofthe Late Weichselian maximum ice sheet placemore than 800 m thickness of ice cover over PrinsKarls Forland and the west coast of Svalbard(Landvik et al. 1998). In contrast, a recent studyfrom central Prins Karls Forland, western Svalbard(Andersson et al. 1999) presents evidence of a lim-ited expansion of local glaciers during the LateWeichselian and of subaerial polar desert condi-tions with temperatures of –20°C during the periodc. 70 to 10 ka.

This paper reports stratigraphic and morpholog-ic data from the McVitiepynten area, northern PrinsKarls Forland (Fig. 1B) that further constrain theWeichselian glacial history of Prins Karls Forlandand highlight the question of the westward exten-

T. ANDERSSON, S.L. FORMAN, Ó, INGÓLFSSON AND W.F. MANLEY

Geografiska Annaler · 82 A (2000) · 4456

sion of the Barents Sea ice sheet. The results indi-cate similar environmental histories for central andnorthern Prins Karls Forland. It is concluded thatduring the period c. 70 to 10 ka, northern PrinsKarls Forland experienced cold subaerial polardesert conditions and that glacial activity is limitedto the expansion of local glaciers during oxygenisotope stage 4 or late in stage 5 and during the LateWeichselian.

MethodsDating methods14C dating of included organic material (Table 1)provides chronological control. In addition, alloi-soleucine/isoleucine (aIle/Ile) amino acid ratios onwell preserved marine molluscs (Table 2) provideadditional criteria for correlation between sectionsand to aminozones established for Site 15 on Brøg-gerhalvøya, on the other side of Forlandsundet(Miller et al. 1989; Figs 1A and 4).

Five samples of shells and marine kelp havebeen AMS 14C dated (Table 1). Ages on shells are

on a single valve. Prior to dating, all shells wereleached by 50% in HCl in order to remove potentialcontaminants. The kelp samples were pretreatedwith hot, dilute HCl. The reported ages are at thelimit of the 14C method and are considered as min-imum age estimates.

Measurements of amino acid racemization inmolluscs were conducted to further constrain thegeochronology and paleothermometry of theMcVitiepynten area (for recent reviews on the ap-proach, see Miller and Brigham-Grette 1989; Weh-miller 1993). A total of 34 individual molluscshells from six collections were analysed for ratiosof alloisoleucine to isoleucine (aIle/Ile) in both theHydrolysed (Total) and Free fractions of amino ac-ids (Table 2). Sample preparation and analysis fol-lowed standard procedures (Miller et al. 1983).The majority of shells are in situ paired valves ofMya truncata and Hiatella arctica. Ratios on thetwo species should be closely comparable (Milleret al. 1989). Each sample was collected at least 1m below an exposed surface to avoid complica-tions from near-surface seasonal fluctuations in

Fig. 1. (A) Svalbard with localities mentioned in the text. (B) Northern Prins Karls Forland with geomorphic features, investigated coast-al sites, localities mentioned in the text and previously reported 14C ages by Salvigsen (1977; see Table 1). Reconstructed from air photointerpretation of Norwegian Polar Institute aerial photograph S 90: 6415–16 in connection with reconnaissance work in selected areas.

CONSTRAINTS ON WEICHSELIAN GLACIAL HISTORY


temperature. Analytical errors for replicate runs ofsample solutions, analysed over days or a fewweeks, are small, averaging ±0.001 for Hyd (4.4%,coefficient of variation) and ±0.007 (4.3%) forFree results. Variation is greater among shellswithin a collection, with average inter-shell varia-bility of ±0.004 (13.5%) for Hyd and ±0.024(11.8%) for Free results. The aIle/Ile data providea basis for regional correlation of glacial and ma-rine events, and to aminozones established forBrøggerhalvøya across Forlandsundet (Miller etal. 1989; Figs 1B and 4).

FieldworkGeomorphologic work was carried out by means ofair photo interpretation and field examination in se-lected areas. Reported elevations (m a.s.l.) were re-corded by the use of an AIR-HB-1A® digital ba-rometer/altimeter with the present-day high-tideswash mark as the calibration datum. Instrumentprecision is ±0.1 m; however, considering the var-iable relief of landforms and reproducibility of el-evation determinations, the maximum inferred er-ror in elevation is ±2 m. Latitudinal and longitudi-nal positions were determined with a TrimbleScoutmaster® GPS Navigator. Stratigraphic workwas carried out by excavation, logging and corre-lation of stratigraphic units between excavated sec-tions in the coastal cliffs. Correlation within eachlocality (I–IV; Fig. 6) is based on physically trace-able units between sections. Correlation of unitsbetween different localities is based on lithologicalcharacteristics of each unit and superposition ofsimilar lithologies.

The raised beach sequenceA marine limit, expressed as a distinct construction-al beach ridge, is traced continuously from Car-michaelpynten in the north and southeastwards overa distance of 7 km to where it intersects the coastlineat 18 m a.s.l. approximately 1.5 km southeast ofMcVitiepynten (Figs 1B, 2 and 4). Well preservedbeach ridges are preserved below the marine limitdown to present-day sea level. Reworked shells ofMya truncata and Hiatella arctica from altitudes of12 and 9 m a.s.l. have previously been reported withages of c. 35 ka BP and 12.6 ka BP respectively(Salvigsen 1977; Table 1). The 35 ka BP age mostlikely represents an age of reworked older shells.The 12.6 ka BP age might represent a mixed age ofHolocene and older shells and at best it provides amaximum limiting age of the establishment of themarine limit. Correlation to the well dated sequenceof Late Weichselian/Holocene raised beaches onBrøggerhalvøya across the Forlandsundet (Formanet al. 1987; Fig. 1B), suggests that the 18 m a.s.l.marine limit at McVitiepynten was establishedsometime during the time interval 13 to 9 ka BP.

