studying individual development in an interindividual context: a person-oriented approach

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STUDYING shyINDIVIDUAL shy shyDEVELOPMENT shyIN shyAN shy

shyINTERINDIVIDUAL shyCONTEXT

A shyPerson-Oriented shyApproach

Paths Through LifeA Series of Volumes edited by

David Magnusson

Magnusson shybull shyIndividual Development From an Interactive Perspective shybull shy1988

StattinMagnusson shybull shyPubertal Maturation in Female Development shybull shy1990

GustafsonMagnusson shybull shyFemale Life Careers shybull shy1991

BergmanMagnussonEl Khouri shybull shyStudying Individual Development in an Interindividual Context shybull shy2003

PATHS shyTHROUGH shyLIFEVolume shy4

STUDYING shyINDIVIDUAL shyDEVELOPMENT shyIN shyAN shy

shyINTERINDIVIDUAL shyCONTEXTA shyPerson-Oriented shyApproach

LARS RBERGMAN

DAVID MAGNUSSON

BASSAM MEL KHOURI

shy shy

LAWRENCE shyERLBAUM shyASSOCIATES shyPUBLISHERSMahwah shyNew shyJersey shyLondon

Copyright shycopy shy2003 shyby shyLawrence shyErlbaum shyAssociates shyInc

All shyrights shyreserved shyNo shypart shyof shythis shybook shymay shybe shyreproduced shyin shyany shyform shyby shyphotostat shymicroform shyretrieval shysystem shyor shyany shyother shymeans shywithout shyprior shywritten shypermission shyof shythe shy

publisher

Lawrence shyErlbaum shyAssociates shyInc shyPublishers shy10 shyIndustrial shyAvenue shyMahwah shyNJ shy07430

This shyedition shypublished shyin shythe shyTaylor shyamp shyFrancis shye-Library shy2009

ldquoTo shypurchase shyyour shyown shycopy shyof shythis shyor shyany shyof shyTaylor shyamp shyFrancis shyor shyRoutledgersquos shycollection shyof shythousands shyof shyeBooks shy

please shygo shyto shywwweBookstoretandfcoukrdquo

Cover shydesign shyby shyKathryn shyHoughtaling shyLacey

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data shyBergman shyLars shyR shy

Studying shyindividual shydevelopment shyin shyan shyinterindividual shycontext shy shya shyperson-oriented shyapproachLars shyRBergman shyDavid shy shy

shyMagnusson shyand shyBassam shyMEl shyKhouri shyp shycmmdash(Paths shythrough shylife shyv shy4) shy

Includes shybibliographical shyreferences shyand shyindex shy shyISBN shy0-8058-3129-0 shy(cloth shyalk shypaper) shyISBN shy0-8058-3130-4 shy(pbk shyalk shypaper) shy

1 shyDevelopmental shypsychologymdashSocial shyaspects shyI shyMagnusson shyDavid shyII shyEl shyKhouri shyBassam shyIII shyTitle shyIV shySeries shy

BF713B464 shy2002 shy155ndashdc21 shy2002022548 shy

CIP

ISBN shy1-4106-0682-1 shyMaster shye-book shyISBN

ISBN shy0-8058-3129-0 shy(Print shyEdition)

CONTENTS shy

shy PREFACE shy shy xi

shy ABOUT shyTHE shyAUTHORS shy shy xiii

shyChapter shy1 shy shy INTRODUCTION shy shy 1Chapter shy2 shy shy THEORETICAL shyFRAMEWORK shy shy 4

shy shy 1 shy shy shyIntroduction shy shy 4

shy shy 2 shy shy shyA shyHolistic-Interactionistic shyPerspective shy shy 6

shy shy 3 shy shy shyA shyModern shyHolistic-Interactionistic shyView shy shy 8

shy shy 31 shy shy shyThe shyRole shyof shythe shyHolistic shyPerspective shyin shyDevelopmental shyResearch shy shy shy

9 shy shy 311 shy shy shyConclusion shy shy 10

shy shy 32 shy shy shyInterindividual shyDifferences shyfrom shya shyHolistic shyPerspective shy shy 10

shy shy 321 shy shy shyIndividual shyDifferences shyin shythe shyOrganization shyof shyOperating shyFactors shy shy shy

11

shy shy 322 shy shy shyIndividual shyDifferences shyin shyBiological shy shyTiming shy shy shy

12 shy shy 33 shy shy shyResearch shyStrategy shyImplications shyof shya shyHolistic shyView shy shy 14

shy shy 34 shy shy shyMethodological shyImplications shyof shya shyHolistic shyPerspective shy shy 16

shy shy 4 shy shy shyThe shyVariable shyApproach shy shy 17

shy shy 41 shy shy shyData shyTreatment shy shy 17

shy shy 42 shy shy shyAssumptions shy shy 18

shy shy 43 shy shy shyAn shyEmpirical shyIllustration shy shy 18

shy shy 44 shy shy shyInferences shyto shyIndividuals shyin shya shyVariable shyApproach shy shy 20

shy shy 441 shy shy shyConclusion shy shy 23

shy shy 5 shy shy shyThe shyPerson shyApproach shy shy 23

shy shy 51 shy shy shyPattern shyAnalysis shy shy 23

shy shy 511 shy shy shyConclusion shy shy 24Chapter shy3 shy shy GENERAL shyMETHODOLOGICAL shyCONSIDERATIONS shy shy 25

shy shy 1 shy shy shySome shyMethodological shyIssues shyRaised shyby shythe shy shyHolistic-Interactional shyResearch shyParadigm shy shy shy

25 shy shy 2 shy shy shyTypes shyand shyTypology shy shy 28

shy shy 3 shy shy shyThe shyMeasurement shyof shyPatterns shy shy 31

vi Contents

shy shy 31 shy shy shyMeasurement shyin shyStandard shyVariable-Oriented shy shyMultivariate shyStudies shyin shyRelation shyto shythe shyPerson shyApproach shy shy shy

32 shy shy 32 shy shy shyPatterns shyand shyLinear shyTransformations shy shy 32

shy shy 33 shy shy shyMultivariate shyScaling shyfor shyPattern shyAnalysis shy shy 33

shy shy 331 shy shy shyOn shythe shyLimitations shyof shyRelative shyScoring shy shy 33

shy shy 332 shy shy shyQuasiabsolute shyScaling shy shy 36

shy shy 34 shy shy shyMeasuring shyChange shy shy 37

shy shy 35 shy shy shyMissing shyData shy shy 38

shy shy 4 shy shy shyAn shyOverview shyof shyPerson-Oriented shyMethods shyfor shyStudying shyIndividual shyDevelopment shy shy shy

38 shy shy 41 shy shy shyModel-Based shyMethods shy shy 39

shy shy 42 shy shy shyDescriptive shyMethods shy shy 40

shy shy 421 shy shy shyThe shyCross-Sectional shyPerspective shy shy 40

shy shy 422 shy shy shyThe shyLongitudinal shyPerspective shy shy 41

shy shy 423 shy shy shySome shyMethods shyfor shyAnalysis shyof shySpecial shyAspects shyof shyPatterns shy shy shy

41 shy shy 43 shy shy shyThe shystudy shyof shyldquoAnticlassesrdquo shy shy 43

shy shy 44 shy shy shyVariable-Oriented shyand shyPerson-Oriented shyMethods shyas shyComplementary shyApproaches shy shy shy

44

shy shy 45 shy shy shySome shyComputer shyPrograms shyfor shyCarrying shyOut shyPattern shyAnalyses shy shy shy

45Chapter shy4 shy shy CLASSIFICATION shyIN shyA shyPERSON-ORIENTED shyCONTEXT shy shy 46

shy shy 1 shy shy shyIntroduction shyand shyOverview shyof shythe shyChapter shy shy 46

shy shy 2 shy shy shySimilarity shyand shyDissimilarity shy shy 47

shy shy 21 shy shy shyMeasuring shyProximity shy shy 48

shy shy 3 shy shy shyHandling shyOutliers shyin shyCluster shyAnalysis shy shy 51

shy shy 31 shy shy shyThe shyRESIDAN shyMethod shy shy 52

shy shy 4 shy shy shySelected shyMethods shyfor shyCluster shyAnalysis shyAn shyOverview shy shy 53

shy shy 41 shy shy shyHierarchical shyMethods shy shy 54

shy shy 411 shy shy shyAgglomerative shyMethods shy shy 54

shy shy 412 shy shy shyDivisive shyMethods shy shy 54

shy shy 42 shy shy shyPartitioning shyMethods shy shy 55

shy shy 43 shy shy shyDensity shySearch shyMethods shy shy 55

shy shy 44 shy shy shySome shyOther shyMethods shy shy 55

Contents vii

shy shy 5 shy shy shyHierarchical shyAgglomerative shyMethods shyTechnique shy shy 55

shy shy 51 shy shy shyAlgorithm shy shy 56

shy shy 52 shy shy shyUpdating shyDissimilarities shy shy 57

shy shy 6 shy shy shySome shyPractical shyConsiderations shyfor shyAchieving shya shy shyWell-Functioning Classification Using Cluster Analysis shy shy

59 shy shy 7 shy shy shyLatent shyClass shyAnalysis shy shy 60

shy shy 8 shy shy shyClusters shyTypes shyand shyClasses shy shy 61

shy shy 9 shy shy shyMan as a Classifier shy 63Chapter shy5 shy shy ANALYZING shyALL shyPOSSIBLE shyPATTERNS shy shy 65

shy shy 1 shy shy shyIntroduction to Configural Frequency Analysis shy 65

shy shy 2 shy shy shyAn example of the Application of Basic Configural shyFrequency shyAnalysis shy shy shy

67 shy shy 3 shy shy shyMore About Significance Testing in CFA shy 69

shy shy 4 shy shy shyInteraction shyStructure shyAnalysis shyWithin shyCFA shy shy 70

shy shy 5 shy shy shyCFA shyRelated shyto shyOther shyMethods shy shy 71

shy shy 6 shy shy shyA shyFinal shyLook shyat shyWhat shyWe shyHave shyLearned shyAbout shythe shy shyStructure shyin shythe shyData shyin shyTable shy51 shy shy shy

72Chapter shy6 shy shy SOME shyMETHODS shyFOR shySTUDYING shyPATTERN shy

shyDEVELOPMENT shy shy shy74

shy shy 1 shy shy shyStudying shythe shyDevelopment shyof shySingle shyIndividuals shy shy 74

shy shy 2 shy shy shyModel-Based shyand shyDescriptive shyMethods shyfor shyStudying shy shyPattern shyDevelopment shy shy shy

74

shy shy3 shy shy shyClassification-Based Methods for Studying shyInterindividual shyDifferences shyin shyIndividualsrsquo shyValue shyPatterns shyAcross shyDevelopment shy

shy shy shy

75

shy shy 31 shy shy shyThe Direct Identification of Typical Longitudinal shyPatterns shy shy shy

76

shy shy 32 shy shy shyCross-Sectional Classification Analysis Followed by Linking shyOver shyTime shyUsing shyLICUR shy shy shy

77 shy shy 321 shy shy shyThe shyRemoval shyof shya shyResidue shy shy 78

shy shy 322 shy shy shyAge-Specific Hierarchical Cluster shyAnalyses shy shy shy

78 shy shy 323 shy shy shyRelocation shyCluster shyAnalyses shy shy 79

shy shy 324 shy shy shyLinking shyof shyResults shyBetween shyAges shy shy 79

shy shy 33 shy shy shyAnalyzing shySequences shyof shySubwholes shy shy 80


viii Contents

shy shy 332 shy shy shyOutline shyof shyISOA shy shy 81

shy shy 4 shy shy shyStudying shyPattern shyDevelopment shyby shyMapping shyAll shyPossible shyValue shyCombinations shy shy shy

82Chapter shy7 shy shy EXAMINING shyTHE shyGENERALIZABILITY shyOF shyRESULTS shy shy 84Chapter shy8 shy shy SLEIPNER shyA shySTATISTICAL shyPACKAGE shyFOR shyPERSON-

ORIENTED shyANALYSIS shy shy shy90


shy shy 11 shy shy shyModule shyBlocks shyCharacterizing shySLEIPNER shy shy 90

shy shy 12 shy shy shySLEIPNER shythe shyProgram shy shy 91

shy shy 13 shy shy shyThe shyOrganization shyof shythe shyChapter shy shy 91

shy shy 2 shy shy shySLEIPNER shya shyWorkbench shy shy 92

shy shy 21 shy shy shyData shyPreprocessing shy shy 92

shy shy 211 shy shy shyData shyDescription shy shy 92

shy shy 212 shy shy shyHandling shyMissingness shyWith shyImputation shy shy 93

shy shy 213 shy shy shyResidue shyAnalysis shy shy 95

shy shy 22 shy shy shyClassificatory Analysis shy 97

shy shy 221 shy shy shyClustering shythe shyData shy shy 99

shy shy 222 shy shy shyRelocating shyCases shyin shyClusters shy shy 100

shy shy 223 shy shy shySearching shyfor shyTypes shyand shyAntitypes shy shy 103

shy shy 224 shy shy shyUsing shyI-states shyas shyObjects shyof shyAnalysis shy shy 105

shy shy 23 shy shy shyClassificatory Simulation and Evaluation shy 107

shy shy 231 shy shy shySimulation shyAnalysis shy shy 107

shy shy 232 shy shy shyStructural shyStability shyand shyChange shy shy 109

shy shy 233 shy shy shyIndividual shyStability shyand shyChange shy shy 111

shy shy 24 shy shy shySpecial shyPurpose shyModules shyin shySLEIPNER shy shy 113

shy shy 241 shy shy shyRandom shySamples shy shy 113

shy shy 242 shy shy shyArtificial Data Sets shy 114

shy shy 243 shy shy shyIncluding Classification Variables in the Data shySet shy shy shy

114 shy shy 244 shy shy shyMapping shythe shyNeighborhood shyof shya shyUnit shy shy 114

shy shy 245 shy shy shyEvaluating shyand shyComparing shyPartitions shy shy 115

shy shy 246 shy shy shyPreparing shya shyFile shyComposed shyof shy shySubindividuals shy shy shy

115 shy shy 25 shy shy shyConcluding shyRemarks shy shy 118

Contents ix

Chapter shy9 shy shy STABILITY shyAND shyCHANGE shyIN shyPATTERNS shyOF shySCHOOL shyADJUSTMENT shyAN shyEMPIRICAL shySTUDY shy shy shy

120 shy shy 1 shy shy shyIntroduction shy shy 120

shy shy 11 shy shy shyTheoretical shyBackground shy shy 120

shy shy 12 shy shy shyDescription shyof shythe shyData shySet shy shy 121

shy shy 121 shy shy shySample shy shy 121

shy shy 122 shy shy shyVariables shy shy 121

shy shy 13 shy shy shyNote shyon shythe shyPresentation shyof shySLEIPNER shyResults shy shy 122

shy shy 2 shy shy shyCross-Sectional Classifications of Patterns of School Adjustment shyFollowed shyby shyLinking shy shy shy


shy shy 22 shy shy shyPreparatory shyAnalyses shy shy 125

shy shy 23 shy shy shyCross-Sectional Classifications shy 132


shy shy 232 shy shy shyDeciding shythe shyNumber shyof shyClusters shy shy 134



shy shy 251 shy shy shyLooking shyfor shyTypes shy shy 140

shy shy 252 shy shy shyLooking shyfor shyAntitypes shy shy 142

shy shy 253 shy shy shyExploring shythe shyremaining shyCells shy shy 142

shy shy 26 shy shy shyReplicating shyResults shyon shya shyRandom shyHalf shy shy 145

shy shy 261 shy shy shyReplicating shythe shyCross-Sectional shyCluster shyStructure shy shy shy

145

shy shy262 shy shy shyReplicating shythe shyCross-Sectional shy Classification With Regard to Individual Cluster Membership shy

shy shy shy

146 shy shy 263 shy shy shyReplicating shythe shyLinking shyOver shyTime shy shy 147

shy shy 27 shy shy shyTesting shythe shyResults shyAgainst shya shyNull shyHypothesis shyof shyNo shyRelationships shyin shythe shyData shy shy shy

148

shy shy 3 shy shy shyAnalyzing shyPatterns shyof shySchool shyAdjustment shyWithin shyan shy shyAge-Invariant Classification Structure shy shy


shy shy 32 shy shy shyAge-Invariant shyCluster shyStructure shy shy 150



x Contents

shy shy 35 shy shy shyComparing shyISOA shyStates shyto shyLICUR shyClusters shy shy 152

shy shy 36 shy shy shyExploring shythe shyRemaining shyCells shy shy 155


shy shy 4 shy shy shyAnalyzing shyAll shyPossible shyPatterns shyof shySchool shyAdjustment shyand shyAll shyPossible shyPatterns shyof shyChange shy shy shy


shy shy 42 shy shy shyCFA shyof shyPatterns shyof shySchool shyAdjustment shy shy 156

shy shy 421 shy shy shyConfigurations at Age 10 shy 158


shy shy 43 shy shy shyDevelopmental shyTypes shyand shyAntitypes shy shy 160

shy shy 44 shy shy shyAnalyzing shyAll shyPatterns shyof shyChange shy shy 161

shy shy 5 shy shy shySummary shyand shyDiscussion shyof shyEmpirical shyFindings shy shy 163

shy shy 51 shy shy shySummary shyof shythe shyResults shyof shythe shyCross-Sectional shy shyClassification Analysis With Linking shy shy

163 shy shy 52 shy shy shyStructural shyStability shyand shyChange shy shy 165


shy shy 54 shy shy shySyndromes shyof shyBad shySchool shyAdjustment shy shy 166

shy shy 55 shy shy shyTypical shyPatterns shyof shyGood shyAdjustment shy shy 168

shy shy 6 shy shy shySome shyMethodological shyConsiderations shy shy 169Chapter shy10 shy shy DISCUSSION shyAND shyDIRECTIONS shy shy 171

shy shy 1 shy shy shyStudying shyProcesses shy shy 171

shy shy 2 shy shy shyTheory-Testing shyand shyExploration shy shy 173

shy shy3 shy shy shyAccurate Prediction Versus Identification of Principles and Mechanisms as the Scientific Goal in Developmental Research shy

shy shy shy

174 shy shy 31 shy shy shyUnderstanding shythe shyConstraints shyof shyDevelopment shy shy 176

shy shy 32 shy shy shySearching shyfor shyTypes shy shy 176

shy shy 4 shy shy shySome shyGuidelines shyfor shyFuture shyResearch shy shy 177

shy shy REFERENCES shy shy 179

shy AUTHOR shyINDEX shy shy 190

shy SUBJECT shyINDEX shy shy 194

PREFACE

This shybook shyis shynumber shyfour shyin shythe shyseries shyPaths Through Life shyedited shyby shyDavid shyMagnusson shyThe shyaim shyis shyto shygive shya shycoherent shyintroduction shyto shythe shytheory shyand shymethod shyof shythe shyperson shyapproach shythat shyemanates shyfrom shythe shyholistic shyinteractionistic shyresearch shyparadigm shydeveloped shyby shyhim shyThis shyparadigm is presented in detail in his 1988 book the first in the abovementioned series In the shysecond shyand shythird shybooks shyin shythe shyseries shybiological shymaturation shyand shyfemale shycareer shypatterns shyrespectively shy are shy studied shy in shy the shy framework shy of shy the shy holistic shy interactionistic shy paradigm shy and shyperson-oriented shymethods shyare shyapplied shyto shysome shyextent

The shyperson-oriented shyapproach shyhas shymatured shyconsiderably shyduring shythe shylast shy10 shyyears shyboth shytheo-retically shyand shymethodologically shyand shywe shyhave shyfelt shypressure shyto shywrite shya shytext shythat shycan shyserve shyas shyan shyintroduction shyfor shythe shyresearcher shywho shywants shyto shycarry shyout shyresearch shyin shythis shynew shytradition shyThis shyshort shybook in no way completely covers the person approach but we hope it will be sufficient for a number shyof shyapplications shyFor shythe shyreader shywho shyldquowants shymorerdquo shyreferences shyare shygiven

To shyobtain shya shybroad shyoverview shyof shydifferent shyapproaches shyto shythe shystudy shyof shyindividual shydevelop-ment shythat shytranscends shydisciplinary shyboundaries shythe shyreader shyis shyreferred shyto shythe shyNobel shysympo-sium shyvolume shyThe Lifespan Development of Individuals Behavioral Neurobiological and Psychological Perspectives shypublished shyby shyCambridge shyUniversity shyPress shyand shyedited shyby shyDavid shyMagnusson shyA shy follow-up shyof shy this shybook shy that shy is shy strongly shy rooted shy in shy the shynew shydevelopmental shyscience shyespecially shyfrom shythe shyperspective shyof shydevelopmental shypsychology shyis shyDevelopmental Science and the Holistic Approach shypublished shyby shyLawrence shyErlbaum shyAssociates shyand shyedited shyby shyLars shyRBergman shyRobert shyCairns shyLars-Goumlran shyNilsson shyand shyLars shyNystedt shyA shystudy shyof shythe shytwo shybooks shyjust shymentioned shytogether shywith shythe shyother shybooks shyin shythe shyseries shyPaths Through Life shyin shyconjunction shywith shystudying shythe shypresent shyvolume shywould shygive shythe shyreader shya shygood shyinsight shyinto shythe shyissues shyinvolved shyin shythe shystudy shyof shyindividual shydevelopment shyfrom shya shydevelopmental shyscience shyperspective

Lars shyBergman shyand shyDavid shyMagnusson shyhad shyjoint shyresponsibility shyfor shychapter shy1 shyand shychap-ter shy10 shyDavid shyMagnusson shywrote shychapter shy2 shyLars shyBergman shywrote shychapter shy3 shyand shychapters shy5 shythrough shy7 shyBassam shyEl shyKhouri shywrote shychapter shy4 shyand shychapter shy8 shyBassam shyEl shyKhouri shyhad shythe shymain shyresponsibility shyfor shychapter shy9 shywith shycontributions shyfrom shyLars shyBergman

This shybook shyhas shytaken shythe shyefforts shyof shymany shypeople shyand shywe shyespecially shywant shyto shythank shyLuki shyHagen for efficient secretarial help throughout the whole process and Cornelia Wulff for her shyhelp shywith shythe shyreference shylist shyand shythe shysubject shyindex shyAlexander shyvon shyEye shyMagnus shySverke shyAndraacutes shyVargha shyand shyMargit shyWaringngby shyhave shygiven shyus shymany shyuseful shycomments shyand shyalso shytough shyquestions shythat shyhave shyled shywe shyhope shyto shyan shyimproved shypresentation shyIn shyaddition shymany shycolleagues shyinside shyand shyoutside shyour shydepartment shyhave shygiven shyus shyhelpful shycomments shyOla shyAndersson shyChris-tin shyMellner shyEva shyChinapah shyJuliska shyKansi shyRita shyZukauskiene shyand shyReidar shyOumlsterman

Behind shythis shybook shyare shymany shyyears shyof shymethodological shyand shyempirical shyresearch shycarried shyout shywithin shya shynumber shyof shyresearch shyprojects shyIt shywould shynot shyhave shybeen shypossible shyto shywrite shythis shybook shywithout the financial support to these research projects given by various funding agencies Primarily shyinvolved shyhave shybeen shythe shySTINT shyfoundation shy(main shygrant shyholder shyLars shyRBergman) shythe shySwedish shyCouncil shyfor shythe shyPlanning shyand shyCoordination shyof shyResearch shy(main shygrant shyholder shy

xii Preface

David shyMagnusson) shythe shySwedish shyCouncil shyfor shySocial shyResearch shy(main shygrant shyholder shyDavid shyMagnusson) shy the shy Swedish shy Council shy for shy Research shy in shy the shy Humanities shy and shy Social shy Sciences shy(main shygrant shyholder shyLars shyR shyBergman)

mdashLars RBergmanmdashDavid Magnusson

mdashBassam MEl Khouri shy shyStockholm shyFebruary shy2002 shy

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

LARS BERGMANLars shyRBergman shyis shyprofessor shyof shylongitudinal shyresearch shymethodology shyat shythe shyDepartment shyof shyPsychology shyat shyStockholm shyUniversity shyHe shycurrently shydirects shythe shyStockholm shyLaboratory shyfor shyDevelopment shyand shyAdaptation shyfounded shyby shyDavid shyMagnusson shyHe shyholds shyan shyMA shyin shyStatistics shyand shyhas shybeen shy the shyhead shyof shy the shyMeasurement shyEvaluation shyand shyDevelopment shyLaboratory shyat shyStatistics shySweden shyHis shywork shyin shylongitudinal shyresearch shymethodology shyis shyinternationally shyrec-ognized shyand shyhe shyhas shyalso shydone shyconsiderable shywork shyrelating shyto shy the shystudy shyof shy the shyadjustment shyprocess shyHe shywas shyone shyof shythe shyeditors shyof shya shycomprehensive shybook shyon shydevelopmental shyscience shyand shythe shyholistic shyapproach shypublished shyby shyLawrence shyErlbaum shyAssociates shyin shy2000

DAVID MAGNUSSON

David shyMagnusson shyis shyprofessor shyemeritus shyat shythe shyDepartment shyof shyPsychology shyStockholm shyUni-versity shyHe shyis shyan shyinternationally shyhighly shyrecognized shyresearcher shywho shyhas shygiven shyimportant shycon-tributions shyboth shywith shyregard shyto shytheoretical shyissues shyin shyrelation shyto shythe shyinteractionistic shyresearch shyparadigm shyand shywith shyregard shyto shythe shystudy shyof shythe shyadjustment shyprocess shyHe shyholds shyseveral shyhonorary shydegrees shyfrom shyuniversities shyaround shyEurope shyand shyhe shyhas shybeen shythe shychairman shyof shythe shylongitudinal shynetwork shyfor shylongitudinal shyresearch shyin shythe shyEuropean shyScience shyFoundation shyIn shy1994 shyhe shyorga-nized shya shyNobel shysymposium shyon shythe shylife-span shydevelopment shyof shyindividuals shypublished shyas shya shybook shyby shyCambridge shyUniversity shyPress shyin shy1996 shyTogether shywith shyRobert shyCairns shyhe shycan shybe shyconsidered shyas shythe shyfounder shyof shythe shynew shydevelopmental shyscience

BASSAM EL KHOURI

Bassam shyMEl shyKhouri shy received shyhis shyPhD shyfrom shythe shyDepartment shyof shyPsychology shyStockholm shyUniversity His research focuses on methods for studying classification in psychology He also shyholds shyan shyMA shyin shycomputer shyscience shyand shyhe shyis shyalso shydoing shyresearch shyon shyimproving shycomputer shyalgorithms for solving classificatory problems partly based on computer simulation

1 INTRODUCTION

The shy aim shy of shy this shy book shy is shy to shy introduce shy the shy reader shy to shy the shy person-oriented shy approach shy It shy is shyhoped shythat shythe shybook shywill shybe shycomplete shyin shythe shysense shythat shywe shypresent shyboth shythe shybasic shytheory shybehind shy the shyapproach shyselected shymethods shyfor shyperson-oriented shyanalysis shy (cross-sectional shyand shy shylongitudinal) shya shystatistical shypackage shySLEIPNER shyfor shycarrying shyout shysuch shyanalyses shy(including shythe shy program shy available shy on shy the shy Web) shy and shy empirical shy examples shyAlthough shy we shy believe shy the shybook shycontains shyenough shyinformation shyto shyenable shythe shycareful shyreader shyto shyapply shya shyperson-oriented shyapproach shyin shyher shyor shyhis shyresearch shythe shybook shyis shyby shyno shymeans shyexhaustive shyWe shysometimes shyonly shyindicate shymethodological shyapproaches shyother shythan shythose shytreated shyhere shyand shyguide shythe shyreader shyto shythe shyappropriate shyliterature

A shy theoretical shy background shy to shy the shy person-oriented shy approach shy is shy provided shy in shy chapter shy 2 shywhere shyits shyroots shyin shythe shyholistic shyinteractional shyparadigm shyare shyemphasized shySome shybasic shyideas shyof shydevelopmental shyscience shyare shyalso shypresented shythere shyA shyview shyof shyindividual shydevelopment shyemerges shyas shybest shyseen shyin shyterms shyof shya shycomplex shydynamic shysystem shyas shya shyprocess shyinvolving shymany shyinteracting shyfactors shyat shydifferent shylevels shyof shyaggregation shyand shytranscending shydisciplinary shyboundaries shyAfter shyreading shythis shychapter shyit shyshould shybe shyclear shyto shythe shyreader shythat shythe shyessence shyof shythe shyperson-oriented shyapproach shyat the theoretical level shyis shythe shyrecognition shyof shythe shynecessity shyof shyconsidering shythe shyindi-vidual shy as shy far shy as shy possible shy as shy an shy organized shy whole shyThis shy theoretical shy perspective shy is shy usually shytranslated shyat the methodological level shyinto shythe shyuse shyof shyperson-oriented shymethods shydesigned shyto shystudy shyindividual shydevelopment shyfrom shythe shyperspective shyof shythe shyindividual shyas shythe shyorganizing shyprinciple shyMethods shy concentrating shyon shypatterns shyof shy information shy are shynear shy at shy hand shyThe shy idea shyis shyto shytreat shya shywhole shypattern shyof shyinformation shyas shythe shyindivisible shyunit shyof shyanalysis shyinstead shyof shythe shyvariable shywhich shyis shythe shyusual shyunit shyof shyanalysis shyIn shyother shywords shythe shyinformation shyGestalt shyis shythe shyfocus shynot shythe shyseparate shyparts

In shychapter shy3 shy some shybasic shymethodological shy issues shy relating shy to shyperson-oriented shyanalyses shyare shypresented shyThe shycrucial shy issue shyof shyhow shy the shymeasurements shyare shyconceptualized shyand shycollected shy is shyemphasized It is pointed out that we concentrate on methods that use the profile of values in a set of variables as the basic unit of analysis Different classes of methods are reviewed briefly A shyspecial shypoint shyis shyalso shymade shyof shythe shyconcept shyof shyempty regions shy in shymultivariate shyspace shy(ldquowhite shyspotsrdquo) shythat shyis shypermissible shyvalue shycombinations shythat shyfor shysome shyreason shydo shynot shyoccur shyThese shywhite shyspots shycan shybe shyimportant shyto shystudy shyboth shyin shya shydescriptive shyand shya shytheory shydriven shyway

In shychapter shy4 the issue of cross-sectional classification is treated and a number of clus-ter shyanalysis-based shyprocedures shyfor shycross-sectional shyanalysis shyare shypresented shyThe shypresentation shyalso includes a basic discussion of classification and the measurement of dissimilaritysimilarity shybetween shyobjects shyThe shyimportance shyof shyconsidering shypossible shyoutliers shywhich shyfor shyboth shy theoretical and technical reasons should not be classified with the others is highlighted and shya shyprocedure shyRESIDAN shyis shypresented shyfor shyundertaking shyan shyanalysis shyof shyoutliers

The classification methods presented in chapter shy4 shyare shybased shyon shythe shyassumption shythat shythe shyvariables shyinvolved shyare shyreasonably shycontinuous shyand shycan shybe shyassumed shyto shybe shyon shyan shyapproximate shyinterval shyscale shyQuite shyanother shystarting shypoint shy is shyobtained shy if shy the shyvariables shyare shydiscrete shywith shy

Studying individual development in an interindividual context

each shyvariable shyjust shytaking shyone shyof shya shyfew shyvalues shyThen shyit shybecomes shypossible shyto shylist shyand shystudy shyall possible value patterns For this purpose configural frequency analysis (CFA) was shydeveloped shyIn shyCFA shythe shyobserved shyand shyexpected shyfrequencies shyof shyall shypossible shyvalue shypatterns shyare shystudied shyand shya shybody shyof shydifferent shymethods shywere shydevised shyfor shydifferent shypurposes shyThis shyversatile shymethodology shy which shy is shy not shy so shy well-known shy outside shy Germany shy is shy introduced shy in shy chapter shy 5 shyand shydiscussed shyin shyrelation shyto shymodel-based shymethods shylike shylog-linear shymodeling shy(LOGLIN) shyand shylatent shystructure shyanalysis shy(LSA)

In shy chapter shy 6 shy we shy present shy a shy few shy selected shy methods shy for shy carrying shy out shy person-oriented shy shylongitudinal shy statistical shy analyses shy Longitudinal shy cluster shy analysis shy is shy presented shy as shy are shy CFA-based shymethods shyand shy latent shy transition shyanalysis shy(LTA) shywhich shy is shya shymodel-based shymethod shyfor shythe shy longitudinal shy analysis shy of shy categorical shy data shy related shy to shy LSA shyA shy more shy process-oriented shymethod shyis shyalso shy introduced shynamely shyi-states shyas shyobjects shyanalysis shy(ISOA) shyThis shymethod shycan shybe shyespecially shyuseful shyfor shysmall shysamples shyand shyfor shystudying shyshort-term shydevelopment shyThe shymain shy shyprocedure shypresented shyin shychapter shy6 is LICUR It is based on descriptive classification analysis undertaken shywithin shyeach shy time shypointdomain shyseparately shywhich shyare shy then shy linked shy in shya shycross-tabulation shyand shyanalyzed shyby shyexact shycell-wise shytests shyLICUR shyis shyrobust shyand shycan shybe shyused shyin shyboth shycross-sectional shyand shylongitudinal shysettings

In shychapter shy7 shyissues shyof shyvalidity shyand shyreliability shyare shydiscussed shySuch shyissues shyare shyof shycourse shyalways important but even more so when classification analysis is undertaken on multivariate data shyWithin shysuch shya shymethodological shyapproach shyit shy tends shyto shybe shyextremely shyhard shyto shyformulate shyldquosolvablerdquo shy mathematical-statistical shy models shy that shy incorporate shy errors shy of shy measurement shy and shysampling errors Some different ways of handling these difficult issues are discussed in the shychapter shyincluding shythe shyuse shyof shyldquobrute shyforcerdquo shycomputer shytechnology shybased shyon shysimulation shystudies shy(eg shyverifying shythat shythe shyobtained shyresults shyare shynot shyonly shya shyproduct shyof shythe shycapacity shyof shya classification method to find structure even in random data) Chapter shy7 shyis shyshort shyand shyit shyis shygiven shythe shystatus shyof shya shychapter shyto shyemphasize shythe shyimportance shyof shytaking shyseriously shyissues shyof shyvalidity shyreplicability shyand shyreliability

Together shythe shymethods shypresented shyin shychapters shy4 shythrough shy7 shymake shypossible shythe shyapplication shyof shyperson-oriented shyanalyses shyin shya shyvariety shyof shyresearch shysettings shyand shyfor shyvariables shywith shydifferent shyscaling shyproperties

The shy SLEIPNER shy statistical shy package shy for shy carrying shy out shy person-oriented shy analyses shy is shy shyintroduced shyin shychapter shy8 shyIt shyis shywritten shyin shyFortran77 shyand shyruns shyon shya shyPC shyThe shypackage shycan shybe shydownloaded shyfrom shythe shyNet

In shychapter shy9 shyresults shyfrom shyempirical shyresearch shyare shyreported shyin shywhich shythe shyperson-oriented shymethods shypresented shyin shythis shyvolume shyhave shybeen shyapplied shyIt shydeals shywith shychildren=s shyadjustment shyto shyschool shyseen shyfrom shythe shyperspective shyof shypatterns shyof shybad shyand shygood shyadjustment shyin shya shynumber shyof shyimportant shyareas shyas shyjudged shyby shythe shyteachers shyThe shychildren shyare shystudied shyat shyage shy10 shyand shyagain shyat shyage shy13 shyregarding shystability shyand shychange

Finally shy in shychapter shy10 shyconclusions shyand shyguidelines shyfor shyfuture shydevelopments shyare shygiven shyHopefully shyby shythen shythe shyambitious shyreader shyis shyready shyto shygo shyon shyto shyanalyzing shyher shyor shyhis shyown shydata shyWe firmly believe that the methods presented provide a solid basis for this if they are applied with shygood shyjudgment shyHowever shyit shymust shybe shyrecognized shythat shyperson-oriented shymethodology shyis shyonly in its first or second generation of methods and that more sophisticated procedures are likely shyto shyevolve shyduring shythe shynext shy10 shyyears

Introduction

We shy warn shy the shy reader shy who shy is shy not shy already shy familiar shy with shy the shy person-oriented shy approach shyagainst shyskipping shychapter shy2 shyand shychapter shy3 shyand shygetting shydirectly shyldquodown shyto shybusinessrdquo shyby shyquickly shylearning shyhow shyto shycarry shyout shyperson-oriented shyanalyses shyIt shyis shyfor shyinstance shyuseful shyto shymore shyfully shyunderstand shythe shyargument shywe shymake shythat shysystems shyfound shyin shynature shyfrequently shyare shycharacterized shyby a few typical attractor states or optimalcritical configurations of values in the variables studied shyand shythat shythese shycan shybe shysearched shyfor shyby shymodern shytypological shymethods shyIn shychapter shy3 shya shynecessary shybackground shyis shygiven shywith shyregard shyto shythe shyprinciples shyof shythe shymethods shyand shyessential shymeasurement shycharacteristics shyIn shyour shyexperience shyproblems shytend shyto shyarise shywhen shya shyresearcher shystarting shy from shy an shy essentially shy variable-oriented shy theoretical shy perspective shy tries shy to shy carry shy out shy shyperson-oriented shystatistical shyanalyses shythis shyis shydiscussed shyat shysome shylength shyin shychapter shy10

We shylook shyforward shyto shytaking shyyou shythe shyreader shyon shythis shyjourney shythrough shythe shyperson-oriented shylandscape and hope that you find it as exciting as we do We hope you will come to share our shyconviction shythat shywe shymust shybring shyback shyldquothe shypersonrdquo shyinto shyquantitative shyresearch shyand shythat shythe shyapproach shypresented shyin shythis shybook shywill shybe shyhelpful shyto shyachieve shythis shypurpose

Chapter 2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

1 shyINTRODUCTION

The shyfocus shyof shythis shyvolume shyis shymethodological shyissues shyin shyresearch shyon shyindividual shydevelopmental shyprocesses shyA shynecessary shyprerequisite shyfor shythe shychoice shyof shyappropriate shymethods shyfor shytreatment shyof shydata shyin shyempirical shyresearch shyon shyindividual shydevelopment shyis shya shystrong shylink shybetween shythe shymeth-odology shyapplied shyfor shyelucidation shyof shythe shyproblem shyfocused shyon shyon shyone shyhand shyand shythe shycharacter shyof shythe shystructures shyand shyprocesses shybeing shyinvestigated shyon shythe shyother shyhand shyThe shyappropriate shylink shybetween shy phenomena shy under shy investigation shy and shy the shy methods shy applied shy for shy treatment shy of shy data shyimplies shythat shythe shystatistical shymodel shymust shymatch shythe shypsychological shymodel shyfor shythe shyphenomena shyunder shyconsideration shyThe shyappropriateness shyand shyeffectiveness shyof shythe shystatistical shymodel shyapplied shyfor the study of a specific problem depends on how well the properties of the psychological model are reflected in the statistical model

An shyexample shythat shyillustrates shythe shyissue shycan shybe shydrawn shyfrom shymodels shyin shytraditional shyvariable shyoriented shyresearch shyfor shythe shyanalysis shyof shythe shyrelation shybetween shylatent shyaggressive shydispositions shyin shyindividuals shyon shyone shyhand shyand shymanifest shyaggressive shybehavior shyon shythe shyother shyhand shy(Magnusson shy1976) shyThe shymost shyfrequently shyused shystatistical shymethods shyfor shyanalyses shyof shythe shyrelations shybetween shyvariables in personality and developmental research would assume in this specific case a linear shyrelationship shybetween shylatent shyaggressiveness shyand shyaggressive shybehavior shyas shyillustrated shyin shyFig shy21a shySuch shystatistical shymodels shymatch shyand shyare shyappropriate shyfor shythe shystudy shyof shythe shyproblem shywith shy reference shy to shy a shy psychological shy model shy which shy assumes shy that shy the shy stronger shy the shy latent shy shydisposition shythe shystronger shythe shymanifestation shyin shyactual shyaggressive shybehavior shyalong shythe shywhole shyrange shyof shythe shylatent shydisposition shyThe shylinear shystatistical shymodel shydoes shynot shyhowever shymatch shya shypsy-chodynamic shymodel shyfor shythe shyrelation shybetween shylatent shyaggressiveness shyand shymanifest shyaggressive shybehavior shyA shypsychodynamic shymodel shymakes shythe shyfollowing shyassumption shyFor shylow shyto shymedium shy shyaggressiveness shy there shy is shy a shy monotonic shy positive shy relation shy implying shy that shy the shy stronger shy the shyindividualrsquos shylatent shydisposition shythe shystronger shyhis shyor shyher shyaggressive shybehavior shywill shybe shyWhen shylatent shyaggressiveness shybecomes shyvery shystrong shythe shyaggressive shyimpulses shyare shyrepressed shyand shythe shyaggressive shybehavior shybecomes shyinhibited shyThe shystronger shythe shyaggressive shyimpulses shythe shystronger shythe shydefense shymechanisms shyand shythe shypsychological shymodel shyfor shythe shyrelation shywill shytake shythe shyform shyshown shyin shyFig shy21b shyThe shyconclusion shyessential shyfor shyour shyreasoning shyhere shyis shythat shythe shystatistical shylinear shymodel shyis shyeffective shyfor shyelucidation shyof shythe shyrelation shybetween shylatent shyaggressive shydisposi-tions shyand shymanifest shyaggressive shybehavior shyonly shyif shythe shypsychological shymodel shyshown shyin shyFig shy21a shyis shyvalid shybut shynot shyfor shythe shyempirical shyanalysis shyof shydata shywith shyreference shyto shythe shypsychological shymodel shyshown shyin shyFig shy21b

Thus in order to reach the scientific goal of empirical research the choice of the appropriate and effective methodology in each specific case must (a) be based on careful analysis shyof shythe shyphenomena shyunder shyinvestigation shyand shy(b) shymade shywith shyreference shyto shyan shyappropriate shytheoretical shypsychological shyframe shyof shyreference shyfor shythe shyphenomena

In shya shyrecent shyarticle shyHarreacute shy(2000) shysummarized shyhis shyevaluation shyof shythe shypresent shystate shyof shythe shyart shyin shypsychology shyin shythe shyfollowing shyformulation shythat shyhas shya shybearing shyon shythe shydiscussion shyhere

Theoretical framework

It has been about 30 years since the first rumblings of discontent with the state of academic shypsychology shybegan shyto shybe shyheard shyThen shyas shynow shydissident shyvoices shywere shymore shyaudible shyin shyEurope shythan shyin shythe shyUnited shyStates shyIt shyis shya shyremarkable shyfeature shyof shymainstream shyacademic shy psychology shy that shy alone shy among shy the shy sciences shy it shy should shy be shy almost shy wholly shyimmune shyto shycritical shyappraisal shyas shyan shyenterprise shyMethods shythat shyhave shylong shyshown shyto shybe shyineffective shy or shy worse shy are shy still shy used shy on shy a shy routine shy basis shy by shy hundreds shy perhaps shy thou-sands shyof shypeople shyConceptual shymuddles shy long shyexposed shy to shyview shyare shyevident shy in shyalmost shyevery shyissue shyof shystandard shypsychological shyjournals shyThis shyis shya shycurious shystate shyof shyaffairs shyNew shy shypathways shy and shy more shy realistic shy paradigms shy of shy research shy have shy been shy proposed shy demon-strated shyand shyignoredhellip

FIG shy21 shyThe shyassumed shyfunction shyof shyactual shyaggressive shybehavior shyon shylatent shyaggressiveness shyfor shy(a) shythe shytrait shymeasurement shymodel shyand shy(b) shythe shypsychodynamic shymeasurement shymodel shy(From shyMagnusson shy1976)

The natural sciences have achieved their enormous success by the adoption of schemata through which the indeterminate world around us can be made to disclose some of its features (p 10)

The shyextent shy to shywhich shy the shycritical shy evaluation shyby shyHarreacute shy (2000) shy is shy relevant shyvaries shyacross shy shypsychological shysubdisciplines shyRegardless shyfor shyus shyas shydevelopmentalists shythere shyare shyreasons shyto shytake this critical evaluation seriously it hits a critical point also for research in that field Too shyoften shy developmental shy research shy is shy caught shy in shy the shyprison shyof shy piecemeal shy theories shy andor shysophisticated shy statistical shymodels shy and shy methods shy without shy the shy necessary shy reference shy to shy proper shyanalysis shyof shythe shyphenomena shyat shythe shyappropriate shylevel shy(see shyCairns shy1986 shyCairns shyamp shyRodkin shy1998 shyMagnusson shy1992 shy2001 shySoumlrensen shy1998)

The shy remedy shyof shy this shy situation shy is shy the shy acceptance shyand shyapplication shyof shy research shy strategies shyin which empirical studies on specific developmental issues are planned implemented and shyinterpreted shywith shyexplicit shyreference shyto shyan shyoverriding shycommon shytheoretical shyframework shyOnly in this way can results from studies on specific issues contribute to the synthesis


of shyknowledge shythat shyis shynecessary shyfor shyreal shyunderstanding shyof shydevelopmental shyprocesses shyWith shy shyreference shyto shythese shypropositions shythe shyaim shyof shythis shychapter shyis shyto shypresent shythe shymain shycharacteristics shyof shythe shyholistic-interactionistic shyperspective shyon shyindividual shydevelopmental shyprocesses

The shyholistic-interactionistic shyperspective shyhas shyformed shyand shyforms shythe shytheoretical shyframework shyof shythe planning and implementation of studies on specific issues in the longitudinal research pro-gram shyIndividual shyDevelopment shyand shyAdaptation shy(IDA) shyat shythe shyStockholm shyLaboratory shyfor shyDevel-opmental shyScience shyThe shyprogram shywas shyinitiated shyin shy1964 shyby shythe shysecond shyauthor shyof shythis shyvolume shyDavid Magnusson and is led by the first author Lars Bergman since 1996 Overviews and discussions shyof shythe shytheoretical shyperspective shyand shyits shyresearch shystrategy shyimplications shyfor shythe shyprogram shyhave shybeen shypresented shyelsewhere shy(see shyeg shyBergman shyamp shyMagnusson shy1997 shyMagnusson shy1985 shy1988 shy1995 shy1998b shy1999a shy1999b shy2000 shyMagnusson shyamp shyAllen shy1983b shyMagnusson shyamp shyStattin shy1998 shyStattin shyamp shyMagnusson shy1996) shyThese shyarticles shyalso shyserve shyas shysources shyof shyrelevant shyreferences shyon each specific issue dealt with in this chapter (On some issues references to these sources are given in the text) The theoretical framework briefly summarized here has also guided the development shyand shyapplication shyof shyappropriate shymethodological shytools shyThe shymethodological shyimpli-cations shyof shythe shyholistic-interactionistic shyperspective shyhave shybeen shydiscussed shyat shylength shyin shyother shycon-nections shy(see shyBergman shy1988a shy1988b shy1993 shy1995 shy1998 shyin shypress shyBergman shyamp shyMagnusson shy1983 shy1987 shy1990 shyBergman shyEklund shyamp shyMagnusson shy1991 shyMagnusson shy1988 shy1993 shy1998a shyMagnusson shyamp shyAllen shy1983a shyMagnusson shyamp shyBergman shy1988 shy1990) shyChapters shy3 shythrough shy10 shyof shythis shyvolume shyare shydevoted shyto shymore shydetailed shypresentations shyand shydiscussions shyof shythis shyissue

2 shyA shyHOLISTIC-INTERACTIONISTIC shyPERSPECTIVE

The shymain shygoal shyof shythe shylongitudinal shyIDA shyresearch shyprogram shyis shyto shycontribute shyto shyunderstanding shyand shyexplaining shythe shyprocesses shyunderlying shyindividual shydevelopment shyTwo shyba-sic shypropositions shyof shythe shytheoretical shyapproach shyto shythat shygoal shyhave shyguided shythe shyplanning shyand shyimplementation shyof shythe shyIDA shyprogram shy(1) shyAn shyindividual shyfunctions shyand shydevelops shyas shya shytotal shyintegrated shyorganism shyand shy(2) shy the shy individual shydevelops shyas shyan shyactive shyparticipant shy in shyan shy integrated shyperson-environment shysystem shyof shyhigher shyorder

These shy propositions shy form shy together shy the shy main shy basis shy for shy the shy holistic shy view shy on shy individual shyfunctioning shy and shy development shy in shy which shy the shy individual shy is shy the shy organizing shy principle shy for shy shypsychological shyinquiry

The shy historical shy roots shy of shy the shy modern shy view shy of shy the shy individual shy as shy an shy integrated shy undivided shy organism was discussed by Magnusson (1999a) In research it is most strongly reflected in the struggle shybetween shyan shyidiographic shyand shya shynomothetic shyapproach shyand shyin shythe shydispute shyover shya shyclinical shyversus a statistical model in the study of individual differences The holistic view reflected in typological approaches to individual differences has been and still is influential in clinical practice shyand shypsychiatric shydiagnoses shy(The shytypological shyview shyis shydiscussed shyin shychapter shy3)

For a long time the holistic view was considered too vague and lacking in specific shycontent shy to shy serve shy as shy the shy basis shy for shy strong shy theories shy for shy understanding shy and shy explaining shy indi-vidual shyfunctioning shyand shydevelopment shyDuring shythe shylast shy30 shyyears shyhowever shythe shyholistic shymodel shyhas been enriched and now forms a solid scientific basis for planning implementation and interpretation of empirical studies on specific aspects of individual functioning and shydevelopment shy This shy situation shy is shy the shy result shy of shy development shy with shy respect shy to shy both shy content shy shytheory shyand shymethodology shy(For shyan shyoverview shysee shyMagnusson shy1999a)


The shy substantive shy contributions shy come shy from shy psychological shy research shy on shy cognitive shy and shy shynoncognitive shymental shy factors shyand shybehavior shyand shyfrom shybiological shyand shymedical shy research shyon shythe shyfunctioning shyof shythe shybrain shyand shythe shyrole shyof shyphysiological shyaspects shyof shythe shytotal shyfunctioning shyof shyindividuals shyA shycentral shyfeature shyof shya shyholistic shymodel shyis shythe shyintegration shyof shymental shybehavioral shyand shybiological shyaspects shyfor shyunderstanding shythe shyfunctioning shyand shydevelopment shyof shythe shyindividual shyThe shyapplication shyin shyempirical shyresearch shyon shyindividual shydevelopment shyof shyan shyintegrated shycoherent shytheoretical shy framework shy contributes shy to shy bridging shy the shy gap shy between shy mental shy behavioral shy and shybiological models which has been and still is to some extent an obstacle for real scientific progress

Important shy contributions shy to shy the shy effectiveness shy of shy a shy holistic shy model shy as shy a shy theoretical shy framework for empirical research on specific phenomena derives from the presentation of modern shymodels shyfor shydynamic shycomplex shyprocesses shyparticularly shythe shygeneral shysystems shytheory shy(see shy eg shy Thelen shy amp shy Smith shy 1998 shy Urban shy 1979) shy In shy natural shy science shy disciplines shy which shyare shyconcerned shywith shymultidetermined shystochastic shyprocesses shysuch shyas shymeteorology shybiology shy shychemistry shyecology shyand shyothers shysuch shymodels shyhave shyhad shyan shyalmost shyrevolutionary shyimpact shyon shyboth shytheory shybuilding shyand shyempirical shyresearch shyduring shyrecent shydecades

Also shyindividual shydevelopment shycan shybe shydescribed shyin shyterms shyof shydynamic shycomplex shyprocesses shyThis shymakes shythe shymodern shymodels shyfor shysuch shyprocesses shyto shysome shyextent shyapplicable shyalso shyin shytheory shybuilding shyand shyempirical shyresearch shyin shypsychology shyBefore shysuch shyap-plication shyis shyconsidered shyit shyis shyhowever shyessential shyto shyhave shyin shymind shythat shyindividual shydevelopmental shyprocesses shyare shynot shyonly shydynamic shyand shycomplex shythey shyare shyalso shyadaptive shy(see shyeg shyLerner shy1984) shyThe shycentral shyrole shyof shypotentialities shyand shylimits shywith shyrespect shyto shyadaptive shyability shywas shydiscussed shyfor shyearly shysocialization shyprocesses shyby shyCairns shy(1979) shyfor shyaging shyprocesses shyby shyBaltes shyLindenberger shyand shyStaudinger shy(1998) shy and shy for shy positive shy development shy by shy Magnusson shy and shy Mahoney shy (2002) shy In shy contrast shyto traditional models often identified under the umbrella heading of contextual models the shymodern shyholistic-interactionistic shyview shyis shynot shyrestricted shyto shythe shyindividualrsquos shyadaptation shyto shychanging shyphysical shyand shysocial shyenvironmental shyconditions shyAccording shyto shythe shymodern shyview shythe shyinternal shyperson-bound shymental shybehavioral shyand shybiological shyfactors shyare shyalso shyinvolved shyin shythe shyongoing shyindividual shyadaptation shyprocess

The shystrong shyrole shyplayed shyby shyadaptive shyability shyin shycombination shywith shyintentionality shyin shythe shyindi-vidualrsquos shyinteraction shywith shyhis shyor shyher shyenvironment shyrestricts shythe shyapplicability shyin shypsychological shyresearch shy of shy the shy mathematical shy models shy that shy have shy been shy developed shy and shy applied shy in shy natural shy shysciences shy However shy the shy general shy models shy have shy helped shy to shy draw shy attention shy to shy the shy following shyimportant shy characteristic shy features shy of shy a shy multidetermined shy stochastic shy process shy that shy are shy also shyimportant shyfor shyunderstanding shythe shycomplex shydynamic shyand shyadaptive shyprocesses shyof shyindividual shydevelopment

bull shy shy A shybasic shyelement shyof shythe shymodern shymodels shyis shytheir shyemphasis shyon shyprocesses shyPsychological shyresearch shyin shygeneral shyis shymostly shyconcerned shywith shythe shyrelation shybetween shycausal shyfactors shyand shyoutcomes This characteristic is reflected in the most frequent designs with the focus on shythe shyrelation shybetween shypredictor shyand shycriteria shyand shybetween shyindependent shyand shydepen-dent shyvariables shyHigh shyprediction shyis shyregarded shyas shyan shyimportant shygoal shyof shyempirical shyresearch shyand the criterion for scientific success The new models draw attention to the process shycharacter shyof shythe shylife shycourse shyrather shythan shyto shythe shyoutcomes shyof shydevelopmental shyprocesses


bull shy shy Applied shyin shypsychological shyresearch shythe shymodels shyalso shyemphasize shythe shyholistic-interaction-istic shyintegrated shynature shyof shydevelopmental shyprocesses shyThe shyholistic shyprinciple shyholds shyfor shyall shysystems shyof shyinterest shyin shyresearch shyon shyhuman shyontogeny shyregardless shyof shythe shylevel shyat shywhich shythe shysystem shyis shyoperating shyIt shyholds shyfor shythe shymental shybehavioral shyand shybiological shyprocesses shyof shyindividuals shyas shywell shyas shyfor shythe shyindividual shyas shyan shyactive shypartner shyin shyhis shyor shyher shyintegrated shyperson-environment shysystem shyIt shyalso shyholds shyfor shythe shyenvironment shyand shyits shysubsystems shysuch shyas shythe shypeer shysystem shyamong shyyoungsters shyor shythe shyfamily shysystem shyFor shyexample shythe shyholistic shyperspective shyformed shythe shyfruitful shyframework shyfor shyanalysis shyand shydiscussion shyof shysocial shy shydevelopment shyby shyCairns shy(1979) shyCentral shyaspects shyof shya shyholistic shyview shywere shydiscussed shyby shyKitchener shy(1982) shywith shyreference shyto shyan shyorganismic shymodel

bull shy shy The shymodels shyemphasize shythe shyholistic shyand shyinteractive shyoften shynonlinear shynature shyof shydynamic shycomplex shyprocesses shyA shycentral shyprinciple shyin shythe shyfunctioning shyand shydevelopment shyof shyall shy shyliving shyorganisms shyis shythe shyprinciple shyof shydynamic shyinteraction shyas shyemphasized shyby shythe shybiologist shyMayr shy(1997) shyIt shyis shyalso shya shybasic shyprinciple shyof shya shyholistic shyview shyon shyindividual shydevelopment shy(Thomae shy1979) shyDynamic shyinteraction shyamong shyfactors shyinvolved shyin shydynamic shycomplex shyprocesses shyis shysomething shydifferent shyfrom shyand shyshould shybe shydistinguished shyfrom shystatistical shyinteraction shyin shydata shywithin shyan shyexperimental shydesign shyThe shymodels shyfor shydynamic shycomplex shyprocesses shyprovide shya shytheoretical shyframework shyfor shyinvestigating shyand shyunderstanding shythe shydynamic shyprocesses shyof shyinteraction shyof shyoperating shyfactors shywithin shythe shyindividual shyand shythe shycontinuous shyreciprocal shyinteraction shybetween shythe shyindividual shyand shyhis shyor shyher shyenvironment shyin shythe shyperson-environment shysystem shywithin shya shysingle shyintegrated shyperspective

bull shy shy Traditional shydevelopmental shyresearch shyis shyoverwhelmingly shyfocused shyon shythe shystudy shyof shy shyvariables shyand shytheir shyinterrelations shyEmphasizing shythe shyholistic shyinteractive shycharacter shyof shythe processes the modern models confirm and provide a theoretical basis for the old proposition that a particular variablersquos psychological significance for the functioning of shyan shyindividual shycannot shybe shyunderstood shyby shystudying shyit shyin shyisolation shyout shyof shyits shycontext shywith shyother shysimultaneously shyoperating shyvariables shyin shythe shyindividual shyThis shyproposition shyforms shythe shybasis shyfor shyconclusions shythat shyare shyfundamental shyfor shyplanning shyimplementing shyand shy interpreting of studies on specific developmental issues

shy In shynatural shysciences shythe shyformulation shyof shythe shynew shymodels shyhas shyinitiated shya shystrong shymeth-odological shydevelopment shyFor shyfurther shyreal shyprogress shyto shybe shyachieved shyin shypsychological shyresearch shyit shyis shyimportant shythat shywithout shyslavishly shycopying shythese shymethods shywe shyrecognize shythis shydevelop-ment shyand shycreate shymethodological shytools shythat shyare shyappropriate shyto shythe shynature shyof shythe shypsychological shyphenomena shythat shyare shyour shymain shyconcern shyThis shyimplies shyamong shyother shythings shyconsideration shyto shythe shyimportant shyfacts shy(a) shythat shydevelopmental shyprocesses shyare shynot shyonly shydynamic shyand shycomplex shybut shyalso shyadaptive shyand shy(b) shythat shythe shyindividual shyin shyinteraction shywith shythe shyenvironment shyis shyan shyinten-tional shyactive shyagent

3 shyA shyMODERN shyHOLISTIC-INTERACTIONISTIC shyVIEW

From shythe shyperspective shyjust shypresented shya shymodern shyholistic shyview shyemphasizes shyan shyapproach shyto shythe shyindividual shyas shyan shyorganized shywhole shyfunctioning shyin shya shydynamic shyadaptation shyprocess shyas shyan shyactive shyelement shyof shyan shyintegrated shyperson-environment shysystem shyAt shyeach shylevel shythe shytotality


hellipgets its characteristic features and properties from the interaction among the elements involved not from the effect of each isolated part on the totalityhellip Each aspect of the structures and processes that are operating (perceptions plans values goals motives biological factors conduct etc) takes on meaning from the role it plays in the total functioning of the individual The whole picture has an information value beyond what is contained in the separate parts This implies that the individual as a whole must be considered as the framework for planning implementing and interpreting empirical research on specific aspects of individual functioning in both a current perspective and a developmental perspective (Magnusson 10 p 1)

From shya shydevelopmental shyperspective shy the shyfunctioning shyof shyan shy individual shy in shya shycertain shy type shyof shysituation shychanges shyacross shytime shyas shya shyresult shyof shydevelopmental shyprocesses shyin shythe shyindividual shyand shyof shychanges shyin shythe shyperson-environment shysystem shyWithin shythe shyframework shyset shyby shyconstitutional shyfactors shy(inherited shyor shynot) shymental shybehavioral shyand shybiological shyaspects shyof shyan shyindividualrsquos shyway shyof shyfunctioning shychange shyover shytime shyas shya shyresult shyof shybiological shymaturation shyand shyof shylearning shyand shyexperience shyin shya shybroad shysense shyThe shyperson-environment shysystem shyof shywhich shythe shyindividual shyis shyan shyactive shyelement shychanges shyalso shyacross shytime shypartly shyas shya shyresult shyof shyfactors shyin shythe shyindividualrsquos shyown shyproximal shyand shydistal shyenvironment shyand shypartly shyas shya shyresult shyof shythe shyindividualrsquos shyown shyactions shyfor shyexample shyby shychoice shyof shynew shyjobs shya shynew shypartner shyor shymoving shyto shyanother shyplace shyThis shymeans shythat shyover shytime shythe shyindividual shydevelopmental shyprocess shyis shydriven shyby shya shynested shysystem shyof shymental shybiological shyand shybehavioral shyfactors shyin shythe shyindividual shyand shysocial shycultural shyand shyphysical shyfactors shyin shythe shyenvironment shy(see shyeg shyLerner shy1991 shyMagnusson shyamp shyStattin shy1998)

31 shyTHE shyROLE shyOF shyTHE shyHOLISTIC shyPERSPECTIVE shyIN shyDEVELOPMENTAL shyRESEARCH

At first sight the claim for a holistic perspective in psychological research may seem shyobvious shyeven shytrivial shyResearchers shyhave shyargued shyeven shyquite shyrecently shythat shyit shyis shytoo shygeneral shyto serve meaningful purposes in scientific analyses of psychological phenomena This argument demands a clarification of what a holistic model for the study of developmental processes shyis shyand shywhat shyit shyis shynot

A shyholistic shytheoretical shyframework shyfor shyresearch shyon shyindividuals shyserves shytwo shyoverriding shyand shyinterrelated purposes first it provides a common conceptual space for communication between researchers working in different subfields second it means that the principles and mechanisms shyunderlying shythe shyprocesses shythat shyare shythe shymain shytarget shyof shyour shyempirical shyanalyses shycan shybe shyinvestigated shyin shydetail shywithin shya shycommon shytheoretical shyframework shyIn shynatural shysciences shythe shyacceptance shyand shyapplication shyof shya shygeneral shymodel shyof shynature shyhas shyserved shythese shytwo shypurposes shyand shyhave been one of the basic conditions for success in these fields

By shy offering shy a shy common shy theoretical shy framework shy for shy the shy planning shy implementation shy and shyinterpretation of empirical studies on specific aspects of individual development a holistic model makes it possible to amalgamate results from different subfields A synthesis shy of shy shyknowledge shyabout shydifferent shyaspects shyof shydevelopmental shyprocesses shyis shyneeded shyin shyorder shyto shyovercome shythe fragmentation of research into subfields without integration that has hampered and still hampers to some extent real scientific progress (Kagan 2000 Magnusson 1999b)

In shyorder shyto shyavoid shymisinterpretation shyof shywhat shywe shyhave shyjust shysaid shya shyfew shycomments shymay shybe shypertinent

10 Studying individual development in an interindividual context

As shywas shysaid shyearlier shythe shyholistic shyview shyserves shyas shythe shytheoretical shyframework shyfor shyplanning shyimplementation and interpretation of studies on specific problems The role and func-tioning of a holistic model is not to offer a specific hypothesis or an explanation for all problems shy In shy natural shy sciences shy the shy Newtonian shy general shy model shy of shy na-ture shy did shy not shy answer shyall shyquestions shyabout shythe shystructure shyand shyfunctioning shyof shythe shyphysical shyworld shyFurthermore shythe shy shyholistic shyintegrated shymodel shyfor shyindividual shyfunctioning shyand shyindividual shydevelopment shydoes shynot shyimply shythat shythe shyentire shysystem shyof shyan shyindividual shymust shybe shystudied shyin shyevery shyresearch shyendeavor shyThe shyapplication shyof shya shycommon shymodel shyof shynature shyfor shyresearch shyin shynatural shysciences shynever shyimplied shythat shythe shywhole shyuniverse shyshould shybe shyinvestigated shyin shyevery shystudy shy(Magnusson shy1998a)

311 Conclusion

Thus in order to understand and explain the specific aspects of the processes underlying individual shydevelopment shywe shyneed shya shygeneral shymodel shythat shyincorporates shymental shybehavioral shyand shybiological shyfactors shyin shythe shyindividual shyas shywell shyas shysocial shycultural shyand shyphysical shyfactors shyin shythe shyenvi-ronment shyinto shyone shyintegrated shytheoretical shyframework shythat shyis shywe shyneed shyto shyapply shya shyholistic shymodel shyIn shyorder shyto shyfunction shyeffectively shyas shya shytheoretical shyframework shyfor shyplanning shyimplementation shyand shyinterpretation of studies on specific developmental issues a holistic model has to go beyond the shycontent shyarea shyof shytraditional shydevelopmental shypsychology shyAn shyeffective shyholistic shymodel shymust shybuild shyon shyand shyincorporate shyknowledge shynot shyonly shyfrom shydifferent shysubareas shyof shydevelopmental shypsy-chology shybut shyalso shyfrom shyall shythose shydisciplines shythat shyare shyconcerned shywith shydifferent shyaspects shyof shyindivid-ual shydevelopmental shyprocesses shydevelopmental shybiology shyneuroscience shypharmacology shysociology shyanthropology shyand shyother shyrelated shydisciplines

This conclusion has led to the establishment of a new scientific discipline Developmental Science shyThis shyscience shyis shybuilt shyon shythe shybasic shyproposition shythat shythe shydifferent shyelements shyof shythe shyinte-grated developmental processes form their own specific domain of content in the interface of behavioral shybiological shymedical shyand shysocial shysciences shy(Cairns shy2000 shyCairns shyElder shyamp shyCostello shy1996 shy Magnusson shy 1996 shy 2000 shy Magnusson shy amp shy Cairns shy 1996) shy Effective shy research shy on shy issues shywithin shythis shydomain shyrequires shyits shyown shytheoretical shyframework shymeasurement shymodels shymodels shyand shymethods shyfor shydata shytreatment shyand shyresearch shystrategies shyThey shyfollow shyas shya shyconsequence shyof shya shyholis-tic shyperspective shyon shydevelopmental shyphenomena shyIf shytaken shyseriously shyacceptance shyand shyapplication shyof shythis shynew shydiscipline shywill shycontribute shyboth shyto shymore shyinsightful shyformulation shyof shyproblems shyto shybe shyempirically shyinvestigated shyas shywell shyas shyto shythe shyapplication shyof shymethodological shytools shyand shyresearch shystrategies shythat shyare shyappropriate shywith shyreference shyto shythe shycharacter shyof shythe shyphenomena shythat shyis shyto shymore shysolid shyempirical shyresearch shyon shydevelopmental shyphenomena shyAn shyobstacle shyto shysuch shya shypositive shyconse-quence shyof shythe shyconcept shyof shydevelopmental shyscience shyis shythe shymisunderstanding shyof shyit shyas shya shysynonym shyfor shydevelopmental shypsychology shyAs shyalready shyemphasized shydevelopmental shyscience shygoes shybeyond shytraditional shyboundaries shyof shypsychological shysubdisciplines

32 shyINTERINDIVIDUAL shyDIFFERENCES shyFROM shyA shyHOLISTIC shyPERSPECTIVE

A shyfundamental shycondition shyto shybe shyrecognized shyin shyour shysearch shyfor shygeneralizations shyabout shyindividuals shyis shythe shyfact shythat shyall shyindividuals shydo shynot shyfunction shyand shydevelop shyin shythe shysame shyway shyThis shyraises shybasic shyquestions shyfor shydevelopmental shyresearch shyIn shywhat shyrespects shyand shyhow shyare shyindividuals shysimilar shyand shyin shywhat shyrespects shyand shyhow shyare shythey shydifferent shyAn shyadequate shyanswer shyto shythese shyquestions shyis shya shynecessary shy

Theoretical framework 11

condition shyfor shycorrect shygeneralizations shyabout shyprinciples shyand shymechanisms shyunderlying shyand shyguiding shydevelopmental shyprocesses shyin shyindividuals shyTwo shyaspects shyof shyindividual shydifferences shyare shyof shyspecial shyinterest shyfor shythe shychoice shyof shyan shyappropriate shyresearch shystrategy shyand shyfor shythe shyapplication shyof shyeffective shymethodological shytools shyin shydevelopmental shyresearch shy(1) shyIndividual shydifferences shyin shythe shyorganization shyof shyoperating shy factors shy in shy a shy current shy and shy in shy a shydevelopmental shyperspective shy respectively shy and shy (2) shy shyindividual shydifferences shyin shybiological shyand shypsychological shytiming shyof shythese shyprocesses

321 Individual Differences in the Organization of Operating Factors

In shy an shy earlier shy section shy we shy claimed shy that shy the shy holistic shy view shy now shy offers shy a shy theoretical shy basis shy for shy planning implementation and interpretation of empirical studies on specific developmental issues Within this framework developmental processes are accessible to systematic scientific inquiry shyThe shybasis shyfor shythis shyproposition shyis shythat shythese shyprocesses shyare shynot shyrandom shythey shyoccur shyin shya specific way within organized structures and are guided by specific psychological and shybiological shyprinciples shy(Magnusson shy1999a)

Organization shyis shya shycharacteristic shyfeature shyof shyindividual shystructures shyand shyprocesses shyat shyall shylevels shyit shyis shya shycharacteristic shyof shymental shystructures shyand shyprocesses shyof shybehavior shyof shybiological shystructures shyand shy processes shy and shy of shy the shy functioning shy and shy development shy of shy the shy integrated shy individual shy The shy shycircumstance shythat shystructures shyand shyprocesses shyare shyorganized shyinto shyan shyintegrated shyhierarchical shysys-tem shy is shy a shy prerequisite shy for shy the shy functioning shyof shy the shyorganism shyas shy an shy adaptive shy system shy currently shyand shyover shytime shyIndividual shydevelopment shyimplies shycontinuous shytransformation shyand shychange shyin shythe shy shyorganization shyof shymental shybehavioral shyand shybiological shystructures shyand shyprocesses

The shyprocess shyof shydevelopmental shyorganization shythat shytakes shyits shystart shyat shyconception shyis shyguided shyby shythe shyprinciple shyof shyself-organization shy(see shyeg shyThelen shy1989) shySelf-organizing shyability shyis shya shycharac-teristic shyof shyopen shysystems shyand shyrefers shyto shya shyprocess shyby shywhich shynew shystructures shyemerge shyfrom shyexist-ing shyones shyWithin shysubsystems shythe shyoperating shycomponents shyorganize shythemselves shyto shymaximize shythe shyfunctioning shyof shythat shysubsystem shywith shyrespect shyto shyits shypurpose shyin shythe shytotal shysystem shyAt shya shyhigher shylevel shysubsystems organize themselves in order to fulfill their role in the functioning of the totality

Within a specific system say the cardiovascular system each of the operating factors (eg shy systolic shyblood shypressure shydiastolic shyblood shypressure shyand shyheart shy rate) shydo shynot shy function shyand shydevelop independently of each other The specific role of each operating factor is determined by shythe shyrole shyit shyplays shyin shythe shysystem shyThe shyoperating shyfactors shyare shyorganized shyand shyfunction shyin shyterms shyof functional configurations in what will be referred to in the following text as patterns shyThis shyimplies shyamong shyother shythings shythat shythe shyimportant shyindividual shydifferences shyare shyto shybe shyfound shyin shydif-ferences shyin shythe shypatterning shyof shyoperating shyfactors shyin shythe shysystem shyunder shyinvestigation shyOrganization shyin shyterms shyof shypatterns shyis shynot shyrestricted shyto shythe shyfunctioning shyand shydevelopment shyof shyeach shysubsystem shyAlso shysubsystems shyare shyorganized shyin shysystems shyof shyhigher shyorder shythat shyis shysubsystems shyfunction shyand shydevelop shyinterdependently shyNot shyin shya shymechanistic shyway shybut shyrather shyas shyemphasized shyin shya shyholistic- shyinteractionistic shyperspective shyin shyterms shyof shyprocesses shythat shyare shyeffective shyfor shythe shyfunctioning shyof shythe shyindividual shyas shyan shyintegrated shyorganism

Thus shythe shyimportant shyinformation shyabout shyan shyindividual shyis shyin shythe shyspecial shyorganization shyin shyterms shyof shypatterns shyof shyoperating shymental shybiological shyand shybehavioral shyfactors shyat shyall shylevels shyof shyindividual shyfunc-tioning shyWithin shysubsystems shyindividuals shymay shydiffer shyin shythe shyway shyin shywhich shyoperational shyfactors shyare shyorganized shyand shyfunction shyIndividuals shymay shyalso shydiffer shyin shythe shyways shysubsystems shyare shyorganized shyand shyfunction shyThese shyorganizations shycan shybe shydescribed shyin shyterms shyof shypatterns shyof shyoperating shyfactors shywithin shy


subsystems shyand shyin shyterms shyof shypatterns shyof shyfunctioning shyinterrelated shysubsystems shywithin shythe shyindi-vidual shyAs shya shyconsequence shyfor shyempirical shydevelopmental shyresearch shythe shystudy shyof shydevelopmental shychange shyin shyterms shyof shyperson-bound shypatterns shyof shyrelevant shyfactors shybecomes shya shycentral shytask

A shyfundamental shyfeature shyof shythe shyorganization shyof shyoperating shyfactors shyin shythe shyprocesses shyis shythat shythe shynumber shyof shyway shys shyin shywhich shyoperating shyfactors shyin shya shycertain shysubsystem shycan shybe shyorganized shyin shypat-terns shyis shyrestricted shyin shyorder shyto shyallow shythe shysubsystem shyto shyplay shyits shyfunctional shyrole shyin shythe shytotality shyand shythe shynumber shyof shyways shyin shywhich shysubsystems shycan shybe shyorganized shyto shyform shythe shyoverriding shypattern shyfor shythe shyintegrated shyorganism shyis shyalso shyrestricted shy(cf shyGangestad shyamp shySnyder shy1985 shywho shyargued shyfor shythe shyexistence of distinct personality types with reference to shared sources of influence) Only a limited shynumber shyof shystates shyare shyfunctional shyfor shyeach shysubsystem shyand shyfor shythe shytotality

This shyview shyimplies shyamong shyother shythings shythat shycomplex shydynamic shysystems shywhich shycharacterize shyindividuals shyhave shyinherent shyrestrictions shywhich shyimplies shythat shycertain shystates shycannot shyoccur shyso-called shyldquowhite shyspotsrdquo shy(Bergman shyamp shyMagnusson shy1997) shyValsiner shy(1984) shydrew shyattention shyto shythe shyfact shythat shythe shyrange shyof shyan shyindividualrsquos shyactual shybehavior shyconstitutes shyonly shya shyfraction shyof shywhat shyis shytheoretically shypossible The recognition and identification of patterns occurring very seldom or not at all is important for understanding functional systems sometimes even more important than finding typical shydevelopmental shysequences shyWhat shycannot shyoccur shydemarcates shywhat shycan shyoccur shyand shyboth shyaspects shyhave shyto shybe shyaccounted shyfor shyin shysound shytheoretical shyexplanation shyof shysome shyphenomena shyThis shyin shyparticular shymay shybe shythe shycase shyin shyresearch shyon shydeviant shybehaviors shybecause shyit shyis shyat shythe shyboundaries shyof shywhat shycan shyoccur shythat shyldquonormalrdquo shydevelopment shyleaves shythe shytrack shyIndividuals shymay shyhave shysuch shyspecial configurations of values that they do not belong to any of the categories obtained in the pattern analysis Individuals with such profiles may be of special interest in some connections (Bergman shy1988b) shyCicchetti shy(1996) shyalso shyargued shythat shyincorporating shyknowledge shyabout shyatypical shyontogenesis shywould shyenhance shydevelopmental shy theories shyand shyKagan shySnidman shyamp shyArcus shy(1998) shydrew shyattention shyto shythe shyimportance shyof shystudying shyindividuals shywith shyextreme shyvalues shyThis shyissue shywill shybe shyfurther shyelaborated shyin shychapter shy3 shywith shyrespect shyto shyits shymethodological shyimplications

In shyconclusion shythe shydiscussion shyin shythis shysection shyimplies shythat shydevelopmental shyprocesses shytake shyplace shyin shyan shyorganized shyway shyin shyindividuals shywho shyfunction shyand shydevelop shyas shyintegrated shyorganisms shyIn shythe shyearlier shysection shyit shywas shyclaimed shythat shyacross shytime shythese shyprocesses shyare shydriven shyby shya shynested shysystem shyof shymental shybiological shyand shybehavioral shyfactors shyin shythe shyindividual shyand shyfactors shyin shythe shyenvironment shyThese shycharacteristics shyput shystrong shychallenges shyon shyempirical shyanalyses shyof shydevelopmental shyprocesses

322 Individual Differences in Biological Timing

An shy essential shy aspect shy of shy individual shy differences shy with shy far-reaching shy implications shy for shy planning shyimplementation shy and shy interpretation shy of shy empirical shy studies shy is shy differences shy in shy biological shy timing shyof shydevelopmental shyprocesses shythroughout shythe shywhole shylife shyspan shyIndividual shydifferences shyoccur shyin shythis shy timing shywithin shy the shycontext shyof shy the shyfunctioning shyof shy the shy integrated shy individual shywith shyrespect shyto shysomatic shyand shymorphological shycharacteristics shyto shycognitive shyand shynoncognitive shymental shyfactors shyto shyphysical shyand shymental shycapacity shyand shyto shygeneral shycompetence shyin shyhandling shythe shydemands shyof shythe shyenvironment shyand shyso shyforth shySome shyof shythese shyfeatures shyare shyapparent shyand shyimportant shyin shyvery shyearly shyinfancy shyother shyfeatures shyemerge shyand shybecome shyessential shyfor shyindividual shyfunctioning shylater shyin shylife shyin shyadolescence shymaturity shyand shyold shyage

Differences shyin shythe shyrate shyof shybiological shymaturation shyamong shyindividuals shyof shythe shysame shychronological shyage shymay shyhave shyprofound shyconsequences shynot shyonly shyfor shyindividual shydifferences shyin shyvarious shyaspects shy


of shyfunctioning shybut shyalso shywith shyrespect shyto shythe shyway shythe shyenvironment shyreacts shyto shythe shyindividual shySuch shydifferences in developmental timing thereby influence individualsrsquo social relationships as well shyas shytheir shycapacity shyto shymeet shyand shyadapt shyto shyenvironmental shydemands shyand shyto shyuse shyenvironmental shyopportunities shyeffectively shyThese shydifferences shybecome shyparticularly shystriking shyduring shypuberty shyand shyadolescence

An shy illustration shy of shy individual shy differences shy and shy their shy consequences shy for shy the shy individuals shyand shyof shy the shyholistic shyway shy in shywhich shy individuals shy function shyand shydevelop shy is shy the shyeffect shyof shy individ-ual shydifferences shyoccurring shyamong shygirls shy related shy to shy the shychronological shyage shyat shymenarche shy In shy the shyIDA shy program shy a shy strong shy correlation shy was shy found shy between shy the shy age shy of shy menarche shy and shy different shyaspects shyof shynorm-breaking shybehavior shy among shygirls shy at shy the shy age shyof shy14 shy to shy15 shyyears shy (Magnusson shyStattin shyamp shyAllen shy1986 shyStattin shyamp shyMagnusson shy1990) shyFor shyexample shygirls shymaturing shyvery shyearly shyreported shymuch shystronger shyalcohol shyuse shythan shylater shymaturing shygirls shyInterpreted shyin shya shycross-sectional shy shyperspective shythis shyresult shyindicated shythat shya shygroup shyof shygirls shyat shyrisk shyfor shyantisocial shydevelopment shyhad shybeen identified However at the age of 26 to 27 no systematic relation between the age of shymenarche shyand shydrinking shyat shyadult shyage shywas shyobserved shyBut shyvery shyearly shybiological shymaturation shyhad shy far-reaching shy consequences shy for shy education shy family shy own shy children shy job shy status shy and shy so shyforth The effect could not be attributed to early maturation per se it could be identified as shy the shy result shy of shy a shy net shy of shy interrelated shy factors shy particularly shy the shy social shy characteristics shy of shy close shyfriends shy but shy also shy other shy factors shy linked shy to shy biological shy maturation shy such shy as shy self-perception shy and shy shyself-evaluation

Interindividual shydifferences shyin shygrowth shyrate shyhave shyconsequences shyfor shythe shychoice shyof shyappropriate shymethodologies shy and shy research shy strategies shy in shy developmental shy research shy (see shy Bateson shy 1978) shyAn shyillustration shycan shybe shydrawn shyfrom shythe shydevelopmental shycurve shyfor shyweight shyof shythe shythymus shy(Magnusson shy1985) shyThe shytypical shygrowth shycurve shyis shyshown shyin shyFig shy22 shyfor shyfour shyhypothetical shyindividuals shyA shythrough shyD shywho shydiffer shywith shyrespect shyto shythe shyrate shyof shybiological shymaturation shyas shyindicated shyby shythe shy

FIG shy22 shyFictitious shygrowth shycurves shyfor shyfour shyindividuals shyA-D shywith shyrespect shyto shythymus shyweight shy(From shyMagnusson shy1988)


chronological shyage shyat shywhich shythe shygrowth shycurve shyreaches shyits shypeak shy(The shyweight shyof shythe shythymus shyreaches shyits shypeak shyround shy12 shyyears shyof shyage shyand shythen shydeclines shyrather shyrapidly shyto shyabout shyhalf shythat shyweight shyat shyabout shy20 shyyears shyof shyage) shyFor shyvarious shychronological shyages shyFig shy22 shyshows shythe shyrank shyorders shyof shythe shyindividuals shywith shyrespect shyto shythe shyweight shyof shythe shythymus

Thus shyalthough shythe shyrank shyorder shyof shyindividuals shywith shyrespect shyto shythymus shyweight shyvaries shyacross shyages shythere shyis shyregularity shyand shyconsistency shyin shythe shyprocess shyof shygrowth shyand shydecline shyof shythe shygland shyonce shybiological shyage shyinstead shyof shychronological shyage shyis shy taken shyas shy the shyreference shyvariable shyOne shyimplication of this fact is that any cross-sectional matrix of data for variables that reflect or are shyrelated shyto shyindividual shydifferences shyin shybiological shymaturation shywill shycontain shya shycertain shyvariance shymost shyof shythe shytime shyof shyunknown shysize shywhich shyis shydue shyto shysuch shydifferences shyThe shymagnitude shyof shythat shyvariance shyintroduced shyin shythe shymatrix shydepends shyon shythe shykind shyof shyvariables shystudied shyand shywhere shyin shythe shydevelopmental shyprocess shythe shystudy shyis shyperformed shyThe shyeffect shyoccurs shyof shycourse shyindependent shyof shywhether shyindividual shydifferences shyin shygrowth shyrate shyare shymeasured shyor shynot shy(Magnusson shy1993)

Thus shy the shy existence shy of shy individual shy differences shy in shy growth shy rate shy for shy operating shy factors shy in shydevelopmental shy processes shy limits shy the shy applicability shy of shy a shy cross-sectional shy design shy in shy which shychronological shy age shy is shy the shy marker shy of shy maturation shy These shy differences shy may shy affect shy results shy to shyan shyextent shythat shyhas shynot shyalways shybeen shyrecognized shyand shyconsidered shyin shyresearch shyTo shycontrol shyfor shy biological age instead of for chronological age is a remedy only under certain specified conditions shyBiological shyand shychronological shyfactors shyare shynested shyfactors shybecause shythe shyexpression shyof shyindividual shydifferences shyin shygrowth shyrate shyis shysometimes shycounteracted shyby shysocietal shyrules shyroles shyand shyexpectations shythat shyare shybound shyto shychronological shyage shysuch shyas shythe shyage shyfor shybeginning shyand shyending shyof shycompulsory shyschool shyeducation shythe shyage shyfor shycompulsory shymilitary shyservice shyin shysome shycountries shyand shythe shycompulsory shyage shyfor shyretirement

The shymethodological shyconsequences shyof shythe shyexistence shyof shyindividual shydifferences shyin shybiological shymaturation shyare shyessential shyfor shydealing shywith shydevelopmental shyissues shysuch shyas shythe shyfollowing shy(a) shyIn shystudies shyof shythe shystability shyof shysingle shyvariables shyin shyterms shyof shyrank shyorder shystability shy(b) shyin shycross-sectional shystudies shyof shythe shyinterrelations shyamong shyoperating shyperson shyand shyenvironmental shyfactors shyin shya shycurrent shyperspective shy(c) shyin shythe shyapplication shyof shyfactor shyanalysis shyin shyorder shyto shyidentify shybasic shyfactors shyoperating shyin shyindividual shydevelopment shy(d) shyin shystudies shyof shyearly shyantecedents shyof shylater shystages shyof shydevelopment shyfor shyexample shyin shythe shystudy shyof shythe shydevelopmental shybackground shyof shyvarious shyaspects shyof shyadult shyfunc-tioning shyRecognizing shythis shyresearchers shyhave shyasked shyfor shyalternatives shyto shythe shyuse shyof shychronological shyage shyfor shythe shystudy shyof shyindividual shydifferences shy(cf shyBaltes shy1979 shyRutter shy1989 shyWohlwill shy1970)

33 shyResearch shyStrategy shyImplications shyof shya shyHolistic shyView

The shyaforementioned shyreasoning shyleads shyto shythe shyconclusion shythat shywe shyneed shyto shyformulate shyeach shyspe-cific problem in developmental processes within the framework of the integrated organism changing shyover shytime shyin shyorder shyto shyunderstand shyand shyexplain shythe shyprocesses shyunderlying shyindividual shydevelopment shyThis shyconclusion shyhas shyimportant shyconsequences shyfor shyresearch shystrategy shyin shyempirical shydevelopmental shyresearch

bull shyIndividual shydevelopment shyrefers shyto shyprogressive shyor shyregressive shychanges shyin shythe shystructures shyandor shythe shyfunctioning shyof shysystems shyat shydifferent shylevels shyacross shythe shyentire shylife shyspanmdashfrom shyconception shyto shydeath shyAs shya shyconsequence shya shynecessary shyresearch shystrategy shyimplication shyof shythe shyprocess shycharacter shyof shyindividual shydevelopment shyis shythat shyindividuals shyare shyobserved shyacross shytime shythat shyis shythe shyapplication shyof shya shylongitudinal shydesign


shy There shyare shya shynumber shyof shyreasons shywhy shya shylongitudinal shydesign shyis shynecessary shyfor shyunderstanding shydevel-opmental shyprocesses shyOne shyis shythat shyoperating shyfactors shynecessarily shyshift shyover shytime shyboth shywith shyrespect shyto which factors operate their distinct character per se and their significance and role in the individualrsquos shyintegrated shyinteractive shyprocesses shyIt shyis shyonly shythe shyorganism shythat shyremains shydistinct shyand shyidentifiable Another reason is that such central issues as stability and change and causal mecha-nisms shyin shyindividual shydevelopment shyprocesses shycannot shybe shyeffectively shyinvestigated shywithout shyobserving shythe shyindividual shyover shytime

In the definition of development just presented two concepts are essential change shyand shytime shyTime shyis shynot shythe shysame shyas shydevelopment shybut shydevelopment shyalways shyhas shya shytemporal shydimension shyConsequently shyprocesses shygoing shyon shyin shyan shyunchanged shymanner shywithin shyexisting shystructures shydo shynot shyconstitute shydevelopment shyThe shyimplication shyof shythis shyreasoning shyis shythat shythe shylength shyof shya shylongitudinal shystudy shyand shythe shyfrequency shywith shywhich shyobservations shyare shyneeded shycannot shybe shydecided shyonce shyand shyfor shyall shyindependent shyof shythe shycharacter shyof shythe shysystem(s) shyunder shyinvestigation shyThe shyfrequency shywith shywhich shyobservations shymust shybe shymade shyand shythe shylength shyof shyobservation shyperiod shyvary shywith shythe shytype shyof shyprocesses shyunder shystudy shyFor shyinstance shyunderstanding shyfetal shydevelopment shyrequires shyvery shyfrequent shyobservations shyduring shya shyrather shyshort shyperiod shyof shytime shywhereas shystudying shyaging shyprocesses shycan shylimit shythe shynumber shyof shyobservations shyand shyspread shythem shyover shya shylonger shyperiod shyof shytime

shy As shystressed shyearlier shythe shyapplication shyof shya shylongitudinal shydesign shythat shyis shyfollowing shythe shysame shyindi-vidual shyover shytime shyis shya shynecessity shyand shyfollows shylogically shyfrom shythe shyview shyof shyindividual shydevelopment shyas shya shyprocess shyLongitudinal shydesign shyis shyfull shyof shypossible shytraps shyas shydemonstrated shyin shycritical shyanalyses shy(see shyeg shyNesselroade shyamp shyBaltes shy1984 shySchaie shy1965) shyThis shyimplies shythat shythe shyproper shyuse shyof shya shylon-gitudinal shyresearch shystrategy shypresupposes shyplanning shyand shyimplementation shywith shyreference shyto shycareful shyanalysis shyof shythe shyphenomena shyunder shystudy

bull shy shy A shyholistic shymodel shyfor shyindividual shydevelopment shyimplies shythat shymental shybehavioral shyand shybiological shyaspects shyof shyindividual shyfunctioning shyas shywell shyas shysocial shycultural shyand shyphysical shyfactors shyof shythe shyenvironment shyare shyincorporated shyinto shyone shyintegrated shytheoretical shyframework shyas shyformulated shyIt shywas shyalso shyclaimed shyearlier shythat shythe shyrole shyof shya shysingle shyvariable shyand shyits shysig-nificance for the functioning and development of the individual is dependent on its context shyof shyother shysimultaneously shyoperating shyfactors shythat shyis shyits shycontribution shyto shythe shyunder-standing of the developmental processes of individuals cannot be finally investigated and shyunderstood shyin shyisolation shyfrom shyits shycontext

bull Planning of empirical research on a specific issue has to cover the relevant operat-ing shyfactors shyof shythe shysystem shyat shythe shyappropriate shylevel shymay shyit shybe shythe shycognitive shysystem shythe shycardiovascular shysystem shythe shybehavioral shysystem shythe shysystem shyof shyfamily shyrelations shythe shyinte-grated shyindividual shyor shythe shyperson-environment shysystem

bull shy shy As shyalready shyemphasized shya shydevelopmental shyscience shyapproach shyimplies shythat shywe shyhave shyto shygo shybeyond shywhat shyis shytraditionally shyconsidered shydevelopmental shypsychology shyImportant shyknowl-edge shyof shydevelopmental shyphenomena shyessential shyfor shyunderstanding shythe shyfunctioning shyand shydevelopment shyof shycertain shysubsystems shyas shywell shyas shyof shythe shyintegrated shyorganism shymust shyalso shybe shydrawn shyfrom shyother shyneighboring shydisciplines shyin shysocial shymedical shybiological shyand shynatural shysciences shyThe shyimplication shyof shythis shyproposition shyis shythat shywe shyhave shyto shybecome shyinvolved shyin shyreal shycross-disciplinary shyand shycross-cultural shywork

34 shyMethodological shyimplications shyof shya shyHolistic shyPerspective

The scientific goal of empirical developmental research is to contribute solid knowledge to shy understanding shy development shy processes shy the shy psychological shy biological shy behavioral shy and shy


environmental shyfactors shy that shyare shy involved shyand shywhich shyprinciples shyguide shythe shyprocesses shyWhat shyis shyadvocated shyhere shyis shy that shyresearch shyaiming shyat shy this shygoal shy in shyorder shyto shybe shyeffective shyhas shyto shybe shydesigned shyimplemented shyand shyinterpreted shywith shyreference shyto shya shycommon shytheoretical shyframework shyThe shyholistic-interactionistic shyperspective shyserves shythe shypurpose shyof shysuch shya shyframework

We shynoted shyearlier shythat shya shycommon shyreaction shyto shythe shyclaim shyfor shya shyholistic shyperspective shyis shythat shyit shyis shytoo shygeneral shyto shybe shyhelpful shyin shyempirical shyresearch shyHowever shythe shyholistic-interactionistic shymodel does in fact place specific and important demands on the measurement models and the shymethods shyand shymodels shyfor shytreatment shyof shydata shyin shydevelopmental shyresearch shyThese shyrequire-ments shyhave shyfar-reaching shyimplications shyfor shythe shyplanning shyimplementation shyand shyinterpretation shyof studies on specific issues

A shy holistic shy theoretical shy framework shy implies shy that shy subsystems shy operate shy interdependently shy but shyoften shyon shydifferent shyspatial shyand shytemporal shyscales shyand shyat shydifferent shylevels shyin shycomplex shyinteractive shyand adaptive processes this makes the identification of operating mechanisms and underlying principles difficult These conditions emphasize the need for careful choice and application of appropriate shymethodological shytools shyin shyempirical shyresearch shyon shydevelopmental shyprocesses shyHowever shythe difficulties must not deter empirical studies on specific aspects of the processes applying the general rules for scientific inquiry As emphasized earlier the processes of individual development are not random they occur in a specific way within organized structures and are guided by specific psychological and biological principles These circumstances make developmental processes a natural target for scientific analysis

An shyanalysis shyof shythe shyfundamental shycharacteristics shyof shyindividual shydevelopment shyin shya shyholistic shytheoretical shyframework shyleads shyto shythe shyconclusion shythat shywe shyneed shyto shyapply shymeasurement shymodels shyand models and methods for data treatment that are more appropriate for the specific shycharacter shyof shydevelopmental shyphenomena shyWhat shyfurther shyprogress shyin shyempirical shydevelopmental shyresearch shyparticularly shyneeds shyis shymodels shyand shymethods shyfor shythe shystudy shyof shyprocesses shyIn shythe shyIDA shyprogram shywe shyhave shydevoted shymuch shytime shyand shyeffort shyto shythis shytask shyThis shyissue shywill shybe shydealt shywith shyin shythe shyfollowing shychapters

Block shy(1971) shyas shya shytheoretical shybasis shyfor shyhis shyapplication shyof shythe shyQ-sort shymethodology shyto shythe shystudy shyof shydevelopmental shyissues shymade shya shydistinction shybetween shytwo shydifferent shymethodological shyapproaches shyin shydevelopmental shyresearch shynamely shywhat shyhe shyreferred shyto shyas shythe shyvariable shyand shythe shyperson approach shyrespectively shyAs shyproposed shyby shyMagnusson shy(1999a) shythe shybasic shydifference shybetween the two approaches lies in the view of a specific datum for a certain characteristic of shya shycertain shyindividual shyat shythe shylevel shyof shythe shymeasurement model shyof shyeach shyof shythe shytwo shyapproaches shyAccording shyto shythe shymeasurement shymodel shyof shythe shyvariable shyapproach shya shysingle shydatum shyfor shyindividual shyA shyon shya shylatent shydimension shyk derives its psychological significance from its position on that dimension shyin shyrelation shyto shypositions shyfor shyother shyindividuals shyB shyC shyD shyand shyso shyforth shyAccording shyto shythe shymeasurement shymodel shyof shythe shyperson shyapproach shythe shysame shydatum shyderives shyits shypsychological shysignificance from its position on the latent dimensions k l m n shyand shyso shyon shyThese shylatent shydimensions shyare shyassumed shyto shyrepresent shysimultaneously shyworking shyfactors shyin shythe shysystem shyunder shyinvestigation

The shydifference shyin shybasic shymeasurement shymodels shyhas shyimplications shyfor shythe shykind shyof shygeneralizations shythat shycan shybe shymade shyfrom shyresults shyof shyempirical shystudies shyGeneralizations shyof shyresults shyobtained shyfrom shystudies shy applying shy a shy variable shy approach shy refer shy to shy relations shy among shy variables shy synchronically shy or shydiachronically shy Using shy a shy person shy approach shy generalizations shy of shy results shy from shy empirical shy studies shyrefer shyto shyindividuals shyin shyterms shyof shycharac-teristic shypatterns shyof shyoperating shyfactors shyat shythe shysystem shylevel shy


under shyinvestigation shyDevelopmentally shythis shytype shyof shygeneralization shyis shyempirically shybased shyon shydata shy reflecting stability and change in individual patterns of data from different points in time

In shy this shy connection shy we shy emphasize shy from shy the shy beginning shy that shy the shy variable shy approach shy and shythe shy person shy approach shy are shy complementary shy not shy contradictory shy in shy research shy on shy developmental shy shyphenomena shyBoth shyapproaches shyare shylegitimate shyas shylong shyas shythey shyare shyapplied shywith shystrict shyreference shyto the specific assumptions made in each of them It is important to keep in mind that the two shyapproaches shycontribute shydifferent shyanswers shyto shythe shysame shyquestion shyThis shyis shydue shyto shythe shyfact shythat shyempirical shyresearch shyapplying shyeach shyof shythe shyapproaches shyrefers shyto shybasically shydifferent shymeasurement shymodels shyThe shy two shy approaches shy are shy methodologically shy orthogonal shy not shy endpoints shy on shy the shy same shymethodological shydimension

The shymethodological shyimplications shyof shythe shyvariables shyand shyperson shyapproaches shyrespectively shyhave shybeen shydiscussed shyelsewhere shy(see shyeg shyBergman shy1988a shy1993 shy1998 shyBergman shyamp shyMagnusson shy1991 shyMagnusson shy1988 shy1998a) shyBecause shythe shyrest shyof shythe shyvolume shyis shydevoted shyto shythe shyimplications shyof shy the shy person shy approach shy this shy section shy focuses shy on shy the shy implications shy and shy consequences shy of shy the shy shyvariable shyapproach

4 shyTHE shyVARIABLE shyAPPROACH

Developmental shy research shy is shy dominated shy by shy a shy variable shy approach shyThe shy approach shy is shy evident shy in shymany shycontexts shy in shy(a) shycorrelational shystudies shyof shyrelations shybetween shyvariables shy in shycross-sectional shydesigns shy(b) shyin shystudies shyof shythe shystability shyof shysingle shyvariables shyover shytime shy(c) shyin shystudies shyof shythe shylinks shybetween shyenvironmental shyfactors shyand shyvarious shyaspects shyof shyindividual shydevelopment shyand shy(d) shyin shystud-ies shyof shythe shydevelopmental shybackground shyto shyadult shyfunctioning shyCommonly shyused shystatistical shymodels shyinclude shycomparisons shybetween shymeans shycorrelation shyand shyregression shyanalysis shyand shyfactor shyanalysis shymodeling shyThe shydominance shyof shya shyvariable shyapproach shyis shymanifested shyin shythe shywidespread shyapplication shyof shystructural shyequation shymodeling shyin shythe shysearch shyfor shycausal shyrelations

41 shyData shyTreatment

In shya shyvariable shyapproach shythe shylawfulness shyof shyprocesses shyin shyindividual shydevelopment shyis shystudied shyin shyterms shyof shystatistical shyrelations shybetween shyvariables shyacross shyindividuals shyat shygroup shylevel shyThe shybasis shyfor shythis treatment of empirical data is a statistical model with certain specifications A number of statistical shymodels shyhave shybeen shydeveloped shyfor shydifferent shycases shyThe shymost shycommon shyis shy the shy linear shymodel shywhich shyserves shyas shya shystarting shypoint shyfor shythe shyapplication shyof shya shynumber shyof shystatistical shymethods shysuch shyas shyPearson shycorrelations shymultiple shycorrelations shyanalysis shyof shyvariance shy(ANOVA) shyand shystruc-tural shyequation shymodeling shyPerhaps shymainly shydue shyto shytechnical shycomplications shynonlinear shymodels shyand shymethods shyare shyapplied shymuch shyless shyfrequently shythan shylinear shymodels shyand shymethods

Generally shy the shy demand shy for shy a shy match shy between shy the shy statistical shy model shy applied shy in shy the shy study shyof a specific problem on one hand and the characteristics of the phenomena under study on shy the shyother shyhand shy is shyviolated shy in shydevelopmental shy research shyusing shya shyvariable shyapproach shy in shy two shy shyinterrelated shyways

1 shyProblems shyare shybeing shyformulated shyand shydiscussed shyin shyterms shyof shystatistical shyrelations shyamong shyvari-ables shywith shyreference shyto shya shystatistical shymodel shybut shywith shylittle shyor shyno shyreference shyto shyan shyexplicitly shyformulated shyview shyregarding shythe shynature shyof shythe shyphenomena shyto shywhich shythe shydata shyrefer shySuch shyis shyoften shythe shycase shyfor shyexample shyin shydiscussions shyand shyapplications shyof shycausal shymodels shyand shycausal shyrelations shy(see shyeg shyHellvik shy1988 shyvon shyEye shyamp shyClogg shy1994)


2 shyThe shystatistical shymodels shyare shytested shywith shyreference shyto shydata shysets shythe shyrelevance shyof shywhich shyis shytaken shyfor shygranted shywithout shyreference shyto shythe shycharacter shyof shythe shyreal shyphenomena shyExamples shycan shybe shyfound shyin shythe shyliterature shyon shystructural shyequation shymodeling shy(see shyeg shyBergman shy1988a shyfor shya shydiscussion)

42 shyAssumptions

As shyemphasized shyearlier shya shynecessary shycondition shyfor shyempirical shyresearch shyto shyyield shysolid shyknowledge shyis shythat shythe shystatistical shymodel shymeets shythe shyrequirements shyof shythe shypsychological shymodel shyThis shyproposi-tion shymotivates shya shycloser shylook shyat shythe shyassumptions shythat shymust shybe shymet shyfor shythe shyproper shyuse shyof shylinear shyregression shymodels shywhich shyare shythe shymost shyfrequently shyapplied shymodels shyfor shydata shyin shydevelopmental shyresearch shy(Magnusson shy1998a)

1 shyIndividuals shycan shybe shycompared shyon shya shynomothetic shycontinuous shylatent shydimension shyin shya shy shymeaningful shyway

2 shyIndividuals shydiffer shyonly shyquantitatively shynot shyqualitatively shyalong shythe shylatent shydimension shyfor shya shycertain shyfactor

3 shyRelationships shyamong shyfactors shyand shytheir shyrole shyin shythe shytotality shyof shyan shyindividual shyis shythe shysame shyfor shyall shyindividuals shyFor shyexample shyin shya shymultiple shyregression shyequation shyeach shyvariable shyhas shythe shysame shyweight for all individuals and reflects what is characteristic of the average person

4 shyThe shyinterrelations shyamong shyfactors shystudied shyat shythe shygroup shylevel shyin shynomothetic shyanalyses shycan shybe shyused shyto shymake shyinferences shyabout shyhow shythe shyvariables shyfunction shywithin shyindividuals

5 The psychological significance and meaning of a certain position on the nomothetic scale should shybe shythe shysame shyquantitatively shyand shyqualitatively shyacross shyindividuals shyand shyages

Now shythe shy relevant shyquestion shy is shyHow shycompatible shyare shy these shyassumptions shywith shy the shyholistic-interactionistic shymodel shyfor shyindividual shydevelopment shyin shyterms shyof shydynamic shycomplex shyand shyadaptive shyprocesses shyThe shycharacteristic shy features shyof shydevelopmental shyprocesses shydiscussed shyearlier shy in shy this shychapter shydemonstrate shythat shythe shyassumptions shyof shythe shylinear shyregression shymodels shyare shymet shyonly shyunder shyvery specific conditions The goal of developmental research is to understand and explain how and shywhy shy individuals shyde-velop shyFrom shythis shyperspective shy the shyassumption shyunder shy4 shy is shyof shycentral shyimportance shy the shyassumption shy that shy the shy statistical shy linear shy relationship shybetween shy two shyvariables shyat shygroup shylevel shycan shybe shyused shyas shya shybasis shyfor shyconclusions shyabout shythe shyfunctional shyrelation shybetween shythe shysame shytwo shyvariables shywithin shyeach shyof shythe shyindividuals

Obviously shythe shynumber shyand shyrange shyof shycases shyin shywhich shythe shylinear shystatistical shymodel shyis shyapplicable shyin shya shyrelevant shyway shyis shyfar shymore shylimited shythan shyits shyfrequency shyin shyempirical shypsychological shyresearch shywould shyindicate

43 shyAn shyEmpirical shyIllustration

An shyempirical shyexample shyof shya shycommon shyapproach shyto shythe shystudy shyof shya shydevelopmental shyproblem shyusing shya shylinear shymodel shyfor shyanalysis shyof shydata shymay shyserve shyas shya shybasis shyfor shysome shyobservations shyThe shyexample shyis shydrawn shyfrom shya shystudy shyin shythe shyIDA shyprogram shyof shythe shyrole shyof shyearly shyproblematic shybehaviors shyamong shyboys shyin shythe shydevelopmental shyprocesses shyunderlying shyadult shyalcohol shyproblems shyThe shygroup shybeing shystudied shyconsisted shyof shyall shyboys shywho shyattended shygrade shy6 shyin shythe shyschool shysystem shyin shyone shycommunity shyin shySweden shy(N=540) shyThe shyaverage shyage shyof shythe shyboys shywas shyabout shy12 shyyears shyand shy10 shymonths shy(A shymore shycomprehen-sive shypresentation shyof shythe shystudy shywas shygiven shyby shyMagnusson shyAndersson shyamp shyToumlrestad shy1993)


With shyreference shyto shya shyreview shyof shythe shyrelevant shyliterature shythe shyfollowing shypossible shyearly shyantecedents shyof shylater shyalcohol shyproblems shywere shychosen shyfor shyanalysis shyaggressiveness motor restlessness con-centration difficulties lack of school motivation disharmony peer rejections shy and shy school achievement shyEach shyof shythese shyvariables shyhad shybeen shyreported shyto shybe shyearly shyindicators shyof shylater shyantiso-cial problems Data for the first five variables were obtained by teachersrsquo ratings data for peer rejection shywere shyobtained shyby shysociometric shyratings shyand shydata shyfor shyschool achievement shywere shyobtained shyby shysumming shythe shygrades shyin shySwedish shyand shymathematics

Data for alcohol problems in adulthood were obtained from official records collected from the shypolice shy the shy social shy authorities shy and shyopen shyand shyclosed shypsychiatric shycare shy (Andersson shy1988) shyThese shydata shyare shycomplete shyfor shyall shysubjects shyand shyrepresent shythe shyage shyperiod shyof shy18 shythrough shy24 shyyears shyof shyage shyThe shyinformation shyrefers shyto shyarrests shyfor shypublic shydrunkenness shyconvictions shyfor shydrunken shydriv-ing shymeasures shytaken shyin shyaccordance shywith shythe shytemperance shylaw shyand shythe shyDSMIII-R shydiagnosis shyof shyalcohol abuse shyand shyalcohol dependence shy(American shyPsychological shyAssociation shy1983) shyIn shytotal shy80 shyof shythe shysubjects shywere shyregistered shyfor shyalcohol shyabuse shyduring shythis shyperiod

The shystatistical shycriterion shyon shyadult shyalcohol shyproblems shywas shydichotomized shyyielding shytwo shygroups shyof shymales shythose shywith shyand shythose shywithout shyalcohol shyrecords

In shyTable shy 21 the first column shows the coefficients of correlation for the relationship between shy each shy of shy the shy independent shy variables shy on shy one shy hand shy and shy the shy dependent shy variable shy on shythe other hand obtained as pointbiserial coefficients Within parenthesis the semipartial correlations are presented Each semipartial coefficient reflects the linear relation between the shyvariable shyunder shyconsideration shyand shythe shycriterion shywhen shythe shyrole shyof shythe shyother shyindependent shyvariables shyhas shybeen shypartialed shyout shyfrom shythe shyindependent shyvariable

TABLE 21

Point-Biserial shyCorrelations shyand shySemipartial shyCorrelations shyBetween shythe shyIndependent shy shyVariables shyand shythe shyDependent shyVariables shy(Registered shyAlcohol shyAbuse shyAges shy18 shyto shy24)Independent Variable Correlation

Point-Biserial SemipartialAggressive shybehavior 221 025Motor shyrestlessness 236 036Concentration difficulties 262 048Lack shyof shyschool shymotivation 259 030Disharmony 248 079School shyachievement minus180 018Peer shyrejection 055 minus049

From shyMagnusson shyAndersson shyamp shyToumlrestad shy(1993)

As can be seen each of the independent variables has a significant linear relationship with shythe shydependent shyvariable shyexcept shyone shypoor peer relations So far the significant coef-ficients for the correlation between single early indicators of problem behaviors and adult alcohol shyproblems shyare shyon shythe shywhole shyin shyline shywith shyresults shyfrom shya shylarge shynumber shyof shyearlier shystud-ies shyusing shythe shysame shymethodology


The shyinteresting shysituation shyappears shyhowever shywhen shywe shylook shyat shythe shysemipartial shycorrelations shynone shyof shy them shyexceeds shy 10 shyThis shy implies shy that shydata shy for shy each shyof shy the shy independent shyvariables shyexplain shyless shythan shy1 shyof shythe shytotal shyvariance shyfor shyregistered shyalcohol shyabuse shyat shyadult shyage shywhen shythe variance common with all the other variables has been controlled for Thus the specific contribution shy of shy each shy single shy variable shy to shy prediction shy of shy alcohol shy problems shy at shy adulthood shy is shyof shy little shy if shy any shy use shy for shy understanding shy the shy developmental shy processes shy underlying shy alcohol shy shyproblems shyat shyadulthood

This shyempirical shystudy shyis shyan shyexample shyfrom shya shydomain shyof shydevelopmental shyresearch shyin shywhich shya shyvariable shyapproach shydominates shynamely shystudies shyon shyearly shyantecedents shyof shylater shyoutcome(s) shyThe shyresults shydemonstrate shysome shyproblems shyin shyapplication shyof shy the shy linear shystatistical shymodel shyfor shy shyempirical shyresearch shyin shythis shyand shysimilar shydomains

Statistically the low semipartial coefficients are only a necessary consequence of the colinearity reflected in sometimes high intercorrelations among the variables involved in the process under investigation Substantively the size of the semipartial coefficients are shyunderstandable shyin shythe shylight shyof shya shyholistic-interactionistic shyview shyAt shythe shyindividual shylevel shythe variables in the analyses only reflect different aspects of the dynamic functioning of one and the same organism functioning as a totality This implies that many specific shyelements shyare shyoperating shyjointly shyand shysimultaneously shyin shyforming shyindividualsrsquo shyfunctioning shyand shy shymalfunctioning shyThus shy it shy is shy not shy surprising shy that shy data shy pertaining shy to shy one shy variable shy will shy also shy shycontain shy information shy about shy other shy simultaneously shy operating shy variables shy in shy the shy process shyAs shya shy consequence shy measures shy of shy single shy variables shy will shy sometimes shy greatly shy overestimate shy the shyunique shycontribution shyof shyeach shyof shy them shyin shy the shyprocess shyof shydevelopmental shychange shyThe shysame shyconclusion holds in research on the unique role of specific aspects of the environment in shydevelopmental shyprocesses shywhen shythe shyindependent shyvariables shy in shy the shystatistical shydesign shyare shy shyenvironmental shy factors shy In shy empirical shy research shy the shy risk shy for shy overestimation shy of shy ldquoeffectsrdquo shy is shycommon shyas shya shyconsequence shyof shythe shyfact shythat shyrarely shymore shythan shyone shyor shya shyfew shyof shythe shyvariables shywhich shytogether shyform shythe shyoperating shyconstellation shyof shyfactors shyare shystudied shysimultaneously

The shyexample shyalso shyillustrates shythe shyproblems shyconnected shywith shythe shyfact shythat shymany shyif shynot shymost shyof shythe shyvariables shystudied shyin shyempirical shyanalyses shyof shydevelopmental shyphenomena shyare shyhypothetical shycon-structs shyThis shyimplies shythat shyeach shyof shythe shylabels shyrepresents shya shyfuzzy shyconcept shywithout shyclear shyboundaries shyand reflects a limited aspect of what is an integrated complex dynamic and adaptive process Hypothetical shyconstructs shyof shy this shykind shy in shywhich shydevelopmental shypsychology shyabounds shyrun shythe shyrisk of reification that is being regarded as tangible concrete and causal entities This risk is augmented shyusing shysophisticated shystatistical shymodels shycontaining shylatent shyvariables shysuch shyas shystructural shyequation shymodeling shy(see shyBergman shyamp shyMagnusson shy1990 shyfor shya shydiscussion)

44 shyInferences shyto shyindividuals shyin shya shyVariable shyApproach

The shyoverriding shygoal shyof shyempirical shydevelopmental shyresearch shyis shyto shycontribute shyknowledge shyabout shythe shydevelopmental shyprocesses shyof shyindividuals shyThus shythe shyimportant shycriterion shyon shyreal shysuccess shyis shyin shythe shyeffectiveness shywith shywhich shythe shymethodology shyhelps shyus shyto shydraw shyinferences shyto shyindividuals shyin the final analysis This fundamental proposition makes it important to examine one of the shy basic shy assumptions shy underlying shy the shy frequent shy use shy and shy application shy of shy linear shy models shy in shy shydevelopmental shy research shy already shy summarized shy in shy this shy chapter shy The shy interrelations shy among shy


variables shystudied shyat shythe shygroup shylevel shyin shynomothetic shyanalyses shycan shybe shyused shyto shymake shyinferences shyabout shyhow shythe shyvariables shyfunction shywithin shyindividuals shyTwo shycomments shyare shypertinent

1 shyAt shythe shylevel shyof shythe shyindividual shynonlinearity shymore shyoften shythan shylinearity shyis shya shycharacteristic shyof shythe shyrelation shybetween shyoperating shyfactors shyFor shyexample shythe shyeffect shyof shyhormone shyA shyon shythe shydependent shyhormone shyB shyis shynot shynecessarily shylinear shyThe shynonlinearity shyin shyindividualsrsquo shy shyreactions shyacross shytime shyto shymedical shytreatment shyand shyindividual shydifferences shyin shythis shyrespect shyis shyanother shyexample shy(see shyMagnusson shy1993 shyfor shya shyconcrete shyillustration) shyThe shysame shyholds shytrue shyfor shythe shyinteraction shyof shya shysingle shyindividual shywith shyhis shyor shyher shyenvironment shyIndividualsrsquo shypsychological shyand shyphysiological shystress shyreactions shyto shyincreasing shystimulation shyfrom shythe shyenvironment shyare shyoften shynonlinear shyThe shyinverted shyU-relation shyfound shybetween shyperformance shyas shywell shyas shypsychological shyand shyphysiological shystress shyreactions shyfor shyindividuals shyon shyone shyhand shyand shythe shystrength shyof shythe shydemand shyfrom shythe shyenvironment shyon shythe shyother shyhand shyis shyone shyexample shyThe shynonlinear shyrelation shyin shyprocesses shyover shysituations shyor shytime shybetween shyoperating shyperson-bound shyfactors shyor shythe shyrelation shybetween shythe shyindividual shyand shyhis shyor shyher shyenvironment shymay shyalso shydiffer shyamong shyindividuals

2 shyThe shyresults shyfor shythe shycorrelation shybetween shysingle shyproblem shybehaviors shyat shyan shyearly shyage shyand shylater shyalcohol shyproblems shypresented shyin shyTable shy21 shycan shybe shyused shyas shya shystarting shypoint shyto shy shyillustrate shyanother shyaspect shyof shyinferences shyfrom shyvariable shyoriented shystudies shyapplying shya shylinear shymodel shyto shythe shydevelopment shyof shyindividuals

The shyresults shypresented shyin shyTable shy21 give a picture that is commonly presented in scientific journals shy A shy large shy number shy of shy variable-oriented shy studies shy have shy reported shy sometimes shy strong shy shyrelationships shybetween shysingle shyproblem shybehaviors shyat shyan shyearly shyage shyassumed shyto shybe shyearly shyrisk shyfactors shy and shyadult shymaladjustment shy in shy terms shyof shy criminal shy activity shy andor shy alcohol shyproblems shyMost shyof shythe shytime shythese shystudies shyare shyconcerned shywith shyone shyor shya shyfew shyof shythese shyearly shybehaviors shyat shya shytime shyThis shycircumstance shyformed shythe shyconditions shyfor shyasking shythe shyfollowing shyquestion shyTo shywhat shyextent shydoes shythe shywhole shypicture shyof shypairwise shycorrelations shybetween shyconduct shyvariables shyat shyan shyearly shyage shyand shymaladjustment shyfactors shyat shyadulthood shydepend shyon shya shyrather shylimited shynumber shyof shypersons shycharacterized shyby shybroad shysyndromes shyof shyadjustment shyproblems shyThe shyanswer shyto shythis shyquestion shyis shycrucial shyfor shythe shycorrect shyunderstanding shyof shyresults shyon shysingle shyvariables shyand shyof shythe shypossibility shyto shymake shyinferences shyfrom shysuch shystudies shyto shyindividual shyprocesses

The shyquestion shyabout shythe shyrole shyof shysingle shyvariables shywas shystudied shyusing shydata shyfor shyaggressiveness shyamong shyboys shyat shythe shyage shyof shy13 shyas shya shyprecursor shyof shylater shycriminal shyactivity shyand shyalcohol shyproblems shy(Magnusson shyamp shyBergman shy1988) shyThe shyresults shyare shypresented shyin shyTable shy22 In the first step of the shyanalysis shythe shyrelationship shybetween shyratings shyof shyaggressiveness shyat shythe shyage shyof shy13 shyand shydata shyfrom official records for criminality and alcohol abuse at age 18 through 23 was studied for the shywhole shysample shyby shycomputing shychi-squares shyfor shythe shycorresponding shy2times2 shytables shyThe shyresults shyare shypresented shy in shyTable shy22a shyThus shycalculated shy for shy the shywhole shysample shy there shy is shya shy relatively shystrong significant relation in statistical terms between aggressiveness at age 13 and later criminality shyand shyalcohol shyabuse

In shythe shysecond shystep shyof shythe shyanalyses shythose shyboys shywho shywere shyrated shynot shyonly shyas shyaggressive shybut shyalso shyas shycharacterized shyby shyat shyleast shythree shyother shyof shythe shyproblem shybehaviors shywere shyremoved shyfrom shythe shyanalysis shyof shythe shyrelation shybetween shyearly shyproblem shybehaviors shyand shylater shymaladjustment shyThe shyresults shyare shypresented shyin shyTable shy22b As can be seen from the table the relation is insignifi-cant shyfor shythose shywho shywere shyaggressive shybut shydid shynot shydemonstrate shysevere shyproblem shybehaviors shyin shy


other shyrespects shyThe shyextent shyto shywhich shythe shyresults shypresented shyfor shyaggressiveness shyin shyTable shy21 shyholds shyfor shyother shyvariables shyhas shyto shybe shyestablished shyin shyfurther shyanalyses

The shy question shy being shy raised shy can shy now shy be shy answered shyThe shy results shy indicate shy that shy observed shy shystatistical shyrelationships shyin shya shyset shyof shyadjustment shyvariables shymay shyonly shybe shyan shyexpression shyof shythe shyfact shythat shya shysmall shygroup shyof shyindividuals shyare shycharacterized shyby shya shygeneral shysyndrome shyof shyproblems shythis shyconclusion shyis shyvalid shyin shyboth shya shycross-sectional shyand shyin shya shydevelopmental shyperspective

TABLE 22Longitudinal shyRelationship shyBetween shyAggression shyat shyAge shy13 shyand shyCriminality shyOr shyAlcohol shyAbuse shyat shyAges shy18 shyto shy23