Discontinuous raised marine terraces and beachridges are observed beyond the Late Weichselianmarine limit and up to approximately 58 m a.s.l. Anupper marine limit is developed as an abrasionscarp at approximately 62 m a.s.l. (Figs 1B and 3).Although specific terraces and ridges retain theirconstructional morphology, the appearance is moresubdued when compared to the well preservedbeach ridges below the inferred Late Weichselianmarine limit at 18 m a.s.l. Shells of Mya truncataand Hiatella arctica from raised marine deposits at30 to 40 m a.s.l. have previously been reported with

Table 1. AMS 14C ages BP, McVitiepynten, Prins Karls Forland, Svalbard.

Field no. Unit1) Lab no.2) 14C age±1σ BP δ13C ‰3) Dated material m a.s.l.

104) T-2095 32,750+450/–430 +1.4 Reworked shells of Hiatella arctica 30.0114) T-2096 12,590±70 +0.9 Reworked shells of Mya truncata and Hiatella arctica 9.0124) T-2097 35,230+470/–440 +1.0 Reworked shells of Hiatella arctica 12.0154) T-2098 34,250+440/–420 +0.9 Reworked shells of Mya truncata and Hiatella arctica 36.0TAPKF96-026 E PL980865A 45,600±2700 +1.600 Paired valve of Hiatella arctica from deltaic sediments 5) 11.0TAPKF96-025 E AA-26968 47,500±3100 –18.908 Kelp from deltaic sediments 6) 12.0TAPKF96-035 C AA-26970 39,581±1174 +0.951 Paired valve of Mya truncata from shallow marine sediments 5) 5.5TAPKF96-027 C AA-26969 40,151±1258 +1.091 Paired valve of Mya truncata from shallow marine sediments 5) 3.0TAPKF96-008 C PL980864A 44,900±2400 +1.100 Paired valve of Hiatella arctica from shallow marine sediments 5) 6.5

1) For location of individual samples, see Figs 1B and 6.2) AA numbers refer to accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) 14C dates performed at the NSF Arizona AMS Facility, University of Arizona,

USA. PL numbers refer to AMS 14C dates performed at Purdue Rare Isotope Measurement Laboratory (PRIME Lab), USA.3) As per convention all 14C ages have been normalized to –25 ‰ δ 13C.4) From Salvigsen (1977). The reported 14C ages are not corrected for the marine reservoir age. For location of individual samples, see Fig. 1B.5) Pretreatment of shells prior to dating include a 50% leach in hydrochloric acid.6) Pretreated with hot, dilute hydrochloric acid.



14C ages of 30 to 40 ka BP (Salvigsen 1977; Table1, Fig. 1B). Considering limitations of the 14C dat-ing technique and potential contamination effectsof modern carbon, the reported ages should be con-sidered as minimum ages. Only 1 to 2% contami-nation by modern carbon of infinite-aged shellswill result in 14C ages of c. 35 to 25 ka (Taylor

1987; fig. 5.4). A minimum limiting age of >36 kaBP for raised marine terraces and beach ridgesabove the Late Weichselian marine limit at McVi-tiepynten is suggested by correlation to the pre-Late Weichselian raised beach sequence on Brøg-gerhalvøya across the Forlandsundet (Forman et al.1987).

Table 2. Amino acid aIle/Ile ratios in Mya truncata and Hiatella arctica shells from McVitiepynten, Prins Karls Forland, Svalbard. 1)

Mean Hydrolysed Mean FreeField no. Unit 2) Lab no.3) Species aIle/Ile ratio ± 1σ 4) n aIle/Ile ratio ± 1σ 4) n Comments

TAPKF96-018 E AAL-8250A M.t. 0.017 ± 0.000 2 0.199 ± 0.017 3 Whole shells fromAAL-8250B M.t. 0.019 ± 0.001 2 0.189 ± 0.007 2 deltaic sedimentsAAL-8250C M.t. 0.018 ± 0.002 2 0.127 ± 0.006 2AAL-8250D M.t. 0.022 ± 0.001 2 0.167 ± 0.013 3AAL-8250E M.t. 0.019 ± 0.001 2 0.197 ± 0.006 2AAL-8250F M.t. 0.019 ± 0.002 2 0.196 ± 0.015 3

0.019 ± 0.002 6 0.179 ± 0.028 6

TAPKF96-026 E AAL-8252A M.t. 0.023 ± 0.002 2 0.157 ± 0.001 2 In situ paired molluscs fromAAL-8252B M.t. 0.020 ± 0.001 2 0.132 ± 0.009 2 deltaic sedimentsAAL-8252C M.t. 0.023 ± 0.001 2 0.173 ± 0.003 2AAL-8253A H.a. 0.027 ± 0.001 2 0.168 ± 0.008 2AAL-8253B H.a. 0.030 ± 0.001 2 0.153 ± 0.009 2