This shyresult shyhas shytwo shyimplications shySubstantively shyit shyindicates shythat shyaggressiveness shyin shyitself shywhen shynot shycombined shywith shyother shyadjustment shyproblems shyis shynot shya shyrisk shyfactor shyfor shylater shyadjustment shyproblems shyMethodologically shy it shy invalidates shy the shybasic shyassumption shy for shy the shyapplication shyof shya shylinear shymodel shythat shyresults shyobtained shyat shythe shygroup shylevel shyare shygenerally shyvalid shyfor shyall shyindividuals shyin shytheir shydevelopmental shyprocesses

441 Conclusion

As shyemphasized shyearlier shyin shythis shychapter shyin shythe shypresentation shyof shythe shyholistic shyintegrated shymodel shya shybasic shyprinciple shyin shythe shyfunctioning shyof shycomplex shydynamic shyand shyadaptive shydevelopmental shyprocesses shyis shythe shyprinciple shyof shyinteraction shyamong shyoperating shyfactors shyA shylimiting shyimplication shyof shythe shyapplication shy


of shy linear shy regression shy models shy and shy in shy interpretation shy of shy results shy from shy such shy studies shy such shy as shy the shy coefficients in Table shy21 shyis shythe shyfact shythat shythey shydo shynot shyconsider shythe shyexistence shyof shyinteractions shyTo shya shycertain shyextent shyinteractions shycan shybe shyhandled shywithin shyfor shyexample shystructural shymodeling shybut shythese shypossibilities shyare shylimited

There is nothing wrong with any statistical model The specific properties and assumptions of shya shystatistical shymodel shyare shyclear shyand shycannot shybe shydisputed shyThe shyproblem shyarises shywhen shyit shyis shyapplied shyfor shythe shystudy shyof shyphenomena shythat shydo shynot shymeet shythe shybasic shyassumptions shyof shythe shypsychological shymodel shyThis shydiscussion shyshows shythat shythe shymatch shybetween shythe shylinear shystatistical shymodel shyand shythe shypsychological shymodel shyis shyweak shyin shymany shycases shywhere shythe shystatistical shymodel shyis shyfrequently shyapplied shyThus shyeffective shydevelopmental shyresearch shyneeds shycomplementary shyways shyfor shytreatment shyof shydata

5 shyTHE shyPERSON shyAPPROACH

The shy person shy approach shy is shy a shy theoretical shy concept shy at shy the shy level shy of shy phenomena shy at shy the shy system shylevel shy It shy forms shy the shy theoretical shy basis shy for shy an shy approach shy to shy methodological shy issues shy which shy is shy shycomplementary shyto shythe shyvariable shyapproach shyin shydevelopmental shyresearch

The shybasic shymotive shyfor shythe shyapplication shyof shya shyperson shyapproach shyfor shythe shystudy shyof shydevelopmental shyissues shyis shythe shyholistic-interactionistic shytheoretical shyframework shyhas shybeen shypresented shyearlier shyin shythis shychapter shyIt shyis shyindividuals shynot shyvariables shythat shydevelop shyReferring shyto shythe shyholistic shyinteractionistic shyframework shyMagnusson shyand shyAllen shy(1983a) shysummarized shythe shyessence shyof shythe shyperson shyapproach shyin shythe shyfollowing shyformulation shyldquoThe shyperson shyoriented shyapproach shyto shyresearch shy(in shycontrast shyto shythe shyvari-able shycentered shyapproach) shytakes shya shyholistic shyand shydynamic shyview shythe shyperson shyis shyconceptualized shyas shyan shyintegrated shytotality shyrather shythan shyas shya shysummation shyof shyvariablesrdquo shy(p shy372) shyIn shyplanning shyimplement-ing shyand shyinterpreting shyempirical shystudies shyin shyIDA shythe shyperson shyapproach shyhas shyplayed shya shycentral shyrole shyas shythe shytheoretical shybackground shyfor shydiscussions shyof shyresearch shystrategies shyand shymodels shyand shymethods shyfor shytreatment shyof shydata shythat shyare shycompatible shywith shythe shynature shyof shythe shyphenomena shybeing shystudied

The shydistinction shybetween shythe shyvariable shyapproach shyand shythe shyperson shyapproach shyconcerns shyboth shyconcepts shymethodological shyimplications shyand shyresearch shystrategy shyNeither shyneed shybe shynor shycan shybe shyproved shyby shystatistical shytests shyEven shyif shya shyvariable shyoriented shyapproach shywould shyprovide shya shystronger shyprediction shyin shystatistical shyterms shyof shyadult shybehavior shyfrom shycertain shymeasures shyof shychildhood shybehavior shythan shythat shyprovided shyby shya shyperson-oriented shyapproach shythe shylatter shymight shystill shycontribute shyto shya shybetter shyunderstanding shyof shythe shyprocesses shyof shyindividual shydevelopment shyas shyemphasized shyby shyMagnusson shyamp shyBergman (1990) The appropriate criterion for the choice of approach in a specific case is the shyextent shyto shywhich shyeach shyof shythe shytwo shyapproaches shycontribute shyto shyuseful shyanswers shyto shymeaningful shyquestions shyabout shydevelopmental shyprocesses

51 shyPattern shyAnalysis

As already emphasized the person approach is a theoretical perspective It reflects a shyholistic-interactionistic shyview shyon shyindividual shydevelopment shyIn shyoperationalization shyit shyforms shythe shytheoretical shybasis shyfor shythe shyapplication shyof shyempirical shyanalysis shyof shypatterns shyof shydata shyfor shyoperating shyfactors shyas shya shymethodological shytool shyfor shythe shystudy shyof shyindividual shydevel-opmental shyprocesses shyand shyof shy interindividual shy differences shy in shy these shy respects shy as shy discussed shy The shy theoretical shy analyses shy shypresented shy earlier shy in shy this shy chapter shy imply shy that shy individuals shy can shy be shy conceptualized shy for shy each shystudied shysystem shyas shybelonging shyto shydifferent shycategories shyeach shywith shyits shycharacteristic shyproperties shy


In shyterms shyof shydata shyeach shycategory shycan shybe shydescribed shyby shya shycharacteristic shypattern shyof shyvalues shyfor shythe shyvariables shythat shyare shyrelevant shyfor shythe shystudy shyof shythe shyproblem shyunder shyconsideration shyIndividuals shycan shybe shycategorized shyinto shysubgroups shyor shysub-subgroups shyon shythe shybasis shyof shypattern shysimilarity

That individuals can be categorized on their specific patterns of values for relevant variables shyand shyfollowed shyover shytime shyin shythis shyrespect shywas shyadvocated shyby shyMagnusson shyDuneacuter shyand shyZetterblom (1975) in connection with the presentation of the first empirical study using that shy approach shy This shy study shy was shy concerned shy with shy the shy patterns shy of shy normbreaking shy behaviors shyamong shyteenagers shy(pp shy113ndash118) shySince shythen shya shycomprehensive shyprogram shyhas shybeen shydevoted shyto shythe shydevelopment shyand shyapplication shyof shymore shymodern shymethods shyfor shyanalysis shyof shycharacteristic shy patterns of relevant variables as reflected in the following chapters of this volume

511 Conclusion

From shythe shyperspective shydiscussed shyin shythis shysection shythe shytask shyfor shyempirical shyresearch shyon shyindividual shyfunctioning and development in terms of patterns is in each specific case fourfold (1) to shydecide shy the shy level shyof shy the shysystem shyunder shyconsideration shy (2) shy to shy identify shypossible shyoperating shyfactors shyin shythe shysystem shyunder shyconsideration shythat shyis shythe shyvariables shythat shyhave shyto shybe shyconsidered shyin shy the shy particular shy pattern shy (3) shy to shy identify shy the shy ways shy in shy which shy these shy factors shy are shy organized shythat shyis shythe shyactual shyworking shypatterns shyand shy(4) shyto shyidentify shythe shyoperating shymechanisms shyand shythe shy shypsychological shy and shybiological shy principles shy underlying shydevelopmental shy processes shySo shy far shy the shyoverwhelming shynumber shyof shystudies shyon shydevelopmental shyissues shyhas shybeen shydevoted shyto shythe shysecond shytask shythe shysearch shyfor shypossible shyoperating shyvariables shyA shychallenge shyfor shythe shyfuture shyis shyto shyapply shya shyresearch strategy that satisfies all four needs with reference to the holistic-interactionistic perspective

Within shythe shyIDA-program shymuch shyeffort shyhas shybeen shydevoted shyto shydevelop shyand shyapply shya shycoherent shysystem shyof shy(a) shya shygeneral shyintegrated shyholistic shymodel shyfor shyunderstanding shyand shyexplaining shyindividual shydevelopment shy(b) shya shyperson shyapproach shyas shythe shytheoretical shybasis shyfor shythe shyapplication shyof shypattern shyanalysis shy(c) shyappropriate shymethodological shytools shyfor shythe shystudy shyof shyindividuals shywith shyan shyemphasis shyon shymethods shy for shypattern shyanalysis shyand shy (d) shydata shycollected shywith shy reference shy to shy the shyoverriding shy shytheoretical shymodel shyfor shyindividual shydevelopment shyThe shygeneral shytheoretical shyperspective shyand shyits shyapplication for the study of developmental issues have been presented in the first three shyvolumes shyof shythis shyseries shyThe shyfollowing shychapters shyof shythis shyvolume shyare shydevoted shyto shythe shypresentation shyof shyrecent shydevelopments shyof shymethodological shytools shyfor shythe shystudy shyof shydevelopmental shyissues shywith shyreference shyto shythe shyperspective shyof shya shyperson shyapproach

Chapter 3 GENERAL METHODOLOGICAL

CONSIDERATIONS

In shy this shychapter shy a shygeneral shymethodological shyoverview shyand shydiscussion shy is shygiven shyas shybackground shyto shythe shymore shytechnical shychapters shyto shyfollow shyIn shyreading shythis shychapter shy the shyknowledgeable shyreader shywill discover that certain important methods are omitted or just mentioned briefly while other methods especially those that are oriented toward presenting classifications are treated at greater length This of course reflects our own agenda and the demand to keep this introductory book shyshort shyIt shyshould shynot shybe shyregarded shyas shypassing shyjudgment shyon shythese shyomitted shymethods shya shynumber shyof shywhich shycan shyalso shybe shyquite shyuseful shywithin shyour shyperson-oriented shyframework

1 shySOME shyMETHODOLOGICAL shyISSUES shyRAISED shyBY shyTHE shyHOLISTIC-INTERACTIONAL shyRESEARCH shyPARADIGM

We shy learned shy about shy the shy holistic-interactionistic shy paradigm shy and shy the shy theoretical shy foundation shyof shy a shy person-oriented shy approach shy in shy chapter shy 2 shy We shy also shy learned shy that shy one shy way shy of shy viewing shy shydevelopment shyis shythrough shythe shyframework shyprovided shyby shythe shystudy shyof shycomplex shydynamic shymodels shyIt shywas shyemphasized shythat shyfrom shythis shyperspective shythe shyusefulness shyof shya shystandard shyvariable-oriented shyapproach shybased shyon shya shylinear shymodel shycan shybe shymore shylimited shythan shyis shyusually shybelieved shySuch shyan shyapproach can be difficult to reconcile with an acceptance of the following assumptions that we shybelieve shyhold shyin shya shynumber shyof shyresearch shycontexts

shy 1 shyThe shymodel shyfor shythe shyrelationships shybetween shydifferent shyfactors shyneed shynot shyapply shyto shyevery shy shystudied shyindividual

shy 2 shyLinear shyrelations shyare shyfrequently shynot shyvery shyuseful shyapproximations shyof shyrelations shythat shyhold shyin shyreality shynonlinear shyrelationships shyand shyinteractions shyeven shyhigher shyorder shyinteractions shyoften shyexist

shy 3 shyThe shyvariable shyvalues shycharacterizing shyan shyindividual shycan shyhave shytheir shymost shysalient shymean-ing as parts of configurations and patterns rather than by themselves

These assumptions have been taken in a modified form from Bergman and Magnusson (1991 1997) shyand shyhave shyalso shybeen shydiscussed shyin shychapter shy2 shyIf shypropositions shyI shythrough shy3 shyare shyaccepted shythe shyimplications shyare shythere shyfor shythe shychoice shyof shyresearch shystrategy shyand shymethod shyFor shyinstance shytheoretical shyformulations in terms of theoretical constructs as separate units influencing each other (often symbolized shyby shya shydiagram shywith shyboxes shyand shyarrows) shycan shybe shymisleading shyIt shycan shyimply shya shydenial shyof shythe shythree shyassumptions shyjust shypresented shyat shyleast shyin shycommon shymethodological shytranslations

Take shythe shycase shyof shyan shyapplication shyof shystructural shyequation shymodeling shy(SEM) shyin shywhich shythe shyvariance-covariance shymatrix shyprovides shythe shyinput shydata shyfor shythe shymodeling shyIn shythis shyway shyall shyinteractions shyand shynonlinear shyrelationships shynot shycaptured shyby shythis shyinput shymatrix shyare shydisregarded shywhich shycan shylead shyto shyserious shyerrors shyA shymajor shyproblem shyis shythen shythat shythe shyprocedure shyis shynot shyself-correcting shybecause shythe shyfit of the model is normally tested against the correlation matrix Hence a perfect fit of the model shycan shybe shyobtained shybut shythe shymodel shymay shystill shynot shyrepresent shythe shyessential shyfeatures shyof shythe shyldquorealrdquo shydata shy as shy represented shyby shy the shypersons shy in shy a shyvariables shydata shymatrix shy (see shyBergman shy1988a shy for shy a shy


shydemonstration shyof shythis) shyIn shyaddition shy in shymany shyapplications shyof shySEM shythe shysame shylinear shymodel shyis shyassumed shyto shyhold shyfor shyeveryone shywhich shyviolates shyassumptions shy1 shyand shy2 shyjust shymentioned shyIn shyfairness shyit shyshould shybe shysaid shythat shycertain shynewer shyformulations shywithin shythe shySEM shytradition shyare shybetter shyaligned shyto shythe shythree shymentioned shyassumptions shyfor shyinstance shyhandling shycertain shytypes shyof shyinteractions shyand shynon-linearity shyand shyallowing shyfor shyindividual shyparameters shyin shygrowth shycurves shyand shydynamic shyrelationships shyFor shyan shyoverview shysee shyCudeck shyDu shyTroit shyand shySoumlrbom shy(2001)

From shythe shyperspective shypresented shyone shywould shylike shyto shysee shyincreased shyresearch shyefforts shythat shyuse shymethodological shyapproaches shyother shythan shythe shyapplication shyof shystandard shyvariable shyoriented shymeth-ods Here different avenues are open such as the five approaches presented now

1 shy The study of single individuals using statistical methods and based on intensive longitudinal data shyA shyforceful shyadvocate shyof shythis shyapproach shyis shyNesselroade shy(Nesselroade shyamp shyFord shy1985) shyFor shythis shypurpose shyfor shyinstance shyp-technique shyand shymultiple shytime-series shyanalysis shy(Schmitz shy1987) shycould shybe shyused shyThis shyapproach shyoffers shya shyway shyof shyunderstanding shythe shydevel-opmental shyprocess shyof shya shysingle shyindividual shywithout shycontaminating shyintra- shyand shyinterindividual shyvariation shy(Nesselroade shyamp shyGhisletta shy2000) shyThis shycontamination shylargely shygoes shyunnoticed shywhen shyapplying shyordinary shymethods shyfor shyinterindividual shyanalysis shyon shya shysample shyof shypersons shyIn shyfact shywhat shyis shythere shyseen shyas shyinterindividual shyvariation shycan shyin shypart shybe shyldquocaused shybyrdquo shyintraindi-vidual shyvariation shyTo shygive shyan shyextreme shyexample shyIn shya shystudy shyof shyintelligence shyand shypersonality shyIQ shyand shydepression shyare shymeasured shyon shythe shysame shyday shyOne shyperson shyis shytemporarily shyin shya shyvery shydepressed shymode shydue shyto shya shytragic shyloss shyjust shyincurred shyand shyfor shythis shyreason shyalso shyperforms shyvery shybadly shyon shythe shyintelligence shytest shyThis shyperson shywill shytend shyto shyincrease shythe shystandard shydeviations shyof shythe shyintelligence shyand shydepression shyvariables shyand shyalso shyto shyincrease shythe shycorrelation shybetween shyintelligence shyand shydepression shydue shyto shyhis shyor shyher shyintraindividual shyvariation shyOf shycourse shywhen shyusing shya shyp-technique shyand shyfocusing shyon shyintraindividual shyvariation shygeneralizing shythe shyresults shyover shyindividuals shyis shynot shyunproblematic shya shyproblem shythat shyin shycertain shysituations shycan shybe shyhan-dled shyby shyapproach shy2 shydescribed shynow

2 shy The study of latent growth curve models allowing for individual differences in the parameters of the model shyIn shythis shyway shydevelopment shyin shythe shyform shyof shyindividual shytrajectories shyin shydifferent shyvariables shycan shybe shymodeled shyin shya shyway shythat shyoffers shya shyrapprochement shyof shyresults shypertaining shyto shythe shyintra- shyand shyinterindividual shydomains shyA shynumber shyof shynew shymethods shyis shynow shyemerging shy within shy this shy area shy emanating shy from shy the shy SEM shy tradition shy (see shy eg shy McArdle shy amp shyEpstein shy1987 shyBMutheacuten shyamp shyLMutheacuten shy2000) shyCurran shyand shyBollen shy(2001) shycombined shythe shylatent shygrowth shycurve shymodeling shyapproach shywith shythe shyautoregressive shymodel shyto shyachieve shya shymore shyflexible modeling Another approach is taken within the HLM tradition as discussed by Raudenbush shy(2001)

3 shy The use of mathematical models taken from the study of nonlinear dynamic systems (NOLIDS) shy Such shy models shy open shy up shy the shy possibility shy of shy getting shy closer shy to shy the shy motor of change shy than shy one shy usually shy does shy with shy ordinary shy statistical shy models shy In shy contrast shy to shy these shymodels shy which shy tend shy to shy have shy a shy static shy focus shy on shy modeling shy status shy at shy different shy points shy in shytime shy NOLIDS shy emphasizes shy the shy modeling shy of shy the shy change shy process shy using shy differential shy or shy shydifference shyequations shyModels shyfor shycomplex shydynamic shysystems shywithin shythe shynatural shysciences shyhave shyresulted shyin shythe shydevelopment shyof shypowerful shynew shytools shyfor shytheir shyanalysis shyThese shytools shyinclude shynonlinear shymathematics shydata shysimulation shymethods shythe shystudy shyof shypatterns shychaos shytheory shyand shycatastrophe shy theory shy It shy is shy important shy that shy the shybehavioral shy sciences shymake shy full shyuse shyof shythe shyopportunities shyoffered shyby shyNOLIDS shybecause shyappropriately shyapplied shythey shyalso shy

General methodological considerations

have shyimplications shyfor shytheory shyand shyempirical shyresearch shywithin shyour shydomain shy(Barton shy1994 shy shyVallacher shy amp shy Nowak shy 1994) shy Interest shy in shy applying shy NOLIDS shy in shy the shy study shy of shy individual shydevelopment shyis shyalso shyincreasing shy(eg shySmith shyamp shyThelen shy1993)

A shyword shyof shycaution shyhere shyAs shypointed shyout shyin shychapter shy2 shythe shydifferences shymust shybe shyrecognized shybetween shythe shymolecular shysystems shywhere shyNOLIDS shyso shyfar shyhave shybeen shysuccessfully shyapplied shyand shythe shysystems shyregulating shyindividual shydevelopment shyat shya shymore shymolar shylevel shywhich shyare shythe shyfocus shyhere shy(see shyKelso shy2000 shyfor shyan shyinsightful shydiscussion) shyNevertheless shymany shyof shythe shyideas shyand shyconcepts shyof shyNOLIDS shyare shyof shykey shyinterest shyeven shyif shythey shyin shymany shycases shywill shybe shyrestricted shyto shybe shyonly shyconceptual shytools shyand shyno shyactual shymathematical shymodeling shyis shycar-ried shyout shyLike shywith shyapproach shy1 shyone shyalso shyhas shyhere shythe shyproblem shyof shygeneralizing shyfrom shythe shysingle shyindividual shyto shya shypopulation shyand shyof shyhow shyto shystudy shyinterindividual shydifferences

4 shyTheoretical work on the ldquoscience of sciencerdquo aspects of theory mathematicalshystatistical modeling and estimation methods as exemplified by the work of Casti (1989) and Valsiner shy(1984) shyFor shyinstance shywhat shyare shythe shyrequirements shyfor shya shymodel shyof shya shyphenomenon shyif shythe shymodel shyis shyto shybe shycompatible shywith shycertain shypropositions shymade shywithin shythe shyholistic-inter-actionistic shyframework shyThis shyis shya shycomplex shyissue shyand shyit shyis shydiscussed shyfor shyinstance shyin shyBerg-man shy(2002) shyHe shyoutlines shya shynumber shyof shyconsiderations shywhich shyare shyrelevant shywhen shychoosing shya shymethod shythat shymirrors shya shydevelopmental shyprocess

5 shyFocusing on information as a Gestalt by using a person approach shyas shyindicated shyin shychapter shy2 From this perspective the study of typical configurations of values is relevant The assumption shyof shyemerging shytypes shyis shysuggested shyby shyanalogies shyto shysystem shytheoretic shythinking shynormally shyonly shya shysmall shynumber shyof shystates shyare shyin shysome shysense shyoptimal shyand shylead shyto shya shystable shybehavior shy of shy the shy system shy For shy instance shy in shy biological shy systems shy often shy distinct shy types shy are shyfound shy(eg shyof shyspecies shyecotypes shysee shyColinvaux shy1980) shyWithin shypsychology shya shysimilar shypoint shy has shy been shy made shy by shy Block shy (1971) shy talking shy about shy ldquohelliplsquosystem shy designsrsquo shy with shy more shyenduring shy propertiesrdquo shy (p shy 110) shy and shy by shy Gangestad shy and shy Snyder shy (1985) shy arguing shy for shy the shyexistence of distinct types each sharing a common source of influence

It is this fifth approachmdashthe person approachmdashthat is expounded in the present volume with the aim of explaining interindividual differences shyMany shyof shythe shymethods shypresented shycan shyof shycourse shybe shyused shyfor shyanalyzing shyobjects shyother shythan shyindividuals shyin shya shypattern-oriented shy way shy For shy instance shy the shy variable shy is shy regarded shy as shy the shy object shy with shy the shy different shy individualsrsquo values of the variable as the profile of interest In this way as an alternative to conventional factor analysis a classification of variables could be undertaken based on the similarities between the different variablesrsquo profiles of values over individuals In another setting shy the shyschool shyclass shycould shybe shy the shyobject shyof shy interest shy that shy is shymeasured shy in shya shynumber shyof shyvariables shyand shyso shyon shyHowever shyin shythe shyfollowing shywe shyonly shypresent shymethods shyin shythe shycontext shyof shya shyperson shyapproach shywith shythe shyindividual shyas shythe shyobject shyof shyinterest

To shy summarize shy the shy person shy approach shy in shy relation shy to shy a shy variable-oriented shy approach shy shySometimes shy reality shy may shy not shy be shy continuous shy and shy rather shy operates shy to shy produce shy more shy or shy less shydiscrete types It may be that specific configurations of system states (ie value patterns that can characterize the system at a specific point in time) are in some way optimal and shy therefore shybecome shystable shyand shyfrequently shyobserved shyUsing shypattern-based shymethods shycan shybe a more direct way of finding these important types of states than is obtained using shy shy

variable-based shymethods


The search for typical configurations or patterns receives some support from the study shyof shycomplex shysystems shyAn shyimportant shyaspect shyof shyNOLIDS shyis shythe shyJanus-faced shyemphasis shyon shy typical shy attractor shy states shyon shyone shyhand shy and shy the shy emergence shyof shy chaos shyon shy the shyother shyhand shyRoughly shy speaking shy it shy could shy be shy argued shy that shy if shy similar shy attractor shy states shy apply shy to shy different shy individuals these might show up as frequently occurring typical value profiles provided that shythe shystudied shyvariables shycover shythe shyessential shyaspects shyof shythe shysystem shyunder shystudy shyOr shyto shysay shyit shydifferently shyCertain shystates shyof shythe shysystem shyare shyin shysome shyway shyoptimal shyand shytherefore shybecome shystable shyattractor shystates shywhich shyhas shy the shyeffect shy that shy they shyare shy frequently shyobserved shyFrom shythis shy shyperspective shyperson-oriented shymethods shy like shy the shyones shypresented shyhere shymay shybe shymore shynatural shythan shyvariable-oriented shymethods shyin shycertain shysettings

In shythe shyfollowing shyan shyoverview shyis shygiven shyof shymethodological shyissues shyconcerning shythe shystudy shyof shyindividual shydevelopment shyfrom shyan shyinterindividual shyperspective shywithin shythe shyperson shyapproach shy shyperspective shyjust shypresented shyBecause shythe shyconcept shyof shytype shyis shycentral shywe shybegin shywith shya shydiscussion shyof how it is defined in the present context

2 shyTYPES shyAND shyTYPOLOGY

The shywords shytype shyand shytypology shyhave shycaused shyconfusion shyand shyeven shyresentment shywithin shypsychology shyIn shyfact shyCattell shy(1957) shydiscussed shyno shyless shythan shy45 shymeanings shyof shythe shyconcept shytype shyin shypsychology shyThe shyconcepts shyare shyalso shyused shywith shyvarying shymeanings shywithin shyother shysciences shysuch shyas shysociology shyand biology The reader is referred to Bailey (1994) and Blashfield (1980) for overviews Waller shyand shyMeehl shy(1998) shymade shya shynumber shyof shycareful shydistinctions shywith shyregard shyto shytype shyand shytypology shypreferring shythe shyuse shyof shythe shyterms shytaxon shyfor shyroughly shyspeaking shya shyldquomeaningfulrdquo shytype shyand shytaxometrics as a generic name for (their) procedures for finding taxa In the following a shybrief shydiscussion shyis shygiven shyof shythe shytypology shyand shytype shyconcepts shyto shyclarify shyhow shythese shyconcepts shyare defined here and used by us

By shy a shy typology shy we shy mean shy here shy a shy set shy of shy class shy descriptions shy that shy is shy of shy some shy general shy or shy theoretical use for dividing persons into different classes for a specific purpose In this book we shyconsider shyonly shymutually shyexclusive shyand shynonoverlapping shyclasses shyalthough shywe shyrecognize shythat shyin shysome shysettings shyoverlapping shyclasses shycan shybe shyhighly shyrelevant shy(Wiener-Ehrlich shy1981) shyIf an empirical classification for instance the clusters resulting from a cluster analysis of a sample of individuals fulfills the mentioned condition the clusters indicate a typology Then shyit shyis shynot shythe shyclusters shyand shytheir shymembers shyper shyse shythat shyconstitute shythe shytypology shybut shyrather shythe shygeneric shyproperties shyof shythese shyclusters shyEach shycluster shyis shythen shya shytype shyA shytype shyis shysometimes shyreferred shyto shyas shya shyldquonatural shyclusterrdquo shyOften shybut shynot shynecessarily shy the shyproperties shyof shya shy type shyare shystated in terms of a profile of values in the studied variables For instance the cluster centroids (ie profiles of means for the variables in the clusters) for a set of natural clusters would shybe shyone shyway shyof shypresenting shythe shytypes shythat shyconstitute shya shytypology

To shygive shyan shyexample shyBergman shyand shyMagnusson shy(1991) shystudied shypatterns shyof shyboysrsquo shyextrinsic shy(asympexternalizing) problems at age 13 in which the scores on ldquoproblem loadrdquo in six different problems constituted an individualrsquos profile A cluster analysis of the boysrsquo profiles of values in shythe shysix shyvariables shywas shythen shyundertaken shyfrom shywhich shyeight shyclusters shyemerged shyFor shyinstance shyone shyof shythe shyclusters shywas shylabeled shyconduct problems shyand shythe shyboys shybelonging shyto shythis shycluster shywere shycharacterized shyby shyall shyof shythe shyfollowing shyproblems shyaggression motor restlessness lack


of concentration shyand shylow school motivation shyThey shydid shynot shyhave shyeither shyof shythe shytwo shyremaining shyproblems (That is the cluster centroid had high mean scores for the four first mentioned problems shyand shylow shyscores shyfor shythe shylast shytwo shyproblems) shyThis shycluster shyand shya shynumber shyof shyothers shywere shyfound shyat shyboth shyage shy10 shyand shy13 shyand shyin shytwo shydifferent shysamples shyof shyboys shyas shywell shyas shyfor shygirls shyAt shyleast shypartly shythe shyeight shyclusters shycan shybe shysaid shyto shyindicate shya shytypology shyof shyextrinsic shyadjustment shyproblems shyand shythe shyconduct shyproblems shycluster shyto shyindicate shya shytype shywithin shythis shytypology

An empirical classification is characterized by two properties

1 shyThe shygeneral shycharacteristics shyof shythe shyclasses shyor shyclusters shyemerging shyin shyterms shyof shytheir shytypical shycharacteristics shyUsually shyone shylooks shyat shythe shycluster shycentroids shybut shysometimes shydifferences shybetween shythe shyclustersclasses shyin shyexternal shyvariables shymay shybe shyhighly shyinformative shyFor shyinstance shyin shythe shyaforementioned shyexample shyof shyestablishing shya shytypology shyof shyextrinsic shy shyadjustment shyproblems shydifferences shybetween shyclusters shywith shyregard shyto shylater shyoutcomes shyis shyan shyimportant shyaspect shyof shythe shyvalidation shyprocess

2 shyThe shyallocation shyof shyindividual shymembers shyto shythe shydifferent shyclasses shyor shyclusters shyThis shyis shyusually shyachieved shydirectly shyas shya shyproduct shyof shythe shyquantitative shyanalysis shyFor shyinstance shyin shya shycluster shyanalysis the main result is a classification of the individuals Another way of assigning class membership is to have a defined procedure for assigning persons to classes (often constructed shyfrom shyanalyzing shyan shyinitial shysample) shyand shythen shyapply shythis shyprocedure shyto shyanother shysample shyof shypersons shyFor shyinstance shythe shycluster shycentroids shyresulting shyfrom shya shycluster shyanalysis shyof shya shylarge shyinitial shyldquoreferencerdquo shysample shyare shyused shyin shythe shyfollowing shyway shyFor shyeach shyperson shyin shya shynew shysample shymeasured shyby shythe shysame shyvariables shythe shysimilarity shyof shyhis shyor shyher shyvalue shy profile to each cluster centroid is measured and the person is assigned membership in the shycluster shyto shywhich shyhe shyor shyshe shyis shymost shysimilar

It is the first property that most directly relates to the issue of typology and type Allocating the shy sample shymembers shy to shy the shyldquorightrdquo shycluster shy in shy the shypresence shyof shy sampling shyerror shyand shyerrors shyof shymeasurement tends to be a more difficult task than identifying ldquotruerdquo centroids which is what is shyneeded shyto shyestablish shya shytypology shyHence shyit shymay shybe shyeasier shyto shydemonstrate shythe shyexistence shyof shya shytypology shythan shyfor shyinstance shyto shypursue shyresearch shylinking shyindividual shytypes shybased shyon shythe shytypology shyto other external variables In the first case only number 1 needs to be involved (albeit for more than shyone shysample) shybut shyin shythe shysecond shycase shyit shymay shybe shynecessary shyto shyalso shyproperly shyassign shyindividu-als shyto shytypes shy(both shynumber shy1 shyand shynumber shy2) shyin shyorder shyto shycarry shyout shythe shystudy

A shytypology shycan shyeither shybe shyhierarchical shyor shynonhierarchical shyThe shyusefulness shyof shya shyhierarchical shytypology shyshould shybe shynoted shyIt shypermits shyan shyoverview shybecause shythe shyresearcher shycan shymove shydown shythe shyclassification tree to a more global level and it permits looking at a more detailed picture by moving up the classification tree A class at a lower level usually includes several classes at a higher level This means that the interpretation of the classes at a specific level can be extended by shycomparing shythe shyresults shyto shythose shyobtained shyat shya shymore shydetailed shylevel shyand shyto shythose shyobtained shyat shya less detailed level This flexibility is an advantage when compared to many other methods For shyinstance shyin shystandard shyfactor shyanalysis shyno shycomparable shyproperty shyholds shyfor shycomparing shyfactor shysolutions shywith shydifferent shynumbers shyof shyfactors shyA shythorough shyanalysis shyof shythe shymeaning shyof shya shyhierar-chic classification and how it is to be secured and validated deserves more attention from shyresearchers shywithin shydevelopmental shyscience shythan shythey shyso shyfar shyhave shyreceived shyHere shywe shycan shylearn shymuch shyfrom shybiology shywhere shythis shyissue shyhas shybeen shyextensively shystudied


It shy is shy important shy to shy realize shy that shy many shy different shy types shy of shy approaches shy are shy possible shy for shy shygenerating shya shytypology shybesides shycluster shyanalysis shyof shydimensional shydata shy(ie shycluster shyanalysis shyof shyprofiles of values in the variables of interest) Other important approaches are

1 Classification analyses based on (dis)similarities between persons obtained by other meth-ods than comparison of two individualsrsquo values in a variable profile For instance raters evaluate shythe shysimilarity shybetween shyeach shypair shyof shypersons shyin shythe shyrelevant shyaspects shyand shythe shyaverage shyof shytheir shyratings shyis shyused shyin shya shymatrix shyof shysimilarity shybetween shyall shypairs shyof shypersons shyThis shymatrix shyis shythen shyused shyas shythe shyinput shydata shyin shya shycluster shyanalysis

2 shyRaters shysort shypeople shydirectly shyinto shyclasses shybased shyon shysubjective shyinformation shyavailable shyfor shyeach shysubject

3 shyBy shymaking shyall shyvariables shydiscrete shyso shythat shyeach shytakes shyjust shya shyfew shydifferent shyvalues shyall shypossible shypattern shycombinations shycan shybe shystudied shyand shy(unexpectedly) shyfrequently shyoccurring shyvalue shycom-binations will then give information about types This is done in for instance configural frequency shy analysis shy (CFA) shy which shy is shy presented shy in shy chapter shy 5 shy From shy a shy CFA shy perspective shyKrauth shy(1985) shyemphasized shythe shyimportance shyof shyidentifying shycombinations shyof shyvariable shyvalues shythat shyemerge shyabove shychance shylevel shyHis shyline shyof shyreasoning shystarted shyfrom shythe shyCFA shyframework shyin shywhich shyeach shyobserved shyfrequency shywas shycompared shyto shythe shyexpected shyfrequency shycomputed shyfrom shythe shymarginal shyfrequencies shyof shythe shyvariable shyvalues shythat shymade shyup shythe shypattern shyHe shypointed shyout shythat shythis shyis shyan shyobjective shymethod shyfor shyidentifying shytypes shywhen shyanalyzing shyvalue shypatterns shyfor shydiscrete shyvariables Without denying the usefulness of this approach to type identification it has limitations shyas shya shygeneral shyprocedure shyfor shyidentifying shytypes shyFrom shyKrauthrsquos shy(1985) shyperspective shythe shyinterpretation shyof shya shyfrequently shyobserved shyvalue shypattern shywhich shyis shynot shya shytype shyin shythe shysense shyof shya significantly overfrequented cell in a CFA analysis is that it is not a ldquoreal typerdquo because the shyobserved shyfrequency shycould shybe shypredicted shyby shythe shymarginal shyfrequencies shyFrom shyhis shyposition shyyou shysay shythat shythe shymarginal shyfrequencies shyare shygiven shyentities shynot shyto shybe shyexplained shyor shyaccounted shyfor shyBut shyone shycould shyargue shythat shythe shyprocess shyunder shystudy shyboth shyproduces shythe shymarginal shyfrequencies shyand shythe shycell shyfrequencies shyand shythat shyfrom shythis shyperspective shyany shyreplicable shyvery shyfrequent shyvalue shycombination shydeserves shyto shybe shycalled shya shytype

4 shyThe shytypology shyis shytheoretically shyderived shy(To shybe shyconsidered shyas shysaying shysomething shyabout shyreality shyand shynot shyjust shyas shya shyconceptual shytool shythe shytypology shyor shyat shyleast shyaspects shyof shyit shythen shyneeds shyto shybe shyfollowed by empirical verification) For instance based on Weberrsquos (1947) thinking about the shytype shyconcept shyof shybureaucracy shyUdy shy(1959) shyconstructed shya shy16-cell shytypology shybased shyon shythe shyabsencepresence shyof shyeach shyof shyfour shykey shycharacteristics shy(see shyBailey shy1994) shyBailey shyalso shypointed shyto shythe shyimportance shyof shyconsidering shythe shyideal shytype shywhich shynormally shyis shynonexistent shyin shythe shyempir-ical shyworld shybut shyis shyuseful shyin shythat shyit shyshows shya shytheoretically shyderived shytype shyin shyits shypurest shyform shylike shyone shymight shychoose shya shyperfect shycoin shyin shymint shycondition shyas shya shyreference shyexemplar shyalthough shyin shythe shyempirical shyworld shyall shycoins shyof shythat shytype shyin shycirculation shyare shyless shythan shyperfect

Regardless shyof shyapproach shyit shyis shyof shycourse shyimportant shyto shycarry shyout shya shystudy shyof shythe shyvalidity shyand shygeneralizability shyof shya shyproposed shytypology shywhether shyit shyis shybased shyon shytheoretical shyconsiderations shyempirical classification or on both These issues are discussed in chapter shy7

We shynow shydiscuss shytwo shyfrequent shylines shyof shycriticism shyagainst shya shytypological shyapproach

1 The first line of criticism is the argument that a typological representation of k- shydimensional shydata shyfor shyn individuals is an oversimplification of the available information as shycompared shyto shythe shyrepresentation shygiven shyby shya shydimensional shysystem shyof shyreference shytreating shy

General methodological considerations 1

the shyk shyvariables shyas shyseparate shypieces shyand shyinstead shyanalyzing shythe shyk x n shydata shymatrix shy(eg shyAnastasi shy1968 shyEkman shy1951 shy1952) shyThis shycriticism shycan shybe shyrelevant shyin shya shycase shywhere shythe shytypological shyinformation shyis shycreated shydirectly shyfor shyinstance shyby shyratings shyby shya shyclinical shyobserver shyas shyin shythe shyold shytypologies shyThen shyno shydimensional shydata shyever shyexist shyand shythe shypur-ported loss or distortion created by the typological approach is difficult to evaluate However shyin shymodern shytypological shyanalyses shybased shyon shydimensional shydata shythe shytruthfulness shyof a representation of the multivariate data by a classification can be measured and other shymethods shyapplied shyfor shycomparative shypurposes shyBesides shythe shydemand shyfor shya shyfaithful shyrepresentation shyof shythe shyessential shyfeatures shyof shythe shybasic shydata shyshould shyalso shybe shydirected shyagainst shyresults shyfrom shyusing shycommon shyvariable-oriented shymethods shyas shydiscussed shybefore shyin shyrelation shyto shythe shyoverreliance shyone shysometimes shyhas shyon shythe shycorrelation shymatrix shyas shycontaining shyall shy shynecessary shyinformation

2 shyThe shysecond shyline shyof shycriticism shysays shythat shya shytypology shyclaims shyto shyrepresent shyindividuals shyas shybeing fixed or unchangeable which goes against well-established knowledge about the shyplasticity shyof shyhuman shydevelopment shyThis shyis shyto shyput shyup shya shyldquostraw shymanrdquo shyBy shytypology shywe shymean shythe shyfollowing shyAlthough shya shycertain shydegree shyof shystability shyand shygenerality shyis shyimplied shythe shyprimary shyinterest shyis shyin shythe shychanging shytypologies shyduring shydevelopment shyand shythe shychang-ing shytype shymembership shyof shythe shyindividual shyduring shyhisher shydevelopment shyWe shyare shyinterested shyin both stability and change and there is nothing fixed or innate in a typology

What shyhas shyjust shybeen shysaid shyin shynumber shy2 shybrings shythe shyissue shyof shya shylongitudinal shytypology shyinto shyfocus shyBased shyon shythe shypreceding shydiscussion shyit shyis shyseen shythat shya shylongitudinal shytypology shycould shybe shyone shyor shyseveral shyof shythe shyfollowing

1 shyDevelopmental shytypes shyarrived shyat shytheoretically2 shyA shyset shyof shyempirically shyderived shycross-sectional shytypologies shycovering shydifferent shyages3 shyA shytypology shyempirically shybased shyon shya shygenuinely shylongitudinal shyanalysis shyThe shyquantitative shy

analysis shycould shythen shybe shycarried shyout shyeither shyby shydirectly shystudying shyand shyclassifying shythe shy complete multivariate trajectories of the individuals or by first undertaking cross- sectional classifications which then are linked longitudinally for the individuals

We shymainly shydiscuss shythe shythird shykind shyin shylater shysections shyof shythis shyvolume shyFor shyfurther shyperspec-tives shy and shy empirical shy examples shy concerning shy typologies shy see shy Asendorpf shy (2000) shy Bergman shy(2000) shyBlock shy(1971) shyEysenck shy(1953) shyGustafson shyamp shyRitzer shy(1995) shyKrauth shy(1985) shyMisiak shyand shySexton shy (1966) shyPulkkinen shyMaumlnnikouml shyand shyNurmi shy (2000) shySee shyalso shyRobins shy John shyand shyCaspirsquos shy(1998) shydiscussion shyof shybasic shypersonality shytypes

3 shyTHE shyMEASUREMENT shyOF shyPATTERNS

An shyindividual value pattern shyconsists shyof shythe shyvalues shyin shythe shyvariables shyconstituting shythe shypattern shyThis shypattern shyis shythe shybasic shyunit shyof shyanalysis shyand shyinterpretation shyin shymany shytypes shyof shyperson-ori-ented shyanalyses shyFor shyinstance shyit shyis shyused shyfor shycalculating shythe shydegree shyof shydissimilarity shybetween shyall shypairs shyof shyindividuals shythat shyform shythe shybasic shyinformation shyin shymany shytypes shyof shycluster shyanalysis shyused shyfor shygrouping shypeople shyA shynumber shyof shyaspects shyof shymeasurement shyare shydiscussed shyfrom shythis shy shypattern-oriented shyperspective


31 shyMeasurement shyin shyStandard shyVariable-Oriented shyMultivariate shyStudies shyin shyRelation shyto shythe shyPerson shyApproach

It shy is shy very shy common shy in shy the shy behavioral shy sciences shy to shy undertake shy studies shy involving shy many shy shyvariables shy measured shy for shy a shy sample shy of shy persons shy Very shy frequently shy different shy variables shy are shy shymeasured shy in shy different shy ways shy and shy considerable shy efforts shy are shy made shy to shy secure shy that shy valid shy and shyreliable shymeasurements shyare shyobtained shyIt shyis shyoften shyseen shyas shydesirable shyto shyhave shyall shyvariables shyon shy shyapproximate shyinterval shyscales shyso shythat shypowerful shystatistical shymethods shycan shybe shyused shythat shydemand shyvariables shyof shy this shy type shyOften shy the shyscales shy for shy the shydifferent shyvariables shyare shydissimilar shyand shynot shyreally shycomparable shy(for shyinstance shyintellectual shyperformance shyas shymeasured shyby shythe shytotal shyscore shyon shythe shyDBA shytest shyand shysocioeconomic shystatus shy[SES] shyfor shya shychild shyas shymeasured shyby shythe shyfatherrsquos shylevel shyof shyeducation shyand shystatus shyof shyvocation shyrepresented shyby shyone shyof shyseven shyordinal shySES shygroups) shyThese shydifferences shyin shyscaling shyare shyusually shynot shyseen shyas shya shymajor shyproblem shybecause shythe shymain shyfunc-tion shyof shyeach shyscalevariable shyis shy(a) shyto shyindicate shythe shyrelative shystanding shyof shythe shyindividuals shyin shythe shysample shyand shy(b) shyto shyindi-cate shyapproximately shythe shysize shyof shythe shydifferences shybetween shythe shydifferent shyindividualsrsquo values in the variable Stevensrsquo (1946) classification system of measurements into shy four shy levels shy (nominal shy ordinal shy interval shy and shy ratio) shy with shy their shy respective shy admissible shyquantitative shyoperations shyusually shyprovides shythe shytheoretical shymeasurement shyframework shybut shyoften shya shyfairly shyrelaxed shyattitude shyis shyheld shywith shyregard shyto shythe shynecessity shyof shyassumption shy(b) shyto shybe shyvalid shyHowever shyStevensrsquo shysystem shyhas shybeen shysubjected shyto shydiscussion shyand shycriticism shyboth shywith shyregard shyto shy the shy implications shy for shy the shychoice shyof shy statistical shymethod shy (Townsend shyamp shyAshby shy1984) shyand shywith shyregard shyto shy the shyusefulness shyof shyStevensrsquos shyfour shycategories shyof shymeasurement shy(Velleman shyamp shyWilkinson shy1993)

This shy brief shy sketch shy of shy how shy some shy aspects shy of shy measurement shy frequently shy are shy regarded shyin shy a shy variable-oriented shy context shy was shy given shy to shy provide shy some shy background shy to shy the shy following shy shyconclusion shy In shy a shy variable-oriented shy context shy when shy a shy multivariate shy study shy is shy carried shy out shy shyfrequently shythe shyvariables shyare shyscaled shyone shyby shyone shyand shymade shycomparable shyto shyeach shyother shyeither shyby shymeans shyof shylinear shytransformations shyto shya shycommon shyscale shy(eg shyz shyscores shyare shyconstructed) shyor shyby shyusing shya shystatistical shymethod shywhose shyresults shyare shyinvariant shyto shylinear shytransformations shyof shythe shyinvolved variables (eg computing correlation coefficients) This is the measurement heri-tage shywe shytend shyto shybring shyalong shywhen shystudying shypatterns shybut shyit shycan shybe shya shytreacherous shyheritage shyIn shya shyperson-oriented shyperspective shyit shyis shythe shypattern shyas shya shywhole shythat shycarries shythe shyinformation shynot the parts regarded separately This means that the different parts of the profile must be shycomparable shyTwo shyways shyof shyaccomplishing shythis shyare shy(a) shybringing shyall shyvariables shyto shythe shysame shyscale shyby shylinear shytransformations shyor shy(b) shyconstructing shythe shymeasurements shyof shyall shythe shyvariables shyin shya shycoherent shymultivariate shymeasurement shyprocedure shywhich shyensures shythat shythey shyare shycomparable shyIf shypossible shythis shyis shythe shypreferred shyapproach shyBoth shy(a) shyand shy(b) shyare shydiscussed shynow

32 shyPatterns shyand shyLinear shyTransformations

It shywas shypointed shyout shythat shyfor shymany shystandard shyvariable-based shymethods shythe shyresults shydo shynot shydepend shyon shywhether shyone shyor shyanother shytype shyof shyscaling shyof shyan shyinvolved shyvariable shyis shyused shyas shylong shyas shythe shyscales shyare shylinearly shyrelated shyIn shyother shywords shythe shyresults shyare shyinvariant shyunder shylinear shytransformations shyof shy the shy involved shy variables shy However shy when shy undertaking shy a shy pattern shy analysis shy the shy situation shyis shyusually shy less shy favorable shyFor shy instance shy in shya shycluster shyanalysis shya shysimilarity shyor shydissimilarity shymatrix shy is shy analyzed shy Measures shy of shy (dis)similarity shy are shy normally shy not shy invariant shy under shy linear shy


_transformations shy If shy the shy standard shydeviation shyof shyone shyor shymore shyof shy the shyvariables shy constituting shythe shyindividual shyvalue shypattern shyis shychanged shynormally shythe shymeasure shyof shy(dis)similarity shychanges shyThis shyholds shyfor shythe shymost shyfrequently shyused shymeasure shynamely shythe shyaveraged shysquared shyEuclidean shy shydistance shy(see shychapter shy4 for a presentation of different coefficients of (dis)similarity)

Perhaps surprisingly this lack of invariance also holds when the correlation coefficient is shy the shy measure shy of shy similarity shy It shy is shy even shy sensitive shy to shy changes shy in shy the shy means shy of shy the shy involved shy shyvariables shyOn shythe shysurface shythis shymay shyseem shywrong shybecause shyit shyis shywell shyknown shythat shythe shycorrelation shy coefficient is invariant under linear transformations of the involved variables However if such shytransformations shyare shydone shyin shythe shypresent shycontext shyit shywould shymean shyseparate shylinear shytransformations shyof shythe shyvalues shyin shydifferent shyvariables shyfor shya shyperson shywho shyis shytreated shyas shya shyvariable shyin shythis shycase shyIn shyother words the correlation coefficient as a measure of similarity is calculated for each pair of shypersons shyby shyconsidering shythem shyas shythe shytwo shyvariables shyand shythe shyvariables shyas shythe shycases shyHence shyif shyan ldquooriginalrdquo variable is linearly transformed this means in terms of the similarity coefficient that shyfor shyone shycase shy(ie shyone shyoriginal shyvariable shynow shyregarded shyas shyan shyobject shyin shythe shycalculation shyof shythe shyperson correlations) the values are linearly transformed To this the correlation coefficient is not shyinvariant

So shya shydecision shyto shystandardize shyor shynot shystandardize shythe shyvariables shycan shyconsiderably shychange shythe shyresults shythat shywill shybe shyobtained shyNormally shywhen shyvariables shyare shyused shythat shyhave shydifferent shytypes shyof shyldquonaturalrdquo shyscales shyand shyranges shyof shyvariation shystandardization shyshould shybe shyundertaken shyIf shythat shyis shynot shydone shywhat shytypically shyhappens shyis shythat shythe shyvariable shywith shythe shylargest shystandard shydeviation shywill shytend shyto ldquodominaterdquo the profile and for instance decide the resulting classification from a cluster analysis based on the profiles to a larger extent than the other variables

However shyin shysome shycases shyan shyessential shyfunction shyof shythe shypatterns shymay shybe shyto shycapture shydifferences shyin shyscatter shyand shylevel shyfor shythe shydifferent shyvariables shyat shya shygiven shypoint shyin shytime shyand shyfor shythe shysame shyvariable shymeasured shyat shydifferent shypoints shy in shy time shy (Bergman shyamp shyMagnusson shy1997) shy In shy such shy situations shy a shy shystandardization shy should shynot shybe shyundertaken shy Instead shy some shyprocedure shy for shymultivariate shy scaling shyshould shybe shyused shywhich shyis shydiscussed shyin shythe shynext shysection

33 shyMultivariate shyScaling shyfor shyPattern shyAnalysis

331 On the Limitations of Relative Scoring

From shy a shy person-oriented shy perspective shy issues shy of shy multivariate shy measurement shy have shy been shy given shyinsufficient attention when studying individual development in a multivariate sense The sen-sitivity shyof shythe shyresults shyof shya shypattern shyanalysis shyto shythe shyscaling shyof shythe shyvariables shywas shyalso shypointed shyout shyAs shyalready shyindicated shyvariable-based shymethods shyare shyoften shyapplied shythe shyresults shyfrom shywhich shydo shynot shydepend shyon shywhether shyone shyor shyanother shytype shyof shyscaling shyis shyusedmdashas shylong shyas shythe shyscales shyare shylinearly shyrelated shyExamples shyare shy the shy frequent shyuse shyof shycorrelation shy techniques shyand shymany shyapplications shyof shystructural shy equation shymodeling shySometimes shy this shy invariance shy to shy linear shy transformations shy is shydesir-able shybut shythe shylimitations shyon shythe shygeneralizability shyof shythe shyresults shyshould shybe shyspelled shyout shyTo shygive shyan shyexample shyIf shyadjustment shyproblems shyare shystudied shyusing shysuch shyan shyldquoinvariance shyapproachrdquo shyone shyhas shyto shyassume shythat shyit shyis shyunimportant shyfor shythe shystudy shythat shydifferent shyadjustment shyproblems shyare shydifferently shycommon shyin shythe shysample shyandor shythat shythe shysame shyadjustment shyproblem shymeasured shyat shydifferent shyages shymay shyhave shya shydifferent shy frequency shyTo shymake shy this shypoint shymore shyconcrete shyconsider shy the shy following shyexample


As shyparts shyof shya shystudy shyof shytypical shypatterns shyof shyintrinsic shy(ie shyinternalizing) shyadjustment shyproblems shyBergman and Magnusson (1984a 1984b) studied five different adjust-ment problems charac-terizing shyeach shyof shy466 shygirls shystudied shyat shythe shyage shyof shy10 shyfeelings of low peer status low self-esteem doesnrsquot like schoolwork doesnrsquot like school generally shyand shypsychosomatic reactions shyFor shythe shysake shyof shybrevity shythe shyscaling shyis shydiscussed shyfor shyonly shythe shylast shytwo shyvariables shyDoesnrsquot like school generally was composed of six items from a pupilsrsquo questionnaire and was identified by factor analysis shyEach shyitem shyhad shythree shyor shyfour shyscale shysteps shywith shy1 shyindicating shythe shypositive shyextreme shyfor shythat shyitem and the highest score indicating the negative extreme For example the first item was ldquoDo you shythink shyschool shyis shyfunrdquo shywith shythe shyresponse shyalternative shyalways shycoded shy1 shyoften shycoded shy2 shyocca-sionally shycoded shy3 shyand shynever shycoded shy4 shyFirst shyan shyindex shydoesnrsquot like school generally shywas shyformed shyby shysumming shythe shyscores shyon shythe shysix shyitems shyThe shytheoretically shypossible shyminimum shyand shymaximum shyvalues shyare shy6 shyand shy20 shyrespectively shyThe shyfrequency shydistribution shyof shythis shyindex shyis shyindicated shyin shyTable shy31 shytogether shywith shythe shycorresponding shyquasiabsolute shyscores shy(explained shybelow)

All shypsychosomatic shyitems shywere shyscored shy1ndash4 shywith shy1 shyindicating shyan shyabsence shyof shypsychosomatic shyreactions of the type asked for in the item For instance the first item was ldquoDo you have a head-ache shyin shythe shymorning shybefore shyyou shygo shyto shyschoolrdquo shywith shythe shysame shyresponse shyalternatives shyas shygiven shyin shythe shyexample shyabove shyAlso shyfor shyPsychosomatic shyReactions shyan shyindex shywas shyformed shyby shysummation shyof shyscores shy(three shyitems shywere shyincluded) shyThe shytheoretically shypossible shyminimum shyand shymaximum shyvalues shywere shy3 shyand shy12 shyrespectively shyThe shyfrequency shydistribution shyof shythis shyindex shyis shyindicated shyin shyTable shy32 shy

TABLE 31Frequency shyDistribution shyof shyRaw shyScores shyand shyQuasiabsolute shyScores shyfor shythe shyIndex shyDoesnrsquot Like School Generally

Raw score

Corresponding z score Corresponding quosiabsolute score

Relative frequency in percent

6ndash7 minus178ndashminus127 0 1578ndash9 minus76ndashminus25 0 370

10ndash11 26ndash77 0 34712ndash13 129ndash180 1 9714ndash15 231ndash282 2 2616ndash17 332ndash384 3 218ndash19 435ndash485 3 2

20 536 3 0Total 1000

n=466 shyM=949 shysd=196Note shyThe shyanalyses shymade shyin shyTable shy31 shyand shyTable shy32 shyare shycomplementary shyto shythose shymade shyby shyBergman shyand shyMagnusson shy(1984a shy1984b) shyand shyare shybased shyon shya shyslightly shydifferent shysample shy(complete shydata shydemanded shyand shyno shyimputation shyperformed)

together shywith shythe shycorresponding shyz shyscores shyand shyquasiabsolute shyscores shy(explained shybelow)For shythe shymoment shyignoring shythe shyquasiabsolute shyscores shya shynumber shyof shyconclusions shyrelevant shyto shythe shyissue shyof shymultivariate shymeasurement shycan shybe shydrawn shyfrom shylooking shyat shyTable shy31 shyand shyTable shy32 shyFirst shyit shy


can shybe shyseen shyin shyTable shy31 shythat shythe shyvast shymajority shyof shygirls shyreally shyendorse shystatements shyindicating shythat shythey shyare shypositive shyor shyat shyleast shyneutral shyin shytheir shyattitudes shyabout shyschool shyOnly shythe shy3 shywith shya shyscore shyof shy14 shyor shyhigher shycan shybe shysaid shyto shybe shyclearly shynegative shybecause shy13 shyis shythe shyscore shyobtained shyif shyanswering shyon shythe shyaverage shyneutral shyHowever shy127 shyof shythe shygirls shyobtain shya shyz shyscore shylarger shythan shyone shystandard shydeviation shyabove shythe shymean shywhich shywould shybe shyregarded shyby shymany shyas shyindicating shya shynegative shyview shyof shyschool shyin shythat shyrespect shyAmong shythese shy127 shythe shymajority shywere shygirls shywho shydid shynot shyexpress shya shynegative shyattitude shyto shyschool shySmall shyinterindividual shydifferences shythat shyprob-ably have no psychological significance and could easily have been created by response sets shyor shyerrors shyof shymeasurement shyare shyhere shyldquoblown shyuprdquo shyby shythe shyz shytransformation shyWe shyalso shysee shydue shyto shythe shynon-normality shyof shythe shydistribution shy(it shyis shypositively shyskewed) shythat shyunusual shybut shynot shyextremely shyrare shyraw shyscores shyare shygiven shyvery shyhigh shyz shyvalues

Now shy looking shyat shyTable shy32 shy it shy is shyseen shy that shya shydepressingly shyhigh shypercentage shyof shy the shygirls shy(486) have a score of five or higher in the index with 5 indicating that they either shyexperience shyone shysymptom shyfrequently shyor shytwo shysymptoms shymore shyoccasionally shyand shya shyhigher shyscore shyindicating shymore shysevere shypsychosomatic shysymptoms shyHowever shythe shyz shyscore shycorresponding shyto shyfive is only 27 which by many would not be seen as indicative of a problem A comparison between shythe shyz shyscores shyfor shythe shytwo shyindices shyalso shyshows shythat shythe shysame shyz shyscore shyonly shymeans shythe shysame shyfor shythe shytwo shyvariables shyin shya shyvery shynarrow shysense shyand shyif shythe shyldquorealrdquo shymeaning shyof shythe shyvariable shyscores shyare shyconsidered shythe shyz shyscores shycannot shybe shyused shyfor shycomparing shyvalues shybetween shyvariables shyPlease shynote shythat shythe shyprincipal shyconclusion shyabout shythe shyinability shyof shya shystandardized shyscale shyto

TABLE 32Frequency shyDistribution shyof shyRaw shyScores shyand shyQuasiabsolute shyScores shyfor shythe shyIndex shy shyPsychosomatic shyReactions

Raw score

Corresponding z Score

Corresponding Quastabsolute Score

Relative Frequency

3 minus111 0 2944 minus42 0 2195 27 1 1896 96 2 2347 165 3 308 233 3 219 302 3 410 371 3 6

11ndash12 440ndash509 3 2Total shy 10000

n=466 shyM=461 shysd=145

offer shya shypanacea shyfor shymaking shyscores shyfor shydifferent shyvariables shycomparable shyapplies shyeven shyif shythe shytwo shyindices shywere shynormally shydistributed shywhich shythey shyare shynot shyhere shyTo shyensure shycomparability shyoften shysome shyother shy type shyof shyscaling shyis shyneeded shythat shyenables shyone shyto shymake shymeaningful shycomparisons shywhere shysome shykind shyof shyabsolute shymeaning shyof shythe shyraw shyscores shyis shytaken shyinto shyaccount shyOne shysuch shyapproach shyis shydiscussed shynow shyunder shythe shyheading shyof shyQuasiabsolute shyScaling