0.024 ± 0.004 5 0.156 ± 0.016 5

TAPKF96-035 C AAL-8255A M.t. 0.024 ± 0.000 2 0.146 ± 0.006 2 In situ paired molluscs fromAAL-8255B M.t. 0.023 ± 0.000 2 0.183 ± 0.006 2 shallow marine sedimentsAAL-8255C M.t. 0.027 ± 0.001 2 0.197 ± 0.008 2AAL-8255D M.t. 0.023 ± 0.000 2 0.197 ± 0.013 2AAL-8255E M.t. 0.026 ± 0.002 2 0.183 ± 0.002 2

0.024 ± 0.002 5 0.181 ± 0.021 5

TAPKF96-008 C AAL-8249A H.a. 0.030 ± 0.003 3 0.186 ± 0.006 2 In situ paired molluscs fromAAL-8249B H.a. 0.028 ± 0.002 2 0.188 ± 0.012 2 shallow marine sedimentsAAL-8249C H.a. 0.028 ± 0.002 2 0.201 ± 0.006 2AAL-8249D H.a. 0.028 ± 0.001 2 0.213 ± 0.011 2AAL-8249E H.a. 0.030 ± 0.001 2 0.182 ± 0.007 2AAL-8249F H.a. 0.032 ± 0.001 2 0.177 ± 0.001 2

0.029 ± 0.002 6 0.191 ± 0.013 6

TAPKF96-021 C AAL-8251A H.a. 0.021 ± 0.001 2 0.156 ± 0.030 3 In situ paired molluscs fromAAL-8251B H.a. 0.032 ± 0.001 2 0.141 ± 0.006 2 shallow marine sedimentsAAL-8251C H.a. 0.023 ± 0.000 2 0.189 ± 0.002 2AAL-8251D H.a. 0.031 ± 0.001 2 0.156 ± 0.005 2AAL-8251E H.a. 0.023 ± 0.001 3 0.117 ± 0.003 2AAL-8251F H.a. 0.021 ± 0.001 2 0.150 ± 0.001 2

0.025 ± 0.005 6 0.151 ± 0.023 6

TAPKF96-027 C AAL-8254A M.t. 0.028 ± 0.001 2 0.212 ± 0.016 3 In situ paired molluscs fromAAL-8254B M.t. 0.026 ± 0.001 2 0.191 ± 0.003 2 shallow marine sedimentsAAL-8254C M.t. 0.032 ± 0.000 2 0.195 ± 0.004 2AAL-8254D M.t. 0.028 ± 0.001 2 0.208 ± 0.004 2AAL-8254E M.t. 0.036 ± 0.000 2 0.198 ± 0.000 2AAL-8254F M.t. 0.028 ± 0.001 2 0.176 ± 0.006 2

0.030 ± 0.004 6 0.197 ± 0.013 6

1) Analysis procedures outlined by Miller et al. (1983). Mean and standard deviation are also shown for each collection.2) For location of samples, see Fig. 6.3) AAL- numbers refer to analyses performed on the High Pressure Liquid Chromatography System at the Amino Acid Laboratory at INSTAAR,

University of Colorado at Boulder, USA.4) Standard deviations for each collection mean are calculated from the aIle/Ile ratios rather than as an average of the sd’s on individual shells.



Glacial deposits at the surfaceStrathmoredalen is an approximately 1 to 2 km wideU-shaped col (Figs 1B and 4). The distribution ofsubglacial deposits at the surface and stratigraphicevidence of localized glacial events in the coastalcliffs (see below) indicate that it was formed by aglacier that has repeatedly occupied the plateau ofVindholet and the valley during the Weichselian.

A dark grey, massive and matrix-supporteddiamicton is recognized at the mouth of the Strath-moredalen valley (Fig. 1B). The diamicton is char-acterized by a high content of stones and boulders,several of which are striated and/or bullet-shapedand indicative of a subglacially deposited till. Sur-face morphology reveals that the till overlies parts

of the older raised beach sequence. It is inferredthat it was deposited during an expansion of a gla-cier that occupied the valley during the Late Weich-selian.

Isolated striated and/or bullet-shaped cobblesand boulders are observed in the area between theStrathmoredalen valley and the Late Weichselianmarine limit (Figs 1A and 5). The clasts are mixedwith pre-Late Weichselian fine-grained marine sed-iments and beach gravel and typically give the ap-pearance of clasts that have been forced to the sur-face by frost churning processes. It is inferred thatthe striated clasts emanate from a glacial depositthat is stratigraphically underlying the pre-LateWeichselian marine and beach sediments and that

Fig. 2. The Late Weichselian ma-rine limit at 18 m a.s.l. where it in-tersects the coastline approximate-ly 1.5 km southeast of McVi-tiepynten. For location see Fig. 1B.

Fig. 3. The pre-Late Weichselianmarine limit developed as an abra-sion scarp/terrace at approximate-ly 62 m a.s.l. For location see Fig.1B.



they have been brought to the surface by frost proc-esses. The glacial deposit could relate to the docu-mented expansion of a local glacier occupying theStrathmoredalen valley prior to 50 ka (see below).