332 Quasiabsolute Scaling

To shy recapitulate shy In shy certain shy situations shy one shy may shy not shy want shy to shy assume shy linear shy invariance shy of shythe shy involved shyvariables shyand shyprefer shya shymultivariate shy scaling shyof shyall shy the shy involved shyvariables shy so shythat shy the shy values shy compared shy between shy variables shy and shy times shy of shy measurement shy retain shy a shy more shyabsolute shymeaning shy than shy is shy accomplished shyby shy standardized shyscores shycomputed shy separately shy for shyeach shyvariable shyand shymeasurement shyoccasion shyWhen shyone shywants shyto shytake shythis shyextra shymeaning shyinto shyaccount shymany shystandard shystatistical shymethods shycannot shybe shyused shybecause shythey shymake shyno shyuse shyof shythis shyextra shymeaning shyFor shyinstance shythe shyresults shyof shya shystandard shycorrelation shyanalysis shyare shythe shysame shywhether shyz shyscores shyor shyraw shyscores shyare shythe shyinput shyto shythe shyanalysis

The shy issue shy of shy multivariate shy measurement shy was shy discussed shy by shy Bergman shy and shy Magnusson shy(1987 1991) in relation to the measurement and classification of profiles of adjustment problems shy studied shy longitudinally shy For shy their shy purpose shy they shy constructed shy a shy quasiabsolute scaling procedure shy applied shy to shy all shy variables shy at shy all shy measurement shy occasions shy They shy did shy not shyclaim shythat shythe shyscaling shyprovided shyabsolute shyprevalences shyof shythe shyinvolved shyadjustment shyproblems shy(hence ldquoquasirdquo) They intended within the constraints of their study to obtain profiles of adjustment shyproblems shythat shycontained shyrelevant shyinformation shyabout shythe shyprevalence shyof shydifferent shyproblems shybetween shyvariables shyand shymeasurement shyoccasions shyusing shya shycomparable shytally shyfor shyall shyvariables

Raw shyinformation shyabout shyeach shyadjustment shyproblem shy(sometimes shyfrom shymore shythan shyone shydata shysource) shywas shyused shyin shythe shyquasi-absolute shyscaling shyand shytransformed shyinto shya shyfour-step shyscale shywith shythe shyfollowing shyscale shyvalues

0 = no shyproblem1 = tendency shyto shyproblem2 = presence shyof shyproblem3 = pronounced shyproblem

The shy aim shy of shy the shy study shy was shy only shy to shy discriminate shy in shy the shy negative shy end shy of shy the shy adjustment shy shyspectrum shy for shy reasons shy explained shyby shyBergman shy and shyMagnusson shy (1991) shyThe shyprocedure shyby shywhich shy the shyquasiabsolute shy scaling shywas shydone shy involves shyboth shya shy subjective shycomponent shyusing shyindependent shy raters shy to shygive shyeach shydatum shyof shy raw shy information shy its shyappropriate shyweight shyand shya shymechanical shyobjective shyset shyof shyrules shybased shyon shythese shyweights shyfor shycomputing shythe shyquasiabsolute shyscores shybased shyon shythe shyraw shydata shyThe shyoutcome shyof shysuch shya shyprocedure shyis shyillustrated shyin shyTable shy31 shyand shyTable shy32 shyand shyfor shydetails shy the shyreader shy is shy referred shy to shyBergman shyand shyMagnusson shy(1984a shy1984b) shyFor shyinstance shyone shyconclusion shybased shyon shythe shyresults shyof shyTable shy31 shyand shyTable shy32 shyis shythat shywithin shythe shyframework shypro-vided shyby shytheir shyscaling shyprocedure shypsychosomatic shyproblems shywere shymuch shymore shyfrequent shyfor shythe shy10-year-old shygirls shythan shywere shyproblems shywith shynot shyliking shyschool shyIn shythe shypattern shyanalyses shythat shywere shycarried shyout shythe shyquasiabsolute shyscaling shyprocedure shywas shyapplied shyto shy all shy variables shy to shy provide shy a shy ground shy for shy comparing shy values shy in shy the shy different shy variables shy by shy presenting them in the profile in a common metric derived from the theoretical perspective we shyhad shyThis shyperspective shy included shy the shyview shythat shydifferent shyproblems shycould shybe shydifferently shyfrequent shyat shya shygiven shyage shyand shythe shysame shyproblem shycould shybe shydifferently shyfrequent shyat shydifferent shyages shyand that this must be reflected in the scaling of the variables This state of affairs is reflected by shya shyquasiabsolute shyscaling shyprocedure shybut shynot shyby shyan shyordinary shystandardization shyprocedure


34 shyMeasuring shyChange

Consider first the case of a single variable It is well known that the measurement of change can shylead shyto shyproblems shyboth shywith shyregard shyto shyreliability shyand shyvalidity shy(Bergman shy1972 shyHarris shy1963 shyWerts shyamp shyLinn shy1970) shyWithin shythe shyframework shyof shyclassical shytest shytheory shya shychange shyscore shycan shybe shywritten shyas shyfollows

Change shyscore=true shychange shyscore+error shychange shyscore shy

Assume shythat shythe shyobserved shyscores shyare shystandardized shyto shyz shyscores shyseparately shyat shyeach shyof shythe shytwo shytime shypoints shyWe shythen shyhave shyfurther

The variance of the true change score=the sum of the variances of the true scores at the two time points minus two times the covariance of the two true scores

We shy then shy have shy each shy true shy variance shy equal shy to shy the shy reliability shy (because shy the shy reliability shy can shy be shyexpressed shyas shythe shyratio shybetween shythe shytrue shyvariance shyand shythe shytotal shyvariance shyand shythe shytotal shyvariance shyis shy10 shydue shyto shythe shystandardization)

Because shyusually shythe shysame shyvariable shymeasured shyat shytwo shyoccasions shyis shyhighly shycorrelated shywith shyitself shythe shyvariance shyof shythe shytrue shychange shyscore shywill shytend shyto shybe shyquite shysmall shyBecause shythe shyerror shyscores shy at shy the shy two shy time shy points shy are shy assumed shy to shy be shy independent shy the shy variance shy of shy the shy error shychange shyscore shywill shybe shytwice shythe shyvariance shyof shythe shyerror shyscore shyat shyone shytime shypoint shyHence shyfor shya shychange shyscore shymore shyof shythe shytotal shyvariance shyis shyusually shyerror shyvariance shythan shyfor shya shyscore shyreferring shyto a specific time point The reliability of a change score tends therefore to be considerably lower shy(see shyLord shy1963) shyIn shyorder shyto shyhave shya shyhigh shyreliability shyof shythe shychange shyscore shyit shyis shynecessary shythat shythe shycorrelation shybetween shythe shytwo shytime shypoints shyis shylow shyBut shyif shythis shyis shythe shycase shyone shymight shystart shyto shywonder shywhether shyreally shythe shysame shything shyis shymeasured shyat shythe shytwo shypoints shyin shytime shyThis shycreates shywhat shyBereiter shy(1963) shycalled shythe shyldquounreliability-invalidity shydilemmardquo shy(p shy4)

Here shy we shy have shy presented shy an shy outline shy of shy a shy complex shy problem shy which shy also shy includes shy the shy shyinterpretation shyof shyregression shyeffects shyand shyimplications shyfor shyrelating shychange shyto shyother shyvariables shyIt shyis shybeyond shythe shyscope shyof shythis shychapter shyto shydwell shymore shyon shythis shypoint shyand shythe shyinter-ested shyreader shyis shyreferred shyto shythe shypreviously shymentioned shysources shyand shyto shyRogosa shyand shyWillett shy(1985) shyFor shythe shypurposes shyof shy this shybook shywe shyonly shywant shy to shydraw shy the shy following shyconclusion shy If shy the shyvariables shyunder shystudy shycontain shymeasurement shyerrors shy(which shyusually shyis shythe shycase) shythe shyformulation shyof shya shypattern shyof shychange shyscores shyin shythe shyvariables shyof shyinterest shyis shya shyquestionable shystrategy shyThe shystrong shyinfluence of errors of measurement on this profile combined with the sensitivity of most types shyof shypattern shyanalyses shyto shyerrors shyin shythe shyvariables shyconstituting shythe shypattern shyis shyalmost shya shyrecipe shyfor shyldquocookingrdquo shymisleading shyresults

The shy following shy two shy strategies shy for shy avoiding shy the shy problems shy just shy mentioned shy should shy be shy shypointed shyout

1 shyAvoid shycomputing shychange shyscores shyand shyuse shyinstead shyscores shypertaining shyto shythe shydifferent shytime shypoints shyin shythe shyanalyses shyThis shyis shythe shymain shystrategy shyfollowed shyin shythis shybook

2 shyConsider shythe shyunreliability-invalidity shydilemma shyin shyconjunction shywith shythe shyfact shythat shymost shyvariables shyused shyin shydevelopmental shystudies shyhave shyreally shybeen shyconceived shyin shya shycross- shysectional shyperspective shyAn shyalternative shyapproach shymight shythen shybe shyto shyconstruct shyvariables shy


designed shyto shydirectly shymeasure shythe shyprocess shyunder shystudy shyas shya shycomplement shyto shythe shyusual shyvariables that are designed to give a snapshot of the situation at a specific time For instance shyin shysome shysituations shyit shycan shybe shymeaningful shyalso shyto shyask shythe shysubjects shyabout shytheir shyestimate shyof shythe shychange shythey shyhave shyexperienced shyor shyeven shyabout shythe shyrate shyof shychange shythey shyhave shyexperienced shyIn shyfact shythere shyare shyexamples shyof shysituations shywhen shysuch shyinformation shyobtained shyat shya shysingle shypoint shyin shytime shyis shymore shyvalid shythan shyconventional shychange shyinformation shyobtained shyby shycomparing shymeans shyfrom shytwo shypoints shyin shytime shy(see shyWikmanrsquos shy1991 shy shydemonstration shyof shythis shywith shyregard shyto shythe shychange shyin shyworking shyenvironment shyin shySweden shyduring shythe shy1970s) shyOf shycourse shythis shyshould shynot shybe shyseen shyas shya shygeneral shyplea shyfor shyusing shy shyretrospective shydata shyinstead shyof shylongitudinal shydata shyOnly shyin shyspecial shysituations shyare shysuch shychange shyestimations shyuseful shyand shythen shynormally shyas shycomplementary shyinformation shyto shythe shylongitudinal shydata

35 shyMissing shyData

In shy a shy person-oriented shy analysis shy all shy variables shy in shy the shy pattern shy are shy simultaneously shy analyzed shy shyFrequently shya shysubstantial shyproportion shyof shythe shysubjects shyin shythe shysample shyhave shymissing shydata shyin shyone shyor several variables included in the profile This can create problems because the analysis usually shydemands shycomplete shydata shyin shyall shyvariables shyand shysubjects shywith shymissing shydata shywill shyhave shyto shybe shydeleted shyfrom shythe shyanalysis shyComplete shydata shyare shythen shybought shyat shythe shycost shyof shylosing shymany shysubjects shyperhaps shywith shyalmost shycomplete shydata shyand shypossibly shycreating shya shydrop-out shybias

The shyseriousness shyof shymissing shydata shydepends shyon shy the shystructure shyand shysize shyof shy the shypartial shyand shytotal shydropout shy the shycharacter shyof shy the shy involved shyvariables shyand shythe shyaim shyof shy the shystudy shy(see shyfor shyinstance shy Bergman shy amp shy Magnusson shy 1990 shy Cox shy Rutter shyYule shy amp shy Quinton shy 1977 shy Groves shy1989) shySometimes shythe shymost shyreasonable shysolution shyis shyto shyldquoguessrdquo shymissing shyvalues shyfor shysubjects shyhaving shyalmost shycomplete shydata shya shyprocedure shycalled shyimputation shyFor shythis shypurpose shyan shyarray shyof shymethods shyare shyavailable shyusually shybased shyon shy linear shymodels shy(for shyan shyoverview shysee shyPierzchala shy1990) shy However shy in shy a shy pattern-oriented shy setting shy it shy seems shy natural shy to shy use shy a shy twin shy approach shyA shymissing shyvalue shyis shythen shyreplaced shyby shythe shyvalue shyin shythat shyvariable shyfor shya shytwin shysubject shythat shyhas shycomplete shydata shy(El-Khouri shyamp shyBergman shy1992) shyA shyprocedure shyfor shyimputation shyhas shybeen shyimple-mented shyin shythe shySLEIPNER shystatistical shypackage shywhich shyis shypresented shyin shychapter shy8

It shyshould shybe shyemphasized shythat shywhat shyis shycreated shyusing shyimputation shyis shyof shycourse shya shytemporary file for a specific analysis The data should not be changed by this procedure

4 shyAN shyOVERVIEW shyOF shyPERSON-ORIENTED shyMETHODS shyFOR shySTUDYING shyINDIVIDUAL shyDEVELOPMENT

In shythis shysection shya shybrief shyoverview shyis shygiven shyof shya shynumber shyof shydifferent shyperson-oriented shymethods shyand shypossible shyapproaches shywithin shythis shyparadigm shyThe shyoverview shypartly shybuilds shyon shya shypresentation shygiven shyby shyBergman shyand shyMagnusson shy(1997) shySome shyof shythe shypresented shymethods shyare shypresented shyin later chapters and others are just briefly indicated here as a guide or menu for the reader and shyto shyprovide shya shyframework shyOur shyperspective shyin shythis shypresentation shyis shyrestricted shyto shythe shystudy shyof shyinterindividual shydifferences shyMethods shyfor shythe shystudy shyof shynonlinear shydynamic shysystems shywhich shywe shybelieve shywill shybecome shyimportant shyin shythe shyfuture shyfor shycarrying shyout shya shyperson-oriented shyapproach shyare shyleft shyout shyFor shya shymore shyextensive shyoverview shythe shyreader shyis shyreferred shyto shyBergman shy(1998)


In shyFig shy31 shya shypictorial shyoverview shyis shygiven shyof shycommon shypattern-based shymethods shyfor shystudying shyindividual development from an interindividual perspective The classification tree of meth-ods is incomplete and only methods of special interest in the present context are classified at shya shymore shydetailed shylevel shyThe shytwo shyclasses shyof shymethods shyfocused shyon shyare shyin shycapital shyletters

41 shyModel-Based shyMethods

In shyFig shy31 shya shydistinction shyis shymade shybetween shymodel-based shyand shydescriptive shymethods shyalthough shythe shyborderline shyis shynot shyalways shyclear shyHere shymodel-based shymeans shythat shythere shyis shya shymodel shyaccord-ing shyto shywhich shythe shyobserved shydata shyare shyassumed shyto shybe shygenerated shyAn shyexample shyof shya shymodel-based shymethod shywith shylatent shyvariables shyis shylatent shytransition shyanalysis shy(LTA) shywhich shywas shydeveloped shywithin shythe shyframework shyof shylatent shyclass shyanalysis shyfor shyanalysis shyof shycategorical shydata shy(Collins shyamp shyWugalter shy1992) shyParameters shyare shyestimated shydescribing shylatent shystatuses shyand shytheir shyevolvement shyover shytime shyand the modelrsquos fit to data can be tested (see chapter shy4 shyand shychapter shy6) shyAn shyexample shyof shya shymodel-based shymethod shywithout shylatent shyvariables shyis shyloglinear shymodeling shy(Bishop shyFeinberg shyamp shyHolland shy1975) shywhere shythe shylogarithms shyof shythe shycell shyfrequencies shyare shymodeled shyaccording shyto shythe shyldquoeffectsrdquo of belonging to specific categories in the different variables Also here the mod-elrsquos fit to data can be tested (see chap shy5) shyExamples shyof shytailoring shythis shymethod shyto shythe shystudy shyof shychange shyare shygiven shyby shyfor shyinstance shyClogg shyEliason shyand shyGrego shy(1990)

FIG shy31 shyOverview shyof shycommon shymethods shyfor shyanalyzing shyindividual shypattern shydevelopment

Although shymodel-based shymethods shyare shyhighly shyuseful shyin shycertain shysituations shythey shyare shysecondary shyin shythe shymethodological shyarsenal shypresented shyin shythis shybook shyThe shymain shyreason shyfor shythis shyis shythat shywe shywant shyhere shy to shypresent shya shybasic shyset shyof shy robust shymethods shy for shyperson-oriented shyanalysis shywithout shyintroducing shy the shy complications shy of shy complex shy methods shy they shy entail shy strong shy assumptions shy for shywhich shythe shytenability shytends shyto shybe shynontransparent


42 shyDescriptive shyMethods

It shyshould shybe shyemphasized shythat shyldquodescriptiverdquo shyhere shysimply shymeans shyldquonot shymodel-basedrdquo shyin shythe shysense shythe shy term shy was shy introduced shyAlso shy within shy a shy descriptive shy framework shy like shy the shy one shy we shy focus shy on shyhypothesis shytesting shycan shyand shywill shybe shycarried shyout shynot shyfor shya shywhole shymodel shyof shythe shydata shybut shyrather shyof shyimportant shyaspects shyof shythe shyexpected shystructure shyin shythe shydata

A graphical presentation of similarities between profiles can sometimes be useful in devel-opmental shyresearch shyfor shyinstance shybased shyon shymultidimensional shyscaling shy(Wood shy1990) shyHowever shythe shyapplication shyof shysuch shyillustrative shymethods shyis shynot shydiscussed shybecause shythey shynormally shyare shybest shysuited shyfor shydescribing shya shyfairly shysmall shynumber shyof shysubjects shyThe shyinterest shyhere shyis shymainly shyon shyinter-individual shydifferences shystudied shyfor shyfairly shylarge shysamples shyOnly shyin shyone shyway shywe shyintroduce shyMDS shyhere shynamely shyfor shythe shypurpose shyof shygiving shya shygraphical shyrepresentation shyof shythe shysimilarities shybetween shydifferent shyclustering shysolutions shy(see shychap shy9)

421 The Cross-Sectional Perspective

Although our main interest is developmental it is a useful base to first consider the shycross-sectional analysis of patterns Classification in a cross-sectional perspective is treated rather shyextensively shyin shychapter shy4 shyThere shythe shyfocus shyis shyon shythe shycluster shyanalysis shyfamily shyof shymethods shyfor shyclassifying shyobjects shyon shythe shybasis shyof shytheir shy(dis)similarities shyA shynumber shyof shydifferent shymajor shytypes shyof shycluster shyanalysis shyare shypresented shymainly shyagglomerative shyhierarchical shymethods shyWhich shymethod shyof shycluster analysis is best of course also depends on the data set at hand and the specific problem under shystudy shyMethods shyallowing shyoverlap shybetween shyclusters shyare shypotentially shyattractive shybut shymay shylead shyto shyvarious shyinterpretational shyproblems shyand shyare shynot shyfurther shypursued shyhere shy(Wiener-Ehrlich shy1981)

Methods other than cluster analysis can be used for achieving a classification For instance it was briefly mentioned that model-based classification using latent class methods could be useful in certain situations They are briefly discussed in chapter shy4 shyAlthough shyour shybias shyhere shyis shydescriptive shyit shyshould shybe shypointed shyout shyin shydefense shyof shya shymodel-based shyapproach shythat shyfor shyinstance shyMeehl shy(1992) shywas shycritical shyof shycluster shyanalysis shywhich shyhe shyclaims shyonly shysort shysubjects shyinto shyclusters shyusually shyto shyobtain shyhomogenous shygroups shypossible shywithout shynecessarily shyidentifying shyldquonaturalrdquo shyclus-ters shythat shyhe shycalls shyldquotaxardquo shyLatent shyclass shyprocedures shycould shybe shyused shythat shytake shyinto shyaccount shyproperties shyof shytaxa shyand shytry shyto shyidentify shythem shyHe shyalso shyindicated shyprocedures shybased shyon shywhat shyhe shycalls shya shysystem shyof shycoherent shycut shykinetics shy(Meehl shyamp shyYonce shy1992)

Instead of aiming at a classification by grouping individuals on the basis of their patterns of values in continuous variables one could follow Gustav Lienertrsquos configural frequency analysis shy(CFA) shyapproach shy(see shyKrauth shyamp shyLienert shy1973) shyIt shy is shya shyset shyof shymethods shyfor shystudying shyall shypossible shyvalue shypatterns shyThe shy involved shyvariables shyhave shy to shybe shydiscrete shyoften shydichotomized shyor shy trichotomized shy to shy make shy manageable shy the shy number shy of shy value shy patterns shy to shy be shy examined shyLienert shyand shyhis shyco-workers shydeveloped shyCFA shyin shya shynumber shyof shyways shy for shya shybasic shy introduction shythe shy reader shy is shy referred shy to shy Krauth shy and shy Lienert shy (1982) shyA shy more shy recent shy overview shy is shy given shy by shyvon shy Eye shy (1990a) shy CFA shy has shy a shy resemblance shy to shy some shy other shy techniques shy for shy analyzing shy higher shyorder shy contingency shy tables shy like shy for shy instance shy log-linear shy modeling shy (LOGLIN) shy Compared shy to shy shyLOGLIN shyCFA shyis shya shysimpler shyand shymore shyexplorative shymethod shyand shyit shycan shybe shyused shyalso shyin shysituations shywith shycells shycontaining shyzeros shyIgnoring shythe shyspecial shyfeatures shyof shyCFA shywith shyregard shyto shydesign shyof shycon-figurations and measurement it can be viewed as a special type of analysis of cell residuals CFA shyis shypresented shyin shychapter shy5


422 The Longitudinal Perspective

Consider first the classification issue from a longitudinal perspective The developmental shyprocess shycan shythen shybe shystudied shyin shythe shyfollowing shytwo shyways

1 shyFor shyeach shyindividual shya shylongitudinal shypattern shyis shyformed shythat shyincludes shyhis shyor shyher shypattern shyof shyscores in the variables at all measurement occasions and longitudinal types are classified directly shybased shyon shythis shyinformation shyIdeally shythis shymeans shythat shyfull shyaccount shyis shytaken shyof shyeach shyindividualrsquos shydevelopmental shytrajectory shyin shythe shystudied shyvariables shyThis shycould shybe shydone shyby shylongitudinal shycluster shyanalysis shyas shydiscussed shyin shychapter shy6 shyIt shycould shyalso shybe shydone shyby shyapply-ing shyi-state shysequence shyanalysis shy(ISSA) shyin shywhich shyan shya shypriori shytaxonomy shyof shytheoretically shyexpected shycommon shytypes shyof shyindividualsrsquo shydevelopmental shymultivariate shytrajectories shyis shyused shyto shystructure shythe shydata shyset shyand shythen shywithin shyeach shyset shylooking shyfor shytypical shydevelopmen-tal shysequences shy(Bergman shy1995) shyIt shycould shyalso shybe shydone shyby shyapplying shyi-states shyas shyobjects shyanalysis shy(ISOA) shyIn shythis shyapproach shythe shyinformation shyfrom shya shygiven shyage shyis shyconsidered shyas shya shyldquosubindividualrdquo and first a common classification system is created for profiles pertaining to any given age Based on this classification stability and change in class membership is shythen shystudied shy(Bergman shyamp shyEl-Khouri shy1999) shyUnder shycertain shyassumptions shythe shyISSA shyand shyISOA shymethods shycan shybe shymore shypowerful shyand shyextract shymore shyinformation shythan shyconventional shymethods shyespecially shywhen shysmall shysamples shyand shymany shymeasurement shyoccasions shyare shyinvolved shy shyHowever shyISSA shyand shyISOA shyare shymainly shysuited shyfor shystudying shyshort-term shydevelopment shyISOA shyis shyintroduced shyin shychapter shy6 shyThat shychapter shyalso shydiscusses shythe shypotential shyproblems shyof shya shydirect longitudinal classification and emphasizes the frequent usefulness of the linking shyprocedure shynow shypresented

2 At each age a classification is made and the results of the different classifications are linked usually by forming cross-tabulations of classifications at two adjoining ages Development can then be studied with regard to (a) The flow over time of individual class membership (individual stability and change) and (b) The evolvement of the classifica-tion shystructure shy(structural shystability shyand shychange)

This general procedure can be specified in different ways in chapter shy6 shythe shyLinking shyof shyClusters shyafter shyremoval shyof shya shyResidue shy(LICUR) shyprocedure shyis shypresented shyIt shyis shyas shywe shysee shyit shyfairly shyrobust shyand shygenerally shyapplicable shyand shycan shyalso shybe shyused shyfor shycomparing shythe shyresults shybetween shydifferent shydomains shyof shydata shypertaining shyto shyone shymeasurement shyoccasion

Leaving classification methods aside and following the CFA rationale of studying patterns of shy value shy combinations shy for shy discrete shy variables shy methods shy have shy been shy developed shy within shy the shyCFA shyparadigm shyfor shyhandling shya shy large shyvariety shyof shydevelopmental shy situations shy some shyof shywhich shyare shy discussed shy in shy chapter shy 6 shy This shy includes shy the shy study shy of shy repeated shy measurements shy designs shy shy(von shyEye shy1990b)

423 Some Methods for Analysis of Special Aspects of Patterns

Instead shy of shy considering shy the shy complete shy value shy patterns shy in shy a shy pattern shy analysis shy as shy has shy been shy discussed various specific properties of the patterns can be studied Two such types of analyses shyare shythe shyfollowing


1 Sometimes the key features are the maximum and minimum scores of the value profile The shyvariable shytaking shythe shymaximum shyvalue shyand shythe shyvariable shytaking shythe shyminimum shyvalue shyin shyan shyindividualrsquos profile may be considered the cardinal features of the profile with the other scores shyproviding shythe shybackground shyOf shycourse shythis shyimplies shythat shythe shyscales shyof shythe shydifferent shyvariables must be commensurable The categorization of the profiles of scores into the different shypossible shymaximum-minimum shycombinations shyand shythe shyfrequency shyof shythe shydifferent shycombinations give information about the individualsrsquo profile status Stability and change in shyindividualsrsquo shymaximum-minimum shyvariable shycombinations shymay shyalso shytell shyus shyabout shythe shymost shycharacteristic shyfeatures shyof shyhow shypatterns shyevolve shy(see shyBergman shy1998)

2 An individualrsquos profile of scores may be even or unevenmdashit may have a large or small profile scatter This can be studied in different ways for instance by measuring the variance around the mean of the scores in all variables constituting the profile Again the shyscaling shyof shythe shyinvolved shyvariables shymust shybe shycommensurable shyto shyallow shyfor shymeaningful shyinterindividual comparisons Profile scatter can in one measure summarize an shyimportant shyproperty shyof shythe shyindividual shypattern shy(see shyBergman shy1998)

In shythe shyfollowing shyMAximum-MINimum shy(MAMIN) shya shymethod shyrelated shyto shynumber shy1 shyis shyindicated shyBecause shythis shymethod shywhich shyis shyused shyin shychapter shy9 does not fit into the other methodological chapters shyit shyis shydescribed shyhere shyin shymore shytechnical shydetail shythan shythe shyother shy shymethods shyin shythis shychapter

Sometimes shy a shy special shy interest shy might shy be shy ascribed shy to shy the shy two shy variables shy showing shy the shy maximum and minimum values of an individualrsquos profile This information might shysummarize shyan shy important shyproperty shyof shy the shysystem shyunder shystudy shyHere shy the shyMAMIN shymethod shyis shypresented shyto shycarry shyout shysuch shyan shyanalysis shyIt shymust shythen shybe shyassumed shythat shythe shyvariables shyare shyapproximately shycontinuous shyand shyon shyan shyinterval shyscale shyand shythey shymust shyall shybe shycomparably shyscaled shy(most shycommonly shybased shyon shystandardized shyscores) shyIn shythe shyfollowing shyMAMIN shyis shyintroduced shyfor the case with three variables in the profile The reader can easily generalize the method to a situation with a larger number of variables in the profile

With shy three shy variables shy there shy are shy six shy possible shy maximum-minimum shy combinations shy (the shy shyvariables shyare shydenoted shyin shyTable shy33 shywith shyX Y shyand shyZ)

Here shy the shy total shy number shy of shy observations shy is shy n shy and shy the shy observed shy frequency shy of shy each shy value shy shycombination shyis shyf shyUnder shyan shyindependence shymodel shythe shyfrequencies shyof shyall shythe shyexpected shyfrequencies shyare shy the shysame shy(=(16)n) shyDeviances shy from shy the shynull shyhypothesis shycould shybe shyapproximately shy tested shybased on a chi-square with 5 degrees of freedom Specific cells could be approximately tested shybased shyon shystandardized shyresiduals shy(Haberman shy1973) shyor shyusing shythe shybinomial shydistribution shy Following the CFA paradigm it could for instance be tested if a specific maximurn-minimum combination is a significant type This can be done by finding in the binomial distribution the probability shyof shyobserving shythe shymaximum-minimum shycombination shyat shyleast shyas shymany shytimes shyas shyit shyhas shybeen shyobserved shywith shythe shytotal shynumber shyof shyobservations shybeing shyequal shyto shyn shyand shythe shyprobability

TABLE 33Possible shyMaximum-Minimum shyCombinations shyfor shythe shyThree shyVariables shyCase

Maximum-Minimum Combination Observed Frequency Expected FrequencyX shymax shyY shymin fxy (16)nX shymax shyZ shymin fxz (16)n


X shymin shyY shymax fyx (16)nX shymin shyZ shymax fzx (16)nY shymax shyZ shymin fyz (16)nZ shymax shyY shymin fzy (16)n

of shyobserving shythe shyevent shyequal shyto shy16 shyUsing shythe shysame shyrationale shyantitypes shycan shybe shysearched shyfor by finding the probability of observing a maximum-minimum combination at most as many shytimes shyas shyit shyhas shybeen shyobserved

A shycomplementary shyanalysis shycan shybe shymade shyof shythe shytwo shyvariables shywith shythe shymost shysimilar shyvalues shy(Table shy34) shyThere shyare shythree shysuch shycombinations

Types shy and shy antitypes shy of shy similar shy variable shy combinations shy can shy be shy tested shy using shy the shy same shy shyrationale shythat shywas shyjust shyoutlined shyfor shythe shymaximum-minimum shycombinations

At a first glance the analyses suggested here might appear as only more crude variants of the correlation coefficient This is not true MAMIN is based on the whole profile of values shyand shy the shy results shycomplement shy those shy found shyby shy for shy instance shycluster shyanalysis shyand shyan shyordinary shy correlation shy analysis shyThe shy fundamental shy difference shy from shy ordinary shy correlations shy is shyseen shyin shythat shyall shythe shyresults shyproduced shyby shyMAMIN shynormally shychange shywhen shya shyvariable shyis shyadded shyto or deleted from the value profile in difference to the correlations that remain the same except shythat shysome shycorrelations shyare shydeleted shyor shyadded

In shymany shypractical shyapplications shyvariables shyare shynot shycompletely shycontinuous shyleading shyto shythe shypossibility shythat shywithin shya shysubject shymore shythan shyone shymaximum-minimum shycombination shycan shybe shyfound shy(or shythat shymore shythan shyone shypair shyof shyvariables shyare shyldquomost shysimilarrdquo) shyThere shyis shyno shyobvious shysolu-tion shyto shythis shyproblem shyOne shyapproach shyis shyto shydelete shysubjects shywith shyties shyof shythis shytype shyAnother shyone shyis shyto shycount shymore shythan shyone shymaximum-minimum shyinstances shyThen shythe shynumber shyof shyobservations shywill shyof shycourse shyexceed shythe shynumber shyof shysubjects

TABLE 34Possible shyMost shySimilar shyVariable shyPairs shyin shythe shyThree shyVariables shyCase

Variable Combination Observed Frequency Expected FrequencyX shyand shyY fxy (13)nX shyand shyZ fxz (13)nY shyand shyZ fyz (13)n

43 shyThe shyStudy shyof shyldquoAnticlassesrdquo

The shysearch shyfor shytypical shypatterns shycan shybe shycomplemented shywith shya shysearch shyfor shywhat shyBergman shyand shyMagnusson shy(1997) shycalled shyldquowhite shyspotsrdquo shythe shypatterns shythat shyoccur shyseldom shyor shynot shyat shyall shyWithin shythe confinement of phase space (ie what theoretically can be observed) it can be of great interest shyto shylocate shynot shyonly shythe shyldquodenserdquo shyregions shywhere shythere shyare shymany shyobservations shybut shyalso shyto shy locate shy the shyempty shyor shyalmost shyempty shy regions shy although shy there shyare shyno shyldquotechnicalrdquo shy reasons shyfor shywhy shy they shy should shybe shyempty shyWhy shyare shy these shyclasses shyof shypatternsdevelopmental shy trajec-tories shynot shycharacteristic shyof shyanyone shyUnfortunately shya shymapping shyof shythe shyboundaries shyof shyareas shycontaining shynonoccurring shydevelopmental shytrajectories shyis shyseldom shymade shydespite shythe shyobvious shyrelevancy shyfor shytheory shytesting shyResearch shyalong shythese shylines shyhas shybeen shydiscussed shyfor shyinstance shyby shy


Lewin shy(1933) shywho shyanalyzed shyboundary shyconditions shyin shyterms shyof shyldquoregion shyof shyfreedom shyof shymove-mentrdquo shy(p shy598) shyCairns shyand shyRodkin shy(1998) shypresented shya shyldquoprodigal shyanalysisrdquo shyfor shyhighlighting shypathways shy for shypersons shywho shydo shynot shy follow shy the shynormative shydevelopmental shypathways shyof shy the shyconfigural subgroup to which they belong To conclude The concept of white spots offers additional shyways shyof shytesting shytheories shyin shyterms shyof shypredictions shyof shywhat shyshould shynot shyhappen shyin shydevelopment shyaccording shyto shyonersquos shytheory shyThis shycould shybe shydone shycross-sectionally shyor shydevelop-mentally shyfor shyinstance shyby shylooking shyfor shypathways shyof shypattern shydevelopment shythat shyfor shysome shyreason shyhave shynot shybeen shytrodden shyWhat shyhas shyjust shybeen shysaid shyalso shyunderlines shythe shyimportance shyof shystudying shyextreme shycases shyas shydiscussed shyby shyKagan shyet shyal shy(1998)

A shy number shy of shy approaches shy are shy possible shy for shy analyzing shy white shy spots shy like shy searching shy for shy antitypes within CFA and the identification of a residue (asympunclassifiable subjects) within a cluster shyanalytic shyframework shyThe shyresidue shyconcept shyhas shythe shyfollowing shybackground shyIt shyhas shylong shybeen shyrecognized shythat shymultivariate shyoutliers shycan shydisturb shythe shyresults shyof shycluster shyanalysis shyand shyit shyhas shybeen shysuggested shythat shy in shysome shysituations shy it shymight shybe shyuseful shynot shy to shyclassify shyeverybody shy(Edelbrock 1979) but to leave a (small) residue of unclassified subjects In addition to technical shyreasons shyfor shythis shytheoretical shyreasons shyhave shybeen shysuggested shyby shyBergman shy(1988b) shywho shy pointed shy out shy that shy there shy often shy exists shy a shy small shy number shy of shy ldquouniquerdquo shy individuals shy due shy to shyextreme shyenvironmental shyconditions shyand shyparticular shygenotypes shyand shythat shythey shyshould shynot shybe shyforced shyinto shya shycluster shyA shyprocedure shyRESIDue shyANalysis shy(RESIDAN) shyfor shythe shyformation shyand shyanalysis shyof shya shyresidue shyis shypresented shyin shychapter shy4 shyand shyit shycan shyalso shybe shyused shyfor shythe shypurpose shyof shyanalyzing shywhite shyspots

44 shyVariable-Oriented shyand shyPerson-Oriented shyMethods shyas shyComplementary shyApproaches

To shy reiterate shy When shy studying shy individual shy development shy do shy not shy confuse shy a shy person-oriented shy shytheoretical shy approach shy with shy a shy person-oriented shy methodological shy approach shy using shy pattern shy shyanalysis shyOf shycourse shyit shyis shyin shymost shycases shynatural shyto shyuse shypattern-based shymethods shywhen shyperson-oriented shyresearch shyis shycarried shyout shybut shythe shymethod shyis shynot shyequal shyto shythe shyperson shyapproach shywhich shyis shya shymore shyencompassing shyconcept shyincluding shytheory shymethod shyempirical shyanalysis shyand shythe shyinter-pretation shyof shythe shyresults shyIt shyis shyprobably shysafe shyto shystate shythat shythere shyhas shyalso shybeen shyan shyoveremphasis shyon shyusing shystandard shyvariable-based shymethods shyalso shyto shytry shyto shyaccount shyfor shyinteractions shyand shythis shyresearch shyhas shysometimes shybeen shycalled shyperson-oriented shyNormally shyit shyis shymore shystraightforward shyto take care of complex interactions by concentrating on profiles of values rather than by introducing shyinteraction shyterms shywithin shya shyvariable-oriented shyframework shySuch shyan shyapproach shyif shycarried shyout shyambitiously shytends shyto shybecome shyextremely shycomplex shyCronbach shy(1975) shycompared shyit shymetaphorically shyto shyentering shya shyhall shyof shymirrors

Pattern-oriented shyand shyvariable-oriented shymethods shyare shyboth shycompetitive shyand shycomplementary shyWe shyargue shythat shythe shycomplementary shyaspects shyshould shybe shyemphasized shyFor shyexample shyin shya shynew shyarea shy of shy research shy variable-oriented shy methods shy are shy used shy to shy help shy in shy delineating shy systems shy to shystudy and to find operating factors and so forth Then typical configurations of values in shy these shy factors shy are shy looked shy for shy using shy person-oriented shy methods shyThis shy might shy lead shy to shy new shytheories which sometimes can be tested by variable-oriented methods in which specific shyhypothesized shyinteractions shycan shybe shyincorporated shyas shynew shyvariables shyand shyso shyon shyAdditionally shythe shysimultaneous shyapplication shyof shypattern-oriented shyand shyvariable-oriented shyanalyses shycan shybe shyuseful shyand shythought shyprovoking shynot shyleast shybecause shythe shypictures shyprovided shyby shythese shytwo shyapproaches shy


can be hard to reconcile or even to align for comparison It is a little like the difficulty of combining shyreports shyof shyan shyevent shyby shya shydeaf shyperson shyand shya shyblind shyperson shyBut shyjust shylike shyin shythis shysimile shythe shycombined shyinformation shyfrom shythe shytwo shytypes shyof shyanalyses shymay shytell shyyou shythings shyyou shycannot shy understand shy by shy just shy having shy one shy type shy of shy information shy It shy may shy also shy reveal shy method-bound shyconstraints shyin shythe shygeneralizability shyof shythe shyresults shyyou shywould shynot shybe shyaware shyof shyif shyyou shyhad shyjust shymade shyone shytype shyof shyanalysis

45 shySome shyComputer shyPrograms shyfor shyCarrying shyOut shyPattern shyAnalyses

Many shyof shythe shyanalyses shypresented shyin shythis shybook shycan shybe shyaccomplished shywithin shythe shymajor shystatistical shypackages shywith shysome shyjuggling shyaround shyMost shyperson-oriented shyanaly shyses shypresented shyincluding shyimputation shycan shybe shyconveniently shyaccomplished shyby shythe shySLEIPNER shystatistical shypackage shythat shywill shybe shyavailable shyon shy the shyNet shy In shy later shychapters shywhen shydescribing shymethods shy that shycannot shybe shyimplemented shyby shy the shyuse shyof shy the shy standard shypackages shyor shyby shySLEIPNER shywe shy try shy to shy indicate shywhere shya shycomputer shyprogram shycan shybe shyfound shyfor shycarrying shyout shythe shyanalysis

Chapter 4 CLASSIFICATION IN A

PERSON-ORIENTED CONTEXT

1 shyINTRODUCTION shyAND shyOVERVIEW shyOF shyTHE shyCHAPTER

Classification of individuals into distinct groups is one of the focal subjects implied by the person approach Generically classification has a broad domain of reference that stretches across many disciplines including psychology The relevance of classification to the person approach shy has shy been shy presented shy elsewhere shy (chap shy 3) shy and shy it shy was shy also shy concluded shy that shy other shystrategies shyimplementing shythat shyapproach shyare shypossible shyHowever shythe shylongitudinal shymultivariate shystrategy shyof shy investigation shyon shywhich shywe shy rely shy in shy this shybook shywith shy its shy focus shyon shy types shy states shyindividual shystability shystructural shystability shyand shyso shyon shyseems shyto shyus shyto shybe shynaturally shyrealized shyin shyconnection with classificatory concepts and methods Of course within a classificatory paradigm shyseveral shymethodologies shyare shyalso shypossible shythe shycentral shyissues shyand shyconcepts shyusually shyremain shy isomorphic shy across shy these shy methodologies shy For shy our shy purpose shy we shy focus shy on shy cluster shy shyanalysis shyand shyon shymethods shyderived shyfrom shya shycluster shyanalytical shyview shyIn shythis shychapter shywe shyrestrict shyour attention to cross-sectional classification which in later chapters is used as a building block shyfor shylongitudinal shyanalyses

We shy choose shy cluster shy analysis shy because shy it shy offers shy a shy framework shy where shy conceptual shy entities shybelonging to the method proper find correspondence in those belonging to the domain of investigation shyAt shythe shyrisk shyof shyoversimplifying shyclusters shyin shythe shylanguage shyof shythe shymethod shywould shycorrespond shyto shyclasses shyor shytypes shyin shythe shydomain shyof shyinvestigation shyproximities shyto shysimilarity shyin shya shypsychological shysense shyand shyso shyforth

We shystart shythis shypresentation shyby shydelimiting shythe shyconcept shyof shy(dis)similarity shywhich shyis shyat shythe shyheart of the type of classification with which we are concerned This is followed by a brief shyintroduction shyto shysome shyways shyof shymeasuring shydis(similarity) shywhich shyare shyappli-cable shyin shyclus-ter shy analytical shy contexts shyWe shy then shy describe shy the shy RESIDAN shy approach shy (Bergman shy 1998) shy for shyremoving shycertain shycases shycalled shyoutliers shyfrom shythe shyset shyof shycases shywe shywant shyto shyclassify shyTheoretical shy shyreasons shyfor shyremoving shyoutliers shyare shydiscussed shyby shyfor shyexample shyEdelbrock shy(1979) shyand shyBergman shy(1988b) shyThis shyis shyfollowed shyby shya shydescription shyin shygeneral shyterms shyof shycluster shyanalysis shyin shyterms shyof shymajor shysubsets shyof shymethods shywith shycommon shyproperties shyFor shyreasons shyof shybrevity shyvery shyshort shysummaries shy are shy given shy of shy these shy techniques shy but shy a shy larger shy section shy is shy devoted shy to shy a shy technical shydescription shyof shy the shyhierarchical shyagglomerative shymethods shywhich shyare shymore shycommonly shyused shythan shyothers shy and shy that shy are shy at shy focus shy in shy the shyperson-oriented shyapproach shypresented shy in shy this shyvol-ume shyWe shyalso shyillustrate shysomewhat shysemiformally shythe shymechanics shyof shyone shypossible shyalgorithm shythat implements these methods Next some key issues in classification in general and of cluster shyanalysis shyin shyparticular shyare shybrought shyup shywhich shycontribute shyto shythe shyquality shyof shya shyresulting shy classification We believe that viewing the classificatory endeavor as a black box accepting data shyat shyone shyend shyand shyproducing shyclasses shyat shythe shyother shywithout shyproper shyevaluation shyof shythe shyinput shythe shyprocess shythe shyoutput shyand shytheir shycorrespondence shyto shythe shypsychological shyreality shyone shyis shytrying shyto capture is detrimental for the whole approach and indeed for any classification

Classification in a person-oriented context 4

Latent class analysis is also briefly introduced as one alternative to cluster analysis for conducting a classification analysis This class of methods despite its importance is not further pursued shyin shythis shybook shybeyond shythis shybrief shypresentation shywhich shyis shyaimed shyat shyorienting shysome shyreaders shyinto shyalternative shyavenues shyother shythan shythe shyones shyoffered shyby shycluster shyanalysis

The shyconceptual shyreciprocal shytranslation shybetween shythe shylanguage shyof shythe shymethod shyand shythat shyof shythe shydomains shyof shythe shytheory shyand shythe shyempirical shyworld shyis shyof shycourse shynot shystraightforward shy(it shyvery shyrarely shyis) shyA shytypology shy(and shyits shyclasses) shyis shyitself shya shymodel shyfor shydescribing shywhat shywe shyperceive shypsychologically shyand shywith shyour shyinstruments shyConsider shyfor shyinstance shythe shyreciprocal shytranslation shybetween shya shyhierarchy shyof shycluster shysolutions shyto shya shytypology shyof shystates shyor shysyndromes shyThis shyreciprocal shytranslation shydemands shythat shythe shycorrespondence shybetween shythe shyentities shydescribed shyin shythe shystatistical shydomain shyand shythe shyones shyinherent shy in shy the shypsychological shymodel shyhas shybeen shyestablished shyAny shyconclusions shyderived shyfrom shya shyclustering shysolution shyshould shybe shymade shywithout shy losing shysight shyof shy the shyassumptions shygoverning shy that shy correspondence These issues are discussed and we conclude the chapter with some reflections on man as a classifier

There are two major ways in which classification problems present themselves In the first the task is to recover (or construct) some classification scheme based on a set of data In the second way classification denotes the ldquoidentificationrdquo processes through which one would identify shy(assign shyor shyallocate) shyan shyobject shyas shybelonging shyto shyone shyof shya shynumber shyof shyclasses shyin shyan shyalready shyexisting classification scheme

Classification approaches of the first kind partition input data presented as cases into shyconstituent shygroups shyof shycases shythat shyare shycoherent shyand shyseparated shya shymajor shydirection shyin shythis shysense shy shyconstitutes shycluster shyanalysis shyOther shyand shysimilar shyapproaches shyhave shybeen shyreferred shyto shyin shydifferent shyfields as techniques of Q-factor analysis typology grouping clumping classification shynumerical shytaxonomy shyunsupervised shypattern shyrecognition shyand shyconceptual shyclustering

Classificatory endeavors of the second sort are sometimes referred to as assignment or identification diagnosis and include techniques for discriminant analysis and techniques for the formation of regression trees The objective of these approaches is to derive classification rules from samples of classified cases and to apply these rules for assignment purposes for other shysamples

In this volume the concern is with the first type of classification where data are used to find a classification structure for the studied sample of individuals In the following a brief shysummary shyis shypresented shyof shyselected shymethods shyof shycluster shyanalysis shyFor shymore shycomplete shytechnical shyand shysubstantive shyoverviews shysee shyAnderberg shy(1973) shyEveritt shy(1974) shyHartigan shy(1975) shyGordon shy(1981) Shepard (1988) Miller (1987) and Blashfield and Aldenderfer (1988) A recent and thorough shyreview shyis shygiven shyby shyArabie shyand shyHubert shy(1996)

2 shySIMILARITY shyAND shyDISSIMILARITY

Similarity in classification is fundamental and functionally many faceted At one level it is readily shyand shyintuitively shyunderstood shyby shyeveryone shygiven shythe shyimportant shyrole shyit shyplays shyin shyhuman shycategorization shyrecognition shyconcept shyformation shyjudgment shyand shyother shycognitive shyprocesses shyOn shyanother shylevel shya shyload shyof shywork shyhas shybeen shyput shyin shyto shybring shyclarity shyinto shythe shynature shyof shythe shysimilarity shyconcept shythat shyis shyassumed shyanalyzed shyand shydiscussed shyin shya shyvariety shyof shydomains shysuch shyas shyphilosophy shylogic shymathematics shyand shypsychology shyto shyname shya shyfew


Similarity shymay shybe shycaptured shyformally shyin shya shymathematical shyor shystatistical shysense shyIt shycan shybe shyillustrated shyon shya shypair shyor shypairs shyof shyobjects shyor shyit shycan shybe shyobserved shyas shya shyrule shyused shywith shysome shyfrequency shyby shyan shyagent in certain situations in judging precepts of a pair of objects For most classificatory purposes shythe shypower shyof shygeneralizing shyfrom shyinstances shyis shya shyfunction shyof shyhow shystrong shythe shyobserved shysimilarities shyare

The shycase shyfor shyidentical shycases shyhaving shyperfect shysimilarity shywith shyregard shyto shycue shyattributes shyis shysimple shyfrom a classificatory point of view they are trivially grouped together The same applies for groups of cases that are identical The kind of situations where identity is sufficient for a total classification of all cases is however not frequently encountered and one often has to adopt a shymore shyrelaxed shynotion shyof shysimilarity shyOnce shyidentity shyis shyabandoned shysimilarity shychanges shyits shynature shyfrom shybeing shya shybinary-valued shycharacteristic shyto shya shymultivalued shyone shyand shyin shysome shysense shycontinuous shyThus the following becomes a necessary prerequisite for most classificatory endeavors the ability shy to shyperceive shy conceive shyor shymeasure shymultivalued shy similarity shybetween shy two shycases shyor shy two shygroups shyof shycases shy that shy is shysome shylevel shyof shydisparity shy is shyallowed shyto shyexist shybetween shytwo shycases shy that shyfor shyall shyother shypurposes shyare shyconsidered shysimilar shyOne shyconsequence shythereof shyis shythat shyone shyis shyable shyto shy shycharacterize shya shygiven shygroup shyby shya shysimilarity shylevel shythat shyis shyldquotypicalrdquo shyof shyall shypairs shyof shycases shyin shythat shygroup shyThus shythree shydifferent shysituations shymay shybe shyencountered

1 Classification is based on identity cases belonging to the same group are all in some sense identical shyand shythe shysimilarity shylevel shyis shyabsolute shyor shytotal

2 A predefined notion of similarity is used to constrain the formation of the groups No pair in shythe shygroup shymay shydiffer shymore shythan shywhat shyis shya shypriori shyldquoacceptablerdquo shyThe shysimilarity shylevel shyis shythus set to reflect a prior belief in what constitutes a homogenous group

3 There is no a priori defined tolerance for disparities between pairs of cases belonging to the shysame shygroup shyie shyno shytypical shylevel shyfor shysimilarities shybetween shypairs shyof shycases shyin shya shygroup shyis shyset shyThe shysimilarity shylevel shyis shyallowed shyto shyfreely shyvary shyfor shydifferent shygroups

One consequence of number 2 is that some of the cases may not be classified at all and depending shyon shythe shychosen shylevel shyof shytolerance shysome shygroups shymay shynot shybe shyformed shyor shydiscovered shyaltogether shyThese shyare shygroups shywho shymay shywell shybe shyseparated shyfrom shyother shygroups shybut shywithin shywhich shypairs shyare shyless shysimilar shythan shyis shya shypriori shyconsidered shyappropriate shyBut shygroups shythat shyare shyformed shyunder shythese shyconditions shyconform shynecessarily shy and shy in shychorus shy to shyone shynotion shyof shyhomogeneity shyequally shyimposed shyon shyall shyof shythe shygroups shyIn shynumber shy3 shyhowever shyall shythe shycases shyare shygrouped shybut shythe shyresulting shygroups shymay shydiffer shywith shyregard shyto shythe shydegree shyof shyhomogeneity shycharacterizing shyeach shygroup shyIn shyboth shy2 and 3 the resulting classifications goes beyond that of number 1 which is obviously no more than shya shysimple shyfrequency shycount shyof shyan shyideal shyexemplar

21 shyMeasuring shyProximity

Measuring shythe shydegree shyof shyproximity shy(similarity shyor shydissimilarity) shybetween shyall shypairs shyof shycases shyor shygroups shyof shycases shyis shyfundamental shyto shythe shytypes shyof shycluster shyanalysis shywe shyare shydiscussing shyA shyproximity shymatrix is essential in most classification endeavors Thus a matrix of dissimilarities (or shysimilarities) shy is shy often shy employed shy and shy summarizes shy all shy the shy relevant shy relationships shy within shy the shyset of cases to be classified such that each pair of cases will have an associated numerical shydissimilarity shyvalue shyd(xi xj) shyor shysimilarity shyvalue shys(xi xj) shywhich shydepicts shythe shyextent shyto shywhich shythe shyith shyand shyjth shycases shyresemble shyone shyanother


To shymeasure shyproximity shy a shy set shy of shy relevant shy features shy is shy implied shyA shy class shy has shy its shymembers shy shysharing shyldquocriterialrdquo shyfeatures shythat shydistinguish shythem shyfrom shynonmembers shyof shythat shyclass shyOf shycourse shyit shyis shyoften shythe shycase shythat shythere shyis shyno shysingle shycriterial shyfeature shyinvolved shybut shya shycollection shyof shyfeatures shythat shyare shymore shyor shyless shycriterial shyThis shyraises shythe shyimportant shyquestion shyof shyhow shyto shydecide shywhat shythat shycollection shyis shyand shywhat shyit shymeans shyfor shya shycollection shyto shybe shycriterial shyIn shyldquostatisticalrdquo shy(probabilistic) shyclassifications clear-cut definitions of a category are lacking Instead statistical relations between shy features shy and shy categories shy imply shy a shy probabilistic shy membership shy function shy for shy the shy shyincorporated shycases shysuch shythat shycases shyhaving shysome shyfeatures shyor shysome shycombination shyof shyfeatures shyare shymore shylikely shyto shybelong shyto shya shycertain shycategory shyrather shythan shyanother shyFor shyan shyextensive shyanalysis shyand shya shyformal shymodel shyof shyproximity shyin shygeneral shyand shypsychological shysimilarity shyin shyparticular shysee shyGregson shy(1975)

A wide range of different measures of proximity has been proposed in the classification shyliterature shy Similarity shy measures shy between shy patterns shy of shy variables shy exist shy with shy varying shy shycharacteristics shyfor shya shywide shyrange shyof shyvariable shytypes shySome shyof shythese shyare shyof shylimited shyusefulness shyand shyothers shyare shyclosely shyrelated shyto shyone shyanother shyFor shyreviews shyor shylists shyof shyproximity shymeasures shysee shyCormack shy(1971) shyAnderberg shy(1973) shyand shyDiday shyand shySimon shy(1976) shyHere shywe shychose shyto shyexplicate shy the shymechanics shyof shymeasuring shy the shyEuclidean shydistance shyby shy reference shy to shy two shymore shygeneral shymetric shydistances shynamely shythe shyMinkowski shyand shythe shyMahalanobis shy(1936) shymetrics shyThe shyEuclidean shydistance shyis shyfocused shyon shyhere shybecause shyof shyits shymetric shyproperties shyand shybecause shyit shytakes shyinto account both the profile level and the profile form when comparing patterns If the interest is only in profile form the correlation coefficient can be used instead Then the correlation shyis shycomputed shybetween shythe shytwo shypatterns1 shyand shyrepresents shya shymeasure shyof shysimilarity

The shy terminology shy in shy this shysection shyconcentrates shyon shydescribing shyproximity shymeasures shy for shya shypair shyof shycases shydescribed shyby shya shyset shyof shyvariables shybut shymuch shyof shythe shydescription shyis shyalso shyrelevant shyfor shy constructing shy proximity shy measures shy for shy pairs shy of shy variables shy (see shy also shyAnderberg shy 1973) shyFor shymeasures shyrelevant shyfor shycomparing shycases shyin shyterms shyof shymixed shytypes shyof shyvariables shysee shyfor shy shyexample shyLerman shyand shyPeter shy(1985)

Measures of dissimilarity are often called dissimilarity coefficients and are often defined without any loss of generality to lie in the range [0 infin] Measures of dissimilarity and similarity are shyclosely shyrelated shyin shyan shyinverse shyway shyDissimilarity shymeasures shycan shyreadily shybe shytransformed shyinto shy

similarity shymeasures shyby shymeans shyof shyvarious shytransformations shyfor shyexample shyor shys(xi xj)=cminusd(xi xj) shyfor shysome shyconstant shyc shyHowever shythe shyreverse shyis shynot shyalways shytrue shybecause shy shydissimilarity shy measures shy may shy or shy may shy not shy be shy viewed shy as shy ldquodistancesrdquo shy satisfying shy the shy triangle shy shyinequality shy(Everitt shy1974) shyFormally shythe shyfunction shyd shy(as shyis shythe shyfunction shys) shyis shya shymapping shyfrom shythe shyset shyof shyall shypairs shyinto shyone-dimensional shyEuclidean shyspace shy(ie shyfrom shyXtimesX shyto shythe shyreal shynumbers) shy shyFurthermore shyit shyis shyrequired shythat shythe shyfunction shyd satisfies the following conditions

1Normally the correlation coefficient is computed between variables Here cases and variables exchange roles


1 shyd(xi xj)ge0 for all xi shyxj shy shyX2 shyd(xi xj)=0 shyfor all xi shy shyX3 shyd(xi xj)=d(xj xi) shyfor all xi xj X

shy

If shy the shy function shy d also satisfies (4) d(xi xj)+d(xj xl)ged(xi xl) shy then shy it shy is shy called shy metric shy or shy shydistanceOne shywidely shyused shymetric shyfunction shyd is the Euclidean distance defined as

shy

where shyxik shydenotes shythe shyvalue shytaken shyby shythe shykth shynumeric shyvariable shyon shythe shyith shycase shyand shyp shydenotes shythe shynumber shyof shyvariables shyThe shyEuclidean shydistance shyis shyin shyfact shya shyspecial shycase shyof shythe shymore shygeneral shyMinkowski shymetric shygiven shyas

shy

which shywhen shyreduces shyr=l shyreduces shyto shythe shywell-known shycity shyblock shymetric

shy

The shyEuclidean shydistance shyis shyoften shycriticized shyfor shybeing shyunsuitable shyparticularly shyfor shyvariables shythat shyare shymeasured shyin shydifferent shyunits shyand shythat shyhave shydifferent shyvariances shyand shyalso shyif shythe shyvariables shyare shyextremely shycorrelated shyHowever shyEuclidean shydistance shycan shybe shyrendered shyscale shyinvariant shysim-ply shyby shystandardizing shythe shydata shybefore shycomputing shythe shydistance shyAnother shyapproach shymight shybe shyto shyscale shydown shythe shyvariables shythat shyhave shygreater shyrange shyby shyusing shysome shyweighting shyfunction shythat shycould shybe shyincorporated shyin shythe shymeasure shyof shydissimilarity shyitself shy(eg shysee shyLance shyamp shyWilliams shy1966 shyor shyCronbach shyamp shyGleser shy1953) shyTo shyexplicitly shyaccount shyfor shyany shycorrelations shythat shymight shyexist shybetween shyvariables shyanother shygeneralization shyof shythe shyEuclidean shydistance shythe shyMahalanobis shydistance shyd(M) shycan shybe shyused shyd(M) shycan shybe shyexpressed shyas

shy

where shyckl shyis shythe shycomponent shythat shyis shyfound shyin shyrow shyk shyand shyin shycolumn shyl shyof shythe shyinverse shyof shythe shyptimesp shyvariance-covariance shymatrix shyC shyof shythe shyvariables shyinvolved shyIf shythe shymatrix shyis shydiagonal shythat shyis shyckl=0 shywhen shyknel then the use of d(M) shycorresponds shyto shythe shyuse shyof shythe shyEuclidean shydistance shyon shy shyrescaled shyaxes shyIf shythe shymatrix shyis shythe shyidentity shymatrix shythat shyis shyckl=l shywhen shyk=l shyand shyckl=0 shyotherwise shythen shyd(M) shyreduces shyto shythe shyEuclidean shydistance shyused shyon shystandardized shydata