Stratigraphy and chronology of the McVitiepynten sectionsSediments at McVitiepynten are continuously ex-posed in coastal cliffs up to 20 m high over a dis-tance of 3 km. Previous investigations of thestratigraphy have been presented by Salvigsen(1977), Boulton (1979), Troitsky et al. (1979),Miller (1982) and Lehman (1985). During the sum-mer of 1996 parts of the cliffs were covered withsnow during the entire field season and fieldworkwas concentrated to four well exposed localities la-belled I, II, III and IV from the south to the north(Figs 1B and 4). Below we present stratigraphic re-sults from 10 investigated sections revealing sixstratigraphic units and corresponding depositionalevents (Fig. 6).

Unit AUnit A is the lowermost exposed unit in the coastalsections (Fig. 6). It is recognized at the base of sec-tions 2 and 5 where it is preserved in depressions inthe bedrock. The unit reaches a maximum observedthickness of 80 cm in section 5. Unit A comprisesa red coloured, well sorted, planar parallel-laminat-ed medium sand. Lenses and thin beds of silt occurwithin the unit. The lamination turns more diffusetowards the lower part of the unit. Discontinuouslayers of gravel and well rounded cobbles, 3 to 8 cmlarge, occur in the lower part of the unit.

The lateral distribution of unit A in the coastalsections is limited and the unit is interpreted on thebasis of sedimentologic characteristics recorded atsections 2 and 5. Unit A does not show any marineinfluence in the form of subfossil marine molluscs.However, the discontinuous gravel layers and larg-er cobbles are interpreted as ice-rafted debris andcould indicate that unit A was deposited in a shal-low marine environment.

Fig. 4. Norwegian Polar Institute oblique aerial photograph S 36: 21, showing the U-shaped col Strathmoredalen, the location of theinvestigated sites (I–IV) along the coast, the Late Weichselian marine limit and Site 15 on Brøggerhalvøya on the east side of Forland-sundet.



Unit BUnit B comprises two different lithofacies and hasbeen divided into two subunits, B1 and B2.

Subunit B1. Subunit B1 is observed at sections 1, 2,4 and 6 (Fig. 6). It comprises a 50 to 70 cm thicksilty, massive matrix-supported diamicton. Thecontact to underlying subunit B2 sediments at sec-tion 2 and 4 is sharp and erosive. The diamicton iscompacted and shows a well developed fissility thatis best observed at section 1. Small, millimetre-sized shell fragments are common throughout theunit. Clasts within subunit B1 show a provenanceof Hecla Hoek lithologies that are common on ei-ther side of Forlandsundet. Clasts are angular tosubrounded and several of them are striated and/orbullet-shaped. A clast-fabric analyses of a-axistrend and plunge shows a preferred orientation andsuggests an ice movement from the west across thesite (Fig. 7). The diamicton is interpreted as alodgement till deposited by the expansion of a gla-cier from Strathmoredalen (Figs 1A and 4) into theForlandsundet basin.

Subunit B2. Subunit B2 is observed at all sectionsbut section 8 (Fig. 6). It occurs in stratigraphic po-

Fig 5. Striated boulder of local Tertiary sandstone provenance.For location see Fig. 1B.

Fig. 6. Lithostratigraphy of the McVitiepynten coastal sections. Vertical scale in metres above sea level (m a.s.l.).



sition both above and below the subunit B1 diamic-ton. It is a coarse-grained, clast-to-matrix-support-ed deposit of subangular to subrounded pebblesand cobbles; occasional clasts reach boulder size.The lithology of clasts in subunit B2 is dominatedby Tertiary sandstone that constitutes the local bed-rock on northernmost Prins Karls Forland. A weakstratification can be observed at places and thin lay-ers of silt occur occasionally in the unit. The ob-served maximum thickness of the unit in the coastalsections is 3 m at section 4. The contact to the un-derlying unit A sediments at sections 2 and 5 issharp and erosive. The contact to subunit B1 at sec-tion 6 is sharp to gradational. Striated clasts occursporadically throughout the unit. Millimetre-sizedand abraded shell fragments are common in theunit.

Subunit B2 is interpreted as ice-proximal glacio-marine sediments deposited in a shallow marineenvironment during conditions of high relative sealevel. Subunit B2 is interpreted to have been depos-ited in connection with advance and retreat of theglacier that deposited the unit B1 till.

Unit CUnit C is exposed continuously throughout thecoastal exposures (Fig. 6). The observed thicknessof the unit varies between 3 and 5 m. The contactto the underlying unit B is sharp. The bulk of unitC comprises planar parallel-laminated beds of fineto medium sand. Beds of ripple-laminated fine sandand massive and laminated silt occur occasionallythroughout the unit. At section 5 elongated lensesand rounded clasts of silt occur in the upper part ofthe unit. Soft sediment deformation in the form ofconvolute bedding and lamination and water es-cape structures is observed in all sections and atplaces the planar parallel lamination is diffuse andobscured due to the deformation. Small-scale cen-timetre-sized normal faulting is observed through-out the unit in most of the investigated sections.Erosional channels up to 60 cm deep and infilledwith planar cross-laminated medium sand or mas-sive sand are observed at sections 2, 3 and 6. Shellfragments and shells in growth position are com-mon throughout the unit. Beds with marine kelp areobserved at section 6, 7 and 8. Pebbles and cobblesup to 12 cm in size and with deformed layers andlaminae beneath clasts occur randomly in the unit(Fig. 8). Beds, 10 to 40 cm thick, of well roundedgravel are observed at sections 2, 3, 4 and 7. At sec-tions 8, 9 and 10 the deposition of the unit C sedi-ments is interrupted by the deposition of the unit Ddiamicton (see below).