The shycity shyblock shymetric shyis shyuseful shyfor shycombining shyvariables shywith shyvarying shyscale shylevels shyThis shyis shymanifested shyfor shyinstance shyin shythat shytwo shycases shysay shyxi shyand shyxj shywhich shyare shythree shyunits shyapart shyon shyone shyvariable shyand shyone shyunit shyapart shyon shyanother shyhave shythe shysame shydistance shybetween shythem shyas shytwo shyother shycases shysay shyxl shyand shyxk shywhich shyare shytwo shyunits shyapart shyon shyeach shyvariable shyThis shyis shyto shybe shycontrasted shywith shythe shyuse shyof shyEuclidean shydistance shywhich shywould shyrender shyxl shyand shyxk shyless shydissimilar shythan shyxi shyand shyxj shywould shybe shyIn shyfact shyfor shythe shyanalysis shyto shybe shyundertaken shya shyrelevant shyconsideration shyfor shydeciding shyon shyan shyappropriate shyvalue shyof shyr shyin shythe shyMinkowski shymetrics shyis shythe shyemphasis shythat shyone shywould shywish shyto shygive shyto shylarge shydifferences shyon shya shysingle shyvariable shyhigher shyvalues shyof shyr shygive shyrelatively shymore shyemphasis shyto shythe shylarger shydifferences

3 shyHANDLING shyOUTLIERS shyIN shyCLUSTER shyANALYSIS

Prior shy to shycluster shyanalysis shy there shy is shya shypreliminary shyphase shywhere shy the shyvariables shyare shychosen shydata shycollected shycoded shyregistered shyand shychecked shyfor shyerrors shyWhen shythe shydata shyare shycoded shycare shyis shyusually shytaken shyin shychoosing shythe shyinput shymedium shyin shydeciding shyon shysuitable shyscales shyin shy shychoosing shyappropriate shymissing shyvalues shyin shydeciding shyan shyappropriate shyformat shyand shysometimes shyin shychoosing shythe shyorder shyof shythe shyvariables shywhen shythe shyorder shyis shydeemed shynecessary shyfor shyfor shyexample shyinterpretation shypurposes

An important decision concerns whether all studied subjects should be classified From both shya shytheoretical shyand shytechnical shystandpoint shyBergman shy(1988b) shyargued shythat shyoften shyit shyis shynot shyreasonable to expect all subjects to fit into one of a small number of homogeneous groups and that in many situations not every one should be classified In the clustering literature this shy issue shyhas shybeen shydiscussed shyusing shy the shy term shycoverage shy to shy indicate shy the shyproportion shyof shy the shysample classified (Edelbrock 1979) Thus in many situations the outlying subjects should be identified and placed in a residue group to be analyzed separately and the classification be shycarried shyout shyfor shythe shyremaining shysubjects shyin shythe shysample

There shymay shyalso shyexist shyenough shyknowledge shyabout shya shydomain shyof shystudy shyto shypredict shythe shyexistence shyof outliers of a certain type Detecting these can be seen as confirmatory of the theory that has shy led shy to shy that shyprediction shyBut shy if shy no shyprediction shycan shya shypriori shybe shymade shywith shy regard shy to shy the shy shyexistence shyof shyoutliers shyin shythe shydata shyset shygenuine shyoutliers shythat shyare shydetected shymay shythen shycomplement shyour shyunderstanding shyof shy the shystudied shydomain shyThe shyrelation shyof shy the shyconcept shyof shyoutliers shy to shy that shyof shywhite shyspots shywhich shywas shyintroduced shyin shychapter shy3 shyshould shyhere shybe shynoted shyAn shyoutlier shycan shybe shyregarded shyas shybeing shyin shythe shyborderland shybetween shywhat shyis shyobserved shyand shya shytrue shywhite shyspot shywhich is not observed at all However the situation is different when outliers are artificially introduced shyin shya shydata shyset shy(see shysection shy31) shyThe shysuccess shyor shyfailure shyof shyan shyoutlier shydetection shytest shyhinges shythen shydirectly shyon shythe shyappropriateness shyof shythe shyassumed shywhite shyspots shydeclared shyby shythese shyoutliers that is whether the theory is correctly specified

The shy RESIDAN shy methodology shy is shy used shy here shy for shy detecting shy and shy removing shy multivariate shy shyoutliers shyprior shyto shyclustering shy(Bergman shy1988b) shyIt shyhas shybeen shyimplemented shyin shySLEIPNER shyour shystatistical shypackage shyfor shyperson-oriented shyanalysis shywhich shyis shypresented shyin shychapter shy8

There are also technical justifications for removing outliers from data prior to cluster analysis shyMany shyclustering shy techniques shyare shysensitive shy to shy the shypresence shyof shyoutliers shy (Milligan shy1980) shyHierarchical shyagglomerative shyclustering shyalgorithms shyof shythe shylinkage shytype shyare shyespecially shyvulnerable shybecause shyoutliers shycan shybias shythe shyhierarchical shystructure shyat shyany shymerging shylevel shyduring shythe shyclustering shyprocess shyThis shykind shyof shyvulnerability shyis shyevident shybecause shyof shythe shyfocus shyof shymost shy


clustering shyalgorithms shyon shymaximizing shy internal shy cohesion shyandor shy external shy isolation shyThese shytwo shyobjectives shydo shynot shyalways shyplay shyin shyconcert shyand shythe shyproblem shyis shyaggravated shyin shythe shypresence shyof shyan shyoutlying shycase

31 shyThe shyRESIDAN shyMethod

Early methods for identifying residue cases incorporated the identification process in the classification phase For example the nonhierarchical clustering method introduced by Lorr and Radhakrishnan (1967) produced a group of residue cases that were not classified Wishartrsquos RELOCATE procedure (Wishart 1987) which starts with a given classification and relocates each case to the best fitting cluster could be asked to create a residue group of unclassified cases But the RESIDAN method proposed by Bergman (1988b) removes outlying shycases shybefore shycluster shyanalysis

In shypractice shyfour shyphases shyconstitutes shythe shyproposed shymethod shythe shychoice shyof shyparameters shythe shyidentification phase the classification phase and the evaluation phase In the first phase the shyresult shyis shya shyfunction shyof shythe shydecisions shythat shyhave shyto shybe shymade shyas shyto

a shywhether shyor shynot shyto shystandardize shythe shyvariables shy(the shysame shychoice shyshould shynormally shybe shymade shywhen shythe shycluster shyanalysis shyproper shyis shyperformed)

b shythe shytype shyof shydissimilarity shymeasure shyusedc shythe shythreshold shyvalue shyT shysupplied shyby shythe shyresearcher shyand shyat shywhich shytwo shycases shyare shyconsidered shy

similar shyThis shyvalue shyis shyusually shysubjective shybut shycould shybe shyrelated shyto shythe shydata shyset shyso shythat shy it shyreflects an ldquoaveragerdquo value of similarity between two cases belonging to the same clus-ter

d shythe shynumber shyof shycases shyK required to be similar to a specific case in order to keep it in the data shyset shy(and shynot shyto shyconsider shyit shyas shya shyresidue shycase) shyFor shyK=1 shya shycase shyis shyconsidered shya shyresidue shyif shyit shyis shynot shysimilar shyto shyany shyother shycase shyFor shyK=2 shya shycase shyis shyconsidered shya shyresidue shyif shyit shyis shysimilar shyto shyat shymost shyone shyother shycase shyand shyso shyon shyand

e shythe shyweights shyto shybe shyassigned shyto shythe shyvariables

The shyidentification phase shystarts shyby

a shycomputing shythe shydissimilarity shymatrix shyfor shythe shywhole shydata shyset shy(ie shydissimilarity shyvalues shyare shycomputed shybetween shyevery shypossible shypair shyof shycases) shyand shythen

b shyidentifying shythose shycases shyfor shywhich shythere shyare shyat shymost shyKminus1 similar cases and thenc removing the identified cases from the original data set and placing them in a residue

Subsequently shyin shythe shyclassification phase shya shycluster shyanalysis shyis shyperformed shyon shythe shyreduced shydata shyset shypreferably shywith shythe shysame shychoices shymade shyearlier shywith shyregard shyto shyscaling shyvariables shyand shytype shyof shydissimilarity shymeasure

In shythe shyevaluation phase shy the shyoutliers shyare shyscrutinized shyfor shyerrors shyof shymeasurement shy those shythat shyare shyfound shywith shyerrors shyare shytotally shyremoved shyThe shyremaining shyoutliers shycan shythen shybe shyanalyzed shyseparately and in light of the results from the classification phase For example by noting for shyeach shyresidue shycase shythe shycluster shyto shywhich shyit shyis shymost shysimilar shynext shymost shysimilar shyand shyso shyon shyandor shystudying shyeach shypattern shyin shylight shyof shyonersquos shytheoretical shyexpectations shyatypical shypatterns shycan shybe looked for in the residue or tentatively explained in light of the classification results

Classification in a person-oriented context

A more direct and confirmatory way for testing a theoretically expected atypical pattern is by including it as an ldquoartificial caserdquo in a cleansed data set (a data set with all the residue cases removed) If a residue analy sis is performed with the result that the artificial case is being identified as a residue case then onersquos hypothesis is confirmed otherwise the residue set shywould shyhave shybeen shyempty

Normally shyone shyshould shynot shyexpect shya shy residue shyset shy that shy is shymore shy than shysay shy3 shythe shysample shysize shySmall shyTs shyyield shylarger shyresidue shysets shyand shyso shydo shylarge shyKs shyAlso shybecause shythis shyprocedure shycontributes shyto shyreducing shythe shychaining shyproblem shyin shycluster shyanalysis shyby shyremoving shyintermediate shycases shylarge shyKs shyespecially shyin shycombination shywith shysmall shyTs shymay shyresult shyin shythe shyelimination shyof shysmall shyelongated shyclusters shyGenerally shyK=1 shyor shyK=2 shyis shyrecommended shyThe shyreader shyis shyreferred shyto shyBergman shy(1988b) shyfor shya shydetailed shypresentation shyof shythe shyRESIDAN shymethod

4 shySELECTED shyMETHODS shyFOR shyCLUSTER shyANALYSIS shyAN shyOVERVIEW

One fundamental doctrine that guides classification poses certain demands on the shyseparation shyproperty shyand shycoherence shyof shythe shyoutcome shyclasses shyClasses shyare shyrequired shyto shybe shyas shymuch shyseparated shyfrom shyeach shyother shyas shypossible shyand shyat shythe shysame shytime shyit shyis shywished shythat shythey shyare shyas shycoherent shyas shythey shycan shybe shyGoverned shyby shythis shydoctrine shycluster shyanalysis shydenotes shygrouping shytechniques shyaimed shyat shyestablishing shythese shygoals shyThe shyaim shyis shyto shyallocate shya shyset shyof shyobjects shyto shya shyset shyof shymutually shyexclusive shyand shyexhaustive shygroups shy(partition) shysuch shythat shycases shywithin shya shygroup shyare shysimilar shyto shyone shyanother shywhereas shycases shyin shydifferent shygroups shyare shydissimilar shyInput shyto shya shycluster shyanalysis shyis shyusually shya shyset shyof shymeasurement shyvectors shyeach shybeing shyan shyinstantiation shyof shya shyvariable shyvector shyrepresenting shya shycase shyOutput shyfrom shya shycluster shyanalysis shycan shybe shya shyhierarchy shyof shypartitions shyor shyone shysingle shypartition shydepending shyon shythe shymethod shyused shyWhen shya shyhierarchy shyof shypartitions shyis shyobtained shyone shyis shyusually shychosen shyaccording shyto shysome shycriteria shybut shyfor shycertain shypurposes shyother shymore or less fine-grained partitions may be chosen from that hierarchy

Classification methods in general and cluster analysis in particular should not be made into black boxes that transform input data of any kind into classificatory schemes We want shyto shyjoin shyothers shyin shyadvocating shycaution shyand shycareful shyconsiderations shyof shythe shypurpose shyof shythe shyintended classification and of the assumptions one is making about the entities involved See shysection shy6 for an overview of considerations for achieving a useful classification

Cluster analysis can be undertaken for various reasons depending on the special field of application and the specific goal set by the researcher These includes finding a true typology model fitting prediction based on groups hypothesis testing data exploration hypothesis shygeneration shyand shydata shyreduction shyThe shyliterature shyabounds shywith shyclustering shytechniques shysharing to a varying degree common views andor answering to specific requirements and shyadopting shyspecial shycriteria shySome shyof shythe shydivisions shyof shythese shytechniques shy(not shynecessarily shy shymutually shyexclusive) shyfrequently shylisted shyin shythe shyliterature shyare shygiven shyin shythis shychapter

There shy has shy been shy considerable shy work shy done shy on shy introducing shy statistical shy theory shy in shy cluster shy shyanalysis shyand shyon shyexploring shythe shystatistical shyproperties shyof shytraditional shytechniques shyFor shyinstance shythe shyconcept shyof shyultrametricity a cornerstone in hierarchical cluster analysis first introduced in shythe shymid-1960s shyhas shybeen shya shyfocus shyof shya shyvariety shyof shyanalyses shyhelping shyto shyshed shylight shyon shythe shyinterrelations shybetween shyvarious shyhierarchical shytechniques shyAdvances shyhave shyalso shybeen shymade shyin shy shyvalidating shy hierarchies shy partitions shy and shy individual shy clusters shy as shy well shy as shy for shy the shy absence shy of shy


structure in a data set (see Gordon 1996) The comparison of classification trees is another area shywhere shyconsiderable shywork shyhas shybeen shydone shyto shyseek shyconsensus shytrees shyand shyto shyassess shyagreement shyand shydifferences shybetween shytrees shyOther shyapproaches shyrelate shycluster shyanalysis shyto shyelements shyof shygraph shytheory shy(eg shyFrank shyamp shyHarary shy1982) shythus shyproviding shynew shymeans shyof shyevaluating shythe shyresults shyfrom cluster analysis and providing guidelines on how to increase the efficiency and trac-tability shyof shyclustering shyalgorithms shyAlso shyefforts shyhave shybeen shymade shyto shyincorporate shyelements shyof shystatistical shytheory shyinto shyclustering shywith shyadvances shymade shyin shythe shyarea shyof shymixture shymodels shyand shyin shyclassification methods based on the latent class model of Lazarsfeld and Henry (1968) for example shyDe shySoete shyand shyDeSarbo shy(1991) shyand shyDe shySoete shy(1993)

41 shyHierarchical shyMethods

The shyutility shyof shycluster shyanalysis shyin shygeneral shyand shyof shythe shyhierarchical shymethods shyin shyparticular shyderives shyfrom shyits shypower shyto shydiscover shyembedded shystructures shyin shythe shydata shyand shyits shyability shyto shydescribe shyin shya shymeaningful shyway shy the shy classes shy thus shy formed shyThe shygoals shy of shy cluster shy analysis shy are shymet shy if shy the shyprovided shysolution shy is shyas shyoptimal shyas shypossible shywhen shymeasured shywith shyrespect shy to shy the shy isolation shybetween shy classes shy and shy the shy compactness shy of shy each shy class shyThe shyobjective shyof shy hierarchical shy tech-niques shyis shyto shyinvestigate shythe shystructure shyof shythe shydata shyat shyseveral shydifferent shylevels shyby shysuccessively shyfusing shysibling shygroups shyor shyalternatively shysplitting shyparent shygroups shyTwo shymain shysubcategories shyof shythese shytechniques shyinclude shythe shyagglomerative shymethods shyand shythe shydivisive shymethods

411 Agglomerative Methods

Hierarchical shyagglomerative shymethods shyare shygenerally shymore shyfavored shythan shytheir shydivisive shycoun-terparts shyThey shyare shyunidirectional shybottom-up shymerging shyat shyeach shystep shythe shytwo shystructural shyunits shy(ie shyclusters) shyin shythe shydata shyset shythat shysatisfy shysome shycriterial shyfunction shyAgglomerative shymethods shystart shyby shyassuming shyeach shyindividual shycase shyto shybe shya shycluster shyand shyat shyeach shystep shythose shytwo shyclusters shythat are most similar in some defined sense are fused The process continues until there is only shyone shycluster shyleft shycontaining shyall shycases shyThe shyquestion shythen shyis shyto shydecide shyat shywhich shylevel shythe shypartitioning shyis shyoptimal shyor shymakes shysense

The shy different shy agglomerative shy clustering shy methods shy differ shy mainly shy in shy the shy way shy similarities shybetween entities in the analysis are handled and computed and some methods are only defined for shymeasures shysatisfying shycertain shymetric shyproperties shyCommon shymethods shyinclude shythe shynearest shyneigh-bor shyor shysingle shylink shymethod shy(Johnson shy1967) shythe shyfurthest shyneighbor shyor shycomplete shylinkage shymethod shythe shy centroid shy method shy (Sokal shy amp shy Michener shy 1958) shy median shy method shy group-average shy method shy(Sokal shyamp shyMichener shy1958 shyLance shyamp shyWilliams shy1966) shyMcQuittyrsquos shymethods shy(McQuitty shy1956 shy1964 1966) Lance and Williams beta-flexible method (Lance amp Williams 1966) and Wardrsquos method shy (Ward shy 1963) shyAgglomerative shymethods shy are shyby shy far shymore shy studied shy than shy their shy divisive shycounterparts shypartly shybecause shyof shythe shycomputational shycomplexities shyinvolved shyin shythe shylatter shymethods shyIn shysection shy5 shysome shytechnical shyaspects shyof shysuch shymethods shyare shydescribed

412 Divisive Methods

Divisive shymethods shysplit shyclusters shywith shythe shyprocess shystarting shyat shythe shyother shyend shywhere shythe shydata shyset shythen defines one cluster and the objective is to optimally split that cluster into two separated and shyinternally shyhomogenous shyclusters shyThe shyprocess shycontinues shyby shysplitting shyeach shycluster shyin shya shy


similar shyfashion shyuntil shyall shyclusters shyare shysingletons shyThe shytechniques shythat shyare shyused shyfor shydeciding shywhich shycluster shyto shysplit shyare shyeither shymonothetic shy(based shyon shyvariables shyconsidered shyone shyat shya shytime shyan shyinstance shyof shywhich shyis shyassociation shyanalysis shyeg shyLambert shyamp shyWilliams shy1966) shyor shypolythetic shy(based shyon shyall shyvariables shyconsidered shysimultaneously shyMacnaughton-Smith shyet shyal shy1964)

42 shyPartitioning shyMethods

Optimization-partitioning techniques shyinvolve shystarting shywith shysome shypartition shyof shythe shydata shyand shythen shyunlike the hierarchical techniques cases are shuffled back and forth between the different clusters shyuntil shysome shyclustering shycriterion shyis shyoptimized shyHere shythe shyclusters shyobtained shyafter shyrelocation shyform shya shypartition shyof shythe shyset shyof shycases shywith shyno shyinformation shyresulting shyon shythe shyhierarchical shystructure shyof shythe shydata shyOne shyinherent shyproperty shyof shyall shymethods shyfalling shyunder shythis shycategory shyis shythat shyeven shyfor shysmall shydata shysets shythere shyare shyfar shytoo shymany shypossible shypartitions shyto shyconsider shyall shypossible shypartitions shyThe steps commonly found in most of these techniques reflect the execution of some method for shyinitiating shyclusters shymethods shyfor shyallocating shyentities shyto shyinitiated shyclusters shyand shyof shyreallocating shycases to clusters by shuffling them back and forth until a criterion is optimized

The shy main shy difference shy between shy the shy methods shy in shy this shy group shy is shy in shy the shy way shy clusters shy are shy shyinitiated shyand shythe shyway shyreallocations shyare shyperformed shyExamples shyinclude shythe shyk shymeans shymethod shy(MacQueen shy1967) shyrandom shysearch shy(Fortier shyamp shySolomon shy1966) shyand shysteepest shydescent shy(Gordon shyamp shyHendersson shy1977)

43 shyDensity shySearch shyMethods

Density shyor shymode shyseeking shytechniques shysearch shyfor shyregions shyof shyhigh shydensities shyin shythe shyp-dimensional shyhyperspace defined by p variables Here the focus is on finding regions of the space where the shypoints shyare shyvery shydense shyMost shyof shythose shymethods shyadopt shyan shyinitial shystrategy shysimilar shyto shythe shy shysingle shylinkage shymethod shybut shytry shyto shycircumvent shythe shyproblem shyof shychaining shyfrequently shyencountered shyin shysingle shylinkage shyby shycapitalizing shyon shythe shyidea shyof shycontinuity shyand shydiscontinuity shyof shycloseness shyof shya shyprospective shypoint shyor shycluster shyin shythe shyspace shyExamples shyof shysuch shytechniques shyare shythe shytaxmap shymethod shy(Carmichael shyamp shySneath shy1969) shythe shycartet shycount shymethod shy(Cattell shyamp shyCoulter shy1966) shyand shymode shyanalysis shy(Wishart shy1969)

44 shySome shyOther shyMethods

A shyvariety shyof shymethods shydo shynot shynaturally shyfall shyin shyany shyof shythe shyalready shymentioned shycategories shySome shyhave shythe shydistinctive shyfeature shyof shyallowing shyfor shyoverlapping shyclusters shyas shyin shyJardine shyand shySibsonrsquos shy(1968a shy1968b) shyand shyShepard shyand shyArabiersquos shy(1979) shymethods shyOther shymethods shysuch shyas shyfor shyinstance shyQ-factor analysis which is frequently used in psychology use factor analysis techniques to find clusters shywith shythe shyrole shyof shyvariable shyand shycases shy interchanged shyInstances shyof shyother shy techniques shyare shygiven shyby shyRohlf shy(1970) shyLing shy(1973) shyRoss shy(1969) shyand shyAndrews shy(1972)

5 shyHIERARCHICAL shyAGGLOMERATIVE shyMETHODS shyTECHNIQUE

In shymost shyhierarchical shyagglomerative shymethods shythe shyfollowing shyapply shyAt shythe shyonset shyeach shycase shydenoted shyxi where 1leilen shyand shyn shyis shythe shytotal shynumber shyof shycases shyin shythe shydata shyset shyis shyconsidered shyas shya shycluster shydenoted shyxi The starting partition denoted Π1 shyis shythen shya shyset shyof shyn shyclusters shyeach shycomprising one element Thus Next a coarser partition Π2 shyis shyobtained shyby shymerging shytwo shy


clusters from Π1 Again a coarser partition Π3 is obtained by merging two clusters from Π2 and so on until all the elements belong to only one cluster that is Πn=x1 x2 shyhellip shyxn shyis shy obtained shy Thus shy the shy result shy from shy an shy agglomerative shy clustering shy algorithm shy is shy a shy sequence shyof partitions Π1rarrΠ2rarrhelliprarrΠn shysuch shythat shyand shyare shysome shypartitions shyin shythat shysequence shythen shyN shyi+1=Niminus1 and Ni=nminusi+1 shyi=1 shyhellip shyn

Usually shydissimilarity shy (or shy similarity) shybetween shyclusters shygoverns shy the shy selection shyof shy a shypair shyof clusters in Πi that are to be merged Thus dissimilarity between two clusters is defined and computed for all pairs of clusters in Πi shyA shypair shy(Ct Cu) shyis shyselected shyfor shythe shynext shymerge shywhose shydissimilarity shyvalue shyis shyleast shyamong shyall shythe shycomputed shydissimilarities shyThus shyfor shya shygiven shy partition Π=C1 hellip CN shythe shypair shy(Ct Cu) is selected which satisfies the following relation d(Ct Cu)=min shyd(Ck Cl) 1lek lleN knel

Next shyan shyalgorithm shyis shypresented shyIn shythis shydescription shya shydissimilarity shymeasure shyis shyassumed shybut shythe shyreasoning shyis shylargely shyanalogous shyfor shya shysimilarity shymeasure

51 shyAlgorithm

Input shyA shyset shyof shyn shycases shyx1 shyx2 shyhellip shyxn shyand shya shymeasure shyof shydissimilarity shyd(xi xj) 1lei jlenOutput the series of partitions Π1rarrΠ2rarrhelliprarrΠn

1 N=n Initialize the number of clusters to be equal to the number of cases present

2 For shyi=1 shyhellip shyN shydo shyCi =xi

Create N clusters where each cluster contains one distinct case

3 Π1=C1 hellip CN Define the first partition in the hierarchy as the collection of all the N(=n) newly created clusters

4 For 1lei jlen inej shydo shyd(Ci Cj)=d(xi xj)

Define the distance between all distinct pairs of clusters as the distance between the corresponding singleton cases contained in them that is compute a dissimilarity matrix between all pairs of cases

5 Current=2 Initialize a counter to reference the current merging level and the resulting partition

6 If shy(Ngt1) shydo shy shy a

Find shy such shythat shyd(Ct Cu)=min shyd(Ck Cl) 1lek lleN knel shy Find in the current partition the least dissimilar clusters

b Merge the last found two least dissimilar clusters

c Πcurrent=ΠcurrentminusCt Cu+Cp shy shy Update the current partition by removing Ct and Cu and adding

Cp


shy d For shyall shyCi shy Πcurrent CineCp shydo shy Compute d(Cp Ci) Update the dissimilarity matrix by removing the t and u columns

and rows from the dissimilarity matrix and replacing them with the updated dissimilarities between the newly formed group and all other groups This type of updating is described in the next section

e N=Nminus1 shyf Current=Current+1g Repeat 6

7 Stop

52 shyUpdating shyDissimilarities

The shydifferent shymethods shyof shyagglomerative shyclustering shythat shywere shyjust shymentioned shydiffer shymainly shyin shytheir shyways shyof shycomputing shyand shyupdating shydistances shybetween shyclusters shynamely shyin shytheir shyway shyof shy accomplishing shycompute d(Cp Ci) in Step 6 Here we illustrate this for five common methods

1 The single linkage defines the distance between clusters as the distance between their nearest shyneighbors shyThus

d(Cp Ci)=min d(x y) shysuch shythat shyx shy shyCp shyand y Ci shy

2 The complete linkage defines the distance between clusters as the distance between the most shydistant shypairs shyof shypoints shyeach shybelonging shy to shyone shyof shy the shyclusters shy that shy is shy their shy furthest shyneighbor shyThus

d(Cp Ci)=max d(x y) shysuch shythat shyx shy shyCp shyand y Ci shy

3 The average linkage defines the distance between two clusters as the average distance between shyall shypairs shyof shypoints shyone shytaken shyfrom shyeach shyof shythe shytwo shyclusters shyThus shyif shythe shynumber shyof shyelements shyin shya shycluster shyC shyis shydenoted shyby shy|C| shythen

shy

4 The centroid method defines the distance between two clusters as the distance between the centroids of the clusters (the cluster centroid is defined as the set of means for the shycluster shyin shyall shyvariables shyand shyis shyhere shydenoted shywith shyM) shyThus

(1)


and

where shyv shyis shythe shynumber shyof shy shyvariables

(2)

5 shyThe shyWard shymethod shyfuses shyclusters shywhich shywhen shycombined shyresult shyin shya shyminimum shyincrease shyin shy the shy error shy sum shy of shy squares shy ie shy in shy the shy total shy within-group shy sum shy of shy squares shy (ESS) shy ESS shyis defined then as the sum for all groups of the sum of the squared Euclidean distances between shythe shyelements shyof shyeach shygroup shyand shythe shygrouprsquos shycentroid shy(see shyformulas shy1 shyand shy2 shyin shythe shyprevious shysection) shyAt shya shycertain shyfusion shylevel shyESS shyis shycomputed shyand shyits shyvalue shyis shythen shycompared shyto shythe shyESS shyresulting shyfrom shyfusing shytogether shytwo shyclusters shyIf shy there shyare shyg shyclusters shy then shythere shy

are shy possible shyfusions shythat shycan shytake shyplace shyand shyfor shyeach shypossible shynew shypartition shya shynew shyESS shycan shybe shycomputed shyThe shypair shyof shyclusters shywhich shyfusion shyresults shyin shythe shyleast shyincrease shyin shyESS shyis shythen shychosen shyfor shyfusion shyand shyso shyon shyIt shyturns shyout shythat shyinstead shyof shydirectly shycomputing shyall shypos-sible shyincreases shythis shystate shyof shyaffairs shycan shybe shytranslated shyin shyterms shyof shydissimilarity shycomparisons shybetween shyclusters shyThe shydissimilarity shymatrix shyis shythen shyupdated shyonly shyfor shythose shyentries shyrelevant shyto shythe shylast shyformed shycluster shythat shyis shybetween shythe shynewly shyformed shycluster shyand shyeach shyof shythe shyremaining shyclusters shyThis shyupdating shyof shydissimilarity shycan shybe shyaccomplished shyin shythe shyfollowing shyway

shy

and shythe shydissimilarity shybetween shytwo shyclusters shyeach shycontaining shyone shyelement shyis shyusually shytaken shyas shythe shysquared shyEuclidean shydistance shy(or shythe shyaverage shysquared shyEuclidean shydistance)

In shyreal shyimplementations shya shyrecurrence shyrelation shybetween shydistances shycan shybe shyused shyto shycompute shythe shydistance shybetween shya shycluster shyCi shyand shya shynew shycluster shyCp shy formed shyby shy the shyfusion shyof shyclusters shyCt shyand shyCu shyThus shyin shythe shycourse shyof shyforming shythe shyclusters shythe shydissimilarity shymatrix shyis shyused shyto shychoose shythe shynext shyamalgamation shyand shyalso shyprovide shyvalues shythat shyare shyin-put shyinto shythe shyrecurrence shyformula shywhich shythen shyupdates shythe shymatrix shywith shyregard shyto shythe shynewly shyformed shycluster shyThis shyrecur-rence shyrelation shyhas shythe shyfollowing shyform

d(Cp Ci)=αtd(Ci Ct)+αud(Ci Cu)+β d(Ct Cu)+γ|d(Ci Ct)ndashd(Ci Cu)| shy

The parameters αt αu β and γ are given for some hierarchical methods in Table shy41 shyThe shyβ-flexible method can also be noted in Table shy41 shy(Lance shyamp shyWilliams shy1966) shyIt shyproduces shysolutions that depend on the value of β supplied by the researcher and appears to be a well functioning method with the value of β set to between minus15 and minus25 For a more formal an shyd shycomplete shypresentation shyof shythe shytechniques shydiscussed shyin shythis shysection shysee shyfor shyexample shyMiyamoto shy(1990)


6 shySOME shyPRACTICAL shyCONSIDERATIONS shyFOR shyACHIEVING shyA shyWELL-FUNCTIONING shyCLASSIFICATION shyUSING shyCLUSTER shy

ANALYSIS

A shynumber shyof shytechnical shyissues shyare shyimportant shyto shyconsider shyin shyorder shyto shyobtain shyuseful shyresults shyfrom shya shycluster shyanalysis shy(see shyalso shyBergman shy1998)

1 shyThe shyissue shyof shyscaling shyand shystandardization shyof shythe shyvariables shymust shybe shyresolved shyin shya shy shysatisfactory shyway

2 shyThe shychoice shyof shya shysound shyclustering shyalgorithm shyis shyof shyobvious shyimportance shypreferably shytrying shytwo shydifferent shyones shy(eg shyWardrsquos shy[1963] shymethod shyand shyaverage shyLinkage) shySometimes shy shycluster shyanalysis shyis shycriticized shyon shythe shyground shythat shydif shyferent shyalgorithms shyproduce shypartly

TABLE 41Different shyClustering shyMethods shyWith shyTheir shyCorresponding shyValues shyfor shyαt αu β shyand shyγ shyto shybe shyInstantiated shyin shythe shyRecurrence shyRelation shyfor shyUpdating shyGroup shyDissimilarities shy αt αu β γNearest shyneighbor 12 12 0 ndash12Furthest shyneighbor 12 12 0 12Centroid minusαtαu 0

Group shyaverage 0 0

Ward 0

β-flexible β shy

nt nu shyand shyni shydenotes shythe shynumber shyof shyelements shyin shyCt Cu shyand shyCi shyrespectively shyie shy|Ct| |Cu| shyand shy|Ci|

different classifications of the same data This criticism appears to be largely misplaced for two reasons (a) if a high quality analysis is carried out and the specific aspects of the classification that is at focus are properly considered large method differences in results are not common (cf Morey Blashfield amp Skinner 1983) and (b) different clustering algorithms focus on somewhat different aspects of classification and a moderate difference in the resulting classification is no more surprising and alarming than is the shyobservation shyof shya shymoderate shydifference shybetween shythe shyarithmetic shymean shyand shythe shymedian shycomputed shyfor shythe shysame shydata shyMaybe shyeven shyless shyso shyconsidering shythe shycomplex shymultivariate shyreality shythat shyis shydescribed shyby shythe shyresulting shyclustering shysolution3 shyOnly shyvariables shywith shya shyreasonably shyhigh shyreliability shyshould shybe shyincluded4 Only a limited number of variables in the profile should be included if the analysis

aims at finding homogenous clusters (say no more than eight variables)5 shyOne shyshould shybe shyready shyto shyretreat shyfrom shythe shydemand shyof shyclassifying shyeverybody6 shyThe shydifference shybetween shya shyprimary shygoal shyof shyassigning shycases shyto shyclusters shyand shya shyprimary shy

goal shyof shyidentifying shynatural shyclusters shyshould shybe shynoted shyHomogenous shyclusters shytend shyto shy


be shyrelated shyto shyldquonaturalrdquo shyclusters shybut shythey shyare shynot shyequivalent shyA shyresearcher shymay shyhave shya definition of what is meant by natural cluster that puts less emphasis on homog-enous shyclusters shythan shywe shyhave shydone shyin shythis shyvolume shyIn shythis shycase shyWardrsquos shy(1963) shymethod shyfor shyexample shymay shynot shybe shya shygood shymethod shyAlso shythe shyuse shyof shythe shyexplained shyerror shysum shyof shysquares shyto shyaid shyin shydeciding shythe shynumber shyof shyclusters shymight shybe shysuboptimal shyin shysome shysitua-tions It often decreases with the number of variables in the profile However cluster recovery in relation to an external criterion classification of natural clusters tends to increase shywhen shymore shydimensions shyare shyadded shyto shythe shydescription shyof shyeach shycase shy(Milligan shyamp shyCooper shy1985) shyThis shyis shyonly shyto shybe shyexpected shybecause shya shylarger shynumber shyof shydimensions shyoften shycontain shymore shyinformation shyabout shythe shyclustering shystructure shyOne shymight shythen shyerrone-ously judge a classification based on many dimensions as inferior when compared to shyone shybased shyon shyfewer shydimensions shyPlease shynote shythat shythe shyother shyLICUR shystopping shyrules shymight shybe shyuseful shyin shysuch shysituations shy(the shyLICUR shymethod shyis shydescribed shyin shychap shy6)

7 shyAnother shyproblem shythat shymay shyarise shywhen shythe shyhierarchical shyagglomerative shymethods shyare shyused shyhas shyto shydo shywith shyties shyThese shyoccur shywhen shythere shyexist shyseveral shypairs shyof shycases shyequally shysimilar shyto shyeach shyother shyand shythat shyare shyall shyequally shyeligible shyfor shyfusion shyIn shythis shysituation shythe shycluster shysolution shymay shyvary shy(usually shyonly shyslightly) shydepending shyon shywhich shypair shyis shyselected shy(in shysome shyimplementations shythis shymay shydepend shyon shythe shyorder shyin shywhich shythe shycases shyare shypresented) shyThis shyproblem shyis shymost shylikely shyto shyarise shyif shythe shyvariables shyare shydiscrete shyand shyone shyway shyof shyresolving shyit shyis shyby shysome shyform shyof shyvariable shystandardization shy(see shyalso shyGordon shy1996)

It shy should shy be shy obvious shy from shy the shy aforementioned shy that shy as shy always shy issues shy of shy reliability shy and shyvalidity shyare shyimportant shyThe shyreliability shyand shyinternal shyvalidity shyissues shyare shyperhaps shyeven shymore shyimportant shythan shyin shymany shyother shysituations shyconsidering shythe shyabsence shyin shycluster shyanalysis shyof shya shytenable shymathematical-statistical shyframework shyin shywhich shyerrors shyare shymodeled shyReliability shyand shyvalidity shyissues shyare shytreated shyin shychapter shy7

The validity of a classification outcome is more or less a function of the choice of the variable shyvector shythe shyscaling shyof shythe shyvariables shythe shychoice shyof shymethod shythe shychoice shyof shyproxim-ity shymeasure shy the shy sample shyof shycases shyunder shy investigation shyand shywhen shy relevant shy the shychoice shyof shythe solution Superfluous or irrelevant variables distort the domain in which classifica-tion shy takes shyplace shyand shywill shy also shy likely shy render shy the shy results shyuseless shyNot shyattending shy to shy scaling shyproblems will unduly inflate the importance of some variables when measuring proximi-ties shybetween shycases shyor shyclusters shyDifferent shymethods shyare shybiased shytoward shyrecovering shyclusters shyof shy shycertain shyforms shyand shythus shymay shyimpose shya shystructure shyon shythe shysolution shydifferent shyfrom shythe shyldquorealrdquo shyone shyThe shyproximity shymeasure shymay shynot shybe shyoptimal shyfor shythe shymethod shyused shyand shythe shysample shyof shycases shymay shynot shybe shyrepresentative shyandor shymay shyinclude shyoutlying shycases shy(so shycalled shyoutliers) shyIn shyshort shythere is a good ground in classification for saying that one reaps what one sows

7 shyLATENT shyCLASS shyANALYSIS

Another important family of methods in classification goes under the name of latent structure analysis shywhere shya shylatent shyvariable shyis shyinferred shyfrom shymanifest shy(observed) shyvariables shyIn shythis shyfamily shymethods for latent class analysis latent trait analysis and latent profile analysis are incorpo-rated shyThe shyrationale shyis shythe shysame shyfor shyall shythese shymodels shybut shythey shydiffer shywith shyregard shyto shythe shytype shyof shyvariables shythey shyhandle shyand shythe shynature shyof shythe shylatent shyvariable shyto shybe shycharacterized shyFor shyinstance shywhen shythe shyobserved shyvariables shyare shycontinuous shythe shytype shyof shyanalysis shyinvolved shyis shyeither shyfactor shyanal-


ysis or latent profile analysis depending on whether the latent variable is continuous (factor analysis) or discrete (latent profile analysis) But if the observed variables are discrete the analysis shyis shya shylatent shytrait shyanalysis shyif shythe shylatent shyvariable shyis shycontinuous shyand shya shylatent shyclass shyanalysis shyif the latent variable is discrete Latent class analysis is briefly described here This approach is shybasic shyto shylatent shytransition shyanalysis shydescribed shyin shychapter shy6

In shylatent shyclass shyanalysis shythe shycases shyare shydescribed shyby shya shyvector shyof shycategorical shyvariables shyand shyone shystarts shyby shyexamining shy the shycovariations shyamong shy these shyvariables shy It shy is shy then shybelieved shy that shyone shy is shyable shy to shyexplain shy these shycovariations shyby shyreference shy to shya shynonobserved shy latent shycategori-cal shyvariable shyIf shysuch shya shyvariable shycan shybe shydetermined shyits shydiscrete shyvalues shywill shydecompose shythe shyoriginal shydata shyset shyinto shyclasses shyin shywhich shywhatever shyremains shyof shythe shyrelationships shybetween shythe shyobserved shyvariables shycould shybe shyattributed shyto shychance shy(the shyassumption shyof shylocal shyindependence)

Two shyimportant shy types shyof shyprobabilities shy lie shyat shy the shyheart shyof shy the shyanalysis shyThe shy latent class probabilities shyand shythe shyconditional probabilities

The latent class probabilities are reflected by the relative sizes and the number of classes assumed shyin shythe shymodel shyInitial shyguesses shyof shythose shyare shyinput shyto shythe shyanalysis shyand shythe shynumber shyof shyclasses is selected for which a model of best fit is found The latent class probabilities are then shyupdated shyaccordingly shyat shythe shyend shyof shythe shyanalysis

The shyclasses shyare shynot shyuniquely shycharacterized shyin shylatent shyclass shyanalysis shyin shythe shysame shygeneral shysense shythat shyclusters shyare shydescribed shyin shycluster shyanalysis shyInstead shya shycase shybelonging shyto shya shyclass shyis shycharacterized shyon shyeach shyvariable shyin shya shyprobabilistic shyfashion shyThat shyis shyfor shyeach shyclass shythere shyis shyan shyassociated shyset shyof shyconditional shyprobabilities shywhich shystates shyfor shyeach shymember shyof shythat shyclass shyits shyprobabilities shyof shyhaving shya shycertain shyvalue shyon shya shycertain shyvariable shyNevertheless shythese shyprobabilities shyare often sufficient to differentiate between the classes in an intelligible manner as they tend shyto shycontrast shyin shythe shydifferent shyclasses

When shya shysuccessful shyexploratory shylatent shyclass shyanalysis shyhas shybeen shyconducted shythe shyend shyresult shyis shy a shy characterization shyof shy the shy latent shyvariable shywhere shy each shyclass shy is shy characterized shyby shy relative shysize shyand shyconditional shyprobabilities shy in shy the shysense shydescribed shy in shy the shyforegoing shysection shyThese shy shyprobabilities shyare shyalso shyused shyto shyassign shycases shyto shythe shyresulting shyclasses shyfor shyfurther shyanalysis shyThus shyfor a certain case (or usually a configuration of variable values corresponding to more than one shycase) shythe shyprobability shyof shythat shycase shybeing shyin shyeach shyof shythe shylatent shyclasses shyis shycomputed shyand shythe shyclass shyassociated shywith shythe shyhighest shyprobability shyis shythen shychosen shyas shya shyhost shyfor shythat shycase shyThus shyin shythe shyassignment shyprocess shyan shyexplicit shyand shyprobabilistic shyelement shyis shyinvolved shywhich shyis shyusu-ally not encountered in other classification methods for example cluster analysis Because misclassifications may result as a consequence it is customary to estimate the error rate associated shywith shythese shyassignments shy(see shyClogg shy1979 shy1981a shy1981b)

8 shyCLUSTERS shyTYPES shyAND shyCLASSESThe shyquestion shyof shywhether shystructure shyand shyclasses shyare shyldquonaturalrdquo shyor shywhether shythey shyare shypurposely shyformed shyor shyaccidentally shyimposed shyon shythe shydomain shyof shystudy shyis shynot shyan shyeasy shyone shyto shyanswer shyThis shyissue shywas shydiscussed shyin shychapter shy3 shyThe shysuccess shyor shyfailure shyin shyrecovering shya shynatural shyclass shyis shya shyfunction of the domain in which classification is applied and is highly dependent on the preciseness shy with shy which shy the shy attributes shy or shy variables shy are shy chosen shy and shy measured shyThe shy latter shyis a difficult task and one that is only perfected upon careful theoretical considerations iterations and refinement thus adding and removing variables until the set is considered suitable enough for the intended classification


With shyregard shyto shythe shydomain shyproper shyMeehl shy(1992) shyin shyan shyeffort shyto shyexplicate shywhat shyhe shycalled shytaxonicity shydistinguished shybetween shynatural shyand shyldquoarbitraryrdquo shyclasses shyin shythe shysense shythat shythe shyformer shyis shya shymanifestation shyof shythe shydomain shyof shystudy shybeing shytaxonic shyand shyin shyit shyldquonature shyis shycarved shyat shyits shyjointsrdquo shywhereas the latter is one that may be specified for a parlicular purpose by some rational con-junction shyof shyproperties shythat shyneed shynot shycorrespond shyto shya shyclass shythat shyis shyldquoreally shyout shythererdquo shyIn shythe shywords shyof shyMeehl shy(1992) shyldquoAll shytaxa shyare shyclasses shybut shynot shyall shyclasses shyare shytaxardquo shy(p shy123)

In shyparticular shyMeehl shyis shyconcerned shywith shydetecting shytaxonicity shyFor shythis shypurpose shyhe shyadvocates shya shysystem shyof shyldquocoherent shycut shykineticsrdquo shy(Meehl shyamp shyYonce shy1992) shya shyspecially shytailored shytaxometric shyapproach shywhere shynumerical shyconsequences shyof shymaking shya shytaxonicity shyassumption shytogether shywith shyother shyauxiliary shystatistical shyconjunctures shyare shy tested shyThe shy reasoning shy is shy that shy if shy the shy test shy fails shythen shysomething shyis shywrong shywith shythe shymodel shybut shyif shythe shytest shysucceeds shythen shythe shyassumed shymodel shyis shycorroborated shyThe shyidea shyis shythat shyby shysubjecting shya shymodel shyof shyassumed shylatent shytaxonicity shyto shya shyvariety shyof shytests shythe shymodel shyis shyeither shyrefuted shyby shyany shyone shysingle shytest shyor shythe shyconvergence shyof shyevidence shyfrom shydifferent shytests shyis shytaken shyas shystrong shyevidence shyin shyfavor shyof shytaxonicity shy(see shyalso shyWaller shyamp shyMeehl shy1998)

Whether the classes are natural or arbitrary it is implied by the classification paradigm that shythe shyclasses shythat shyare shyformed shymust shyhave shysome shyperceived shyproperties shythat shymay shyqualify shythem shyfor later usage One such property relates to the ldquoutilityrdquo of a classification as perceived by the producer of the classification and by his or her peers Because it is a perceived and not necessarily shyan shyinherent shyproperty shyit shyoriginates shyas shya shyconsequence shyof shythe shyproducerrsquos shyability shyto shyemploy a relevant procedure to discriminate between a useful (sensible) classification and nonuseful classifications

It shy is shy probably shy not shy surprising shy that shy much shy of shy the shy attention shy paid shy to shy issues shy such shy as shy class shy shyvalidity shyis shyfound shyin shybiology shygiven shythe shymethodological shytraditions shyset shyby shyLinneaus shyas shyearly shyas shyin shythe shy18th shycentury shyBut shyeven shywhen shythe shyquestion shyof shyvalidity shyis shyundecided shythe shystructure shycan still be useful for a variety of reasons for example for data simplification hypothesis generation shy and shy or shy prediction shy In shy the shy behavioral shy sciences shy one shy approaches shy this shy question shy dogmatically by accepting a given classification if it makes sense and one is often con-tent shywith shythe shyresult shyas shylong shyas shyit shyhelps shyin shysimplifyingsummarizing shythe shydata shyin shygenerating shyhypotheses shyprediction shyexplanation shyand shyor shygeneralization shyin shyshort shyif shyit shyis shyuseful shyIt shyis shynot shyinfrequent that these usages are not explicitly stated at the onset of classification and that they shybecome shyinterwoven shyin shythe shyanalysis shyand shyinterpretation shyof shythe shyresults

Besides shythe shycharacterization shyof shya shyclass shyas shynatural shythe shyfollowing shyconsiderations shymay shybe shyhelpful

(a) shyClasses shycan shybe shya shypriori shyTheoretical shyclasses shycan shybe shyexpected shyto shyexist shybecause shysome shyunderlying shytheory shyor shyexpert shyconsensus shyor shyplain shyintuition shypredicts shyit shyThe shymanifesta-tion shyof shyldquostrongrdquo shyprototype shycases shyin shythe shysample shyis shyone shyinstance shywhere shysuch shyintuitional shy shyconsiderations shyare shywarranted

(b) Classes can be illusory For instance the human classifier may be led to erroneously believe shythat shya shystructure shyexists shyin shythe shysample shyand shyor shythe shypopulation shywhen shythat shystructure shyis really superimposed by the classification tool or an artifact of an erroneous choice of attributes

If shyclasses shywith shyregard shyto shysome shydoctrine shyare shybelieved shyto shyexist shyin shya shypopulation shythen shythe shynatural shystarting point would be some kind of an intentional definition that would list those attributes


we shyintuitively shybelieve shythe shyclass shyto shyhave shyThis shylist shywould shythen shyform shythe shystarting shypoint shyfor shyan shyenumeration shyof shythe shyvariables shythat shyare shybelieved shycrucial shyfor shythe shyclasses shyto shymanifest shythemselves shyin shythe shypopulation shyObviously shyin shymany shysituations shya shycomplete shyenumeration shyis shynot shyfeasible shyand shyeven shyif shyit shywere shythe shycost shyof shymeasuring shyall shythe shycases shyin shythe shysample shyon shyall shythe shyvariables shymay shybe shyprohibitive shySo shyone shyhas shyto shybe shycontent shywith shya shysubset shyof shyrelevant shyattributes

9 shyMAN shyAS shyA shyCLASSIFIER

The intuitive appeal of classification is probably due to its being a basic cognitive faculty important for survival How can then the psychological reality of manrsquos classificatory ability shed light on classification as a tool of research There is no straight answer to this question All these many facets of human classificatory ability are intriguing This is shyexhibited shyby shypast shyand shyongoing shyresearch shyat shy least shywith shyrespect shy to shymodeling shythat shyability shy in shyrelation to recognition tasks recall and classification of new cases when a classification scheme shyalready shyexists

After shy the shy pioneering shy work shy of shy early shy psychologists shy in shy establishing shy cluster shy analysis shy as shyan important method for classification important feedback has found its way back to psychology from cognitive scientists with pure interest in artificial intelligence (AI) and who shywere shyinspired shyby shythe shycluster shyanalytic shyresearch shyparadigm shy(eg shyAhn shyamp shyMedin shy1992) shyDespite shy the shy enormous shy increase shy in shy computing shy power shy offered shy by shy modern shy technology shy computers are still insufficient in face of the demands imposed by many classification problems The modifications of the classical clustering methods and the use of ad hoc and sometimes semiformal heuristics for simplifying a classification are some of the de facto approaches shythat shyhave shybeen shyused shyby shymethodologists shyand shycomputer shyscientists shyto shyalleviate shythe shyproblem How convenient it would be if research in psychology about man as a classifier were to furnish the answers to how to obtain optimal classifications After all there may be no shybetter shysource shythan shyman shyhimself

A simple and basic use of man as a classifier that often has been used in psychophysics is shyto shyuse shyraters shyto shyrate shythe shydegree shyof shysimilarity shybetween shycases shyThe shyuse shyof shyhuman shyraters shyin shyconjoint with an automated classifier has also been suggested (Bergman amp El-Khouri in prep) shyThe shy interaction shyof shyhuman shygoals shyand shyconceptual shycapabilities shywith shy the shy information shyand shystructure shyavailable shyin shythe shyenvironment shyis shyan shyimportant shycharacteristic shyof shycategorization shyby shyman shy(Ahn shyamp shyMedin shy1992) shyBy shycapitalizing shyon shythe shystrength shyand shysophistication shyof shythis shy interaction more human-oriented classification systems may be engineered With a working model of the human ratersrsquo classificatory potential and with the power and stability of a computerized classificatory system that supports the rater the better of two worlds may be shyachieved shyThe shysupremacy shyof shyman shyto shymachine shyin shyareas shywhere shylittle shyor shyno shycomputing shyis shyinvolved shycannot shybe shyoverstated shyfor shyinstance shyas shywhen shyqualitative shybackground shyknowledge shyis shycrucial shyor shywhen shyshift shyin shycontext shyis shyrequired

No doubt many classification schemes are learned especially in childhood but it is not shyclear shywhether shyleaning shyis shyalways shyldquorote shylearningrdquo shywith shyregard shyto shythe shyformation shyof shyobject shycategories shyA shychild shymay shyconstruct shyhis shyown shycategories shybefore shyhe shylearns shythe shylabels shythat shyapply shyto those categories The ability to produce classifications may be inherent in human nature and shyit shyis shynot shysurprising shythat shytheories shyof shymental shymodels shyhave shythis shyability shyas shyone shyof shyits shyfocal shypoints The starting point is that man is a prime producer of classification schemes that he


readily shyuses shyin shyalmost shyall shymental shyand shyother shyeveryday shyactivities shyBut shyhe shyis shyalso shya shyconsumer shyof myriad classification schemes he encounters and rotely learns both in childhood and in adulthood No matter what type of mental model is preferred the ease and flexibility with which shynew shyknowledge shyis shypatched shytogether shywith shyexisting shyknowledge shyis shyevident shythroughout shymost of our life Classificatory structures lie at the heart of many models and it is probably safe shyto shyconjecture shythat shythere shyis shya shygain shyin shypresenting shyfacts shyand shyknowledge shywhenever shypossible shyin a manner that is consistent with these structures Accordingly results from classification analyses shymay shybe shypreferred shyto shythose shyfrom shytraditional shystatistical shymethods shybecause shythey shyare shymore shynatural shyto shygrasp shyintegrate shy(or shyresist) shyand shyuse

When regarding man as a classifier we discern at least three important points that extend to the general field of classification namely

1 We are to some extent ldquohard wiredrdquo to develop elaborate and consume classification-based results a fact that makes a classification approach to research natural in many settings shynot shythe shyleast shywithin shypsychology

2 The flexibility and versatility of man as a classifier could be utilized in research to a larger shydegree shythan shyis shythe shycase shytoday shyfor shyinstance shyby shyusing shyrater-based shycluster shyanalysis shyin which subjective classification is combined with the support of an objective shycomputer-based shyand shystatistical shymethodology

3 The way ordinary quantitative statistical classification is undertaken can be inspired by research findings from the study of man as a classifier For instance the flexibility and shypower shyof shyhierarchical shystructures shyshould shybe shynoted shyas shywell shyas shythe shypossibilities shyoffered shyby shya shydynamic shyinteraction shybetween shyclassifying shycases shyde novo shyand shyadding shyadditional shycases to an already existing classification structure

Chapter 5 ANALYZING ALL POSSIBLE

PATTERNS

1 shyINTRODUCTION shyTO shyCONFIGURAL shyFREQUENCY shyANALYSIS

The idea of a classification analysis based on multidimensional data is to group the individuals according to their value profiles Usually it is then assumed that the variables are approximately continuous shyand shycan shybe shytreated shyas shybeing shyon shyan shyapproximate shyinterval shyor shyratio shyscale shyWe shysaw shyin shythe preceding chapter that cluster analysis could then be used to accomplish the classification However one or both of the following two conditions can apply in a specific context

1 shyThe shyscale shylevels shyof shythe shyvariables shydo shynot shypermit shythe shyuse shyof shya shystandard shycluster shyanalytic shyapproach shybased shyon shyinterval shyscale shydata shy(eg shysome shyvariables shyare shyon shyan shyordinal shyscale shyor shyare shypure shycategorical shyvariables)

2 shyThere shyare shyreasons shyto shybelieve shythat shythe shyclusters shyresulting shyfrom shya shystandard shyanalysis shywill shynot shygive an adequate representation of the individual profiles

If shyit shyis shymeaningful shyto shymake shyall shythe shyvariables shydiscrete shyeach shytaking shyjust shya shyfew shyvalues shythen shyit shycan shybe shygood shyidea shyto shystudy shydirectly shyall shythe shydifferent shytheoretically shypossible shyvalue shycombinations shyinstead of giving an indirect presentation of the individual profiles in the form of class membership based on a cluster analysis This idea was first put forth by Zubin (1937) and later shytaken shyup shyby shyGustav shyLienert shyin shyGermany shyand shydeveloped shyby shyhim shyand shyothers shyinto shya shylarge shyset shyof shyprocedures shyfor shyanalyzing shydata shyof shythis shykind shy(see shyKrauth shyamp shyLienert shy1973 shy1982) shyThe shynew type of analysis was called configural frequency analysis (CFA) with a ldquoconfigurationrdquo referring shyto shya shytheoretically shypossible shyvalue shycombination shyand shyldquofrequencyrdquo shyreferring shyto shyhow shyfrequent a specific configuration is CFA was originally developed in Germany and the results shypublished shyin shyGerman shyHowever shyuseful shypresentations shyof shyCFA shyin shyEnglish shyare shygiven shyin shyKrauth shyand shyLienert shy(1982) shyin shyvon shyEye shy(1990a) shyand shyin shyvon shyEye shySpiel shyand shyWood shy(1996) shyVon shyEye shyis shyalso shyresponsible shyfor shymany shynewer shydevelopments shyof shyCFA

To shyexplain shythe shybasic shyidea shyConsider shythree shydichotomous shyvariables shyeach shytaking shythe shyvalues shy1 or 0 Eight different configurations then exist 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 and 111 For each configuration separately the observed frequency is compared to the expected frequency shyunder shysome shynull shyhypothesis shyof shyno shyrelationships shyin shydata shyAn shyobserved shyfrequency shyis significantly higher than the expected one at level α if under the null hypothesis the probability shyof shyobserving shya shy frequency shyas shy large shyas shyor shy larger shy than shy the shyone shyobserved shy is shy less shythan or equal to α (one-tailed test) This is called a type shyAn shyobserved shyfrequency shywhich shyis shysignificantly smaller than the expected one is called an antitype

The shy expected shy frequency shy can shy be shy computed shy in shy different shy ways shy depending shy on shy what shy the shyspecific null hypothesis is We are mainly concerned here with the most common situation when shyunder shyH0 shyit shyis shyassumed shythat shyall shyvariables shyare shyindependent shyThe shyexpected shyfrequency shyfor shya specific pattern is then obtained by multiplying the sample size by each of the marginal proportions for the specific values for each variable in the pattern In some situations other assumptions shycan shybe shyrelevant shyunder shyH0


How is the observed frequency (=obs) of a configuration compared to the expected one shy(=exp) shyIn shysome shycontexts shyit shyis shyuseful shyto shycompute shya shydifference shyand shyin shyother shycontexts shyto shycompute shya shyratio shyTo shygive shyone shyexample shyof shythe shylatter shycase shyThe shypatterning shyof shyrisk shyfactors shyis shystudied shyusing shyCFA shyon shya shynumber shyof shydichotomized shyrisk shyvariables shyand shyan shyindication shyof shya shyrisk shyis shyrather shyinfrequent shyfor shyall shyrisk shyvariables shyIt shycan shythen shybe shynatural shyto shycompute shythe shyratio shybetween shythe observed and expected frequency of a specific risk pattern (=configuration) to locate risk configurations that stand out

How does one decide whether an observed frequency is significantly more frequent than expected shyby shythe shyindependence shymodel shyDifferent shymodels shyare shypossible shyand shythe shyfollowing shybasic shyrationale shyare shyfocused shyon shyhere shyUnder shyH0 shyit shyis shyassumed shythat shyeach shyobservation shyis shythe shyresult shyof shya shytrial shywhich shywith shyprobability shyp results in the occurrence of the specific configuration and with probability 1minusp results in the nonoccurrence of the specific configuration p shyis shyestimated shyby shythe shyratio shybetween shythe shyexpected shyfrequency shyand shythe shysample shysize shyDenote shythe shysample shysize shywith shyn shyWe shythen shyhave shya shyprobabilistic shysituation shywith shyn independent trials each with a fixed probability shyof shyp for the event ldquorealization of the configurationrdquo to occur The probability of shyw occurrences of the configuration is then given by the binomial distribution

(1)

A shy 5 shy region shy for shy rejecting shy the shy null shy hypothesis shy and shy accepting shy the shy alternative shy hypothesis shyof shyan shyexisting shy type shy is shyobtained shyby shycomputing shy the shyprobability shyaccording shy to shy (1) shy for shyw shy=n w=nminus1 and so on until the sum of these probabilities gets as close as possible to 5 with-out exceeding this figure indicating that the border value for the critical region has been reached shy If shy the shyobserved shyfrequency shy is shy larger shy than shyor shyequal shy to shy this shyborder shyvalue shy then shy the shyresult is significant at the 5 level The reversed procedure is used in testing for antitypes The shyfollowing shyz shyapproximation shyassumed shyto shyfollow shythe shystandard shynormal shydistribution shycould shybe shyused shyif shythe shyexpected shyvalue shyis shynot shytoo shysmall

(2)

If shythe shyz value according to (2) is larger than 165 a significant typeantitype has been found (one-tailed test) (See von Eye 1990a for a discussion of different significance tests and the shyquality shyof shydifferent shyapproximations) shyA shycrude shybut shysimple shyapproximation shyis shyobtained shyby shycomputing shythe shychi-square shycomponent shywhich shyroughly shyfollows shythe shychi-square shydistribution shywith shyone shydf

chi-square component=(obsminusexp)2exp (3)

Analyzing all possible patterns

2 shyAN shyEXAMPLE shyOF shyTHE shyAPPLICATION shyOF shyBASIC shyCONFIGURAL shyFREQUENCY shyANALYSIS

In shyTable shy 51 fictitious data are presented referring to a study of gender adjustment in school shy and shy spatial shy ability shy score shyAlso shy presented shy are shy the shy results shy of shy some shy basic shy variable- shyoriented shyanalyses shy It shy is shy seen shy that shy the shymaladjustment shy score shymean shy is shyhigher shy for shyboys shy than shyfor shy girls shy and shy that shy the shy spatial shy orientation shy score shy mean shy is shy much shy higher shy for shy boys shy There shy is shya shymoderate-low shycorrelation shybetween shymaladjustment shyand shyspatial shyorientation shyfor shythe shywhole shysample shyand shyalso shyfor shyeach shygender

In shyorder shyto shytake shyinto shyconsideration shythe shywhole shypattern shyof shyvalues shyin shythe shythree shyvariables shya shyCFA shywas shycarried shyout shyFirst shyvariable shy2 shywas shydichotomized shyand shyvariable shy3 shywas shytrichotomized shyThe shyresults shyof shythis shyanalysis shyare shypresented shyin shyTable shy52

Two shytypes shywere shyexpected shya shypriori shyfor shytheoretical shyreasons shynamely shy1 shy1 shy1 shyand shy2 shy2 shy3 shyFor shythe configuration 1 1 1 (girl low maladjustment score low spatial orientation) it is seen that shyobs=4 shyand shyexp=20times04times04times04=128 shy(see shybottom shyof shytable shywhere shythe shymarginal shyrelative shyfrequencies are given) The following binomial probabilities are obtained for configuration 1 shy1 shy1 shywhich shyhas shyp=12820=064

Prob shy (w=4)=0028 shy Prob shy (w=5)=0006 shy Prob shy (w=6)=001 shy Prob shy (w=7)= shy 000 shy The shyprobability shy of shy w shy being shy equal shy to shy or shy larger shy than shy 4 shy is shy then shy under shy the shy null shy hypothesis shy028+006+001+very shysmall shyprobabilities shythat shycan shybe shyignored=035 shyRejecting shyH0 shyif shyobs shyis shyat least 4 then gives an approximate 5 significance test Here

TABLE 51Fictitious shyData shyfor shyn=20 shyand shyk=3

2 shy52 shy29 shy2 shy51 shy431 shy47 shy371 shy41 shy391 shy59 shy37 All

Means shy16 shy483 shy506 shysds5 shy109 shy156r12=28 shyr13=55 shyr23=38

2 shy36 shy272 shy44 shy592 shy35 shy62 shy1 shy56 shy48241 shy67 Boys

means shyin shyv2 shyand shyv3508 shy575r23=30

1 shy44 shy56

2 shy55 shy67 shy261 shy612 shy56 shy75 Girls


2 shy54 shy711 shy35 shy31


2 shy74 shy63 shy2 shy50 shy661 shy48 shy361 shy27 shy38

(v1=gender shy1=girls shy2=boys shyv2=maladjustment shyscore shyv3=spatial shyorientation shyscore)

obs=4 which is significant at the 5 level Using the approximation given in (2) renders the shyfollowing shyresult

z=(4minus128minus5)(20times064times936)frac12=203 shy

This value is larger than 165 which is the critical value for a result to be significant at the 5 shylevel shy(one-tailed shytest) shyand shyhence shythe shysame shyconclusion shyis shyreached shyusing shythis shyapproxi-mation The crude chi-square approximation gives a chi-square of (4minus 128)2128=578 shywhich shyis shyfar shyin shyexcess shyof shythe shycritical shyvalue shyof shy384 shyThe shyother shyexpected shytype shy2 shy2 shy3 shyis shynot shya shysignificant type as seen in Table shy52

Frequently one also wants to explore whether any of the remaining configurations has an observed frequency that indicates a significant type or antitype In this case there are ten remaining configurations However to accomplish this a large number of dependent significance tests have to be carried out (ten tests for types and ten tests for antitypes)

TABLE 52Results of a Configural Frequency Analysis of the Data in Table shy51 shyWith shyVariable shy2 shyDichotomized shy(1=0ndash49 shyand shy2=50ndash74) shyand shyVariable shy3 shyTrichotomized shy(1=0ndash39 shy2=40ndash60 shy3=61ndash75)

Configuration Observed Expected Chi-square Binomial probabilities111 4 128 578 0356211 1 192 44 4150121 2 192 00 5850221 1 288 123 1947112 0 64 64 5218212 1 96 00 6261122 2 96 113 2491222 1 144 13 5725113 0 128 128 2664213 2 192 00 5850123 0 192 192 1329223 6 288 338 0570


Marginal shyrelative shyfrequenciesVariable shy1 shy1=40 shy2=60Variable shy2 shy1=40 shy2=60Variable shy3 shy1=40 shy2=20 shy3=40plt05

Therefore the significance levels have to be adjusted in order to achieve protection against the so-called mass significance problem (if not pure chance could easily give spurious significances) For this purpose a procedure devised by Holm can be used which is an improved shyBonferroni shy correction shy approach shy (Holm shy 1979) shy Let shy us shy assume shy that shy k shy tests shy are shyto be made with a guaranteed significance level of α First the tests are made and the results listed from the most significant result according to the nominal significance level to the least significant result Beginning at the top of this list it is then seen if this result is significant at the αk level If this is the case it is significant at the guaranteed α level Then it is seen if the next result is significant at the αkminus1 level If this is the case it is significant at the guaranteed α level Then it is seen if the result after that is significant at the αkminus 2 level If this is not the case the procedure is ended and no more result is significant at the guaranteed α level Applying this procedure to the results in Table shy52 shyall shyremaining shynominal shyp values are first listed 133 195 249 and so on Because the smallest p shyvalue shyobtained shy is shy larger shy than shy 0520 shywhich shy is shydemanded shyat shy the shyguaranteed shy5 shylevel shyno shymore shysignificant type or antitype is obtained The figure 20 demands an explanation In Table shy52 shythe shyprobabilities shyare shygiven shyfor shyan shyobserved shyfrequency shyas shylarge shyas shyor shylarger shythan shythe shyone shyobtained shyif shyobsgtexp shyand shythe shyprobability shyof shyan shyobserved shyfrequency shyas shysmall shyas shyor shysmaller shythan the one obtained if obsltexp For each tested configuration we thus carry out two tests one for types and one for antitypes This gives 10 tested configurationstimes2=20 tests after the two shytheoretically shypredicted shytypes shyand shythe shytwo shytheoretically shyldquoimpossiblerdquo shyantitypes shyfor shythe shytwo shypredicted shytype shypatterns shyhave shybeen shyremoved shyIn shyTable shy52 shy(and shyin shythe shySLEIPNER shyoutput shyon which the table is based) for each configuration only the test with the lowest probabil-ity shyis shygiven shy(ie shya shytype shytest shyif shythe shyresults shypoint shyin shythe shydirection shyof shya shytype shyand shyan shyantitype shytest shyif shythe shyresults shypoint shyin shythe shydirection shyof shyan shyantitype) shyThe shyother shyprobability shyis shyalways shylarger shythan 50 and hence always nonsignificant

The reader might wonder why this artificial data example was chosen and not a more interesting shyldquorealrdquo shydata shyset shywith shymore shycases shyand shyvariables shyThe shyreason shyis shythat shyin shythis shysimple shycase shy it shy is shypossible shyfor shy the shyreader shy to shyhand shycalculate shyall shy the shyresults shyproduced shyand shyto shycom-pletely shyoverview shyall shythe shydata shyWe shybelieve shythis shyis shyfundamental shyin shyorder shyto shydevelop shya shysound shyunderstanding shyof shythe shybasics shyof shyCFA shyIn shychapter shy9 shywe shyperform shya shyCFA shyanalysis shyof shyreal shydata shyin shya shyhigher shydimensional shyspace

3 shyMORE shyABOUT shySIGNIFICANCE shyTESTING shyIN shyCFA

As exemplified often it is useful to divide the significance tests into two sets one small con-firmatory set where the significances are interpreted directly and one large exploratory set shyconsisting of all the remaining possible tests with the significance levels corrected by the Holm procedure It is a compromise between the need for a guaranteed α level and the need to not waste power unnecessarily It should be noted that when a very large number of significance


tests shyis shycarried shyout shyfor shya shysample shysize shythat shyis shynot shylarge shyand shythe shyHolm shycorrection shyis shyapplied shythe shydegree shyof shyprecision shyof shyan shyapproximate shytest shybecomes shymore shythan shyan shyacademic shyquestion shyIn shysuch shycases shythe shyapproximations shycan shygive shyquite shymisleading shyresults shy(Bergman shyamp shyvon shyEye shy1987 shyvon shyEye shyamp shyBergman shy1986) shyAs shya shycrude shyrule shyof shythumb shythe shyz shyapproximation shygiven shyin shy(2) shyis shyreason-ably shyaccurate shyfor shyexpected shyfrequencies shyabove shy10 shyFor shythe shydata shyset shypresented shyin shyTable shy52 shyit shyis shynot shysatisfactory shyThe shychi-square shyapproximation shyis shyvery shycrude shybut shyit shyis shysometimes shyconvenient shyto compute it first to see if there is a necessity for applying a more accurate formula How-ever shymost shyCFA shycomputer shyprograms shycan shyperform shythe shybinomial shy test shyand shydo shynot shyhave shyto shyrely shyon shyapproximations shyThis shyis shyalso shythe shycase shyfor shythe shyCFA shytest shyincluded shyin shyour shystatistical shypackage shySLEIPNER shyintroduced shyin shychapter shy8 shyA shycomprehensive shystatistical shypackage shyfor shyCFA shyanalysis shyhas shybeen shydeveloped shyby shyvon shyEye shy(1987) shyAnother shyone shyis shypresented shyby shyKrauth shy(1993) shyin shyhis shybook shythat shyalso shycontains shyhis shyprograms shy(the shybook shyis shyin shyGerman) shyHis shypackage shycan shyperform shya shylarge shyvariety shyof different CFA tests Lehmacher (1981) developed a more powerful method for significance testing based on the assumption of fixed margins but this is not discussed here

CFA has justifiably been criticized for the low information value of a significant result that is shyobtained shywhen shyusing shythe shytotal shyindependence shymodel shyIt shyis shyof shysome shyvalue shyto shyreject shythe shynull shyhypothesis shyof shytotal shyindependence shybut shythe shyalternative shyaccepted shyis shyre-ally shynot shythe shyldquovalidationrdquo shyof a specific significant type but a more general rejection of independence Therefore it can be highly informative to compute the expected frequencies according to a more refined null hypothesis shymodel shyfor shyinstance shyby shyapplying shya shylog shylinear shymodel shywhere shyall shymain shyeffects shyand shyall shypair-wise shyinteraction shyeffects shyare shyincorporated shybut shyno shyhigher-order shyinteractions

4 shyINTERACTION shySTRUCTURE shyANALYSIS shyWITHIN shyCFA

In shy interaction shystructure shyanalysis shy (ISA) shywithin shyCFA shy(Krauth shyamp shyLienert shy1982) shy the shyvariables shyare first divided into two sets and then the interactions between the two sets are studied This is done by listing all the possible configurations for each of the two sets and then analyzing the two-way contingency table between the two sets looking for significantly overfrequented cells (types) and significantly underfrequented cells (antitypes) This could be made for one or shya shyfew shytheoretically shyinteresting shyset shysplits shyor shymore shyexploratively shyfor shyall shysplits shyIn shyour shysimple shyexample shywith shythree shyvariables shythere shyare shyonly shythree shypossible shysplits shy123 shy213 shyand shy312 shyOften shyISA shyis shyuseful shywhen shythe shyvariables shycan shybe shydivided shyinto shya shyset shyof shyindependent shyvariables shyand shya shyset shyof shydependent shyvariables shyThen shyall shypossible shysuch shyset shysplits shyare shymade shyand shythe shyresulting shycross shytabula-tions shyexamined shyfor shytypes shyand shyantitypes shyIn shycases shywith shymany shyvariables shylarge shysets shyof shyISA shyanaly-ses shyare shypossible shywhich shycan shyprovide shydetailed shyinformation shyabout shythe shyinteraction shystructure

Turning shyback shyto shyour shydata shyset shywe shymight shyregard shygender shyas shyan shyindependent shyvariable shyand shymal-adjustment shyand shyspatial shyorientation shyas shythe shydependent shyvariables shyThen shythere shyis shyonly shyone shypossible shyISA shyanalysis shynamely shy123 shythat shyis shygendertimesmaladjustment shyspatial shyorientation shyThis shyleads shyto shythe shycross shytabulation shypresented shyin shyTable shy53 The overall chi-square is nonsignificant and if each cell shyis shytested shyusing shythe shyz approximation given in (2) no significant type or antitype is obtained even shybefore shythe shy(conservative) shycorrection shyhas shybeen shycarried shyto shyadjust shyfor shythe shyfact shythat shy2times12=24 shydependent shytests shyhave shybeen shymade shyFor shyinstance shythe shycell shy1times23 shyhas shyobs=0 shyand shyexp=24 shywhich shygives shychi-square=(0ndash24)224=24 shyusing shy(3) shyso shyfar shyfrom shythe shycritical shy5 shyvalue shy(384 shynominal shylevel) shythat shythe shyless shyinaccurate shyz shyapproximation shyis shynot shynecessary shyto shycompute shyHowever shyit shyshould shybe shypointed shyout shythat shyfor shysuch shysmall shyexpected shy

Analyzing all possible patterns 1

TABLE 53ISA shyof shythe shyData shyPresented shyin shyTable shy52 shyWith shyGender shyas shythe shyIndependent shyVariable shyand shy shyMaladjustment shySpatial shyOrientation shyas shythe shyDependent shyVariables shyfrequencies shyas shyin

Value Pattern in Maladjustment and Spatial Orientation shy 11 12 13 21 22 23 shy

Gender shy

1 4 0 0 2 2 0 82 1 1 2 1 1 6 12

shy 5 1 2 3 3 6 20

Table shy53 shyexact shytests shyare shypreferable shyand shysuch shytests shycan shybe shycarried shyout shyusing shythe shyEXACON shymodule shyin shythe shySLEIPNER shyprogram shyto shybe shypresented shyin shya shylater shychapter

5 shyCFA shyRELATED shyTO shyOTHER shyMETHODS

Let us first say that CFA has been extended to a large variety of different settings and the reader shyis shyreferred shyto shythe shyabove-mentioned shysources shyfor shyfurther shyinformation shyIn shychapter shy6 shywe shybriefly discuss some variants of CFA useful for longitudinal analysis

How shydoes shyCFA shyrelate shyto shyother shytechniques shyfor shyanalyzing shyhigher shyorder shycontingency shytables shylike shyfor shyinstance shylog-linear shymodeling shy(LOGLIN) shyIn shyLOGLIN shythe shylogarithms shyof shythe shycell shyfrequencies are modeled according to the ldquoeffectsrdquo of belonging to specific categories in the different variables and the modelrsquos fit to data can be tested (Bishop et al 1975) In CFA shysome shytype shyof shymodel shyof shyldquono shyrelationshipsrdquo shyis shytested shyeither shyglobally shyfor shyall shyvariables shyor shyregionally shyfor shygroups shyof shyvariables shybut shythere shythe shyemphasis shyis shyon shythe shytypes shyand shyantitypes shythat shyis shyon shythe shydeviances shyfrom shythe shynull shymodel shyIn shypractice shyCFA shycan shyoften shybe shydescribed shyas shyan shyanalysis shyof shyresiduals shyproduced shyby shysome shysimple shylog-linear shymodel shyIt shythen shytends shyto shybe shymore shyexplorative shyand shymore shyfocused shyon shyhigher shyorder shyinteractions shythan shyLOGLIN

There are also model-based methods for classification of categorical data One such fam-ily shyemanates shyfrom shythe shylatent shystructure shyanalysis shyof shyLazarsfeld shy(Lazarsfeld shyamp shyHenry shy1968) shybased on binary items In this methodology briefly discussed in chapter shy4 shyit shyis shyassumed shythat shythere shyexists shya shynumber shyof shylatent shyclasses shythat shymake shyup shythe shysample shyand shythat shywithin shyeach shysuch shyclass shythere shyare shyno shyrelationships shybetween shythe shyvariables shy(local shyindependence) shyThis shyline shyof shythinking shyhas shybeen shydeveloped shyby shyCollins shyand shyWugalter shy(1992) shyin shyvarious shyways shyincluding shyprovisions for carrying out longitudinal analyses and is briefly introduced in chapter shy6 shyThe shystrength shyof shythe shylatent shystructure shyapproach shyis shythe shyconstruction shyof shya shytestable shymodel shyincluding shya shymodel shy of shy the shy errors shywhich shy is shy not shy developed shy in shyCFA shyThe shyweakness shyof shy this shymodeling shyapproach shyis shya shynumber shyof shyldquostiffrdquo shyassumptions shythat shyhave shyto shybe shymade shyto shycarry shyout shythe shyanalysis shyand the usually low power of detecting a misfitting model for moderate sample sizes The strength shyof shyCFA shyis shythe shycloseness shyto shythe shymultivariate shyreality shyone shywants shyto shyunderstand

Finally shy contrasting shy CFA shy to shy cluster shy analysis shy which shy was shy discussed shy in shy the shy previous shy shychapter shy it shy is shy obvious shy that shy the shymain shydivision shypoint shybetween shy the shymethods shy is shywhether shyone shywants shyto shyregard shythe shyvariables shyas shymore shyor shyless shycontinuous shy(approximately shyinterval shyscaled) shyor shyas essentially noninterval scaled or even categorical In the first case standard methods for cluster shyanalysis shybased shyon shyinterval shyscaled shydata shycan shybe shya shynatural shychoice shyin shythe shysecond shycase shy


they shycannot shybe shyused shyThen shythere shyare shyalternative shytypes shyof shycluster shyanalysis shydesigned shyfor shyordinal shyor shycategorical shydata shybut shyCFA shycan shybe shya shynatural shychoice shyAlso shywhen shythe shydata shyare shyconsidered shyto shybe shyapproximately shyinterval shyscaled shyCFA shycan shybe shya shyuseful shycomplementary shyapproach shyas shylong shyas shythe shydiscretization of the variables is defensible which would depend on the specific case

6 shyA shyFINAL shyLOOK shyAT shyWHAT shyWE shyHAVE shyLEARNED shyABOUT shyTHE shySTRUCTURE shyIN shyTHE shyDATA shyIN shyTABLE shy51

Finally shylet shyus shyreturn shyto shythe shydata shygiven shyin shyTable shy51 shywhich shywe shyhave shyanalyzed shyusing shyCFA shywith shythe shyresults shypresented shyin shyTable shy52 shyand shyTable shy53 shyDue shyto shythe shysimplicity shyof shythe shydata shyset shyit shycan shybe shyrepresented shyin shya shytwo-dimensional shyplot shywith shythe shymaladjustment shyscore shyon shythe shyx shyaxis shyand shy the shyspatial shyorientation shyscore shyon shy the shyy shy axis shyThis shy is shydone shy in shyFig shy51 shywhere shygirls shyare shydenoted shywith shydots shyand shyboys shyare shydenoted shywith shysquares

It shy is shy seen shy in shyFig shy51 shy that shy there shy is shya shyclear shy structuring shyof shy the shydata shy set shywith shyone shydominant shy shyfeature shyfor shythe shygirls shy(low shyspatial shyorientation shyscore shylow shymaladjustment shyscore) shyand shyone shydominant shy shyfeature for the boys (high spatial orientation score high maladjustment score) The first one was picked up by the significant type obtained in the CFA analysis and indicated by the broken encirclement shyThe shyother shydominant shyfeature shywas shyonly shya shytendency shy(p=057) shybut shyis shyalso shyindicated shyby shya shybroken shyencirclement shyIt shywould shyalso shypartly shyhave shybeen shypicked shyup shyif shya shycluster shyanalysis shyhad shybeen shycarried shyout shybased shyon shythe shytwo shycontinuous shyvariables shyand shytreating shygender shyas shya shythird shy

FIG shy51 shyA shyplot shyof shythe shydata shypresented shyin shyTable shy51 shywith shymaladjustment shyscore shyon shythe shyx shyaxis shyspatial shyorientation shyscore shyon shythe shyy shyaxis shyboys shydenoted shyby shysquares shyand shygirls shydenoted shyby shydots shyEncircled shyareas shyindicate shythe shyfour shyclusters shyemerging shyin shya shycluster shyanalysis shyof shythe shytwo shycontinuous shyvariables and gender Areas encircled with broken lines indicate a significant typetendency to shytype shyin shyCFA


shycontinuous shyvariable shy(a shyquestionable shyprocedure) shyas shyindicated shyby shythe shyencircled shyareas shyindicating shythe shyfour shyclusters shyin shya shy4-cluster shysolution shyusing shyWardrsquos shymethod shyAll shygirls shyconstituted shyone shycluster shyand shythere shywere shythree shyclusters shyfor shyboys shyone shyof shywhich shycorresponds shyexactly shyto shythe shytype shyldquo223rdquo

The shyfeatures shyof shythe shydata shystructure shyjust shydiscussed shywould shynot shyhave shybeen shypicked shyup shyby shythe shysimple shyvariable-oriented shyanaly shyses shywe shystarted shywith shyin shyTable shy51 shybut shycould shyhave shybeen shypicked shyup shyby shymore shy sophisticated shyvariable shyoriented shymethods shyNevertheless shywe shy think shy the shy simple shyexample given illustrates the potential of CFA for finding interesting higher order interac-tion shystructures shyin shya shydata shyset shyIn shythe shycase shyof shya shylarge shysample shyand shya shylarge shynumber shyof shyvariables shyCFA shy also shy retains shy much shy of shy its shy simplicity shy in shy description shy and shy interpretation shy in shy contrast shy to shyvariable-oriented methods which tend to have severe difficulties in handling higher order interactions

Chapter 6 SOME METHODS FOR STUDYING

PATTERN DEVELOPMENT

1 shySTUDYING shyTHE shyDEVELOPMENT shyOF shySINGLE shyINDIVIDUALS

This shychapter shyfocuses shyon shythe shystudy shyof shy interindividual shydifferences shy in shypattern shydevelopment shyThis shyis shylogical shyin shythe shypresent shycontext shyin shywhich shygeneralizations shyare shyto shybe shymade shyto shypopulations shyof shyindividuals shyand shyin shywhich shyinterindividual shydifferences shyare shythought shyto shybe shyprofound shyand shyof shyprime shyinterest shyin shythemselves shyHowever shyit shyshould shynot shybe shyinterpreted shythat shywe shyconsider shythe shystudy shyof shythe shysingle shyindividual shyto shybe shyunimportant shyon shythe shycontrary shyit shycan shybe shyargued shythat shythis shystudy shyis shyat shythe shyheart shyof shyunderstanding shyindividual shydevelopment shyboth shyin shyits shyown shyright shyand shyas shya shybasis shyfor shycareful shygeneralization shyin shywhich shystudies shyof shymany shysuch shysingle shycases shyare shyintegrated shyIn shythe shycontext shyof shystudying shyshort-term shychanges shyin shybehavior shythis shyargument shywas shyput shyforward shyby shyJones shyand shyNesselroade shy(1990) shyIt shyis shyalso shyrelevant shyin shythe shycontext shyof shythe shystudy shyof shylong-term shydevelopment shy(Nesselroade shyamp shyGhisletta shy2000 shyValsiner shy1986) shyIn shythis shylatter shycase shymethod-ological shytools shysuch shyas shylatent shygrowth shycurve shyanalysis shyand shytime-series shyanalysis shyare shyavailable shyfor shystudying shyindividual shytrajectories shyas shyindicated shyin shychapter shy3

However shyin shymany shysituations shyone shydoes shynot shyhave shythe shyintensive shylongitudinal shydata shyneeded shyfor shycarrying shyout shyanalyses shyof shythe shytypes shyjust shymentioned shyMoreover shythe shymain shygoal shymay shybe shyto shyunderstand shyinterindividual shydifferences shyin shypattern shydevelopment shythis shygoal shycalls shyfor shythe shyuse shyof shya shyvariety shyof shyanalyzing shystrategies shyWe shybelieve shythe shyarguments shyprovided shyin shychapter shy2 shyand shychapter shy3 shyjustify shythe shysearch shyfor shyhomogeneous shysubgroups shyof shypersons shywith shyregard shyto shypattern shydevelopment shyWithout shybeing shythe shyonly shypossible shyapproach shyit shyis shythe shyone shywe shyfocused shyon shyin shythis shychapter shyMethods shywith shythis shypurpose shyare shynow shypresented

2 shyMODEL-BASED shyAND shyDESCRIPTIVE shyMETHODS shyFOR shySTUDYING shyPATTERN shyDEVELOPMENT

A shywide shyvariety shyof shydifferent shymethodological shypossibilities shyexist shyfor shystudying shyinterindividual shydifferences shy in shy pattern shy development shyAs shy indicated shy in shy chapter shy 3 shy we shy distinguish shy between shymodel-based shyand shydescriptive shymethods shyalthough shythe shyline shybetween shythese shytwo shyis shynot shyalways shyclear shyAn shyexample shyof shya shymodel-based shymethod shywithout shylatent shyvariables shyis shyloglinear shymodeling shy(Bishop shyet shyal shy1975) shyExamples shyof shytailoring shythis shymethod shyto shythe shystudy shyof shychange shycan shybe shyfound shyin shyClogg shyet shyal shy(1990) shyExamples shyof shymodel-based shymethods shywith shylatent shyvariables shyare shylatent shyclass shyanalysis shyand shyMarkov shychain shymodels

Collins shyand shyWugalter shy(1992) shypresented shya shymethod shycalled shylatent shytransition shyanalysis shy(LTA) shyWith shythis shymethod shya shymodel shycan shybe shyconstructed shywith shyan shyarray shyof shylatent shyclasses shyrepresenting shylatent shystatus shyat shya shygiven shytime shyThe shylatent shystatuses shyare shyused shyfor shyconstructing shywhat shythey shycall shyldquostage-sequential shy dynamic shy latent shy variablesrdquo shy (p shy 131) shy Among shy other shy things shy transition shy shyprobabilities shy for shy the shy latent shy statuses shy between shy adjacent shy time shy points shy are shy estimated shy by shy the shymodel shyLTA shyhas shybeen shyextended shyin shyvarious shyways shyenabling shythe shyuser shyto shytest shya shyvariety shyof shymodels shyabout shypattern shydevelopment shyErrors shyof shymeasurement shyin shythe shyindicators shycan shyalso shybe shyhandled shyby shy

Some methods for studying pattern development

the shymodel shyHowever shyin shyorder shyto shyapply shythe shymodel shya shynumber shyof shystrict shyassumptions shymust shybe shymade shy(see shyCollins shyamp shyWugalter shy1992) shyand shythe shypower shyto shyreject shya shyldquobadrdquo shymodel shyoften shyseems shyto shybe shylow shyfor shysmall shysamples shyIt shyis shyprobably shyfair shyto shysay shythat shyLTA shyis shymost shyuseful shywhen shya shyvery shyldquostrongrdquo model can be tested (ie a model with almost all parameters fixed)

Although shyfor shyobvious shyreasons shymodel-based shymethods shyare shyhighly shyuseful shyin shymany shysitua-tions shythey shyare shynot shypursued shyfurther shyin shythis shychapter shyWe shyconcentrate shyinstead shyon shymethods shythat shyare essentially descriptive and that are more basic and flexible These methods usually involve shyfewer shyassumptions shyabout shythe shyproperties shyof shythe shydata shyand shycan shyserve shyas shybasic shytools shyWe shyconsider shythis shyrestriction shyto shymore shydescriptive shymethods shyas shynecessary shyto shyenable shyus shyto shypresent shyin sufficient detail a number of useful methods within the confinements of a short book Besides to a certain extent the approaches presented here can also incorporate specific hypothesis shytesting shyabout shydevelopment

The shyinterest shyin shypattern shydevelopment shycan shytake shymany shydifferent shyforms shybesides shyclassifying shyindividualsrsquo shydevelopment shyon shythe shybasis shyof shytheir shypatterns shyof shyvalues shyon shyrelevant shy(continuous) shyvariables shyIf shythe shyvariables shyconstituting shythe shypatterns shyare shydiscrete shyand shyhave shyjust shya shyfew shydifferent shyvalues all possible value patterns could be analyzed using configural frequency analysis (CFA) shySome shypossibilities shyalong shythese shylines shywill shybe shypresented shyin shysection shy4 shyIn shysome shycases shyinterest is focused on special aspects of patterns like profile scatter and profile extremes For shya shyfurther shydiscussion shyof shysuch shyaspects shythe shyreader shyis shyreferred shyto shychapter shy3 shyand shyto shyBerg-man (1998) Graphical representations of similarities between profiles can sometimes be informative shyin shydevelopmental shyresearch shyfor shyinstance shyusing shymultidimensional shyscaling shy(MDS shyWood shy1990) shyThey shyare shynormally shybest shysuited shyfor shydescribing shya shylimited shynumber shyof shyobjects shyand shywill shyonly shybe shyused shyhere shyto shycompare shycluster shycentroids shy(see shychap shy9)

In shysection shy3 we focus on methods for classification of pattern development when the patterns comprise value profiles in variables assumed to be continuous

3 shyCLASSIFICATION-BASED shyMETHODS shyFOR shySTUDYING shyINTERINDIVIDUAL shyDIFFERENCES shyIN shyINDIVIDUALSrsquo shyVALUE shyPATTERNS shyACROSS shyDEVELOPMENT

The main emphasis here is on classification-based methods for studying interindividual differences shyin shythe shydevelopment shyof shyindividualsrsquo shyvalue shypatterns shyWe shydistinguish shybetween shythree shyways shyin shywhich shythe shydevelopmental shyprocess shyis shystudied

1 A longitudinal pattern is formed and longitudinal types are identified directly in the classification Ideally this means that full account is taken of each individualrsquos specific pattern shyof shychange

2 At each age a classification is made and the results of the different classifications are linked usually pair-wise (the time i classification is linked to the time i+1 classification) The individualsrsquo class membership over time is then studied

3 First a common classification system is created that can be applied to each age shyseparately shyTo shyaccomplish shythis shythe shyinformation shyfrom shyeach shyage shyis shyconsidered shya shy shysubwhole shyand shyall shysubwholes shyfrom shyall shyages shyare shycombined shyto shyconstitute shya shysample shyof shyobjects that are classified Then each individual is given his or her sequence of class memberships according to this classification (one class membership for each age) These shysequences shyare shythen shyanalyzed


In shythe shyfollowing shypages shyall shythree shyof shythese shystrategies shyare shydiscussed shyThe shysecond shywe shybelieve shyto shybe shythe shymost shyrobust shyand shyperhaps shythe shyone shythat shyis shymost shygenerally shyapplicable

31 The Direct Identification of Typical Longitudinal Patterns

To shy focus shy directly shy on shy typical shy longitudinal shy patterns shy is shy attractive shy because shy in shy a shy way shy these shy shypatterns shyare shywhat shyconstitutes shypattern shydevelopment shyTwo shyanalytic shystrategies shyare

1 shyThe shydirect shyclustering shyof shycomplete shylongitudinal shypatterns shyrepresenting shyall shythe shyinformation shyfrom shyall shythe shytime shypoints shystudied

2 shyThe shyapplication shyof shyan shyordination shystrategy shyby shywhich shythe shynumber shyof shydimensions shyare shyreduced shy(principal shycomponents shyanalysis shyis shyoften shyused shyfor shythis shypurpose) shyfollowed shyby shya shyclassification analysis of the factor scores often using cluster analysis (eg Mumford amp shyOwens shy1984)

In some respects a longitudinal classification approach is pref erable to the snapshot-and-linking shy approach shy described shy in shy the shy next shy section shy in shy that shy the shy former shy approach shy more shyclosely shy represents shy the shy individualsrsquo shy multivariate shy trajectories shy of shy change shy How-ever shy in shy shypractice shythis shygenuinely shylongitudinal shyapproach shycan shybe shyproblematic shyFor shyexample shyin shycluster shy analytic applications in which data from all ages are included in the value profile very heterogeneous clusters are often obtained that are difficult to interpret In cases with many measurement occasions one might for instance have to accept subjectsrsquo classification to the shysame shydevelopmental shycluster shydue shyto shyfairly shyhigh shyoverall shysimilarity shydespite shythese shysubjects shyhaving shya shydifferent shyoutcome shyor shya shydifferent shystarting shypoint

Consider shy the shy results shy presented shy by shy Bergman shy and shy Magnusson shy (1986) shy as shy an shy empirical shyexample shyof shythe shycluster shyheterogeneity shythat shycan shybe shyobtained shywhen shyusing shylongitudinal shycluster shyanalysis shyThe shy authors shy studied shy the shy development shy of shy about shy 500 shy boysrsquo shy patterns shy of shy extrinsic shyadjustment shy problems shy (six shy problems shy measured shy at shy two shy points shy in shy time) shy Both shy longitudinal shycluster shyanalysis shyand shycross shysectional shycluster shyanalysis shyfollowed shyby shylinking shywere shyapplied shy(see shyBergman shy1998 shy for shya shymore shydetailed shydescription) shyBergman shyand shyMagnusson shy(1986) shycon-cluded shythat shythe shylongitudinal shyanalysis shyresulted shyin shyinterpretable shyresults shyreasonably shysimilar shyto shythose shyobtained shyusing shythe shyother shystrategy shyHowever shyin shycontrast shyto shythe shycross-sectional shyapproach shywith shylinking shythe shylongitudinal shycluster shysolution shyrendered shya shyfairly shyheterogeneous shyclustering shysolution shywith shymany shyclusters shy (11) shya shy fairly shy large shy residue shy (5) shyand shya shymoderate shyexplained shyerror shysum shyof shysquares shy(62) shyThe shyauthors shyconcluded shythat shyin shythis shycase shythe shycomplexity shyof shythe shyindividualsrsquo shydevelopmental shypatterns shywas shytoo shyhigh shyto shybe shyadequately shysummarized shyby shya shysingle shylongitudinal shycluster shyanalysis shyWith shymore shythan shytwo shytime shypoints shythis shyheterogeneity shyproblem shytends shyto shybe shyaggravated

In shy the shy aforementioned shy discussion shy it shy was shy assumed shy that shy both shy the shy level shy and shy form shyof the profile were relevant However if only profile form is the focus of interest a direct longitudinal classification might work better than otherwise as the strain on the classification system is reduced (less information has to be summarized by the cluster membership shyvariable) shyBlock shy(1971) shyoffered shyan shyinteresting shyexample shyof shythe shypotential shyof shya shylongitudinal classification strategy in his longitudinal study of personality types He used judges shyto shyperform shyQ-sorts shyof shythe shysaliency shyof shya shylarge shynumber shyof shypersonality shycharacteristics shyfor shya shysample shyof shypersons shyat shydifferent shyages shyRatings shyon shythese shycharacteristics shyconstituted shyan shyindividualrsquos profile to be analyzed First the similarity between each pair of individuals


was computed using the Pearson correlation coefficient (with the two persons as variables and shythe shyrated shycharacteristics shyas shycases) shySecond shyQ-factor shyanalysis shywas shyused shyFive shyfactors shy(personality shytypes) shywere shyextracted shyfor shythe shyboys shyand shysix shyfactors shywere shyextracted shyfor shythe shygirls shyBlock shymakes shya shynumber shyof shymethodological shyobservations shywhen shydiscussing shyhis shyresults

1 shyIn shystudying shyldquothe shywhole shypersonalityrdquo shyit shywas shynot shyrelevant shyto shymeasure shysimilarity shywith shyregard shyto shylevel shyscatter shyand shyform shyonly shyform shywas shyrelevant

2 A balance has to be struck between a fine-graded classification rendering too few cases for statistical analysis for certain types on one hand and a classification with just a few shytypes shyleading shyto shyunwanted shyheterogeneity shyin shythe shyresulting shyclasses shyon shythe shyother shyhand

3 Constructing classifications separately at the different ages and then connecting them would shyraise shyinterpretational shyproblems shyand shymay shymiss shythe shyoriginal shygoal shyof shya shylongitudinal shytypology

4 By including in the profile identical items (both in content and in number) from the adolescent shyyears shyand shyfrom shyadult shyage shya shybalance shyis shyachieved shyand shya shyhigh shydegree shyof shysimi-larity between two profiles can be interpreted as similar personality development for two shyindividuals

5 It is important to allow for the possibility that not everyone will fit into any of a small number of types Hence a residue of unclassified persons was formed

Blockrsquos shy strategy shy for shyconstructing shya shy longitudinal shy typology shyappears shy relevant shy in shyhis shy setting shyand is probably also useful in other situations in which only profile form is of interest shyHowever shy his shy approach shy means shy that shy interindividual shy differences shy are shy only shy examined shy with shyregard shy to shy ipsative shy stability shy and shy change shy In shy this shy case shy one shy must shy assume shy that shy level shy differ-ences shy between shy individuals shy in shy the shy dimensions shy under shy study shy are shy unimportant shy and shy that shy the shyranking shyof shythe shysaliency shyof shycharacteristics shycontains shyall shyrelevant shyinformation shyfor shythe shydifferent shy shyindividuals shyIn shyother shywords shyone shymust shydisregard shyindividual shydifferences shyin shythe shylevel shyor shydegree shyof shyexpression shyof shydifferent shycharacteristics shyit shymust shybe shyassumed shysafe shyto shyignore shythat shypersons shymight shybe shymore shyor shyless shyldquoevenrdquo shyin shythe shylevel shyof shyexpression shyof shythe shydifferent shycharacteristics shyIn shyour shyopinion shyhis shyarguments shyagainst cross-sectional classification followed by linking are less shy convincing shy than shy his shy arguments shy for a direct longitudinal classification (see Blockrsquos 1971 shydetailed shydiscussion shyon shypp shy109ndash120 shyand shythe shydiscussion shyin shyBergman shy1998)

32 Cross-Sectional Classification Analysis Followed by Linking Over Time shyUsing shyLICUR

Here we present a method for the cross-sectional analysis of profile data followed by pairwise age linking of the results It is our goal to provide a reasonably sufficient tool-box shyfor shybasic shyanaly shysis shyof shypattern shydevelopment shyfrom shyan shyinterindividual shyperspective shyusing shythis shy snap-shot-linking shy approach shyWe shy focus shyon shy the shyLInking shyof shyClUsters shy after shy removal shyof shya Residue (LICUR) rationale that was first presented in Bergman (1998) In chapter shy 9 shyempirical shyexamples shyof shythe shyapplication shyare shyprovided

It should be pointed out that different procedures for cross-sectional classification analysis followed by linking are possible and that the method selected should be based on the specific case shyHowever shyit shyis shyalso shyuseful shyto shyhave shya shystandard shymethod shythat shyis shyapplicable shyin shya shyvariety shyof shy situations and that can also serve as a reference procedure Here we confine ourselves to the


case in which value profiles based on interval scaled data are to be analyzed It is further assumed that both the form and level of the profile are to be taken into account and that it is important shyto shyobtain shyclusters shythat shyare shyreasonably shyhomogeneous shyFor shythis shypurpose shythe shyLICUR shymethod is pre-sented The LICUR method involves three steps The first step is to identify a shyresidue shyseparately shyat shyeach shyage shy(see shychap shy4 shyfor shya shydescription shyof shythe shyRESIDAN shyapproach shyto shycreate shya shyresidue) shyThe shysecond shystep shyis shyto shycluster shyanalyze shythe shysubjects shyseparately shyat shyeach shyage shy(see shychap shy4 for a general discussion of cluster analysis) The third step is to relate the classifications at shyadjacent shyages shyto shyone shyanother shyThese shythree shysteps shyare shynow shydetailed

321 The Removal of a Residue

First shythe shyRESIDAN shyapproach shyis shyused shyseparately shyat shyeach shyage shyto shyremove shya shyresidue shywhich shyitself shyis shyanalyzed shyseparately shySupport shyfor shythis shyprocedure shywas shyprovided shyin shychapter shy4 shyin shywhich shyit shywas shysuggested shythat shyin shymany shysituations shythere shyexist shyboth shytechnical shyand shytheoretical shyreasons shyfor shynot shyclassifying shyeverybody shyRESIDAN shya shysemiobjective shyprocedure shywas shysuggested shyfor shythe a priori identification and analysis of a residue of unclassified individuals This includes the shystudy shyof shyunusual shyor shynonexistent shyvalue shypatterns shypossibly shyin shythe shycontext shyof shyidentifying shyso shycalled shyldquowhite shyspotsrdquo shy(see shychap shy3) shyMost shycommonly shythe shyresidue shycontains shy1 shyto shy2 shyof shythe shysubjects

322 Age-Specific Hierarchical Cluster Analyses

At shy each shy age shy a shy cluster shy analysis shy is shy undertaken shy on shy the shy subjects shy remaining shy after shy the shy residue shy shyanalysis shyA shyvariety shyof shydifferent shymethods shyfor shycluster shyanalysis shywere shydiscussed shyin shychapter shy4 shyand shyto shya certain extent the choice of method should of course depend on the data set and the specific problem shyunder shystudy shyWardrsquos shymethod shyand shyk-means shyrelocation shyare shyreported shyto shybe shywidely shyused shyand shyoften shywell-functioning shymethods shyThe shycluster shyanalysis shyprocedures shyin shyLICUR shyare shybased shyon shythese two specific methods First Wardrsquos hierarchical cluster analysis method is applied and an optimal shynumber shyof shyclusters shyis shychosen shyFour shycriteria shyguide shyin shythis shydecision

1 shyThe shysolution shyselected shyhas shyto shybe shyjudged shyas shytheoretically shymeaningful shyand shythe shylast shycluster shyfusion shyjudged shynot shyto shyjoin shytwo shydistinct shyand shytheoretically shyinterpretable shyclusters

2 shyThe shynumber shyof shyclusters shyshould shypreferably shynot shyexceed shy15 shyand shycannot shynormally shybe shyexpected shyto be fewer than five

3 shy A shy sudden shy drop shy in shy the shy explained shy error shy sum shy of shy squares shy of shy the shy solution shy (ESS shy see shy shychap shy4) shymay shyindicate shythat shya shysolution shywith shytoo shyfew shyclusters shyhas shybeen shyreached

4 shyThe shyexplained shyESS shyfor shythe shychosen shycluster shysolution shyshould shypreferably shyexceed shy23 shyof shythe shytotal shyESS shyfor shythe shyone-cluster shysolution shyThis shycriterion shyensures shyreasonably shyhomogeneous shyclusters shyand shycould shybe shycomplemented shyby shysetting shya shyceiling shyfor shythe shylargest shyacceptable shystandard shydevia-tion of any variable within a cluster Admittedly the figure of 23 ldquoexplainedrdquo is arbitrary but in our experience it is a figure that is often surpassed by ldquosuccessfulrdquo classifications However shyit shyshould shybe shykept shyin shymind shythat shythe shymore shyvariables shythat shymake shyup shythe shysubjectsrsquo shyvalue shyprofiles the more difficult it tends to be for the clustering algorithm to find homogeneous clusters shyfor shya shygiven shynum-ber shyof shyclusters shyThe shycriterion shydescribed shyhere shycan shybe shyrelaxed shyin shycases shywith many variables and when the focus is on the identification of ldquonatural clustersrdquo and not shynecessarily shyon shyassigning shythe shysubjects shyto shythe shyldquocorrectrdquo shyclass


Of shycourse shyother shycriteria shyare shypossible shy for shydeciding shy the shynumber shyof shyclusters shyas shywell shyas shy for shy shyevaluating shythe shyquality shyof shya shyclustering shysolution shy(see shychap shy7 shyalso shyMilligan shyamp shyCooper shy1985)

323 Relocation Cluster Analyses

As shydiscussed shyin shychapter shy4 shythe shyhierarchical shyproperty shyof shya shycluster shysolution shyis shyoften shyvery shyimportant shyIf shythis shyis shythe shycase shythen shyeach shycross-sectional shyanalysis shystops shyhere shyHowever shywhen shythe shyemphasis shyis shyon shyobtaining shyclusters shythat shyare shyas shyhomogeneous shyas shypossible shythe shyWard shycluster shysolutions shyare shyused shyas shystart shyvalues shyin shyk-means shyrelocation shycluster shyanalyses shySubjects shyare shythen shyrelocated shyto shymini-mize shythe shyESS shyThe shyhierarchical shyproperty shyof shythe shyclustering shysolution shyis shythen shylost shyOur shypractical shyexperience shyis shythat shyfrequently shythis shyloss shyis shytoo shyhigh shya shyprice shyto shypay shyfor shy(usually shyonly shyslightly) shymore shyhomogeneous shyclusters shyThat shyhierarchical shysolutions shyenable shythe shyresearcher shyto shymove shyup shyand shydown shythe classification tree is extremely valuable In hierarchical solutions differently detailed clas-sifications can be used in different analyses and the results easily compared This in a way helps in solving the difficult question of deciding on the number of clusters

324 Linking of Results Between Ages

Finally the classifications obtained at each age are linked by cross-tabulation of zage- adjoining classifications and is tested for significant types and antitypes of cluster membership shycombinations shypreferably shyby shyusing shyexact shycellwise shytests shyThe shynumber shyof shyclusters shyat shyeach shyage shyis shyusually shyin shythe shyrange shyof shy5 shyto shy15 shyresulting shyin shylarge shycontingency shytables shywith shyseveral shyexpected shyfrequencies being very low for moderate sample sizes Testing for significant cluster combina-tions shy(over- shyor shyunder-frequented shycells) shyis shythen shyproblematic shyusing shyordinary shychi-square-based shysta-tistics shyas shythe shynormal shyapproximations shyare shynot shyaccurate shyIt shyis shythen shyadvisable shyto shyuse shyexact shycellwise shytests building on the Fisher fourfield hypergeometric distribution test This can be done using the shyEXACON shyprocedure shyin shythe shySLEIPNER shystatistical shypackage shypresented shyin shychapter shy8 shy(see shyalso shyBergman shyamp shyEl-Khouri shy1987) shyThe shyimportance shyof shyusing shya shymore shyexact shytest shyis shyunderscored shyby shythe frequent need to make corrections for the mass significance problem as a large number of cells are usually tested in this way Exactness in the nominal significance levels becomes important and even a fairly good approximation is often not sufficiently good because the error shysize shywill shyincrease shywith shythe shynumber shyof shytests shymade shy(Bergman shyamp shyvon shyEye shy1987 shyvon shyEye shyamp shyBergman shy1986)

The correction for the mass significance problem can be made in the following way

1 First one or maybe two cells are identified for which one has a theoretical expectation of a type or an antitype They are tested at the nominal significance level

2 shyThen shyfor shythe shyrest shyof shythe shycells shyeach shyis shytested shyfor shytypesantitypes shyusing shya shyprocedure shyfor shyadjusting the nominal significance levels (eg Holmrsquos procedure see chap shy5)

In shyorder shyto shymake shythe shyresults shyas shyclear shyas shypossible shyand shyto shyfocus shyon shythe shyessential shyaspects shyit shycan shybe shyuseful shyto shypresent shythe shycategories shyat shyeach shyof shythe shyages shywith shyarrows shybetween shythe shycategories shyindicat-ing the significant types at adjoining ages instead of the complete cross tabulations This form of presentation is exemplified in the analyses presented in chapter shy9

After shyhaving shycarried shyout shya shyLICUR shyanalysis shythe shyambitious shyresearcher shywould shylike shyto shyobtain shyan shyidea shyof shythe shydegree shyto shywhich shythe shyresults shyobtained shyare shydependent shyon shythe shymethod shyused shyand shyon shythe shycharacteristics shyof shyhis shyor shyher shyparticular shysample shyFor shythis shypurpose shyWardrsquos shymethod shycould shybe shyreplaced by the average linkage method or beta-flexible UPGMA clustering and the LICUR


analysis shyrepeated shyThe shyresults shycould shyalso shybe shyrepeated shyon shyanother shyequivalent shysample shyor shyif shythat shyis shynot shyavailable shyon shya shyrandom shysample shyof shysay shy75 shyof shy the shyoriginal shysample shyOf shycourse shysuch shydeliberations are influenced by the specific case (for instance subsampling applies only if the group shystudied shyis shyconsidered shyto shybe shya shysample shyfrom shya shypopulation) shyIf shythe shysample shyis shysmall shythere shycan be considerable sampling variation in the results as well as an ldquooverfitrdquo of the results to the peculiarities of the specific sample In this situation a rule of thumb might be to interpret only shythe shylargest shyclusters shyit shycannot shybe shyexpected shythat shyreliable shyresults shywill shybe shyobtained shydown shyto shythe shylevel of a fine-grained classification for small samples Here one can make use of the facili-ties shyavailable shyin shySLEIPNER shyfor shydrawing shyrandom shysamples shyand shyfor shyestablishing shythe shyamount shyof shystructure shytypically shyfound shyin shyrandom shydata shyA shydiscussion shyof shyreliability shyand shyvalidity shyissues shywithin shyclassification analysis is given in chapter shy7

It shyshould shybe shypointed shyout shythat shythe shyLICUR shyprocedure shymight shybe shyuseful shyalso shyin shya shycross-sectional shysituation shywhere shyinstead shyof shystudying shya shysample shyat shyfor shyexample shytwo shydifferent shyages shytwo shydifferent shyvariable domains are studied for the same sample and each domain is classified separately

33 shyAnalyzing shySequences shyof shySubwholes

In shythis shysection shya shymethod shyfor shyanalyzing shysequences shyof shysubwholes shyis shyintroduced shyThe shyinformation shyfrom each age is considered a subwhole and all subwholes from all ages are first combined to constitute a sample of objects that are then classified Each individual is then given his or her sequence of class memberships according to this larger classification (ie one class member-ship shyfor shyeach shyage) shyThese shysequences shyare shythen shyanalyzed shyThe shymethod shyfor shyaccomplishing shythis shyis shycalled shyi-states shyas shyobjects shyanalysis shy(ISOA) shyBecause shyit shybuilds shypartly shyon shya shytheoreticalmeth-odological shyconceptualization shytaken shyfrom shythe shystudy shyof shynonlinear shydynamic shysystems shythis shyback-ground is introduced briefly first

331 Introduction

As shypointed shyout shyin shychapter shy2 shyand shychapter shy3 shythe shydevelopmental shytrack shyof shyan shyindividual shycan shybe shyviewed shy as shy being shy determined shy by shy a shy complex shy dynamic shy system shy with shy both shy deterministic shy and shy shystochastic shycomponents shya shyprocess shythat shyis shypartly shyunique shyto shythe shyindividual shyThese shycharacteristics shyare reflected in strong interactions and in nonlinearity in data across individuals Operationally these shyfeatures shysuggest shythat shyindividuals shybe shystudied shybased shyon shytheir shypatterns shyof shyindividual shycharac-teristics shyrelevant shyfor shythe shystudy shyof shythe shyproblem shyunder shyconsideration

Individual development shycan shybe shyconceptualized shyas shya shyprocess shycharacterized shyby shystates shywith shychange shytaking shyplace shyin shy(continuous) shytime shyA shystate shyis shyregarded shyhere shyas shya shyvalue shyof shya shyvariable shyvec-tor shycharacterizing shythe shysystem shyat shya shygiven shypoint shyin shytime shyand shyis shycalled shyan shyi-state shywhen shyreferring shyto shya specific individual When discussing a person approach Bergman and Magnusson (1997) asserted shythat shya shyvariety shyof shyevidence shysupports shythe shynotion shythat shynature shyoften shyoperates shyin shysuch shya shyway shythat shycertain shystates shyare shyin shysome shyways shyoptimal shyor shyfunctional shyand shytherefore shybecome shyattractor shystates shywhich shyare shystable shyduring shylonger shytime shyperiods shyand shytherefore shyare shyobserved shyoften shyMany shysystems shystudied shyare shyassumed shyto shybe shytime independent shythat shyis shythe shyonly shyinformation shyof shyimportance shyfor shypredicting shythe shyfuture shyof shya shysystem shyis shyits shypresent shysystem shystate shyOnce shythat shyis shyknown shytime shyitself shyis shyno shylonger shyof shyany shyimportance

Some methods for studying pattern development 1

Assuming shythe shysame shysystem shyis shyexamined shyduring shythe shyentire shytime shyperiod shyof shystudy shyand shythat shythe shysame shysystem shycharacteristics shyare shymeasured shyled shyBergman shy(1995) shyto shysuggest shyISOA shyIn shyISOA shyit shyis shyassumed shythat shya shylimited shynumber shyof shy(true) shydifferent shypossible shyi-states shyexist shyand shythat shyin shytheory shyif shynot in practice they can all be observed at all points in time The first task is to determine what typical shystates shyexist shy(they shyare shyassumed shyto shyroughly shycorrespond shyto shythe shyconcepts shyof shyattractor shystates shywithin shythe shystudy shyof shydynamic shysystems) shyThe shytask shyis shythen shyto shydescribe shyhow shymemberships shyto shythese shytypical shystates shychanges shyover shytime shyfor shythe shyindividuals shyin shythe shysample shyThe shymethod shyis shydescribed shybriefly now and more fully in Bergman and El-Khouri (1999) For a discussion of principles in shystudying shydynamic shysystems shythe shyreader shyis shyreferred shyto shyCasti shy(1989) shyand shyfor shyexamples shywithin shydevelopmental shypsychology shyin shyparticular shyto shyBarton shy(1994) shyand shySmith shyand shyThelen shy(1993)

332 Outline of ISOA

In shysummary shy the shy idea shybehind shyISOA shyis shyborrowed shypartly shyfrom shythe shystudy shyof shydynamic shysystems shywithin shyphysics shyin shywhich shycertain shysystems shycan shybe shyviewed shyas shytime-independent shythat shyis shyonly shythe shysystem shystate shyat shythe shypresent shytime shypredicts shyfuture shydevelopment shynot shytime shyper shyse shyand shynot shyprevious shyhistory This suggests that using a classification approach it can be meaningful to first classify states disregarding the time dimension and then use this classification to describe individual development

In shythe shyfollowing shydiscussion shywe shyassume shythat shyp shycontinuous shyvariables shyhave shybeen shymeasured shyat shyk shyoccasions shyfor shyn shysubjects shyWe shyfurther shymust shyassume shythat shythe shyessential shycharacteristics shyof shythe shysystem shyunder shystudy shydo shynot shychange shyover shytime shy(ie shyonly shyshort-term shydevelopment shycan shybe shystudied shyusing shyISOA)

A shystrategy shyfor shycarrying shyout shyISOA shyis shythe shyfollowing

1 shyBreak shydown shyeach shysubject shyinto shyk subsubjects each being characterized by its value profile in shythe shyp shyvariables shyat shya shygiven shyoccasion

2 shyCompute shythe shydissimilarities shybetween shythe shyn x k shysubsubjects shySo shyfar shywe shyhave shyonly shyused shyaver-age shysquared shyEuclidean shydistance shywhen shyapplying shyISOA shybut shyother shymethods shyfor shycomputing shythe dissimilarity could be used depending on the specific problem under study and the character shyof shythe shyinformation shyavailable

3 shyRemove shya shysmall shynumber shyof shysubsubjects shycharacterized shyby shybeing shy(almost) shyunique shythat shyis shybeing shydissimilar shyto shy(almost) shyall shyother shyobjects shyfollowing shythe shyRESIDAN shyprocedure shydescribed earlier The states they reflect are considered as either being ldquononexistentrdquo (ie shyproducts shyof shyerrors shyof shymeasurement) shyor shyrare shyand shyuninteresting shyfrom shythe shyviewpoint shyof shydescribing shywhat shyis shytypical

4 shyPerform shya shycluster shyanalysis shyon shythe shyremaining shysubsubjects shyIf shyhomogeneous shyclusters shyappear shythey shyprovide shya shycompact shydescription shyof shytypical shystates shyThese shybecome shythe shybasic shyunits shyof shyinformation shyto shybe shyused shyin shyfurther shyanalysis shyand shydescription

5 shyThen shyldquocomplete shysubjectsrdquo shyare shyagain shyformed shyby shyconstructing shythe shylongitudinal shycluster shymem-bership shyinformation shyEach shyindividualrsquos shylongitudinal shysequence shyof shycategories shyis shystudied shyaccording shyto shythe shycategorization shyof shytypical shystates shyThat shyis shyeach shyindividual shyis shydescribed shyby shythe shytime-ordered shysequence shyof shycluster shymemberships shyaccording shyto shynumber shy4 shyIn shyother shywords shythe shysequence shyof shyeach shyindividualrsquos shyi-states shyis shytransformed shyinto shya shysequence shyof shystate shycategory values Frequent category combinations are identified and interpreted as well as shynonoccurring shycombinations shy(ldquowhite-spotsrdquo)


ISOA shycan shygive shythe shyuser shythe shyfollowing shythree shykinds shyof shyinformation

1 shyInsight shyinto shywhat shytypical shysystem shystates shyexist shyFrom shya shydynamic shysystems shyview shythis shyprovides shya shymap shyof shypossible shysystem shystates shyand shyfrom shythe shyviewpoint shyof shya shyperson-oriented shyanalysis shythis shyprovides a common system for classifying profiles of values for each age

2 shyInformation shyabout shyhow shythe shyfrequencies shyof shythe shydifferent shytypical shysystem shystates shychange shywith shytime shythat shyis shyinformation shyabout shystructural shystability shyand shychange shy(albeit shyin shya shylimited shysense)

3 shyA shydescription shyof shyindividual shystability shyand shychange shyviewed shyagainst shythe shybackdrop shyof shythe shystate shyclassificatory system generated by the method This includes the possibility of studying developmental shyroutes shynot shyfollowed

It shyis shya shystrength shyof shyISOA shythat shyin shyits shybasic shyanalysis shya shyfairly shylarge shynumber shyof shysubsubjects shycan shybe shyanalyzed shyeven shyfor shysmall shytotal shysamples shyof shysubjects shywhen shythere shyare shymany shymeasurement shyoccasions shyThis situation is rather frequent and the ISOA method can be an efficient way of using all the information shyavailable shyIn shya shylimited shysense shythe shymethod shyallows shyfor shythe shyquantitative shyevaluation shyof shystructural shystability shyand shychange shyboth shyat shya shydetailed shyLevel shyand shyat shya shymore shyglobal shylevel shyAt shythe shyglobal shylevel shyit shyseems shynatural shyto shycompare shythe shypercentages shybelonging shyto shythe shydifferent shytypical shystates shyat shythe shydifferent shyages shyusing shyfor shyinstance shycity shyblock shymetric shyISOA shycan shysometimes shyalso shybe shyused shyfor shystudying shyindividual shystability shyand shychange shybetween shyas shyfew shyas shytwo shymeasurement shyoccasions

Here shywe shyfocused shyon shythe shydissimilarity shyor shysimilarity shybetween shyi-states shyas shyproviding shythe shyinput shyinformation for the classification analysis Please note that this approach is fairly general and does shynot shyrequire shythe shykind shyof shydimensional shydata shyused shyin shyconventional shyanalyses shyof shydynamic shysys-tems shyThis shyis shyimplicit shyin shysome shyof shythe shyprevious shymentioned shyreasoning shyThere shyare shymany shyways shyof shyconstructing shythe shydissimilarity shymatrices shyFor shyinstance shyraters shycould shybe shyused shyto shyproduce shydissimilar-ity shyestimates shyfor shyeach shypair shyof shyi-states shybased shyon shythe shyavailable shy(perhaps shyqualitative) shyinformation shyOf shycourse shythis shydoes shynot shymean shythat shythe shyproblems shyof shyscaling shyare shyirrelevant shyThey shyshould shyalways shybe taken seriously and must be attended to carefully in each specific situation as discussed in chapter shy3 shy(see shyalso shyBergman shyamp shyMagnusson shy1991 shyRBCairns shyamp shyBDCairns shy1994)