The mollusc fauna of unit C is diverse. A totalof 17 marine mollusc species are identified (Table3). The bivalves are well preserved and often occurin living position in the sediment. The recordedspecies occur currently around Svalbard. The spe-cies are ubiquitous and could live under climaticconditions either harsher or more favourable thanthose at present. However, the subarctic molluscPolydora may be a climatically sensitive speciesand would probably not survive under conditionsmuch colder than today (S. Funder pers. comm.1998).

The timing of deposition of unit C, prodeltaicsand and silt, is constrained by 14C dating of insitu paired shells of Hiatella arctica and Myatruncata which yielded ages of 44,900±2400(PL980864A), 40,151±1258 (AA-26969) and39,581±1174 BP (AA-26970) (Table 1). The re-ported ages are at the limit of the 14C method andare considered as minimum ages. Well-pre-served, in situ shells of Mya truncata and Hiatellaarctica from unit C (Table 2) yielded mean aIle/Ile ratios of 0.028±0.003 (Total) and 0.180±

Fig. 7. Fabric analyses of the subunit B1 diamicton.



Fig. 8. Ice-rafted cobbles in unit Cwith deformed layers and laminaebeneath clasts.

Table 3. Marine mollusc fauna from coastal sections, McVitiepynten, Prins Karls Forland, Svalbard.1) Identified by S. Funder.

Field no. TAPKF96-007 TAPKF96-028 TAPKF96-036Stratigraphic unit 2) C C C

Phylum Mollusca, Class PolyplacophoraTonicella marmorea Fabricius 1

Phylum Mollusca, Class GastropodaLepeta caeca Müller s sMargarites helicinus Phipps 3Margarites sp. 1Moelleria costulata Møller 2Buccinum sp. 1Cylichna cf. alba Brown 2 1

Phylum Mollusca, Class BivalviaMusculus niger Gray sAxinopsida orbiculata Sars f fAstarte borealis Schumacher c sCiliatocardium ciliatum Fabricius 1Serripes groenlandicus Bruguiere f f fMacoma calcarea Gmelin f sMya truncata Linné f f fHiatella arctica Linné f c cThracia cf. myopsis Beck in Møller s 1Pandora glacialis Leach 1 1

Phylum Echinodermata, Class EchinoideaStrongylocentrotus droebachensis Müller c

Phylum Tentaculata, Class BrachiopodaRhynconella psittacea Gmelin 1

Phylum Annelida, Class PolychaetaPolydora ciliata Johnston s

f, frequent (>20); c, common (10–19); s: scarce (4–9); 1–3, rare, number of shells/fragments.1) All recorded species in unit C presently occur on Svalbard (S. Funder pers. com.).2) For location of individual samples, see Fig. 6.



0.020 (Free) (AAL-8249, 8251, 8254 and 8255;Table 2) supportive of ages >50 ka BP (Miller etal. 1989).

Unit C sediments are interpreted as depositedfrom sediment gravity flows in a near-shore, shal-low marine, prodeltaic environment. It is inferredthat the sediment was supplied from sediment-lad-en meltwater discharge from a nearby glacier. Softsediment deformation structures and erosive chan-

nels are indicative of rapid sedimentation. Thin siltbeds and clasts of clayey silt are interpreted as re-worked and resuspended fines from mass move-ment of water-saturated sediments down a fanslope. The kelp beds most probably reflect repeatedstorm events with storm wave-base dislodging kelpand subsequent deposition on the fan slope. Peb-bles and cobbles that deformed underlying layersand laminae are interpreted as ice-rafted debris.Beds with well rounded gravel in sections 2, 3, 4and 7 are interpreted as transported and depositedfrom melting sea ice.

Unit DUnit D is observed at sections 8, 9 and 10. It com-prises a dark grey, silty, massive and matrix-sup-ported diamicton. The observed thickness variesbetween 30 and 65 cm. The contact to the underly-ing unit C sediments is sharp and erosive. Angularas well as well rounded clasts occur within thediamicton. Several of the clasts are striated. At sec-tion 8 a thrust fault was observed in the underlyingunit C sediments (Fig. 9). Individual readings onthe main thrust plane indicate stress directions fromthe west across the site (Fig. 10). The unit Ddiamicton is interpreted as a lodgement till and theassociated thrust fault in the underlying unit C sed-iments is interpreted as glaciotectonically induced.It is inferred that the till was deposited by the ex-pansion of a glacier from Strathmoredalen into theForlandsundet basin (Figs 1B and 4) during highrelative sea level.

Fig. 9. Large-scale thrust fault inthe unit C sediments.

Fig. 10. Stereographic plot of the main shear plane of the thrustfault shown in Fig. 9.



Unit EUnit E is continuously exposed throughout thecoastal exposure. The observed thickness variesbetween 3.5 m and 8 m (Fig. 6). The bulk of theunit comprises clast-supported, well rounded tosubangular coarse-grained material with a maxi-mum particle size of 50 cm. This unit was depos-ited in steeply inclined foreset beds (10° to 20°)alternating with fine-grained interbeds of planarparallel and ripple-laminated fine to mediumsand. Pebbles and cobbles occur sporadicallywithin the fine-grained beds. Occasional massivebeds of silt, 5 to 10 cm thick, and lenses of mas-sive dark silt within the fine-grained beds are ob-served in all sections. Up to 1 m thick beds of fineand coarse gravel with a high content of smallshell fragments are observed in the upper part ofthe unit at section 9 and 10. In situ molluscs ofMya truncata and Hiatella arctica are commonwithin the fine-grained beds at locality III. Thetwo species occur occasionally within beds of finegravel. Thin kelp beds are common within thefine-grained beds at locality III. The contact to theunderlying unit C is for the most part successiveand conformable and at section 2 and 4 the sedi-ments of unit E interfinger with the unit C sedi-ments. However, at places the lower contact issharp and at sections 7 and 9 an erosive lower con-tact is observed. The upper part of unit E showssigns of weathering and pedogenesis. This is par-ticularly well developed at localities II and III; theuppermost part of unit E at section 6 shows a c. 70cm thick reddish brown-coloured horizon with

secondary silt accumulation associated with soilB-horizon formation and an associated 1 m thickhorizon of intensely frost-shattered pebbles andcobbles (Fig. 11).

Allochthonous kelp from sandy beds and pairedvalves of Hiatella arctica yielded 14C ages of47,500±3100 (AA-26968) and 45,600±2700 BP

Fig. 11. The uppermost part of unitE at section 6 shows a c. 70 cmthick reddish brown-coloured soilB-horizon with secondary silt ac-cumulation (white arrow) and anassociated 1 m thick horizon of in-tensely frost-shattered pebbles andcobbles, indicative of a prolongedperiod of time of subaerial expo-sure.

Fig. 12. Rose diagram of the coarse-grained foresets of unit E.



(PL980865A) which are minimum limiting ages onemplacement of unit E. In situ paired valves of Myatruncata and Hiatella arctica from the same unityielded mean aIle/Ile ratios of 0.021±0.004 (Total)and 0.168±0.016 (Free) (AAL-8250 and 8252; Ta-ble 3) supportive of ages >50 ka (Miller et al.1989).

Individual coarse-grained beds in unit E are in-terpreted as sediment gravity flow deposits. Onthe basis of the steeply inclined coarse-grainedforesets and the fine-grained interbeds with in situpaired molluscs it is suggested that unit E is partof a steep alluvial-fan delta. Individual readingson the dip and azimuth of the coarse-grained fore-sets in unit E show that the delta prograded in aneasterly direction (Fig. 11). It is suggested that thealluvial-fan delta was episodically fed by high-energy meltwater streams from a nearby glacieroccupying the Strathmoredalen valley. The inter-fingering contact of unit E with the shallow ma-rine sediments of unit C at sections 2 and 4 indi-cates deposition of unit E sediments in the shal-low marine environment during high relative sea-level and that there is no hiatus between unit C andunit E. Pedogenesis and frost-shattered clasts in-dicate that there is a hiatus of a significant time in-terval between unit E and the above unit F sedi-ments (Fig. 11).

Unit FUnit F sediments are continuously exposedthroughout the coastal exposures (Fig. 6). The sed-iments comprise the uppermost unit at all localities.Owing to beach ridge construction, the observedexposed thickness of the unit varies from 2 to 6 m.Unit F commonly consists of well rounded clast-supported, massive to weakly stratified, pebbly tocobbly gravel. The observed maximum particlesize in the unit is 30 cm. Occasional beds of matrix-supported fine gravel are observed at all logged sec-tions. Where observed, the beds have a low dip (6°to 8°) towards an eastern sector. The contact to theunderlying unit E sediments is sharp and erosive.Abraded, millimetre-sized shell fragments occursporadically throughout the unit. Overlying unit Fat places there is a thin veneer, up to 20 cm thick,of windblown silt and sand.

The erosive contact to the underlying unit E sed-iments in combination with the moderately sea-ward-dipping beds indicate that unit F sedimentsare beach sediments deposited during the LateWeichselian/early Holocene regression. This is fur-

ther emphasized by the correlation to the LateWeichselian/early Holocene beach ridges and ter-races that intersect the coastline at the coastal sec-tions.

Correlation to central Prins Karls Forland and BrøggerhalvøyaThe 14C ages for unit C and unit E at McVitiepyntenare at the limit of the 14C method (Table 1) and areconsidered as minimum ages. In the following, anattempt is made to correlate McVitiepynten units Cand E (Fig. 13) to nearby, previously investigatedsites on central Prins Karls Forland (Andersson etal. 1999; Fig. 1A) and Brøggerhalvøya (Miller etal. 1989; Figs 1A and 4). In part our correlations arebased on the assumption of penecontemporaneousrelative sea-level histories within an area c. 30 kmin radius. Even though differential loading wouldlead to different elevations at each site, the historyof relative sea-level highstands basically should betime synchronous over this limited area.

Available 14C and amino acid data allow us tocorrelate units C and E at McVitiepynten to thecomposite stratigraphy at Brøggerhalvøya (Miller1982; Miller et al. 1989; Forman 1999; Figs 1Aand 4). Minimum limiting 14C ages of 40 to 48 kaBP indicate that units C and E are pre-Late Weich-selian in age, and thus are older than the last de-glacial emergence cycle recorded by Episode A de-posits at Brøggerhalvøya. Total aIle/Ile ratios of0.027 and 0.021, and Free ratios of 0.180 and 0.168for units C and E, respectively, are significantlylower than ratios of 0.044 (Total) and 0.240 (Free)for Episode C deposits at Brøggerhalvøya, inter-preted to be c. 125 ka. Limited racemization sug-gests that units C and E have not experienced last-interglacial warmth, and that units C and E areyounger than the period of high relative sea levelattributed to isotope substage 5e. In contrast, theamino acid ratios for units C and E are comparablewith values of 0.031 (Total) and 0.160 (Free) forEpisode B at Brøggerhalvøya. Lower ratios for theMcVitiepynten units can be explained by differ-ences in thermal histories (see below). In summa-ry, the available data indicate that units C and E arecorrelative with Episode B deposits at Brøggerh-alvøya, which date to c. 70±10 ka based on 14C, U/Th and luminescence constraints (Miller et al.1989; Forman 1999).