As shypointed shyout shythe shyISOA shymethod shyis shymaximally shyuseful shyin shysituations shyin shywhich shyno shyqualitative shydevelopmental shychange shytakes shyplace shyThe shyappropriateness shyof shythe shymethod shystands shyand shyfalls shywith shythe shyassumption shythat shyit shyis shypermissible shyto shycompute shymeasures shyof shythe shydegree shyof shy(dis)similarity shybetween shyeach shypair shyof shyi-states shyboth shywithin shyand shybetween shyindividuals shyFor shyexample shyif shypronounced shychanges shyoccur shyin shythe shymeaning shyof shythe shyvariables shyincluded shydue shyto shyfundamental shydevelopmental shychanges shythen ISOA is less useful However the method can adequately reflect certain changes (eg the emergence shyof shynew shystates shyand shyfrequency shyshifts shyin shystates) shyIn shycases shywith shystrong shydevelopmental shychange shyand shychanging shymeaning shyof shy the shyvariables shy included shy the shyLICUR shyprocedure shy introduced shypreviously shyis shya shyviable shyalternative

ISOA shyis shynow shyincorporated shy in shy the shySLEIPNER shystatistical shypackage shyand shyan shyexample shyof shyan shyISOA shyanalysis shyis shygiven shyin shychapter shy9

4 shySTUDYING shyPATTERN shyDEVELOPMENT shyBY shyMAPPING shyALL shyPOSSIBLE shyVALUE shyCOMBINATIONS

An shyobvious shyapproach shyto shystudying shypattern shydevelopment shyis shyto shyin shysome shyway shyreduce shythe shynumber shyof possible patterns and then to analyze all patterns and how individuals develop as reflected by changing value combinations in these patterns In this way some of the difficulties inherent in shyclassifying shypatterns shyare shyldquosolvedrdquo shybecause shyall shypatterns shycan shybe shyretained shyduring shythe shycomplete shy


analysis shyThe shyreader shyhas shyby shynow shyrecognized shy that shy this shy is shy the shy idea shybehind shy the shyCFA shyapproach shypresented shyin shychapter shy5 shyThere shyCFA shywas shyintroduced shyin shya shycross-sectional shysetting shyas shya shymethod shyfor shyanalyzing shyall shypossible shyand shyobserved shyvalue shypatterns shyin shydiscrete shyvariables

The shyCFA shyapproach shyhas shybeen shyextended shyin shyvarious shyways shyto shypermit shythe shyanalysis shyof shydevelop-mental shyor shyrepeated shymeasurement shydata shy(see shyLienert shyamp shyzur shyOeveste shy1985 shyvon shyEye shy1990b shyand shyvon Eye et al 1996) In the context of direct analysis of longitudinal pattern data we briefly mention shythe shyfollowing shytwo shyprocedures

1 The first procedure is to simply analyze all the observed value patterns at all ages simul-taneously shyusing shyCFA shyIn shythis shycase shysimilar shyproblems shyto shythose shydescribed shyin shysection shy31 shyare shylikely shyto shyarise shyand shythere shyis shyoften shyalso shya shyproblem shyof shyextremely shysparse shyfrequencies shyin shythe shycells defined by the configurations

2 In the second category of procedures first the change scores between each adjacent pair of shyages shyare shyformed shyfor shyeach shyvariable shy(sometimes shyafter shyan shyordination shyprocedure shyhas shybeen shyapplied) shyand shysecond shythese shychange shyscores shyare shysubjected shy(after shydichotomization shyor shytri-chotomization) shyto shya shyCFA shyThis shyleads shyto shya shydramatic shyreduction shyin shythe shynumber shyof shypossible shyand shyobserved shyvalue shypatterns shythat shyin shymost shycases shymakes shythis shyapproach shymore shypractically shyfeasible shythan shynumber shy1 shyHowever shyit shyshould shybe shynoted shythat shyraw shyscore shychange shyscores shyare shynotoriously shyunreliable shyand shythis shyto shya shycertain shyextent shyalso shycarries shyover shyto shydichotomized shyor shytrichotomized shychange shyscores shyLarge shyerrors shyof shymeasurement shyin shythe shychange shyscores shycan shyobscure shyexisting shytypes shyand shyantitypes shyThe shylow shyreliability shyof shychange shyscores shyhas shyto shydo shywith shythe shyfrequent shyhigh shycorrelation shybetween shythe shytime shy1 shyand shytime shy2 shyscores shydue shyto shyshared shytrue shyvariation shyTherefore shythe shyvariation shyin shythe shychange shyscores shytends shyto shybe shyerror shyvariation shyto shya shylarger shyextent shythan shythe shyvariation shyin shythe shyscores shyat shytime shy1 shyor shytime shy2 shyThis shywas shydiscussed shyin shychapter shy3

A shyvariety shyof shydifferent shymethods shyfor shydescribing shychange shyor shydevelopment shyhave shybeen shydeveloped shywithin shythe shyCFA shytradition shyand shythe shyreader shyis shyreferred shyto shythe shyaforementioned shyreferences shyand shyto shyreferences shygiven shyin shychapter shy5 shyfor shya shydescription shyof shysuch shymethods shyincluding shymore shyelaborated shyvariants shyof shynumber shy1 shyand shynumber shy2 shyjust shypresented shyIn shychapter shy9 shywe shyalso shypresent shyan shyempirical shyexample shyin shywhich shywe shyundertake shysome shyanalyses shyof shythe shytypes shydiscussed shyhere

When shyapplying shya shycross-sectional shyanalysis shywith shylinking shybetween shyages shya shyCFA shyapproach shymay shyalso shybe shyuseful shyMany shydifferent shy approaches shyhave shybeen shydeveloped shywithin shy the shyCFA shy tradition shyincluding shymethods shyfor shytesting shyfor shytypes shyof shystability shyThe shyinteraction shystructure shyanalysis shypresented shyin shychapter shy5 can also be modified to apply to cross-tabulations across age and so forth Lienert and shyBergman shy(1985) shyintroduced shya shysimilar shystrategy shycalled shyLongisectional shyInteraction shyStructure shyAnalysis shy(LISA) shywhich shycan shyalso shybe shyused shywith shya shycombination shyof shy shyconfigural frequency data and classification data

A shysimple shyprocedure shy that shy is shysometimes shyuseful shy is shy the shyfollowing shyCarry shyout shya shyCFA shyat shyeach shyage shyand shy then shyon shy the shybasis shyof shy these shyanalyses shy reduce shy the shynumber shyof shycategories shyat shyeach shyage shyby merging certain unusual and ldquouninterestingrdquo configurations Then cross-tabulate the shyremaining shycategories shybetween shyadjacent shyages shyfollowing shythe shyrationale shyindicated shyin shystep shy3 shyof shythe shyLICUR shyprocedure shypresented shyin shythis shychapter shyIn shychapter shy9 shysome shyanalyses shyof shythis shytype shyare shycar-ried shyout shyHildebrand shyLaing shyand shyRosenthal shy(1977) shydeveloped shya shymethod shyfor shytesting shy(composite) shyhypotheses shyof shyrelations shybetween shycategorical shyvariables shyThis shymethod shycan shybe shyused shyfor shyveriying shyif shy shytheoretical shypredictions shyof shyoverfrequented shyand shyunderfrequented shycells shyhold shyup shywhen shycross-tabu-lation shydata shyof shythe shytype shydiscussed shyhere shyare shyavailable shyThis shyis shyone shyway shyof shymoving shyin shythe shydirection shyof shytheory shytesting shystarting shyfrom shythe shylargely shydescriptive shyframework shypresented shyhere

Chapter 7 EXAMINING THE

GENERALIZABILITY OF RESULTS

The need for taking issues of reliability and validity seriously exists in all scientific shyendeavors shy and shy of shy course shy here shy also shy This shy can shy be shy taken shy as shy self-evident shy and shy needs shy no shy shyspecial shymotivation shyHowever shyin shythe shypresent shycontext shythere shyare shytwo shyadditional shyreasons shyfor shy shyhighlighting shythe shyimportance shyof shyreliability shyand shyvalidity

1 shyThe shyapproach shypresented shyhere shyand shythe shymethods shyused shyto shycarry shyit shyout shyare shyconsidered shyby shymany shyldquononstandardrdquo shyThe shyuser shyof shythis shyapproach shymay shytherefore shyencounter shya shycertain shyskepticism shythat shycan shybe shyovercome shyby shyan shyespecially shycareful shyanalysis shyand shypresentation shyof shyaspects shyof shyreliability shyand shyvalidity

2 shySome shyof shythe shytechnical shymethods shyused shyforemost shycluster shyanalysis shyare shynot shyformu-lated shyin shythe shyform shyof shya shymathematical-statistical shymodel shywhich shyincorporates shyerrors shyof shy shymeasurement shyand shysampling shyerrors shyHence shytheir shyeffects shyare shyhard shyto shyevaluate shyIt shyis shyalso shy shydocumented shythat shyunder shycertain shyconditions shyresults shyfrom shycluster shyanalysis shycan shybe shydistorted shyby shysuch shyerrors shy(see shyMilligan shy1980)

Cronbach shyGleser shyNanda shyand shyRajaratnam shy(1971) shypointed shyto shythe shyimportance shyof shyinterpreting shythe shy reliability shy and shy validity shy of shy results shy in shy terms shy of shy their shy generalizability shy under shy varying shy shyconditions shyThis shy is shyalso shyour shyview shyand shy in shy the shypresent shycontext shywe shyhighlight shy the shyfollowing shyseven shymajor shyfacets shyof shytrustworthiness shyand shygeneralizability

1 shyThe shysimilarity shyto shythe shyresults shyobtained shyif shyother shymethods shywere shyused shyto shyanalyze shythe shysame shydata shyFor shyinstance shyto shywhat shydegree shydoes shythe shyobtained shycluster shysolution shydiffer shyfrom shythe shyclassification obtained by using another clustering algorithm

2 shyQuality shyof shythe shyrepresentation shyof shythe shyinherent shystructure shyof shythe shydata shyat shyhand shyFor shyinstance shythe degree of correspondence is studied between the classification obtained and the basic shyinput shydata shyas shyrepresented shyby shythe shydissimilarity shymatrix

3 shyThe shysimilarity shyto shythe shyresults shythat shywould shyhave shybeen shyobtained shyif shythere shywere shyno shyerrors shyof shymeasurements

4 shyThe shysimilarity shyto shythe shyresults shyobtained shyfor shythe shypopulation shyfrom shywhich shythe shystudied shy shysubjects shyare shyconsidered shyto shybe shya shysample

5 shyThe shysimilarity shyof shythe shyresults shyto shythose shyobtained shyfor shyother shypopulations shyof shysubjects6 shyThe shysimilarity shyof shythe shyresults shyto shythose shyobtained shyfor shydifferent shyage shyperiods shythan shythe shystudied shy

one7 shyThe shysimilarity shyof shythe shyresults shyor shyobtained shyfor shya shysimilar shyset shyof shyvariables

Of course it depends on the specific situation which of the seven facets are most relevant With the shyenormous shyincrease shyin shycomputational shypower shyduring shythe shylast shyseveral shyyears shyit shyis shypossible shyto shystudy shycertain shyaspects shyof shythe shyfacets shyusing shydata shysimulation shyTo shysome shyextent shywe shycan shynow shysolve shyby shyldquobrute shyforcerdquo shyproblems shyof shyerror shyestimation shythat shywe shycannot shysolve shyusing shyanalytical shymethods

In shy the shy following shy several shy methods shy for shy studying shy these shy facets shy are shy suggested shy and shy shydiscussed

Examining the generalizability of results

We shyconcentrate shyon shythe shymost shycommon shysituation shyin shywhich shywe shyhave shyaccess shyto shyinformation shyon shyk shyinterval shyscaled shyvariables shyfor shyn subjects and the classification method used is cluster analysis The profile of values for the subjects in these variables is assumed to contain the necessary shyinformation shyfor shydeciding shyto shywhich shyclass shya shysubject shybelongs shyWe shyalso shyassume shythat shyboth the level and form of a profile contain relevant information Certain aspects of the material shywe shynow shypresent shycan shybe shygeneralized shyto shyother shycontexts shybut shyfor shythe shysake shyof shybrevity shywe shydo shynot shygo shyinto shythat shyin shythis shyvolume

Let us first consider facet 1 The method-generalizability of an obtained classification can shybe shystudied shyin shya shynumber shyof shyways shythree shyof shywhich shyare shypresented shybelow

1 Classifications can be produced using other methods and the different classifications compared For instance if the original classification was the result of a cluster analysis a shynumber shyof shyadditional shycluster shyanalyses shyare shyperformed shyusing shyother shyclustering shyalgorithms shyand shypossibly shyalso shyusing shyother shydissimilarity shymeasures shyThe shyresults shyusing shythese shydifferent shymethods shyare shythen shycompared shyThere shyexist shya shynumber shyof shymethods shyfor shycomparing shydifferent shyclassifications of the same subjects (see eg Dubes amp Jain 1979 and Morey et al 1983) One set of methods is based on a four-field table formed with the total number of observations shybeing shyequal shyto shythe shynumber shyof shypairs shyof shysubjects shyIn shythis shytable shythe shyobserva-tions are classified into whether they belong to the same cluster or not in classification 1 (first dichotomous category variable) and whether they belong to the same cluster or not in classification 2 (second dichotomous category variable) The relationship between the shytwo shydichotomous shycategory shyvariables shyis shythen shycompared shyOne shysuch shymeasure shyof shyrela-tionship that appears to be useful is the modified Rand index (Hubert amp Arabie 1985) This shyindex shyis shycomputed shyby shythe shySLEIPNER shystatistical shypackage

2 A more straightforward but also less sophisticated way of comparing two classifications is to cross-tabulate the two cluster solutions However as soon as the two classifications do shynot shyexhibit shy a shy reasonably shygood shyone-to-one shymatch shywith shy regard shy to shy the shycentroids shy the shyinterpretation of such a table becomes difficult The SLEIPNER statistical package can be shyused shyfor shyanalyzing shythis shycross-tabulation shyafter shywriting shycluster shymemberships shyto shya shynew shyresults file and then using the EXACON module

3 shyIt shyshould shybe shynoted shythat shythe shytwo shymethods shydescribed shyin shynumber shy1 shyare shyfocused shyon shycomparing shythe classifications per se that is how similar they are in assigning the subjects to clus-ters shyHowever shyin shyline shywith shythe shyreasoning shypresented shyin shyearlier shychapters shysometimes shythis shyis not appropriate in particular in situations in which the classification is used primar-ily as a means of identifying typical cases The purpose in this case is to find ldquonatural clustersrdquo defining types by their centroids Here the two classifications are compared only shywith shyregard shyto shytheir shycentroids shyThis shycan shybe shyaccomplished shyusing shythe shyfollowing shysimple shymatching procedure First the two clusters are paired (one from each classification) that shyhave shythe shysmallest shydissimilarity shyas shymeasured shyby shythe shyaverage shysquared shyEuclidean shydis-tance shyThen shythe shyprocedure shyis shyrepeated shyfor shythe shyremaining shyclusters shyand shyends shywhen shyone shy(or shyboth) of the classifications does not contain any more clusters The mean of the average squared shyEuclidean shydistances shyof shythe shycluster shypairs shycan shybe shyused shyas shyan shyindex shyof shythe shysimilari-ties between the centroids in the different classifications This procedure is implemented in shythe shySLEIPNER shystatistical shypackage shyunder shythe shyname shyof shyCENTROID


Let shyus shynow shyconsider shyfacet shy2 shyThe shyquality shyof shythe shyrepresentation shyof shythe shydissimilarity shymatrix shyby shythe obtained classification can be evaluated in different ways and a variety of different indices exist shy(see shyMilligan shy1981a shyfor shyan shyoverview) shy(Of shycourse shyusing shysuch shymethods shyis shyalso shyone shyway shyof shystudying shyfacet shy1 shyjust shydiscussed) shyWe shyonly shymention shythe shyfollowing shytwo shyindices shyhere

1 shyThe point biseral correlation shyThe shyunits shyin shythis shycalculation shyare shythe shypairs shyof shysubjects shyThe shydissimilarity coefficient is calculated for each pair and it is noted whether the two sub-jects in the pair belong or do not belong to the same cluster in the classification Then the shy point shy biseral shy correlation shy is shy computed shy between shy the shy dichotomous shy variable shy and shy the shydissimilarity shyvalue

2 shy The percentage of the total error sum of squares ldquoexplainedrdquo by the classification (denoted with EV) shyThis shyis shyan shyindex shywe shyhave shyfound shyuseful shyin shyour shyapplications shyIt shyshould shybe shypointed shyout shy that shyEV shy is shy less shygenerally shy applicable shy than shy the shypoint shybiseral shy correlation shyand shythe shyassumptions shymade shyin shythe shyintroduction shyto shythis shysection shymust shyhold shyThe shyrationale shybehind EV is the following Using value profiles of interval scaled variables and average squared shyEuclidean shydistance shyas shymeasuring shydissimilarity shya shymeasure shyof shyclass shyheterogeneity shyis shygiven shyby shythe shyerror shysum shyof shysquares shywithin shyclusters shy(denoted shywith shyEc) shyEc shyis shycomputed shyas shyfollows shyFirst shyfor shyeach shysubject shyin shya shycluster shythe shysum shyof shyall shysquared shydeviations shyfrom shythe shycentroid shyis shydivided shyby shythe shynumber shyof shyvariables shyThis shyadjusted shysum shyis shysummed shyacross shysubjects shyin shythe shycluster shyand shyacross shyall shyclusters shyto shyobtain shyEc shyThe shytotal shyerror shysum shyof shysquares shyfor shythe shywhole shysample shyis shydenoted shyas shyEt shy(= shyEc shyif shythere shyis shyonly shyone shycluster) shyEV shycan shynow shybe shycalculated shyas

EV=100times(EtminusEc)Et shy

EV shy indicates shy the shy percentage shy of shy the shy total shy error shy sum shy of shy squares shy ldquoexplainedrdquo shy by shy the shy clas-sification and is sometimes called the explained ESS A figure of 100 indicates a perfect class homogeneity (all subjects in the same cluster have identical profiles) and a figure of 0 indicates the complete absence of cluster homogeneity (the variability among profiles belonging shyto shythe shysame shycluster shyis shythe shysame shyas shythe shytotal shyvariability shydisregarding shycluster shymem-bership) shyThe shyterm shyerror sum of squares shymay shybe shysomewhat shyconfusing shybecause shyit shyis shyused shyin an unusual context However the name is logical because from a classification point of view all deviations within a cluster indicate an error in the classification from a homogene-ity shyperspective shyComputing shyEc shyseparately shyfor shyeach shycluster shyand shydividing shyby shythe shynumber shyof shysubjects in the cluster results in a homogeneity coefficient for each cluster The lower this coefficient the more homogeneous the cluster If z-standardized shydata shyare shyused shya shycrude shyrule shyof shythumb shyis shythat shythe shyhomogeneity shyof shya shycluster shyshould shybe shyunder shy100

What value ranges of the point biseral correlation and of EV indicate a satisfactory ldquofitrdquo between the classification obtained and the structure of the data It is of course impos-sible to give a general answer to this question First it depends on whether the finding of typical shycases shyor shythe shyassignment shyof shysubjects shyto shyclusters shyis shythe shyprimary shyfocus shyIn shythe shysecond shycase shyhigh shyvalues shyon shythe shytwo shyindices shyare shyimportant shySecond shyEV shytends shyto shyincrease shywhen shya shylarger number of classes are used in the classification and tends to decrease as the number of variables in the value profile increases Third EV typically vary between successful classifications in different areas In our applications we have formed a rule of thumb that


for a profile that is well measured and does not contain very many variables (not more than seven) we consider an EV in the range of 67 as indicating a classification with shyreasonably shyhomogeneous shyclasses

Both shy these shy indices shy are shy computed shy by shy the shy SLEIPNER shy statistical shy package shy along shy with shy shyothers

With shyregard shyto shyfacet shy3 shymany shydifferent shyapproaches shycan shybe shyused shyto shydetermine shythe shydegree shyto shywhich shyerrors shyof shymeasurement shyhave shyaffected shythe shyresults shyUnfortunately shyno shyapproach shyis shytotally shysatisfactory shyand shyas shyalways shywhat shycan shybe shyachieved shydepends shyon shythe shyassumptions shythat shycan shybe shymade shyabout shy the shyerror shygenerating shymechanism shyMethods shy that shysometimes shyare shyuseful shyinclude shythe shyfollowing shythree

1 It has sometimes been pointed out that it can be of interest to find out whether the observed shycluster shystructure shy is shycompatible shywith shywhat shycould shybe shyexpected shy in shysimilar shydata shysets shy in shywhich shyall shy relationships shyhave shybeen shyremoved shy If shy this shy is shy the shycase shy the shyresults shycan shybe shyregarded shyas shyldquouninterestingrdquo shyin shythe shysense shythat shythey shyare shyonly shywhat shycould shybe shyexpected shyto shyresult shyfrom shyanalyzing shya shyrandom shydata shyset shyWe shywould shyat shyleast shylike shyto shyestablish shythat shythe shyldquoqualityrdquo shyof shythe shyobtained shycluster shysolution shyis shysuperior shyto shywhat shycould shybe shyexpected shyif shyran-dom shydata shywere shyanalyzed shyThe shyquality shyof shya shystructure shycould shybe shysummarized shyby shysome shyindex shyof shywhat shyhas shybeen shyaccomplished shyby shythe shyclustering shysolution shyfor shyinstance shyusing shyan shyinternal shycriterion shymeasure shylike shyEV shyTwo shysimple shyapproaches shyare

a shyConsider shy the shyobserved shy index shyvalue shyfor shy the shy real shydata shyset shyas shyone shyobservation shyfrom shya shydistribution shyof shyindex shyvalues shywith shyeach shyone shyhaving shybeen shycomputed shyfrom shya shyrandom shypermutation shyof shythe shycolumns shyof shythe shyoriginal shydata shyset shyIf shya shylarge shynumber shyof shysimulated shydata shysets shyhave shybeen shycreated shyand shyfor shyeach shyone shythe shyindex shyhas shybeen shycomputed shyone shycan shysee shy if shy the shyobserved shy index shyvalue shy for shy the shy real shydata shybelongs shy for shy instance shy to shy the shy5 shyldquobestrdquo shyindex shyvalues

b shyThe shyindex shyvalue shyobtained shyfor shythe shyreal shydata shyset shyis shyconsidered shyas shya shypopulation shymean shyIt shyis shythen shytested shywhether shythe shyindex shyvalues shyobtained shyin shythe shysimulations shycan shybe shyregarded shyas shydrawn shyfrom shya shypopulation shywith shythat shymean shyindex shyvalue shyAn shyapproximate shyt shytest shycan shybe shyused shyfor shythis shypurpose shyThis shymethod shyis shycruder shybut shymore shypractical shyas shyit shydoes shynot shyrequire shyas shymany shysimulations shyIt shyis shyimplemented shyin shythe shySIMULATE shymodule shyof shythe shySLEIPNER shypackage shyand shythe shycorresponding shyt shyvalue shywith shydf=sminus1 is reported in the SIMULATE output shy(s=the number of simulations) The first type of test can also be carried out using shySLEIPNER shyoutput shyHowever shyin shyour shyexperience shyit shyseldom shymakes shymuch shydiffer-ence shywhat shytest shyis shyused shythey shyusually shygive shythe shysame shyresult

2 shyA shysmall shyrandom shyerror shyterm shycan shybe shyadded shyto shyeach shyvariable shyvalue shyThen shyin shya shysimulation shystudy shya shylarge shynumber shyof shynew shydata shysets shyare shyconstructed shybased shyon shythe shyreal shydata shyset shybut shywith shythe error ldquonoiserdquo added The classifications derived from these new data sets are then compared to the original classification

3 shyAt shyvarious shyplaces shyin shythis shyvolume shyit shyhas shybeen shypointed shyout shythat shythere shyare shysome shyreasons shyto shybelieve that leaving a residue in the classification analysis (ie not classifying everyone) can improve the quality of a classification We believe that sometimes this approach can shyreduce shythe shyeffects shyof shymea-surement shyand shysampling shyerrors shyinsofar shyas shythese shyerrors shyare shylargely shyassociated shywith shyoutlier shyobservations


The shysensitivity shyof shythe shyresults shyto shysampling shyvariation shy(facet shy4) shyis shyimportant shyto shyevaluate shyin shysitu-ations shyin shywhich shythe shygroup shystudied shyis shyconsidered shya shysample shyand shyone shywants shyto shygeneralize shyto shythe shylarger shypopulation shyThis shycan shybe shydone shyin shyseveral shydifferent shyways shyFor shylarge shysamples shya shysimple shyprocedure is to analyze random split halves separately and then compare the two classifica-tions shyobtained shyMore shyelaborated shyprocedures shyhave shybeen shydeveloped shyby shyMorey shyet shyal shy(1983) shyand shyby shyBreckenridge shy(1989) shyHowever shyfor shysmall shysamples shysuch shytypes shyof shyreplication shyproce-dures shymay shybe shyless shyattractive shyas shythere shymay shybe shyreasons shyto shyexpect shythat shyhalf shyof shya shysmall shysample shywill not provide a very reliable classification even though the whole sample may suffice to do shyso shyreasonably shywell shyAn shyalternative shyis shyto shyuse shydata shysimulation shyand shyconstruct shya shylarge shynumber shyof shyrandom shysamples shydrawn shyfrom shythe shyoriginal shysample shyeach shycomprising shy90 shyof shythe shyoriginal shysample shysize shyOn shyeach shysuch shysample shythe shyoriginal shyanalysis shyis shyrerun shyand shythe shyresults shycompared shyto shythe original classification (in particular to the centroids and the relative frequencies of the observations shyin shythe shyclusters) shyFor shythis shypurpose shySLEIPNER shycan shybe shyused shyalbeit shyawkwardly

Concerning facet 5 and facet 6 we do not say more here about these difficult issues than that shythey shyshould shybe shytaken shyseriously shyMuch shyhas shybeen shywritten shyabout shythem shyfrom shya shyvariable-oriented shyperspective shyboth shywithin shythe shysurvey shyresearch shyliterature shy(eg shyGroves shy1989 shyfor shya shydiscussion shyof shysurvey shyerrors) shyand shywithin shythe shyliterature shyon shydevelopmental shymethodology shy(eg shyBergman shy1993 shyNesselroade shyamp shyReese shy1973) shySee shyalso shyBreckenridge shy(1989) shyfor shymethods shyfor shycomparing shythe shyresults shyobtained shyfrom shydifferent shysamples shywhich shyrelates shyto shyfacet shy5

Facet shy7 shyconcerns shythe shygeneralizability shyof shythe shyresults shyto shythose shythat shywould shyhave shybeen shyobtained shyhad the value profile been constituted of another set of variables similar to those studied It is shywell shyknown shyin shythe shycluster shyanalysis shyliterature shythat shyaddingdeleting shychanging shyeven shya shysingle shyvariable that is part of a value profile can substantially alter the results produced by many clustering shyalgorithms shy(Milligan shy1980) shyWe shybelieve shythat shyin shythis shycontext shythe shyfollowing shycon-siderations shyare shyimportant shy(given shyin shyorder shyof shyimportance)

1 The fundament for carrying out a person approach studying Gestalts or profiles is a theo-retically relevant definition of what variables should be included in the value profile and sound shymeasurements shyof shythese shyvariables shyThere shyis shyno shyroom shyfor shycasualness shyfor shyinstance shyincluding some extra variables in the profile because they ldquomight be usefulrdquo or using two measures of the same theoretical concept as separate variables in the profile just because shythey shyare shyavailable

2 Sometimes it is possible to construct an alternative variable profile to the original one that shyis shybased shyon shyslightly shydifferent shyvariables shybut shythat shycan shybe shyassumed shyto shybe shyequivalent shyThe different classifications that are produced us-ing the original profile and the alterna-tive profile can then be compared using the methods described for facet 1 if the same sample was used If different samples are compared the situation is more difficult After shystandardization shyof shythe shyinvolved shyvariables shyit shymight shybe shypossible shyto shyuse shythe shypairwise shymatching shystrategy shyjust shydescribed shyto shycompare shythe shycluster shycentroids shybetween shythe shytwo shyclus-ter shysolutions

In shythis shypresentation shywe shyhave shyof shycourse shynot shytouched shyupon shyall shyaspects shyof shyvalidity shyFor shyexample shypredictions shycan shybe shymade shyof shyexpected shymean shydifferences shybetween shythe shyclasses shyin shysome shyvariable shyexternal to the classification (see Milligan 1996) Cluster comparisons can be made for a vali-dation shyvariable shyusing shystandard shymethods shylike shyANOVA shyor shyby shyusing shystochastic shycomparative shypro-cedures (Vargha 2001) Sometimes a classification is ldquovalidatedrdquo by establishing significant


mean differences between the clusters in variables used for producing the classification This is shynot shya shyuseful shyprocedure shyas shyany shygood shyclustering shyalgorithm shywill shymost shyoften shyproduce shymean shydif-ferences between the clusters in the variables used in the classification even for random data To shygive shya shysimple shyexample shyAssume shyone shyvariable shyis shymeasured shyand shythat shyits shyvalues shyare shyrandom shynumbers shyAssume shya shycluster shyanalysis shycarried shyout shyusing shythis shyvariable shydividing shythe shysample shyinto shytwo shyclusters shyThe shyanalysis shywill shy result shy in shyall shyobservations shysmaller shy than shya shycertain shyvalue shybeing shyassigned shyto shyone shycluster shyand shyall shyobservations shylarger shythan shythis shyvalue shyassigned shyto shythe shyother shycluster shyIt shyis shyclear shythere shywill shybe shylarge shymean shydifferences shybetween shythe shyclusters

We shywould shylike shyto shyend shythis shychapter shywith shytwo shycomments shyFirst shymore shyelaborate shyprocedures shythan shythose shysuggested shyhere shyhave shybeen shydeveloped shyespecially shywithin shya shycluster shyanalytic shyframe-work shy and shy the shy reader shy prepared shy to shy do shy thorough shy analyses shy along shy these shy lines shy is shy referred shy to shythe shysources shymentioned shy in shy this shychapter shySecond shy the shycareful shyvalidation shyof shy results shy is shyat shy the shyheart shyof shyevery shyserious shyresearch shyenterprise shyand shycannot shyin shyany shytotality shybe shycaptured shyby shysimple shy standardized procedures In each special case the researcher must also find his or her own method shyof shyestablishing shythe shygeneralizability shyand shydependability shyof shythe shyresults

Chapter 8 SLEIPNER A Statistical Package for

Person-Oriented Analysis

1 shyINTRODUCTION

SLEIPNER shyis shya shyset shyof shycomputer shyprograms shyforming shya shystatistical shypackage shyIt shyis shya shyworkbench shyfor shypattern-oriented shyanalysis shyin shythe shycontext shyof shythe shyperson-oriented shyapproach shyIt shyis shystructur-ally formulated to address classificatory questions that arise against a background of clus-ter shyanalytic-oriented shyinvestigations shyof shyprimarily shylongitudinal shybut shyalso shycross-sectional shydata

Historically shySLEIPNER shywas shyconceived shyof shyand shyconceptualized shyin shythe shyStockholm shyLabo-ratory shyfor shyDevelopmental shyScience shyby shyLars shyBergman shyand shyBassam shyEl shyKhouri shyIt shyhas shygradu-ally shyevolved shyduring shy the shy last shy12 shyyears shywith shy the shyprogram shycode shywritten shyby shyEl shyKhouri shyThe shypackage shyis shya shycollection shyof shymodules shyimplementing shymethods shyof shyanalysis shythat shywere shycarefully shychosen shyto shyform shya shyself-contained shyand shyempirically shygrounded shytoolbox shyfor shyhandling shylongitu-dinal shydata shywithin shythe shyperson-oriented shyparadigm shyAs shythe shybackground shyconcepts shyevolved shyand shythe shyneed shygrew shyfor shyspecial shytailored shytools shyfor shyconducting shythe shyanalysis shymore shymodules shywere shyconstructed shyThe shyversion shyof shySLEIPNER shypresented shyhere shy (version shy21) shynow shycomprises shy16 shydistinct shymodules

The majority of procedures are specifically constructed and implemented to answer spe-cific questions in the classificatory setting advocated here Some of the methods exist already implemented shyin shyother shystatistical shypackages shybut shyas shyfar shyas shywe shyknow shySLEIPNER shyis shythe shymost shycom-prehensive shypackage shyavailable shyfor shyperson-oriented shyanalysis shyin shya shydevelopmental shycontext

11 shyModule shyBlocks shyCharacterizing shySLEIPNER

Four blocks of modules characterize SLEIPNER specifically (a) data preprocessing mod-ules shy(b) shymodules shyfor shythe shyanalysis shyof shypatterns shy(mostly shycluster shyanalysis) shy(c) shymodules shyfor shythe shyevaluation and comparison of classifications and (d) special purpose modules for altering and creating data sets and files for subsequent use by other modules

The shydata shypreprocessing shymodules shycomprise shyDESCRIBE shyIMPUTE shyand shyRESIDUE shyThe shymodules shyfor shypattern shyanalysis shycomprise shyCLUSTER shyCFA shyRELOCATE shyDENSE shyand shyISOA shyThe modules for the evaluation of classifications and comparison comprise EXACON EVALUATE shy CENTROID shy and shy SIMULATE shy Finally shy the shy special shy purpose shy modules shy for shyaltering data sets and files comprise CWRITE RANDOM SUBIND and SHAKE

Each shymodule shyhas shyits shyown shydistinct shyoutput shywhich shyin shysome shycases shycan shybe shyused shyas shyinput shyto shyother shymodules shySome shymodules shyproduce shy two shy types shyof shyoutput1 a file reporting the details of the analysis and a data file that is the result of that analysis For example one output from the IMPUTE module (which produces both types of files) can be used as input to the RESIDUE module (which also produces both type of files) that in turn produces output

shy

1Details shyof shythe shytypes shyof shyoutput shyproduced shyare shygiven shyin shythe shypresentation shyof shyeach shymodule

Sleipner a statistical package for person-oriented analysis 1

that shycan shybe shyused shyas shyinput shyto shythe shyCLUSTER shymodule shyFurthermore shyone shyRESIDUE shyoutput shy(data shyfile) needs to be merged with part of the CLUSTER output (by using the CWRITE module) before shythe shyresult shycan shybe shyused shyas shyinput shyto shyRELOCATE shyor shyEXACON shyor shyDENSE shyand shyso shyon

This shycharacterization shywill shybe shyused shythroughout shythe shychapter shyas shya shyframe shyof shyreference shyaround shywhich shythe shypresentation shyof shythe shymodules shyis shymade

12 shySLEIPNERmdashThe shyProgram

The shySLEIPNER shyprogram shyis shysimilar shyin shynature shyto shymost shyother shylarge shyprograms shythat shyhave shymany shysubprograms There are technical specifications that define the framework in which the programs shyoperate shy(eg shytype shyof shymachine shyoperating shysystem shymemory shyrequirements shyand shyso shyforth) shyThe shysource shycode shyconsists shyof shymore shythan shy17000 shylines shyof shyinstructions shythe shymajority shyof shywhich shyis shywritten shyin shyFORTRAN shy77 shyThe shyprogram shyis shystructured shyinto shy16 shymodules shythat shycan shybe shyemployed shyfrom shywithin shythe shyprogram shy(once shyit shyis shystarted) shyor shyact shyas shystand-alone shysubprograms shyThere shyare shydescriptions shyof shythe shytype shyof shyanalysis shyand shyresults shythat shyeach shymodule shycan shyproduce shyand shythere are schemes that define the type and the form of the input required by each module whether shythe shymodule shyis shyrun shyinteractively shyor shyin shya shybatch shymode

These shydescriptions shyrequirements shyand shyconstraints shyare shyoutside shythe shyscope shyof shythis shychapter shyand shyare shynot shypresented shyhere shyInstead shythey shycan shybe shyfound shydetailed shytogether shywith shythe shySLEIPNER shypackage shyon shythe shySLEIPNER shywebsite shyhttpwwwpsychologysuseSLEIPNER shyMuch shywork shyhas shybeen shydirected shytoward shyinsuring shythat shythe shymanual shyis shyas shycomplete shyerror shyfree shyself-contained shyand shyeasy shyto shyuse shyas shypossible shyBy shyfollowing shythe shyinstructions shyand shythe shyexamples shypresented shyin shythe shymanual the researcher should find no difficulty in performing his or her intended analysis SLEIPNER shyis shygiven shyto shyother shyresearches shyfor shyfree

However shywe shyask shyall shyusers shyto shyregister shyat shythe shywebsite

13 shyThe shyOrganization shyof shythe shyChapter

Working shywith shySLEIPNER shycomprises shya shy series shyof shymore shyor shy less shy interwoven shysteps shy that shycan shymost shyeasily shybe shyunderstood shyin shythe shycontext shyof shyan shyempirical shystudy shyFirst shyhowever shybrief shyand shygeneral shy introductions shy to shy the shy individual shy steps shyare shy in shyorder shyand shy these shyare shypresented shy in shy the shyfollowing sections In these introductions some general methodological justifications for undertaking shythese shysteps shyare shyprovided shyand shybrief shypresentations shyof shythe shycorresponding shymodules shyin shySLEPINER shyare shygiven shyA shydetailed shyempirical shypresentation shyis shydeferred shyto shychapter shy9 shywhere shya shy coherent shy methodological shy approach shy is shy highlighted shy against shy a shy sequence shy of shy analyses shy per-formed with the SLEPINER package Strategies for performing longitudinal classification conforming shyto shythe shyperson-oriented shyapproach shywhich shyare shypresented shyand shydiscussed shyelsewhere shyin shythis shybook shyare shyillustrated shyusing shydata shyfrom shythe shyIndividual shyDevelopment shyand shyAdaptation shy(IDA) shyproject shyand shythe shyresults shyare shyanalyzed shyand shydiscussed

The shypresentation shyof shythe shyindividual shymodules shyis shymade shywithin shythe shycontext shyof shythe shymodule shyblocks shydiscussed shyat shythe shybeginning shyof shythis shychapter shyand shyin shysuch shya shyway shyas shyto shycreate shya shycorrespondence shybetween shy the shy ideas shy discussed shy in shy the shy previous shy chapters shy and shy their shy associated shy data-related shyactivities shyThese shyactivities shyform shya shysequence shythat shymay shybe shydiscerned shyin shythe shyempirical shystudy shyin shychapter shy9 They reflect a general strategy that can be adopted for performing classificatory analysis shy in shysimilar shysettings shyNote shyhowever shy that shy the shymodules shyare shyldquostand-alone shymodulesrdquo shyand shyas shysuch shymany shyof shy them shyprovide shya shyway shyof shyanalyzing shydata shy in shycontexts shyother shy than shy the shylongitudinal or even the classificatory


A subset of the SLEPINER modules are handled here specifically the DESCRIBE IMPUTE shyRESIDUE shyCLUSTER shyRELOCATE shyISOA shyCFA shyEXACON shySIMULATE shyand shyCENTROID shyThe shyother shymodules shyCWRITE shyDENSE shyRANDOM shyEVALUATE shySUBIND shyand SHAKE are presented only briefly As mentioned earlier complete input and output specifications and example runs for all the modules can be located in the SLEIPNER man-ual shywhich shytogether shywith shythe shyprogram shycan shybe shyfound shyon shythe shySLEIPNER shywebsite

It is assumed that the reader has fair knowledge of the statistical and classificatory terms shyconcepts shyand shymethods shyemployed shyand shyreferred shyto shyin shythis shychapter shywhich shyis shymost shyeasily shyobtained shyby shyreading shythe shypreceding shychapters shyWhenever shyappropriate shyrelevant shyreferences shyto shydetailed shysources shyare shymade

2 shySLEIPNERmdashA shyWORKBENCH

As shyalready shymentioned shythe shymodules shyin shySLEIPNER shycan shybe shyorganized shyconceptually shyinto shyfour shyblocks data preprocessing modules classificatory modules modules for classificatory evaluations shyand shycomparisons shyand shyspecial shypurpose shymodules shyfor shyaltering shyand shycreating shydata shysets and files for subsequent use by other modules

Because shyof shythe shypattern-oriented shynature shyof shythe shyanalysis shythat shyis shyof shyinterest shyhere shyit shyis shyuseful shyto roughly delineate three phases in the classificatory process

1 shyThe shypreprocessing shyphase shyan shyiterative shyphase shyin shywhich shyvariables shyare shychosen shydata shyare shycollected shycoded shyregistered shyscrutinized shyfor shyerrors shyand shyedited shydata shymissingness shyis shyana-lyzed shyimputations shyperformed shyand shyresidue shyanalysis shyis shyconducted

2 the analytical phase an iterative phase in which classes andor configurations are formed and class membership identified and

3 shythe shyevaluation shyphase shyin shywhich shythe shyresults shyare shyevaluated shyandor shycompared shyto shyother shyresults shyby shyappropriate shymethods

At shyeach shystep shyand shyin shyeach shyphase shythere shyare shymany shychoices shyto shybe shymade shy(eg shychoice shyof shyvariables shymethods shyparameters shyand shyso shyon) shyIt shyshould shybe shykept shyin shymind shythat shythe shyboundaries shybetween shythese shyphases shyare shypermeable shyResults shyin shyone shyphase shymay shybring shyinto shyfocus shya shynecessary shychange shyin shythe shychoices shymade shyin shyan shyearlier shyphase shyThus shythe shyiteration shyaspect shyof shythe shywhole shyprocess shyis shynot shyconfined to within a certain phase but may also involve elements from different phases

21 shyData shyPreprocessing

211 Data Description

When shythe shydata shyare shycollected shyinspecting shythe shystatistical shycharacteristics shyof shyeach shyvariable shy(eg shymean shyfrequency shystandard shydeviation shymissingness shyetc) shyoften shyyields shyvaluable shyinformation shyfor shydecision shymaking shyabout shywhat shyvariables shy to shychoose shy in shyconstructing shy the shyunit shyof shyanalysis shy(here shya shyvariable shyvector shythat shyoptimally shyrepresents shythe shysystem shyunder shyfocus) shyor shywhether shythe shyvariables shy have shy the shy required shy scaling shy properties shy necessary shy for shy the shy analysis shy Rescaling shy the shydata shywas shydiscussed shyin shychapter shy3 shywhere shyit shywas shyshown shyhow shyapplying shyquasiabsolute shyscaling shymethods shycan shyhelp shyestablish shycomparative shyscales shyfor shythe shyvariables shyin shythe shystudy

Inquiring shyabout shythe shystatistical shyproperties shyof shyvariables shyalso shyinvolves shyexamining shytheir shylinear shyrelationships shyIt shyis shyusually shynot shyrecommended shyto shyhave shyextremely shyhighly shycorrelated shyvariables shy

Sleipner a statistical package for person-oriented analysis

in shya shyvariable shyvector shyunder shyanalysis shyAs shyin shya shynumber shyof shymultivariate shyanalysis shymethods shyin shycluster shyanalysis shythis shyhigh shylinearity shywill shyunduly shyamplify shythe shyeffects shyof shythese shyvariables shyand shyis shyreflected in the computations of proximities between two distinct units

Missingness shy is shy also shyof shyparticular shy interest shyBecause shy the shyunit shyof shy investigation shyhere shy is shy a shypattern shyof shyvalues shyon shya shymeasurement shyvector shyany shymissing shyvalue shyin shyone shyparticular shyvariable shywould shyrender shythe shyindividual shycase shyuseless shyin shythe shysubsequent shyanalysis shyunless shycertain shyactions shyare shytaken shyLarge shymissingness shyin shyone shyarbitrary shyvariable shyimplies shya shylarge shyloss shyin shycases shysome-thing shythat shythe shyanalyst shyusually shywould shylike shyto shyavoid shySometimes shya shystraightforward shysolution shymight shybe shyto shyremove shythe shyvariable shyaltogether shy(reduce shythe shydimensionality shyof shythe shymeasurement shyvector shyby shyone) shyprovided shythat shythe shyvariable shyis shysomewhat shyexpendable shy(ie shythe shypsychological shydimension shythat shythe shyvariable shyrepresents shycan shybe shyaccounted shyfor shysomewhat shyby shyanother shyvariable shyor shyset shyof shyvariables) shyand shythe shyincrease shyin shythe shynumber shyof shycomplete shycases shyis shysubstantial shyWhen shymissingness shyis shyalso shymultidimensional shya shypair shyof shyvariables shymay shybe shyremoved shythat shywould shyresult shyin shythe shylargest shyincrease shyin shycomplete shycases shyIn shyshort shythe shyanalyst shymay shyask shy(a) shyIn shya shylarge shyset shyof shyvariables shywhich shyshould shybe shyremoved shyto shyoptimally shyincrease shythe shysample shyof shycases shywith shycom-plete shydata shy(b) shyWhat shyis shythe shydegree shyof shypartial shydropout shyin shythe shydata shyset shyat shyhand

The shyDESCRIBE shymodule shyprovides shythe shybasis shyfor shyanswering shythese shyquestions

The shyDESCRIBE shyModule

DESCRIBE shyprovides shydescriptive shyinformation shyfor shymultivariate shydata shysets shyfocusing shyon shythe shycon-figurations of missing values For each variable the module provides the mean standard deviation shymaximum shyvalue shyminimum shyvalue shynumber shyof shycases shywith shymissing shyvalues shyand shythe shyincrease shyin shyvalid shycases shyfollowing shythe shyremoval shyof shythat shyparticular shyvariable shyThe shynumber shyof shycomplete shycases shyand shythe shynumber shyof shycases shywith shymissing shyvalues shyin shyone shyor shymore shyvariables shyare shyalso shygiven shyMoreover shythe shypair shyof shyvariables shythat shyresults shyin shythe shylargest shyincrease shyin shyvalid shycases shywere this pair to be removed is specified and the Pearson correlations are computed for all pairs shyof shyvariables shyand shythe shyresults shyare shyprinted shyin shya shytable shyAn shyillustration shyof shyhow shythe shyoutput shyis shyorganized shyin shyDESCRIBE shyis shygiven shyin shyFig shy81

212 Handling Missingness With Imputation

The shy results shy from shy DESCRIBE shy may shy lead shy the shy analyst shy to shy exclude shy variables shy for shy different shy shyreasons shyone shyof shywhich shymay shybe shyextensive shymissingness shyin shyone shyor shymore shyexpendable shyvariables shyModerate shymissingness shyin shyvariables shythat shyare shyjudged shyessential shyto shythe shyintended shyanalysis shymay shybe shyhandled shywithout shydiscarding shythese shyvariables shyThe shyintention shyis shythen shyto shyreduce shymissingness shyon shythat shyvariable shyso shythat shythe shyinformation shyon shyother shyvariables shyfor shythe shycases shywhere shythat shyvariable shyis shymissing shyis shytaken shyadvantage shyof shyfor shymaking shyan shyintelligent shyguess shyof shythe shymissing shyvalue shy(known shyas shyimputation) Care should be taken not to treat these partly artificial cases as complete cases shyin shysettings shyother shythan shythose shyto shybe shydescribed shyand shyunduly shyunivariate shyanalysis shyon shyvari-ables with imputed values should be avoided The imputed data file should not become the real data file it is only a temporary file for a specific analysis

Several shyimputation shymethods shyexist shyand shycan shybe shyused shyin shya shyvariety shyof shysituations shydepending shyon shy the shy purpose shy of shy the shy analysis shy and shy the shy assumptions shy made shy about shy the shy data shy One shy relevant shy shypurpose shyin shythe shypresent shycontext shyis shyto shydiscover shycommon shypatterns shyin shya shydata shyset shyTo shythis shyend shywe shyuse shycluster shyanalytic shytechniques shywhich shyin shythe shypresent shyapproach shyexclusively shyrely shyon shythe shy


average shysquared shyEuclidean shydistance shyas shythe shyproximity shymeasure shybetween shytwo shyunits shywith shythe shyvariables defining the measurement vector measured on at least an interval scale With this purpose shyin shymind shyit shy is shynatural shyto shyemploy shya shyldquohot shydeckrdquo shyapproach shyfor shyimputation shyIn shyshort shythis shymeans shyidentifying shyfor shyeach shycase shywith shymissing shyvalue(s) shyon shysome shyvariable(s) shythe shyclosest shyneighbor shya shycomplete shycase shywhose shyvalues shyon shythe shyvariable(s) shyin shyquestion shyare shyused shyfor shyimput-ing shythe shymissing shyvalues shyThe shyproximity shybetween shyan shyincomplete shycase shyand shya shycomplete shyone shyis shyof shycourse shycomputed shyusing shythe shyvariables shyfor shywhich shyimputation shyis shynot shyrequired

FIG shy81 shyA shysnapshot shyshowing shypart shyof shythe shyoutput shyof shyDESCRIBE shyThe shyoutput shyis shyaltered shyto shyfit the screen


In shySLEIPNER shythe shyIMPUTE shymodule shycan shybe shyemployed shyfor shyperforming shyclose-neighbor shyimputations shyIt shyalso shypossible shyto shyperform shymean shyimputations shyin shywhich shythe shymissing shyvalues shyon shya shycertain shyvariable shyare shyimputed shywith shythe shymean shyof shythe shynonmissing shyvalues shyof shythat shyvariable

IMPUTE shyoffers shyboth shya shystandard shymethod shyof shyimputation shyand shya shyuser-tailored shymethod shyof shyimpu-tation shyin shywhich shyeither shythe shyclose shyneighbor shyapproach shyor shymean shyimputation shycan shybe shychosen

If shy the shy nonstandard shy method shy is shy used shy standardizing shy the shy data shy or shy not shy type shy of shy proximity shythreshold shy level shyof shyproximity shyand shyweighting shyvariables shyare shyall shychoices shy left shy for shy the shyuser shy to shymake shy Decisions shy of shy this shy sort shy depend shy partly shy on shy the shy statistical shy properties shy of shy the shy variables shyinvolved shyand shypartly shyon shythe shytype shyof shysubsequent shyanalysis shy to shybe shyconducted shyFor shyinstance shy it shyis shynatural shyto shyuse shythe shysame shytype shyof shyproximity shymeasure shyin shythe shyimputation shyprocedure shyas shythat shyintended shyfor shyuse shyin shya shysubsequent shyresidue shyanalysis shyor shycluster shyanalysis shyMoreover shystandardiz-ing shythe shydata shyis shyusually shya shywise shystep shyprior shyto shythe shyanalysis shyif shythe shyvariables shyhave shydifferent shyscales shyand shyhave shyranges shythat shyvary shyconsiderably shyWeighting shythe shyvariables shymust shyalso shybe shyconsidered shyin light of subsequent classificatory activities and must be properly justified Also the required shylevel shyof shyproximity shynecessary shyfor shytwo shycases shyto shybe shylabeled shyclose shyneighbors shymust shybe shydecided shyagainst shythe shybackground shyof shythese shyprevious shychoices

The shyIMPUTE shymodule shyis shydescribed shynext

The shyIMPUTE shyModule

IMPUTE shyperforms shyimputation shyanalysis shyon shya shydata shyset shywith shyincomplete shycases shyby shyreplacing shythe shymissing shyvalues shyof shyan shyincomplete shycase shywith shyvalues shytaken shyfrom shya shyldquoclose shyneighborrdquo shycase shyIf shythe shyprocedure shyis shyrun shywith shythe shystandard shyoption shythe shydata shyare shystandardized shyprior shyto shyimputa-tion shythe shysquared shyEuclidean shydistance shyis shyused shyas shya shymeasure shyof shyproximity shybetween shycases shyand shythe shycorresponding shy threshold shy for shy two shycases shy to shybe shyconsidered shyclose shyneighbors shy is shy set shy to shy 5 shyIf shythe shynonstandard shyroutine shyis shyselected shythe shyuser shyis shyallowed shyto shychoose shybetween shyperforming shythe shyanalysis shyon shythe shyoriginal shyraw shydata shyor shyalternatively shyon shythe shydata shyafter shyit shy is shystandardized shyto shychoose shyas shythe shymeasure shyof shyproximity shythe shysquared shyEuclidean shydistance shyor shythe shycorrelation shycoefficient to assign weights to the different variables and to decide the threshold for considering shytwo shycases shyto shybe shyclose shyneighbors shyThe shyimputed shycases shyare shyreported shytogether shywith shytheir respective close neighbors and a new data file is created in which the complete cases and shythe shyimputed shycases shyare shyincluded shyand shythe shycases shywith shytoo shymany shymissing shyvalues shyand shycases shyfor shywhom shyno shyclose shyneighbor shywas shyfound shyare shyexcluded shyAn shyillustration shyof shyhow shythe shyoutput shyin shyIMPUTE shyis shyorganized shyis shygiven shyin shyFig shy82

213 Residue Analysis

So shyfar shywe shyexamined shycharacteristics shyof shythe shydata shyset shyfocusing shyon shymissingness shyThe shydata shyset shyis shynow well defined both in terms of the variables that are to be included in the analysis and in terms shyof shyhaving shycomplete shyunits shyfor shyanalysis shyWhat shyis shynot shyyet shyknown shyis shywhether shyall shyof shythese shyunits are suitable for subsequent classificatory analysis given that (a) the data set may be of moderate shysize shy(b) shycluster shyanalytic shytechniques shyare shyto shybe shyused shyfor shyclassification shyand shy shy shy


FIG 82 A snapshot showing part of the output of IMPUTE The output is altered to fit the shyscreen

(c) shyerror shyof shymeasurements shyare shybound shyto shyexist shyin shythe shydata shyset shyand shythere shymay shybe shytheoretical shyreasons shynot shyto shyexpect shysome shyunits shyto shyfall shyinto shyany shyone shycommon shypattern

If shythe shypurpose shyis shyto shyidentify shycommon shypatterns shyin shythe shydata shyset shythen shyit shycan shybe shycrucial shythat shyunits that are unique be identified and separated from the more common units Whether these shysingletons shyarise shybecause shyof shyone shyor shya shycombination shyof shythe shyreasons shyalready shymentioned shy


does not influence the fact that the singletons can be inspected on their own terms and indeed shysometimes shybe shysubjected shyto shya shymore shythorough shyanalysis shyNormally shyonly shya shyvery shysmall shynumber shyof shycases shyare shyremoved shyin shythat shyway

The same type of reasoning that justified the use of the close neighbor approach when discussing shythe shyIMPUTE shymodule shycan shyalso shybe shyused shyhere shyIn shya shyldquonormalrdquo shysetting shya shyunit shythat shybears shyno shyresemblance shyto shyany shyother shyunit shyis shysimply shyremoved shyfrom shythe shydata shyset shyIt shyis shyrequired shythat a unit has at least one close neighbor if this requirement is satisfied the case is kept otherwise shyit shyis shyremoved shyto shya shyresidue shyset shyDepending shyon shythe shyapplication shyand shythe shytype shyof shyclas-sification expected in subsequent analysis this requirement can be made more stringent by shydemanding shythat shythe shynumber shyof shyclose shyneighbors shybe shylarger shythan shyone shyby shyrequiring shythat shythe shysimilarity between two cases be more pronounced or both Resemblance is then defined as a shythreshold shyof shyproximity shybeyond shywhich shyin shya shysense shytwo shycases shyare shyno shylonger shysimilar

The shy RESIDUE shy module shy in shy SLEIPNER shy assists shy in shy conducting shy this shy kind shy of shy analysis shy It shyoffers shya shystandard shyway shyof shyanalysis shyin shywhich shymost shyparameters shyare shyset shyby shythe shyprogram shyand shya shynonstandard shyway shyin shywhich shythe shyanalyst shyis shyrequired shyto shyset shythe shyparameters shyIn shythe shynonstandard shyway shythe shyanaly shyst shyis shyrequired shyto shychoose shyas shythe shyindicator shyof shyproximity shybetween shythe shyaverage shysquared Euclidean distance and the correlation coefficient He or she is required to decide whether shythe shydata shyis shyto shybe shystandardized shyor shynot shyto shydetermine shythe shythreshold shyof shysimilarity shythat shyidentifies close neighbors to decide the number of close neighbors required for a case to be retained shyin shythe shyanalysis shy(and shynot shymoved shyto shythe shyset shyof shyresidue shycases) shyand shyto shyassign shyweights shyfor shy the shydifferent shyvariables shyThe shysame shytype shyof shyconsiderations shyregarding shythese shychoices shyand shythose shymade shyfor shythe shyIMPUTE shymodule shycan shybe shyapplied shyhere

The shyRESIDUE shymodule shyis shydescribed shyin shythe shyfollowing

The shyRESIDUE shyModule

RESIDUE identifies residual objects creates a pruned data file from which residual objects have been removed and reports the results of the residue analysis in another file In the results RESIDUE reports for each residue case the five most similar cases together with the shy respective shy proximity shy between shy each shy of shy these shy cases shy and shy the shy residue shy case shy RESIDUE shyalso shyreports shysummary shystatistics shyfor shythe shyresidue shycases shyAn shyillustration shyof shyhow shythe shyoutput shyis shy shyorganized shyin shyRESIDUE shyis shygiven shyin shyFig shy83

22 Classificatory Analysis

The shythree shysteps shyjust shydescribed shydescribing shyimputing shyand shyremoving shyoutlying shyobjects shyfrom shythe shydata shysets shywere shyasserted shyto shybe shyessential shyfor shyldquounderstandingrdquo shythe shynature shyof shythe shydata shyand shyfor shystrengthening shythe shyquality shyof shythe shydata shyprior shyto shysubsequent shyanalysis shyThere shyare shycertainly shyother shyconsiderations shythat shyshould shybe shyaddressed shyat shythe shydesign shystage shyof shythe shystudy shyand shythat shytouch shyon shythe shychoice shyof shydomain shyof shyinterest shy(ie shychoosing shythe shysubsystem shyto shystudy shyestablishing shy


FIG 83 A snapshot showing part of the output of RESIDUE The output is altered to fit the shyscreen

appropriate way of modeling that subsystem as reflected in the choice of variables and if the shystudy shyis shynot shyexploratory shythe shysetting shyof shyrelevant shyhypotheses shythat shycan shybe shytested) shyHowever shywe now turn to the classification analysis using cluster analysis


221 Clustering the Data

The shy subject shy of shy cluster shy analysis shy was shy introduced shy and shy discussed shy in shy chapter shy 4 shy For shy more shy comprehensive reviews readers are also referred to Blashfield and Aldenderfer (1988) and Arabie shyand shyHubert shy(1996) shyIn shythe shypresent shycontext shyonly shyhierarchical shyagglomerative shymethods shyare used and briefly emphasized as they form the bulk of the CLUSTER module introduced later shyin shythis shysection shyAlso shybecause shyan shyelaborate shyformal shydescription shycannot shybe shyprovided shydue shyto shylack shyof shyspace shythe shyterminology shyand shythe shydiscussion shyis shyrather shyinformal

Several shyagglomerative shymethods shyare shygrouped shyunder shyhierarchical shycluster shyanalysis shyCommon shyto shyall shyis shythat shywhen shycluster shyfusion shyis shyinvolved shythe shymethods shystart shyby shyassuming shyeach shyindividual shyobject shyto shybe shya shycluster shyand shyat shyeach shystep shythose shytwo shyclusters shythat shyare shymost shysimilar shyin shysome shydefined sense are fused The process continues until there is only one cluster left at which point shythe shyprocess shystops shyThe shydifferent shymethods shythat shyfall shyunder shythis shyheading shydiffer shymainly shyin shythe shyway shythat shysimilarities shybetween shyentities shyin shythe shyanalysis shyare shyhandled shyand shycomputed shyIn shyaddition some methods are well defined only with one type of proximity usually distance measures shysatisfying shyparticular shymetric shyproperties shyother shymethods shyaccept shydifferent shytypes shyof shyproximity shymeasures shyDifferent shymethods shyfor shycluster shyanalysis shyvary shyin shynoise shytolerance shyand shymay shyyield shymore shyor shyless shydifferent shyresults shydepending shyon shythe shychoice shytype shyand shyquality shyof shymeasure-ment shyof shythe shychosen shyvariables shyas shywell shyas shyon shythe shyform shyof shyclusters shyassumed shyin shythe shystructure shyA shyconsequence shyof shythese shydifferences shyis shythat shysome shymethods shyare shymore shybiased shythan shyothers shytoward shyforming shyclusters shyof shyparticular shyshapes shy(eg shyclusters shyin shysingle shylinkage shytend shyto shybe shyelongated shyin shyWardrsquos shymethod shyspherical shyand shyso shyon) shyAgglomerative shyhierarchical shymethods shyinclude shythe shynearest shyneighbor shyor shysingle-link shymethod shythe shyfurthest shyneighbor shyor shycomplete shylinkage shymethod shythe shycentroid shymethod shythe shymedian shymethod shygroup shyaverage shyclustering shyLance shyand shyWilliams shyBeta-flexible method and Wardrsquos method