Similarly, our data permit correlation to thecoastal stratigraphy at Poolepynten (Andersson etal. 1999), 50 km to the south of McVitiepynten.



Unit F at McVitiepynten correlates to littoral unit Dat Poolepynten, which yielded 14C ages of 8.8 ka BP

and 11.3 ka BP, corresponding with the Late Weich-selian emergence cycle (Andersson et al. 1999).Units C and E at McVitiepynten appear to correlatewith upper unit A and/or unit C at Poolepynten,based on similar limiting 14C ages of >49 ka BP andsimilar aIle/Ile ratios of 0.025 (Total) and 0.021(Total) at Poolepynten, respectively (Andersson etal. 1999). Luminescence age estimates and corre-lation to Brøggerhalvøya, led Andersson et al.(1999) to conclude that unit C at Poolepynten wasdeposited during the latter part of isotope stage 5,c. 70±10 ka.

Thus, with the exception of littoral and thin ae-olian sediments, which cap the sequence, the ma-

rine and glacial units exposed in the coastal sec-tions at McVitiepynten are pre-Late Weichselian inage. The combination of >40 ka BP limiting 14Cages and relatively low amino acid ratios suggestthat units C and E are Early Weichselian (sensulato) in age, deposited during isotope stage 4 or latein stage 5. By stratigraphic association, the glacialadvance that deformed part of unit C and emplacedthe unit D diamicton is also Early Weichselian (sen-su lato) in age, and may correlate with unit B atPoolepynten (Andersson et al. 1999) and the till be-low Episode B deposits at Brøggerhalvøya (Milleret al. 1989).

Unit A and unit B at McVitiepynten are notbracketed by confining 14C ages. However, thestratigraphic relationship in the investigated sec-

Fig. 13. Composite log for the stratigraphy of sediments exposed in the McVitiepynten coastal sections, Prins Karls Forland. Unit thick-nesses are arbitrary. Lithological legend in Fig. 6. Amino acid ratios are presented as means and standard deviations of the collectionaverages.



tions reveals that unit B is directly overlain by unitC with constraining >40 ka BP 14C ages. It followsthat unit B at McVitiepynten most likely was de-posited during isotope stage 4 or late in stage 5, andit is inferred that unit A represents deposition in ashallow marine environment during high relativesea level during the same time interval.

Amino acid palaeothermometryLaboratory and empirical studies have shown thatthe temperature dependency of the racemization re-action can be utilized to estimate the integratedground temperature experienced by a mollusc afterburial (the effective diagenetic temperature, orEDT; Miller et al. 1983; McCoy 1987). CommonlyEDT for a single sample can be estimated to within2 to 4°C. Changes in EDT among samples ofknown age can be estimated typically within 1 to2°C. At high latitudes, amino acid palaeothermo-metry is particularly useful for discriminating be-tween periods of subaerial exposure with perma-frost conditions and air temperatures well below0°C, and intervals of marine submergence or thickglacier-ice cover with temperatures at or just above0°C (Miller et al. 1983; Mangerud and Svendsen1992).

The EDT for the past c. 70 ka at McVitiepyntenis –10°C and includes the effects of a relativelymuch warmer Holocene. The EDT for theHolocene at Poolepynten is about –1°C (based onan age of 10 ka and an aIle/Ile (Total) ratio of 0.020;Andersson et al. 1999). Calculations based on theassumption of similar Holocene EDT of –1°C atPoolepynten and McVitiepynten yield an EDT ofapproximately –20°C for the time period betweenc. 70 ka and 10 ka at McVitiepynten. A comparisonbetween localities shows that Poolepynten andMcVitiepynten have shared similar thermal histo-ries with an EDT of –10°C for the past c. 70 ka, both

considerably cooler than the EDT of –6°C duringthe same time period at Site 15 on Brøggerhalvøya(Table 4). The observed discrepancy in thermal his-tories between the Prins Karls Forland localitiesand Brøggerhalvøya can be explained due to de-creased submergence and/or ice cover for PrinsKarls Forland relative to Brøggerhalvøya.

The amino acid palaeothermometry data indi-cate that during 70 to 10 ka the McVitiepynten sec-tions were exposed to subzero subaerial tempera-tures that resulted in low rates of racemization. If aLate Weichselian ice-sheet had covered unit E foras little as a few thousand years during 70 to 10 ka,the EDT for the remainder of this period must havebeen substantially lower than –20°C. Subaerialtemperatures as low as –25°C to –30°C are muchlower than expected for temperature depressionrelative to present in the Barents Sea area during theWeichselian (Dokken and Hald 1996). We thusconclude that the low aIle/Ile ratios in unit E indi-cate that the McVitiepynten sections have not beencovered by a warm-based ice sheet during the LateWeichselian. Similarly, the aIle/Ile data indicatethat the McVitiepynten sections have not been sub-merged below sea level during the period c. 70 kato 10 ka. Higher ratios for Early Weichselian de-posits elsewhere in western Spitsbergen (e.g. Site15 on Brøggerhalvøya and Linnédalen) are likelydue to longer post-depositional submergence.

Northern Prins Karls Forland during the Weichselian glacial cycleThe inferred time constraints for shallow marinesediments at McVitiepynten suggest depositionduring high relative sea level during isotope stage4 or late in stage 5, c. 70±10 ka. During the sametime interval stratigraphic data reveal expansion oflocal glaciers on northern Prins Karls Forland on atleast two occasions. The situation is correlative

Table 4. Effective diagenetic temperatures (EDT) integrated over the time period 70 ka to present.

EDT from 70 kaStratigraphic locality 1) Unit / Episode Limiting 14C age (BP) Inferred age (ka BP) AIle/Ile (Total) to present 2)

McVitiepynten Unit E 47,500 ± 3100 70 ± 10 0.021 –10°CPoolepynten Unit C >49,000 3) 70 ± 10 0.021 –10°CSite 15 / Brøggerhalvøya Episode B >61,500 4) 70 ± 10 0.031 –6°C

1) For location of stratigraphic localities, see Fig. 1A.2) The calculated EDT integrated over the time period from 70 ka to the present includes the effects of a relatively much warmer Holocene.3) From Andersson et al. (1999).4) From Miller et al. (1989).



with a late stage 5 expansion of local glaciers atPoolepynten, central Prins Karls Forland (Anders-son et al. 1999). The expansion of local glaciersduring high relative sea level indicates climaticconditions favouring growth of local glaciers on thewest coast of Svalbard. We interpret this as a signalof brief periods of advection of relatively warmNorth Atlantic water and enhanced precipitation inthe Forlandsund area during isotope stage 4 or latein stage 5 that is correlative with sea-ice breakupand inflow of North Atlantic surface waters to thePolar North Atlantic during stage 5 and the oldestpart of stage 4 (Gard 1988; Dokken and Hald1996).

The documented distribution of till at the surfaceindicates a limited easterly expansion of local gla-ciers on northern Prins Karls Forland during theLate Weichselian (Fig. 1B). The situation is correl-ative with a documented limited expansion of localglaciers on central Prins Karls Forland during theLate Weichselian (Andersson et al. 1999). Howev-er, the observation of a Late Weichselian expansionof local glaciers could relate to a late stage patterndeveloped during deglaciation and hence does notnecessarily mirror the situation at the last glacialmaximum.

Palaeotemperature estimates derived from ami-no acid ratios indicate that during the time intervalc. 70 to 10 ka the area was exposed to cold subaerialtemperatures that resulted in low rates of racemi-zation. Pedogenesis and frost-shattered clasts at thecontact between c. 70 ka deposits and Late Weich-selian/early Holocene beach deposits in the coastalsections further indicate a prolonged period of timeof subaerial exposure (Fig. 11). We suggest that thiszone represents periglacial polar desert conditionssometime between isotope stages 4 and 2.

The glacial geologic observations from centraland northern Prins Karls Forland (Andersson et al.1999; this study) are inconsistent with glaciologicmodelling experiments that reconstruct a >800 mthick Barents Sea ice sheet over Prins Karls Forlandterminating at the western continental shelf margin(Landvik et al. 1998). The discrepancy betweenglacial geologic observations from Prins Karls For-land and the ice sheet reconstruction presented byLandvik et al. (1998) possibly reflects limitationsin modelling ice-sheet geometry and flow in mar-ginal areas characterized by >1000 m high moun-tains and >300 m deep fjord troughs, such as on thewest coast of Svalbard. It is inferred that the LateWeichselian Barents Sea ice sheet on the west coastof Svalbard was characterized by drainage of ice

streams through the major fjord troughs and thatrelative large marginal areas experienced polardesert conditions and minor expansions of localcirque glaciers.

AcknowledgementsWe want to thank the Norwegian authorities forpermission to carry out fieldwork in the ForlandetNasjonalpark. C. Hart (INSTAAR) assisted withthe amino acid analyses. S. Funder performed themollusc species analysis. This work, carried outwhen the senior auther was affilated with the Uni-versity of Göteborg, is a part of The Swedish ArcticResearch Programme (SWEDARCTIC). Generoussupport has been provided by The Swedish NaturalScience Research Council (NFR), The NorwegianPolar Institute, The Swedish Polar Research Sec-retariat, The Swedish Society for Anthropologyand Geography, The YMER-80 Foundation andThe Earth Sciences Centre, University of Göte-borg. M. Eriksson provided fieldwork assistanceduring the 1996 field season.

Torbjörn Andersson, Panstugan, Moräng, SE-15395 Järna, Sweden and Ólafur Ingólfsson, EarthSciences Centre, Göteborg University, Box 460,SE-405 30 Göteborg, Sweden.

Steven L. Forman, University of Illinois at Chicago,Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences(M/C 186), 845 Taylor Street, Chicago, Illinois60607-7059, USA.

William F. Manley, University of Colorado at Boul-der, Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research, Cam-pus Box 450, Boulder, Colorado 80309-0450, USA.

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Manuscript received May 1999, revised and accepted November1999.

stratigraphic and morphologic constraints on the

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