In shy light shy of shy the shy aforementioned shy the shy choice shy of shy method shy and shy of shy proximity shy must shy be shy shyconsidered shycarefully shyThe shycharacteristics shyof shythe shymethod shymust shybe shywell shyunderstood shyand shythe shychosen proximity measure well suited for the method if the resulting classification is to be meaningful shyHowever shythe shyanalysis shyis shyoften shyexplorative shyin shynature shyand shythe shyproper shychoices shyare shynot shyalways shyclear shyTherefore shyit shyis shysometimes shyadvantageous shyto shycluster shyanalyze shythe shydata shyset shyin shya shyvariety shyof shyways shyusing shydifferent shymethods shyin shyorder shyto shyldquoget shythe shyfeelrdquo shyfor shythe shyemerging shystruc-tures shyAnalyzing shyand shyevaluating shythese shydifferent shystructures shymay shythen shygive shyhints shyas shyto shywhat shychoices to make regarding method proximity and so forth Another benefit from repeated application shyof shydifferent shymethods shywith shythe shysame shydata shyset shymay shybe shygained shyin shydiscovering shystable shystructures shythat shyare shymoderately shyinvariant shyacross shydifferent shymethods shyIn shyother shywords shystructures shythat shyare shystable shyacross shymethods shyare shyless shylikely shyto shybe shyby-products shyof shythe shymethods shyand shythus shymay shybe shymore shygenerally shymeaningful

Because shythe shyclustering shyprocess shyis shysequential shymerging shytwo shyclusters shyat shyeach shystage shyit shycan shybe shydepicted shyas shya shytree shywith shythe shyroot shybeing shyone shycluster shycontaining shyall shythe shyunits shyand shythe shyleaves shyas shy cluster shy singletons shy each shy containing shy one shy distinct shy unit shy of shy analysis shy In shy between shy the shy root shyand shy the shy leaves shy are shy the shy different shy cluster shy structures shy corresponding shy to shy the shy fusions shy made shy at shyeach shystep shy(iteration) shyIn shyorder shyto shyvisualize shyor shysummarize shythe shyclustering shyprocess shythe shytree shyis shysometimes shyshown shygraphically shyor shysometimes shytransformed shyin shythe shyform shyof shya shydendogram shyThe shyimportant shypoint shyhere shyis shyfor shythe shyanalyst shyto shydecide shya shycut-off shypoint shythat shydetermines shythe shydesired shysolution shyin shythe shycontext shyof shythe shyanalysis shyDifferent shyfactors shymay shyact shyindependently shyor shytogether shy


to shydetermine shy this shycut-off shypoint shySometimes shyone shyor shymore shy indices shy thought shy to shymeasure shy the shyldquoqualityrdquo shyof shya shysolution shyare shyemployed shyat shythe shynarrower shyend shyof shythe shyclustering shyprocess shywhere shythe shynumber shyof shyclusters shyis shymanageable shyThese shyindices shyassume shydifferent shyvalues shyfor shysolutions shywith shydifferent shynumbers shyof shyclusters shyand shythe shysolution shyfor shywhich shythese shyindices shyare shyoptimal shygiven shya shyparsimonious shynumber shyof shyclusters shyis shychosen shy(see shyalso shychapter shy6 shywhere shythe shyLICUR shyapproach shyis shydescribed) shyIn shyother shyinstances shythe shynumber shyof shyclusters shyis shydetermined shya shypriori shyand shythese shyindices shycan shythen shybe shyused shyfor shycomparing shythe shycorresponding shyclustering shysolution shywith shyother shysolutions shyobtained shyby shyother shymeans

One shyway shyof shycharacterizing shya shycluster shyis shyby shyenumerating shyall shythe shyunits shybelonging shyto shyit shyor shyby shychoosing shythe shymost shytypical shyunit shyas shya shyrepresentative shy(this shyis shynot shyincluded shyin shythe shyCLUSTER shymodule) shyAnother shyway shyto shycharacterize shya shycluster shyis shyby shyrepresenting shyit shywith shyits shyvector shyof shymeans shyof shythe shyvariables shyin shythe shystudy shy(centroid) shytaken shyover shythe shyunits shyin shythat shycluster shyand shyby shythe shyvec-tor shyof shyvariances shyassociated shywith shythe shycentroid shyIdeally shy the shyvariances shyare shysmall shy indicating shyhomogenous shyunits shyin shythe shycluster shyIn shythis shycase shythe shycentroid shyis shya shygood shydescription shyof shythat shyclus-ter shyand shymay shybe shyused shyin shysubsequent shyanalysis shyThe shymethods shyindices shyand shycharacterizations shyalready shymentioned shyare shypart shyof shythe shyCLUSTER shymodule

The shyCLUSTER shyModule

CLUSTER shyperforms shyhierarchical shy cluster shy analysis shywith shy either shyof shy the shy following shymethods shySingle shyLinkage shyComplete shyLinkage shyAverage shyLinkage shyMedian shyWeighted-Average shyLinkage shyBeta-flexible and Ward It reports at each iteration the identity of the clusters fused the size of the clusters the merging coefficient and the error sum of squares explained by the solution shycorresponding shyto shythat shyiteration shyCLUSTER shyalso shyreports shyfor shythe shylast shy20 shyiterations shyat shythe final stages of clustering the cluster membership of every unit in the data set and some statistics shyabout shythe shyformed shyclusters shy(eg shythe shysize shyof shyeach shycluster shythe shymeans shyand shystandard shydeviations of the variables in each cluster and the homogeneity coefficient which here is the shyaverage shywithin shycluster shyproximity shyfor shythat shycluster) shyAs shyexplained shyin shychapter shy7 shythe shyoutput shylabeled shyexplained error sum of squares shyshould shybe shyinterpreted shyas shyfollows

shy

where shyESS shystands shyfor shyerror shysum shyof shysquaresAn shyillustration shyof shyhow shythe shyoutput shyis shyorganized shyin shyCLUSTER shyis shygiven shyin shyFig shy84

222 Relocating Cases in Clusters

Hierarchical shy methods shy are shy attractive shy because shy they shy conserve shy the shy history shy of shy the shy formed shy clusters In other words the parents of each formed cluster are identifiable by tracing back the history of the fusion process This quality offers the researcher flexibility to analyze and shypresent shy the shy results shy at shy different shy levels shy of shy detail shy Sometimes shy however shy the shy interest shy is shyin one specific solution and the analyst wants to maximize the clustering quality of that particular shysolution shyregardless shyof shyhow shythe shypartition shycame shyabout shyOne shyway shyof shyachieving shythis shy


is shyby shyanalyzing shya shycertain shysolution shyby shyfocusing shyon shythe shycluster shymembership shyof shythe shyunits shythat shyform shythe shyclusters shyin shythat shysolution shyFor shyeach shyunit shyit shyis shyasked shywith shyrespect shyto shysome shyoptimizing shycriterion shywhether shythe shyunit shyreally shybelongs shyto shythe shycluster shyor shywhether shyit shycan shybe shyrelocated shyto shya different cluster Thus one employs some optimizing criterion believed to reflect some aspect shyof shythe shyquality shyof shya shygiven shysolution shyFor shyexample shyif shythe shyexplained shyerror shysum shyof shysquares shyis shysuch shya shycriterion shya shyunit shyis shyrelocated shyif shyits shyrelocation shyreduces shythat shycriterion shyWhen shyall shythe shyunits shyare shyexhausted shythe shyprocess shyiterates shyuntil shyit shyeither shyconverges shyon shya shygiven shysolution shy(ie shythe final iteration results in no unit relocations at all) or when the number of iterations requested shyby shythe shyuser shyis shyexceeded

The shyRELOCATE shymodule shyperforms shythe shyalready shymentioned shyanalysis

The shyRELOCATE shyModule

RELOCATE starts from an initial classification and moves cases from one cluster to another shy depending shyon shywhether shy their shymovement shy leads shy to shy a shy reduction shy in shy the shy total shy error shysum of squares of the cluster solution In this way ill-fitting objects are moved to a more suitable shy cluster shy and shy more shy homogeneous shy clusters shy can shy be shy obtained shy Before shy undertaking shyRELOCATE cluster membership according to the initial classification has to be written to a new data file together with the ID number and the variable values If the proce-dure CLUSTER in SLEIPNER is used to find the initial classification the input file to RELOCATE shycan shybe shyprepared shyeasily shywith shythe shyhelp shyof shythe shyCWRITE shymodule shypresented shyin shy shysection shy243

RELOCATE reports information about the initial the intermediate and the final classification The information reported for each classification comprises the error sum of squares explained by the classification and the point biserial corresponding to that classification Thus changes in these indices can be inspected across the evolution of the relocation process RELOCATE also reports statistics about the initial as well as the final clusters specifically the size of each cluster the means and standard deviations of thevari-ables in each cluster and the homogeneity coefficient (this being the average within cluster proximity shyfor shythat shycluster) shyThe shyoutput shylabeled shyexplained error sum of squares shyshould shybe shyinterpreted shyin shythe shysame shyway shyas shyin shythe shyCLUSTER shyprocedure

RELOCATE shyalso shyreports shythe shycluster shymembership shyof shyevery shyunit shyin shythe shydata shyset shyaccording shyto the final solution as well as the number of relocated objects for each intermediate shysolution

shy


FIG 84 A snapshot showing part of the output of CLUSTER The output is altered to fit the shyscreen


An shyillustration shyof shyhow shythe shyoutput shyis shyorganized shyin shyRELOCATE shyis shygiven shyin shyFig shy85

223 Searching for Types and Antitypes

Configural frequency analysis (CFA) presented and discussed in chapter shy5 shycan shybe shyused shyin shythe present context in at least two different ways Consider first the cross-sectional situa-tion shyin shywhich shyunits shyare shymeasured shyon shya shyvariable shyvector shyand shythe shyvariables shyare shydiscrete shyEach shyunit is then represented by a configuration of variable values and these configurations are more or less abundant in the data set A classificatory approach could focus on the sta-tistical shycharacteristics shyof shy this shy state shyof shyaffairs shyby shyprobing shy the shy typicality shyand shyantitypicality shyof certain configurations Thus for each configuration we can compute its observed and expected shyfrequency shyof shyoccurrence shyand shyderive shya shyprobability shyfor shythe shydeviance shyof shythe shyexpected shyfrequency from the observed one Types are then configural patterns occurring more than would shy be shy expected shy by shy chance shy and shy antitypes shy are shy patterns shy occurring shy less shy frequently shy than shywould shybe shyexpected shyby shychance shyIn shyan shyexploratory shysetting shyin shywhich shyno shyprior shyhypotheses shyare shyformed with regard to which configuration to test all possible configurations are analyzed Because the number of configurations is a function of the number of variables and the number shyof shythe shycategories shyin shyeach shyvariable shythe shynumber shyof shytests shymay shybe shyhuge shyTherefore shycare shyshould be taken to correct for mass significance as emphasized in chapter shy5

In a longitudinal setting the variables are classification variables formed by for exam-ple cluster analysis Each variable refers to a classification obtained from a different measurement shyoccasion shyand shythe shypurpose shyis shyto shystudy shydevelopmental shysequences shyas shythey shyare shyreflected in the configurations Using reasoning analogous to the cross-sectional case a type shyis shythen shyan shyoverrepresentation shyof shya shycertain shydevelopmental shysequence shythat shycan shybe shytested shya shypriori shy or shy searched shy for shy in shy the shydata shy set shyAntitypes shy are shy similarly shyunderrepresentations shyof shysequences shyoccurring shyless shyfrequently shythan shyone shywould shyexpect shyby shychance

The CFA module provides the means to conduct configural frequency analysis CFA requires shythe shyvariables shyto shybe shydichotomized shyor shytrichotomized shyThis shyis shynot shya shyconsequence shyof shythe shymethod shy itself shybut shya shycomputational shyconstraint shy imposed shyby shy the shy implementation shyWhen shythe shystarting shypoint shyis shya shyvariable shyvector shywhere shysome shyor shyall shyof shythe shyvariables shyare shyeither shycontinu-ous shyor shypossess shymore shycategories shythan shyis shyallowed shyby shyCFA shythen shysome shyrecoding shyprocedure shyis shyrequired

Sometimes shythe shyinformation shycontained shyin shythe shyvalues shycoded shyfor shythe shyvariables shyin shythe shystudy shycan shybe shyreduced shyto shya shydichotomy shy(eg shyhigh shyor shylow) shyor shyto shya shytrichotomy shy(eg shyhigh medium shyor shy low) If instead the variables are classification variables (eg representing different cluster solutions at different points in time or different cross-sectional classifications of the same shyentities) shythen shyone shymay shywant shyto shylimit shythe shynumber shyof shyclusters shyin shyeach shysolution shyto shytwo shyor shythree clusters presuming that this limitation can be justified for each solution


FIG shy85 shyA shysnapshot shyshowing shypart shyof shythe shyoutput shyof shyRELOCATE shyThe shyoutput shyis shyaltered shyto shyfit the screen


The shyCFA shyModule

The CFA module performs configural frequency analysis using the exact binomial test CFA shyhandles shyboth shydichotomous shyand shytrichotomous shyvariables shyor shypatterns shyof shyvariables shythat shyare shyof shya shymixed shytype shyTests shyare shymade shyfor shyboth shytypes shyand shyantitypes

CFA reports (in a tabular form) the following for each possible configuration the observed shy frequency shy the shy expected shy frequency shy The shy Chi-square shy component shy the shy binomial shy shyprobability shy and shy the shy adjusted shy binomial shy probability shy CFA shy also shy reports shy the shy probability shy(marginal shyfrequency) shyof shyeach shycategory shyAn shyillustration shyof shyhow shythe shyoutput shyis shyorganized shyin shyCFA shyis shygiven shyin shyFig shy86

224 Using I-States as Objects of Analysis

The shy rationale shy and shy the shy methodology shy underlying shy ISOA shy is shy presented shy in shy chapter shy 6 shy in shy this shy volume and more extensively in Bergman and El Khouri (1999) Briefly if only short term shydevelopment shyis shythe shyfocus shyof shythe shystudy shythen shyit shyis shyreasonable shyto shybelieve shythat shywithin shythis shyconstrained shytime shyperiod shyan shyindividual shymay shybe shydescribed shyat shya shycertain shymeasurement shyoccasion shywith one of a finite set of states The setting is one of a multivariate repeated measures design for a set of individuals and the available variable value profiles from all time points are used collectively to define a finite set of states Because each profile (belonging to a shydistinct shy individual shyand shy to shya shydistinct shy time shypoint) shy is shy included shyin shy the shyanalysis shy it shycan shy then shybe shy replaced shy with shy its shy corresponding shy state shyAfter shy replacement shy the shy researcher shy has shy a shy set shy of shy longitudinal profiles expressed in terms of state sequences (instead of the original repeated measurements shymultivariate shydata shyset)

The researcher typically starts with one file in which the individual values for the set of domain variables are recorded for each case Preliminary one has to create a new file where the shyn shyindividuals shy(with shyeach shyindividual shydescribed shyk shytimes shyon shyL shyvariables) shyare shyreplaced shywith shyN shysubindividuals shydescribed shyon shyL shyvariables shyand shywhere shyN= shynxk shyThis shycan shybe shyaccomplished shywith shythe shyhelp shyof shythe shymodule shySUBIND

The file resulting from SUBIND is a data file that can be input to IMPUTE and RESI-DUE for further analysis The output data file from RESIDUE can then be input to the pro-cedure CLUSTER the result examined and a suitable cluster solution chosen that reflects the number and the profile of states with which the individuals are ultimately described

The module ISOA uses the results from the cluster analysis step and creates two files one new data file with state sequences constituting individuals and one result file in which the shyanalyses shyare shyreported shyLongitudinally shythe shyresult shyfor shyeach shyindividual shyis shya shystate shysequence shyFor all individuals the result is a data file that can be input for further analysis (eg with EXACON shywhere shystates shyfrom shyadjacent shytime shyperiods shyare shycross shytabulated) shyIndividuals shywhose shyvalue profiles on any measurement occasion happen to fall into a residue (when RESIDUE is used) are separated into a different file


FIG 86 A snapshot showing part of the output of CFA The output is altered to fit the screen

The shyISOA shyModule

The ISOA module creates based on a data file and a result file from the CLUSTER module a new data file in which each individual whose state sequence contains no residue states is shyrepresented

ISOA also creates an analysis file where basic descriptives of state sequences are shypresented shytogether shywith shystate shysequences shycomprising shyresidue shystates shyISOA shylists shyin shythe shyanalysis shy


file the frequencies of patterns occurring in the resulting data file and reports percentages of individuals shycharacterized shyby shydifferent shytypical shystates shyat shydifferent shyoccasions shyAn shyillustration shyof shyhow shythe shyoutput shyis shyorganized shyin shyISOA shyis shygiven shyin shyFig shy87

23 Classificatory Simulation and Evaluation

Once shy a shy cluster shy analysis shy is shy conducted shy and shy a shy solution shy is shy chosen shy often shy the shy analyst shy would shylike shyto shydetermine shyif shythe shyrevealed shystructure shyis shya shyldquorealrdquo shyone shyClustering shymethods shywill shyimpose shy shystructure shyon shyany shytype shyof shydata shyWhat shyguarantee shyis shythere shythat shythe shychosen shysolution shydid shynot shyarise shyat random as an artifact of the method itself or as a reflection of noisy or random data How shydo shywe shystrengthen shythe shybelief shythat shythe shyclusters shyare shyreal shyclusters shyand shynot shyarbitrary shyones shy shySometimes shythe shyanswer shyis shyeasy shyin shyparticular shyin shycases shyin shywhich shythe shynewly shyfound shystructure shyreplicates earlier valid findings on other data sets can be operationally validated in the given shydomain shyandor shyconforms shyto shyor shycan shybe shyderived shyfrom shytheory shyand shyso shyforth shyWhen shythese shysituations shydo shynot shyoccur shyother shymeasures shyhave shyto shyemployed

231 Simulation Analysis

One shy approach shy is shy to shy employ shy simulation shy First shy the shy solution shy using shy the shy original shy data shy set shy is shyevaluated shyon shya shynumber shyof shyindices shySecond shythe shyoriginal shydata shyset shyis shyaltered shyin shya shyrandom shyfash-ion shyThird shythe shysame shytype shyof shycluster shyanalysis shyinitially shyperformed shyon shythe shyoriginal shydata shyset shyis shyconducted shyfor shythe shyrandomly shyaltered shydata shyset shyThe shysame shycluster shysolution shythat shyis shythe shysame shynumber shyof shyclusters shyis shychosen shyand shythen shyevaluated shyon shythe shysame shytype shyof shyindices shyas shyin shystep shy1 shySteps shy2 shyto shy3 shyare shyrepeated shya shynumber shyof shytimes shywhere shyeach shytime shya shynew shyset shyof shyevaluating shyindi-ces shyis shygenerated shyFinally shyeach shyof shythe shyindices shyfrom shystep shy1 shyis shycompared shyto shyits shycorresponding shyset computed from the randomly altered data sets A statistically significant deviance of the shyindices shyin shystep shy1 shyfrom shythe shyones shycorresponding shyto shythe shyanaly shyses shymade shyon shyrandom shydata shystrengthen shythe shybelief shythat shythe shyoriginal shysolution shyis shyin shya shysense shyreal shyand shythat shythe shydata shygiving shyrise shyto shythat shysolution shyare shynot shyrandom shyThis shyissue shyis shydiscussed shyin shychapter shy7 shyThe shyprocedure shySIMULATE shyin shySLEIPNER shyperforms shythe shy3-steps shyanalysis shyjust shydescribed shyTwo shyissues shyin shythe shyimplementation shyin shySIMULATE shydeserve shyspecial shycomments shyFirst shyevaluation shyproceeds shyby shycomputing the explained error sum of squares and five other internal criteria that measure the goodness-of-fit between the input data and the resulting data partition (Milligan 1981 a) shySecond shythe shyoriginal shydata shyset shyis shyrandomly shyaltered shyby shyperforming shypermutations shyover shythe shyvalues shyof shya shyvariable shyThus shyfor shyeach shyvariable shythe shyfrequencies shycorresponding shyto shythe shyinitial shyvalues shyfor shythat shyvariable shyare shypreserved shyChaos shymathematics shyis shyused shyto shygenerate shyrandom shynum-bers shyused shyin shythe shypermutation shyprocedure shyand shythe shyclock shyin shythe shyPC shygives shya shystart shyvalue shyHence shydifferent shyldquoshakingsrdquo shycan shybe shyregarded shyas shyindependent


FIG 87 A snapshot showing part of the output of ISOA The output is altered to fit the screen

The shySIMULATE shyModule

The shySIMULATE shyprocedure shydoes shythe shyfollowing

1 shyPerforms shya shycluster shyanalysis shyon shya shyset shyof shydata2 computes the error sum of squares explained by that solution as well as five internal

indices measuring the extent of cluster recovery by the proposed solution The five indices shyare shythe shyGamma shyindex shythe shyC shyindex shythe shypoint shybiserial shythe shyWB shyindex shyand shythe shyG(+) shyindex


3 reports these measures in a separate output file4 shyrepeats shythese shyanalyses shyn shytimes shy(where shyn is user-specified parameter) for n artificial data

sets shycreated shyfrom shythe shyoriginal shyone shyby shypermutations shyover shythe shyvalues shyof shythe shyvariables5 reports these measures in the output file6 shycomputes shyfor shyeach shyindex shya shyt shyvalue shyrelating shythe shyindex shyvalue shyfound shyfor shythe shyoriginal shydata shy

set shyto shythe shydistribution shyof shythose shyfound shyfor shythe shyn artificial data sets and7 shycomputes shyfor shyeach shyindex shythe shymean shyand shythe shystandard shydeviation

An shyillustration shyof shyhow shythe shyoutput shyis shyorganized shyin shySIMULATE shyis shygiven shyin shyFig shy88

232 Structural Stability and Change

Theoretical shyconsiderations shyfor shystudying shyindividuals shyover shytime shyhave shybeen shytreated shyin shyearlier shychapters There are several ways of linking (longitudinally) one classification of data cor-responding to one point in time to another classification corresponding to another point in shy time shyFor shy instance shy if shy the shysame shyvariables shyare shyused shyat shyboth shyoccasions shyto shymeasure shysome shyunderlying shy psychological shy dimensions shy one shy could shy examine shy the shy structural shy stability shy of shy the shygiven classifications across time that is to what extent clusters in one classification at one time are reproduced in the other classification at the next time what clusters are similar and shyto shywhat shyextent shyand shyso shyon shyTo shythis shyend shythe shyCENTROID shyprocedure shyin shySLEIPNER shymay shybe shyused

The shy CENTROID shy procedure shy provides shy descriptive shy information shy of shy two shy sets shy of shy clusters shyfocusing shyon shythe shysimilarities shybetween shythe shycentroids shyIn shythis shycontext shyeach shycentroid shyis shyrepre-sented shyby shythe shymeans shyof shythe shyvariables shycomputed shyacross shythe shyunits shythat shyform shythe shycluster shyOther shyways shyof shyrepresenting shya shycluster shyexist shy(eg shyusing shythe shyclusterrsquos shymost shytypical shyunit) shyHere shyhow-ever we use the former representation and define similarity between clusters in terms of the shysquared shyaverage shyEuclidean shydistance shybetween shythe shycentroids shyof shythose shyclusters shySimilarities shybetween shycentroids shybelonging shyto shythe shysame shyset shyare shyreported shyand shya shysimilarity-based shypairwise shymatching shybetween shycentroids shyof shydifferent shysets shyis shyconducted shyThe shymatching shyis shyperformed shyso shythat shythe shytwo shymost shysimilar shycentroids shyfrom shyeach shyset shyare shycoupled shytogether shy the shysecond shymost shysimilar shypair shyare shycoupled shytogether shyand shyso shyon shy(see shyalso shychap shy7)


FIG shy88 shyA shysnapshot shyshowing shypart shyof shythe shyoutput shyof shySIMULATE shyThe shyoutput shyis shyaltered shyto shyfit the screen

The shyCENTROID shyModule

CENTROID shycompares shytwo shyclustering shysolutions shywith shyone shyother shyby shymatching shyeach shycluster shycentroid shyin shyone shysolution shyto shythe shymost shysimilar shycluster shycentroid shyin shythe shyother shysolution shyThus shythe shyoutcome shyis shya shyset shyof shypairs shyof shycentroids shyeach shybelonging shyto shyone shysolution shyand shyin shywhich shythe shypairs shyare shygiven shyin shyorder shyof shydecreasing shysimilarity


CENTROID shyalso shyreports shybasic shystatistics shyfor shyeach shycentroid shyset shysuch shyas shythe shyaverage shysquared shyEuclidean shydistances shycomputed shyfor shycentroids shypairs shywithin shya shyset shyvariable shymeans shyand shyvari-ances shyAn shyillustration shyof shyhow shythe shyoutput shyis shyorganized shyin shyCENTROID shyis shygiven shyin shyFig shy89

233 Individual Stability and Change

Regardless shyof shywhether shythe shyvariables shyare shybelieved shyto shybe shythe shyldquosamerdquo shyat shythe shytwo shydifferent shyocca-sions or not the two classifications are still based on the same underlying units Thus it can shybe shyinformative shyto shyexamine shyhow shyindividual shycluster shymembership shyis shyrelated shyover shytime shyIf shythe shysame shyvariables shyare shymeasured shyat shyboth shyoccasions shyindividual shystability shyand shychange shycan shyalso shybe studied In a contingency table formed between the two classifications each cell repre-sents a set of units belonging to two clusters one taken from each classification (at each time shypoint) shyOf shyspecial shyinterest shyare shycells shythat shyare shyoverfrequented shyor shyunderfrequented shy(see shychap shy5) shyThis shyexamination shymay shyhave shyexploratory shyvalue shyfor shygenerating shyhypotheses shyabout shythe relation of one classification to the other or have its main focus on testing hypotheses about specific relations among clusters in the two different classifications Thus a ldquotyperdquo (an shyoverrepresentation shyof shyunits shyin shya shycell) shyor shyan shyldquoantityperdquo shy(an shyunderrepresentation shyof shyunits shyin shya shycell) shyhighlights shya shyrelation shybetween shythe shytwo shyparent shyclusters shyof shythat shycell

Indeed the arguments already presented are not confined to longitudinal analyses but also to cross-sectional analyses as well The two classifications pertaining to two diff erent measurement occasions are simply exchanged for two cross-sectional classifications shypertaining shyto shyone shymeasurement shyoccasion shybut shyfocusing shyon shydifferent shydomains shyof shyinterest shyThus shydifferent shyaspects shyof shythe shysame shyldquosubsystemrdquo shyare shycontrasted shycross-sectionally shyThe shyEXACON shyprocedure shyin shySLEIPNER shyis shyalso shya shytool shyfor shyperforming shythis shytype shyof shyanalysis

The shyEXACON shyModule

EXACON shyproduces shya shycontingency shytable shyfor shytwo shycategorical shyvariables shyand shyexamines shyit shywith shya shyfocus shyon shycell-wise shyanalysis shyof shytypes shyor shyantitypes shybased shyon shyexact shytests shyFor shyeach shycell shythe shy shymodule shycomputes shythe shyobserved shyfrequency shythe shyexpected shyfrequency shythe shyCHI-2 shycomponent shythe shyone-tailed shyprobability shyof shythe shyobserved shycell shyfrequency shyaccording shyto shythe shybinomial shymodel shyand shythe shyone-tailed shyprobability shyof shythe shyobserved shycell shyfrequency shyaccording shyto shythe shyhypergeometric shymodel In addition the overall CHI-2 and the contingency coefficient are reported An illustration shyof shyhow shythe shyoutput shyis shyorganized shyin shyEXACON shyis shygiven shyin shyFig shy810


FIG shy89 shyA shysnapshot shyshowing shypart shyof shythe shyoutput shyof shyCENTROID shyThe shyoutput shyis shyaltered shyto shyfit the screen


FIG 810 A snapshot showing part of the output of EXACON The output is altered to fit the shyscreen

24 shySpecial shyPurpose shyModules shyin shySLEIPNER241 Random Samples

A shycrude shyway shyof shygetting shysome shyidea shyof shythe shysensitivity shyof shyonersquos shyresults shyto shysampling shyvariation shywould shybe shyto shydraw shya shysample shy(eg shy23 shyof shythe shyoriginal shysample) shyof shythe shygroup shyone shyhas shyanalyzed shyand shyrepeat shythe shymain shyanalyses shyto shyverify shythat shythe shycore shyresults shyreplicate shyTo shyrandomly shyselect shycases for the analysis and create a new data file one could use the RANDOM module


The shyRANDOM shyModule

RANDOM shydraws shya shyrandom shysample shywithout shyreplacement shyfrom shya shypopulation shyChaos shymath-ematics shyis shyused shyto shygenerate shyrandom shynumbers shyused shyin shythe shydrawing shyprocedure shyand shythe shyclock shyin shythe shyPC shyprovides shya shystart shyvalue shyHence shydifferent shydrawings shycould shybe shyregarded shyas shyindependent shysamples The output from RANDOM is a new data file similar to the original input data file but with fewer cases The number of cases to include is specified by the user

242 Artificial Data Sets

SHAKE shycan shybe shyused shyto shyalter shythe shystructure shyof shya shydata shyset shyin shya shyrandom shyfashion shywhile shypreserving shythe variable frequencies in the original data set The result is a new data file that can be used for comparative shyanalysis shysimilar shyto shythose shyperformed shyin shyconnection shywith shySIMULATE shymodule

The shySHAKE shyModule

SHAKE creates an artificial data set from an existing one by performing permutations across shythe shyvalues shyof shya shyvariable shyThus shyfor shyeach shyvariable shythe shyfrequencies shycorresponding shyto shythe shyinitial shyvalues shyfor shy that shyvariable shyare shypreserved shyChaos shymathematics shy is shyused shyto shygenerate shyrandom shynumbers shyused shyin shythe shypermutation shyprocedure shyand shythe shyclock shyin shythe shyPC shygives shya shystart shyvalue shyHence shydifferent shyshakings shycould shybe shyregarded shyas shyindependent

243 Including Classification Variables in the Data Set

Some shyof shythe shyanalysis shyconducted shywith shySLEIPNER shyrequire shyas shyinput shythe shyclass shymembership shyof shythe shyunits shyin shythe shydata shyset shyThese shyanalyses shyare shyusually shydone shywith shyRELOCATE shyEXACON shyor shyEVALUATE shybut shysometimes shyalso shywith shyDENSE shyor shyCFA shyWithin shythe shycontext shyof shySLEIPNER shythe class (or cluster) membership is determined and written in the output files reported by CLUSTER shyand shyRELOCATE shyThe shycluster shymembership shycould shyalso shyhave shyoriginated shyby shyother shymeans shyTo shyadd shythis shyinformation shyfor shyeach shyunit shyso shythat shyit shycan shybe shyused shyin shysubsequent shyanalysis shythe shyCWRITE shymodule shyis shyused

The shyCWRITE shyModule

The CWRITE module adds to the original data file the value for a classification variable by writing the corresponding values for each unit in a new data file The values for the classifi-cation shyvariable shyare shythe shycluster-memberships shyretrieved shyfrom shythe shyoutput shyof shyeither shyCLUSTER shyRELOCATE or a user-constructed file

244 Mapping the Neighborhood of a Unit

It shyis shysometimes shyof shyinterest shyto shyidentify shydense shyregions shyin shythe shyvariable shyspace shyin shywhich shysubjects shyare close neighbors but without necessarily undertaking a complete classification

This shytype shyof shyanalysis shycan shybe shyperformed shyby shyDENSE


The shyDENSE shyModule

DENSE shyreports shyfor shyeach shycase shyits shynearest shyneighbors shyand shyfurthest shyneighbors shyusing shythe shyaverage shysquared shyEuclidean shydistance shyas shythe shydissimilarity shymeasure shyThis shycan shybe shydone shyusing shyeither shyraw shyscores or standardized scores When DENSE starts from a classification the output lists for each shyunit shythe shytwo shymost shysimilar shycases shyin shythe shysame shycluster shythe shytwo shymost shysimilar shycases shyin shythe shydata set and the average distance to the cases in the cluster Otherwise if no prior classifi-cation is used the output lists the five furthest cases the five closest cases and the average distance shyto shyall shythe shycases shyAn shyillustration shyof shyhow shythe shyoutput shyis shyorganized shyin shyDENSE shywhen shyit shystarts with a classification is given in Fig shy811

245 Evaluating and Comparing Partitions

In shythe shycontext shyof shythe shymodule shySIMULATE shyit shywas shynoted shythat shyevaluation shymay shybe shyconducted shyby computing the explained error sum of squares and five other internal criteria measur-ing the goodness-of-fit between the input data and the resulting data partition This can be done for the original data as well as for a set of artificial data sets The module EVALUATE computes shythese shyindices shyfor shya shysolution shyand shyalso shyprovides shya shymean shyof shycomparing shytwo shysolutions shyto shyone shyanother

The shyEVALUATE shymodule

The shyEVALUATE shymodule shyhas shytwo shyprimary shyfunctions

1 shyIt shyevaluates shya shygiven shycluster shysolution shyfor shya shydata shyset shyby shycomputing shythe shyexplained shyerror shysum of squares and five other internal criteria measuring the goodness-of-fit between the input data and the resulting data partition (Milligan 1981a) The five indices are the shyGamma shyindex shythe shyC shyindex shythe shyPoint-biserial shythe shyWB shyindex shyand shythe shyG(+) shyindex shyEVALUATE shyalso shyreports shythe shycentroids shythe shystandard shydeviations shyassociated shywith shyeach shycentroid and the homogeneity coefficient associated with each cluster An illustration of shyhow shythis shytype shyof shyoutput shyis shyorganized shyin shyEVALUATE shyis shygiven shyin shyFig shy812

2 shyAlternatively shyit shycompares shytwo shycluster shysolutions shyfor shya shydata shyset shyand shypresents shythe shy shycomparison shyin shya shytabular shyform shytogether shywith shythe shycorrected shyRAND shyindex shy(Hubert shyamp shy shyArabie shy1985) shythat shyis shyassociated shywith shythe shytwo shysolutions

246 Preparing a File Composed of Subindividuals

In the context of performing an ISOA analysis it is necessary to prepare a data file for that shyanalysis shyin shya shyspecial shymanner shyWhen shyperforming shya shyresidue shyanalysis shyto shyidentify shyunique shystates shyand shywhen shyperforming shycluster shyanalysis shyto shyidentify shycommon shystates shythe shysubindividuals shyare shy treated shy as shy if shy they shy were shy individuals shy themselves shy When shy the shy ISOA shy module shy is shy used shy to shy shyreconstruct shythe shyoriginal shyindividuals shyas shystate shysequences shya shycomposite shyID shyis shyneeded shythat


FIG shy811 shyA shysnapshot shyshowing shypart shyof shythe shyoutput shyof shyDENSE shywhen shyit shystarts shywith shya shy classification The output is altered to fit the screen


FIG shy812 shyA shysnapshot shyshowing shypart shyof shythe shyoutput shyof shyEVALUATE shyThe shyoutput shyis shyaltered shyto shyfit the screen

(a) identifies a subindividual in itself in both the residue analysis output file and the cluster analysis output file (b) identifies the corresponding ldquowholerdquo individual and (c) identifies the shymeasurement shyoccasion shycorresponding shyto shythat shysubindividual shywithin shythe shycorresponding shyindividual

The shySUBIND shyModule


SUBIND takes as input a data file in which the record starts with a unique numeric ID that identifies the individual and that ranges between 1 and 9999 The variable vectors corresponding shyto shydifferent shymeasurement shyoccasions shyare shyrecorded shyrelative shyto shytheir shypositions shyon shythe shytime shyaxis shyThat shyis shythe shyvariable shyvector shycorresponding shyto shymeasurement shyoccasion shyone shyis recorded first after the ID followed by the variable vector for measurement occasion 2 and shyso shyon

The output from SUBIND is a data file in which each record represents a subindividual and it contains an ID that takes up to 10 positions The first 4 positions are occupied by a unique serial number that identifies the subindividual in the new file the middle 2 positions are shyoccupied shyby shyan shyID shythat shytells shyus shywhich shymeasurement shyoccasion shyis shyconcerned shyand shythe shylast shy4 positions are occupied by the original ID taken from the input file This composite ID is then shyfollowed shyby shythe shyvariable shyvalues shycorresponding shyto shya shydistinct shyindividual shyand shyto shya shydistinct shymeasurement shyoccasion

An input data file to SUBIND and the resulting output file are illustrated in Fig shy813

25 shyConcluding shyRemarks

Some shyof shythe shyaspects shyof shySLEIPNER shyand shythe shymethodological shyconsiderations shythat shycan shybe shymade shywhen it is put into use have been presented briefly here The presentation is by no means preemptive shyand shyany shyomissions shyor shysummary shydescriptions shyare shyeither shybecause shyof shyspace shycon-straints shyor shybecause shythey shywere shynot shyfocal shySLEIPNER shymakes shyno shypretension shyof shymirroring shyall shythe shydiversity shyof shymethods shythat shycan shybe shyused shyin shyconnection shywith shyperson-oriented shymethodology shyInstead it offers a self-contained tool box that in many classificatory settings is sufficient (eg shywhen shyapplying shythe shyLICUR shyor shythe shyRESIDAN shyapproach shydiscussed shyin shyearlier shychapters) shyIn shychapter shy9 shyan shyempirical shystudy shyillustrating shythe shyfunctionality shyof shySLEIPNER shyand shyits shyoutput shyis shypresented


FIG 813 A snapshot showing part of the output of SUBIND The output is altered to fit the shyscreen

Chapter 9 STABILITY AND CHANGE IN

PATTERNS OF SCHOOL ADJUSTMENT AN EMPIRICAL STUDY

1 shyINTRODUCTION

The shypresentation shyof shyresults shyin shythis shychapter shyis shydetailed shywith shydifferent shytypes shyof shyanalyses shyThe shyreader who quickly wants to know the essential empirical findings could after reading shysection shy1 shygo shydirectly shyto shysection shy5

11 shyTheoretical shyBackground

The shy purpose shy of shy this shy chapter shy is shy to shy examine shy using shy a shy birdrsquos-eye shy perspective shy the shy growth shy of shyboysrsquo shy school shy adjustment shy as shy seen shy through shy the shy eyes shy of shy their shy teachers shy Of shy course shy this shy area shyhas shy been shy studied shy intensively shy especially shy with shy regard shy to shy negative shy adjustment shy This shy is shy also shythe shycase shywithin shythe shyresearch shyprogram shyfrom shywhich shythe shydata shyanalyzed shyhere shywere shydrawn shy(see shyeg shy Magnusson shy Duneacuter shy amp shy Zetterblom shy 1975) shy Traditionally shy the shy perspective shy has shy almost shyalways shybeen shyvariable shyoriented shyand shy the shy interest shy focused shyon shyeither shy risk shyor shy resilience shyresearch shy(Coie shyet shyal shy1993) shyor shyon shystability shyand shychange shyin shyindicators shyof shybad shyadjustment shy(eg shyOlweus shy1979) shyDuring shythe shylast shy10 shyyears shythe shydegree shyof shysophistication shyin shytheory shyformation shyand shyempiri-cal shy analysis shy in shy this shy vast shy area shy has shy increased shy in shy the shy way shy the shy complex shy phenomenon shy of shy risk shyand shyprotective shyfactors shyare shyaddressed shy(Luthar shy1993) shyin shythe shyrecognition shyof shythe shyneed shyto shystudy shyrisk shymechanisms shynot shy just shy risk shy factors shy (Rutter shy 1994) shy and shy in shy the shyapproaches shyused shy to shy study shy shyco-morbidity shyissues shy(see shyStattin shyamp shyMagnusson shy1996 shyfor shya shypartly shyperson-oriented shyapproach shyto shythe shystudy shyof shyantisocial shydevelopment) shyFrom shythe shyperspective shypresented shyin shythis shyvolume shyit shyseems shyobvious shythat shythese shyphenomena shyneed shyto shyalso shybe shystudied shyusing shya shyperson-oriented shyapproach shyas shyhas shybeen shyadvocated shyby shyBergman shyand shyMagnusson shy(1987 shy1991) shyand shyMagnusson shy(1985 shy1988) shyA shyjudicious shyuse shyof shypattern-based shymethods shymay shyoffer shygreater shypossibilities shyof shyfor shyinstance shymir-roring a risk mechanism that may have as an essential feature operating factors configured in specific characteristic patterns Additionally questions about co-morbidity are sometimes most shynaturally shyanswered shyusing shyan shyapproach shythat shyallows shythe shydirect shyanalysis shyof shymultivariate shyco-morbidity through profiles of adjustment problems rather than through a more indirect vari-able-based shyapproach shyIt shyis shya shylimitation shyof shythe shylatter shyapproach shythat shyit shyis shyoften shybased shyon shya shymodel shyof shypairwise shylinear shyrelationships shythat shyare shyassumed shyto shycontain shyall shyinformation shyabout shyco-morbidity

Far shyless shyeffort shyhas shybeen shydevoted shyto shystudying shypositive shyadaptation shy(Seligman shy1998) shyThere shyare shyseveral shyreasons shyfor shythis shystate shyof shyaffairs shythe shymain shyone shyprobably shybeing shythat shyresources shytend shyto shybe shyconcentrated shyon shysolving shyproblems shyin shysociety shyPositive shyadjustment shyis shystudied shymost shyfrequently shyin shy the shycontext shyof shy resilience shyor shyprotective shyfactors shyand shy then shy the shyabsence shyof shya shybad shyoutcome shyis shyinterpreted shyas shya shygood shyoutcome shy(Durlak shy1997) shyA shydiscussion shyof shythe shylack shyof shyattention shygiven shyto shythe shypositive shyside shyis shyprovided shyby shyCowen shy(1991) shyin shywhich shyhe shypoints shyout shythat shythe shyword shyldquowellnessrdquo shydoes shynot shyeven shyexist shy It shy seems shyobvious shy that shy the shynegative-centered shyapproach shy is shy too shy limited shya shy shyperspective shythe shypositive shyside shymerits shyits shyown shystudy shy(see shyRyff shyamp shySinger shy1998 shyfor shya shydiscussion shy

Stability and change in patterns of school adjustment an empirical study 11

of shythis shyissue shywithin shythe shyhealth shyarea) shyA shymajor shyportion shyof shythe shywork shyto shydate shyon shypositive shyadaptation shyhas shyrelated shyto shysubjective shywell-being shyand shyits shyconcomitants shy(DeNeve shyamp shyCooper shy1998 shyDiener shySuh Lucas amp Smith 1999) Naturally it can be difficult to decide what constitutes positive shyadaptation shyboth shywith shy regard shy to shy cut-off shypoints shy in shy a shyparticular shydimension shyand shywith shy regard shy to shywhich shydimensions shyshould shyor shycould shybe shyincluded shy(cf shyAllport shy1961 shyVaillant shy1977)

From shy a shy person-oriented shy perspective shy one shy would shy like shy to shy see shy how shy positive shy adjustment shy is shy shyorganized shywithin shythe shyindividual shy that shy is shywhether shythere shyare shyclear-cut shy typical shypatterns shyas shythere shyare shyfor shynegative shyadjustment shyor shywhether shythe shypicture shyis shymore shycomplex shyIn shyfact shythere shyare shyreasons shyto shybelieve shy that shy the shysituation shy is shydifferent shywhen shy the shypositive shyside shy is shyconsidered shyFor shy instance shythere shymay shyexist shygreater shystability shyfor shytypical shypatterns shycharacterized shyby shya shysingle shygood shyadjustment shy shyindicator shy (see shyMahoney shyamp shyBergman shy2002 shy for shy further shydiscussion shyof shy this shy issue) shyVery shy little shyresearch shyhas shybeen shycarried shyout shyalong shythese shylines

Equally shyimportant shyto shywhat shyhas shyalready shybeen shysaid shyis shyto shysimultaneously shyconsider shygood shyand shybad shysides shyin shya shypersonrsquos shytotal shyadjustment shyTo shywhat shyextent shycan shythese shytwo shysides shybe shycombined shyin shythe same person It seems clear that the agenda outlined briefly here is beyond the capacity of shyany shysingle shyresearch shyteam shyand shymay shybe shymost shynaturally shycarried shyout shyusing shya shyperson-oriented shyperspective shyFrom shya shypractical shyviewpoint shya shycomplication shyencountered shywhen shyundertaking shythe shysuggested shy approach shy is shy that shy most shy of shy the shy measures shy of shy adjustment shy factors shy in shy current shy use shy are shyfocused shyon shydiscriminating shyon shythe shynegative shyside shyand shymay shybe shyless shyuseful shyfor shydiscriminating shyon shythe shy shypositive shyside

It is our aim to make a contribution to the field just introduced by concentrating on one aspect shynamely shyboysrsquo shyschool shyadjustment shyas shyseen shythrough shytheir shyteachersrsquo shyeyes shyThis shyadmittedly shylimited shyfocus shywas shyemployed shybecause shyit shymade shyit shypossible shyto shyobtain shymeasures shythat shycould shybe shyused shyfor shystudying shyboth shythe shypositive shyand shynegative shyside shyin shya shyde-velopmental shycontext shyand shybecause shya shycoherent shyframe shyof shyreference shyfor shyadjustment shywas shyachieved shyin shythat shyway

12 shyDescription shyof shythe shyData shySet121 Sample

The shysample shyincludes shyboys shywho shyare shystudied shyat shythe shyage shyof shy10 shyand shythen shyagain shyat shythe shyage shyof shy13 shyData shywere shydrawn shyfrom shythe shylongitudinal shyIndividual shyDevelopment shyand shyAdaptation shy(IDA) shyprogram shyini-tiated shyin shy1964 shyand shyled shyuntil shy1996 shyby shyDavid shyMagnusson shy(Magnusson shy1988) shyAlmost shyall shythe shyboys shywere born in 1955 in the Swedish town of Oumlrebro and were in grade 3 at the time of the first data shycollection shyThis shycohort shyconsisted shyof shy517 shyboys shyTo shythis shygroup shywere shyadded shythose shyboys shywho shyby shymoving shyinto shyOumlrebro shybecame shytheir shyclassmates shyat shyage shy13 shyThe shyOumlrebro shycohort shywas shyfound shyto shybe shyreasonably shyrepresentative shyof shyother shySwedish shyurban shypopulations shy(Bergman shy1973) shyAbout shy2 shyto shy3 shyof shythe shychildren shyat shythose shyages shyliving shyin shyOumlrebro shywere shynot shyincluded shyin shythe shysample shybecause shythey shywere shyin shyother shyinstitutions shyor shyreceived shyspecial shyschooling shyAt shyeach shydata shycollection shypoint shythere shyis shyalmost shyno shydropout shyin shythe shyteachersrsquo shyratings shy(less shythan shy1) shybut shydue shyto shymigration shythere shyis shya shysizable shydropout shyin shythe shylongitudinal shyanalyses shyamounting shyto shy132 shyof shythe shyoriginal shysample

122 Variables

Only shydata shyfrom shyteachersrsquo shyratings shywere shyused shyat shyboth shyage shy10 shyand shyage shy13 shyRatings shywere shymade shyfor shy the shy following shydimensions shyaggression motor restlessness timidity disharmony lack of concentration shy and shy low school motivation shyThey shyare shymeasured shyon shya shy7-point shy scale shy (1 shy to shy7) shy shyDescriptions shyof shythem shyare shyprovided shyin shyTable shy91


The shyratings shywere shymade shyby shythe shyteacher shyfor shyone shyvariable shyat shya shytime shyfor shyall shythe shyboys shyin shyhis shyor shyher shyclass shyThe shyorder shyin shywhich shythe shypupils shywere shyrated shywas shychanged shybetween shyvariables shyThe shyteachers shywere shyinstructed shyto shyexpect shythat shymost shyof shythe shychildren shywould shybe shybetween shythe shyextremes shyand shyto shystrive shyfor shya shynormal shydistribution shyIn shyspite shyof shythis shylarge shydifferences shywere shyfound shybetween shythe shymean shyrat-ings shyfor shydifferent shyclasses shyindicating shythat shya shymore shyabsolute shyscale shywas shyused shyand shyperhaps shyalso shythat shydifferent shyteachers shyhad shydifferent shystandards shyThe shyteachersrsquo shyratings shyhave shybeen shyused shyextensively shywithin shythe shyIDA shyprogram shyand shyhave shybeen shyshown shyto shyexhibit shyhigh shyreliability shyand shyvalidity shyas shyevi-denced shyby shyfor shyinstance shyfairly shyhigh shycorrelations shyamong shyratings shymade shyby shydifferent shyteachers shyfor shychildren shyof shydifferent shyages shy(Backteman shyamp shyMagnusson shy1981) shyand shyby shystrong shyrelations shybetween shythe shyteachersrsquo shyratings shyand shysubsequent shyadult shyadjustment shy(Bergman shyamp shyMagnusson shy1991 shyMag-nusson shy1988 shyMagnusson shyamp shyBergman shy1988 shyStattin shyamp shyMagnusson shy1996)

13 shyNote shyon shythe shyPresentation shyof shySLEIPNER shyResults

Most shyof shythe shyanalyses shyin shythis shychapter shywere shyperformed shyusing shySLEIPNER shywhich shywas shypresented shyin shythe shyprevious shychapter shyWe shywill shyas shyfar shyas shyit shyis shypossible shypresent shythe shyresults shyin shya shyform shythat shycorresponds shyto shythe shyoutput shyfrom shythe shydifferent shymodules shyin shySLEIPNER shyWe shybelieve shythat shythis shyis shya shywelcome shyredundancy shyas shyit shyhelps shyto shypresent shySLEIPNER shyas shya shy

TABLE 91Descriptions shyof shythe shyTeachersrsquo shyRatings shyUsed shyin shythe shyStudy

Variable Name

Description of ldquo7rdquo Description of ldquo1rdquo

Aggression They shyare shyaggressive shyagainst shyteachers shyand shyclassmates shyThey shymay shyfor shyexample shybe shyimper-tinent shyand shyimpudent shyactively shyobstructive shyor shyincite shyto shyrebellion shyThey shylike shydisturbing shyand shyquarreling shywith shyclassmates

They shywork shyin shyharmony shywith shythe shyteacher shyand shyhave shypositive shycontacts shywith shyclassmates shyTheir shyrelations shyto shyothers shyeasily shybecome shywarm shyand shyaffectionate

Motor shy shyRestlessness

They find it very difficult to sit still during lessons They fidget uneasily in their seats or wish shyto shymove shyabout shyin shythe shyclassroom shyeven shyduring shylessons shyThey shymay shyalso shybe shytalkative shyand shynoisy

They have no difficulties at all shyin shysatisfying shyeven shygreat shydemands shyon shysilence shyand shy shyquietness

Timidity The shybehavior shyof shysuch shychildren shyis shycharacter-ized shyby shybashfulness shyand shyshyness shyThey shyseem shyto shyhave shypoor shyself-esteem shyThey shyare shyinhibited shyand shyafraid shyto shyexpress shythemselves

Characteristic shyof shythese shypupils shyis shythat shythey shyare shyalways shyopen shyand shyfrank

Disharmony They shyseem shyvery shydisharmonious shyand shyunhappy shyThey are often in restrained or open conflict with shytheir shysurroundings shyor shythemselves

They shyseem shyto shybe shyvery shy shyharmonious shyand shywell shybalanced shyand shyare shyseldom shyinvolved shyin shyserious conflicts with their shysurroundings shyor shythemselves shyThey shyseem shyto shybe shyemotionally shyldquoat shyhomerdquo shyin shyschool


Lack shyof shy shyConcentration

They shycannot shyconcentrate shyon shytheir shywork shybut shyare shyoccupied shywith shyirrelevant shythings shyor shysit shy shyday-dreaming shyFor shya shyfew shymoments shythey shymay shywork shybut shyare shysoon shylost shyin shyother shythoughts shyagain shyThey shyusually shygive shyup shyquickly shyeven shywhen shythe shywork shyis shysuited shyto shytheir shylevel shyof shyintel-ligence

They shyhave shya shymarked shyabil-ity shyto shyconcentrate shyon shya shytask shyand shypersevere shywith shyit shyThey shynever shyallow shythemselves shyto shybe shy shydistracted shyand shydo shynot shygive shyup shyas shylong shyas shya shytask shysuits shytheir shylevel shyof shyintelligence

Low shySchool shyMotivation

They shygive shyan shyimpression shyof shyfeeling shyaverse shyto shylearning shyand shyto shythe shysubject shyand shythey shyseem shyto shyexperience shya shygeneral shyfeeling shyof shydiscomfort shyin shythe shyschool shya shyfeeling shyof shybeing shyldquofed shyuprdquo shywith shyschool shyThey shyare shyuninterested shyand shyit shyis shyvery shydifficult to get them to take part In ordinary school shywork

Their shyschool shymotivation shyis shystrong shyand shythey shyfeel shyat shyhome shyin shythe shyschool shyenvironment

From shyMagnusson shyDuneacuter shyamp shyZetterblom shy(1975)

working tool exemplifies some of the issues discussed earlier and provides a convenient way shyof shysummarizing shyinformation shySometimes shywe shyuse shytables shyto shysummarize shySLEIPNER shyout-put shyespecially shywhen shythe shyoutput shyis shytoo shylarge shyto shybe shyaccommodated shywithin shythe shyboundaries shyof shythis shychapter shyHowever shywhen shya shymodulersquos shyoutput shyis shypresented shythe shyoutput shyis shywhenever shyneces-sary shyand shywithout shyloss shyof shyimportant shydetails shyoften shyaltered shyor shyshortened shyfor shyreasons shyof shyspace

Several shydifferent shytypes shyof shycluster shyanalysis shywere shyundertaken shyThe shycluster shysolution shyin shyeach shyanalysis shyhas shyits shyown shydenotation shyto shyindicate shythe shyclusters shyThe shycluster shylabels shydiffer shybetween shythe shycomputer shyoutput shyand shythe shytext shywhich shyuses shymore shyinformative shylabels shyTo shyhelp shythe shyreader shyidentify shy the shy different shy cluster shy labels shy an shy overview shy of shy these shy labels shy in shy the shy context shy (section shynames) shyin shywhich shythey shywere shyproduced shyis shygiven shyin shyTable shy92 shyPlease shynote shythat shynot shyall shythe shysec-tions shyin shywhich shythese shylabels shyare shycited shyare shymentioned shyin shythe shytables shyonly shythose shythat shyare shymost shyrelevant shyto shythe shyorigin shyof shythose shylabels

2 shyCROSS-SECTIONAL shyCLASSIFICATIONS shyOF shyPATTERNS shyOF shySCHOOL shyADJUSTMENT shyFOLLOWED shyBY shyLINKING

21 shyIntroductionIn shychapter shy6 shywe shypresented shythe shyLICUR shyprocedure shyas shya shytool shyfor shycarrying shyout shycross-sectional shyclassification analysis with linking Applying the LICUR method to the data set just intro-duced shyamounts shy to shy the shy following shy (a) shyFor shy each shyage shy separately shywe shyconducted shypreparatory shyanalyses shy that shy included shy imputing shy for shy missing shy values shy if shy and shy when shy that shy was shy feasible shy and shyconducting shya shyresidue shyanalysis shyto shysearch shyfor shyresidual shyob shyjects shy(outliers shysee shyalso shyBergman shy1988b shyBergman shyand shyEl shyKhouri shy1986) shy(b) shyWe shyperformed shycluster shyanalysis shyseparately shyateach shyage shyand shychose shya shysuitable shycluster shysolution shyaccording shyto shythe shyLICUR shyevaluation shycriteria shy(dis-cussed shyin shychap shy4) shy(c) shyWe shylinked shythe shysolutions shybetween shyage shy10 shyand shyage shy13 shyand shylooked shyfor shystructural and individual stability in the resulting classifications

Notice shythat shywe shyconducted shythe shyanalysis shyon shyeach shyset shyseparately shyThus shydecisions shymade shyfor shythe analysis of one set did not influence decisions made for the other set That is we did not set the criteria for choosing a solution at one point in time based on findings at the otherpoint shyin shytime shyFor shyinstance shywe shydid shynot shydemand shythe shysame shynumber shyof shyclusters shyat shyboth


TABLE 92An shyOverview shyfor shyEach shyAge shyGroup shy(Complete shySamples) shyof shyDifferent shyCluster shyLabels shyReferring shyto shythe shySame shySet shyof shyClusters

Basic shyAnalysis shyon shythe shyTotal shySample shyExcluding shyResidue shyCasesAge 10 Age 13

Output from CLUSTER

(231)Renamed

(24)

From CENTROID

(24)

Output from CLUSTER

(231)Renamed

(24)

From CENTROID

(24)1 A3L1 CA1 1 A6L1 CB15 A3L5 CA2 3 A6L3 CB210 A3L10 CA3 8 A6L8 CB312 A3L12 CA4 10 A6L10 CB413 A3L13 CA5 11 A6L11 CB517 A3L17 CA6 13 A6L13 CB618 A3L18 CA7 14 A6L14 CB7 shy shy shy 15 A6L15 CB8 shy shy shy 25 A6L25 CB9

Replication shyAnalysis shyof shyBasic shyAnalysis shyon shyRandom shyHalf shyExcluding shyResidue shyCasesAge 10 shy Age 13

Output from CLUSTER [renamed] [Section 261]


H3L1 shy H6L1H3L2 H6L3H3L4 H6L4H3L5 H6L5H3L10 H6L6H3L13 H6L7H3L19 H6L13

shy H6L14H6L33

Basic shyISOA shyAnalysis shyExcluding shyResidue shyCasesTotal Sample Random Half

ISOA Output (Section 33) Renamed (Section 32)

Renamed (Section 37)

1 I1 IH13 I3 IH26 I6 IH49 I9 IH8


19 I19 IH1123 I23 IH1324 I24 IH2325 I25 IH2433 I33 IH32

Also given are the section numbers in which these labels first occur

shymeasurement shy occasions shy Thus shy in shy being shy less shy conservative shy one shy allows shy for shy instance shy for shymore profiles to emerge at the later age in domains where differentiation occurs and con-versely we may have fewer profiles at a later age in domains where convergence of early profiles occurs

The shyprocedures shyand shyparameters shyinvolved shyin shythe shyanalysis shyalready shysummarized shywere shythen shyreapplied shyto shya shyrandomly shychosen shysubset shyof shythe shyoriginal shydata shyset shyfor shypurposes shyof shyreplication shyAs shy mentioned shy before shy the shy variables shy included shy in shy the shy analyses shy were shy aggression motor restlessness timidity disharmony lack of concentration shy and shy low school motivation shyIt shy is shy to shybe shyunderstood shy that shy they shywill shyappear shy in shy that shyorder shy in shyall shy subsequent shyanalyses shyand shy shypresentations

Finally shythe shyresults shywere shytested shyagainst shya shynull shyhypothesis shyof shyno shyrelationships shyin shythe shydata

22 shyPreparatory shyAnalyses

The shyresults shyfrom shyrunning shyDESCRIBE shyon shythe shycombined shyage shy10 shyand shy13 shydata shyset shyare shypresented shyin shyFig shy91 shyand shyFig shy92 shyAt shyeach shyage shyand shyof shythe shysix shyvariables shyincluded shyin shythe shyanalysis shyonly shytimidity shyshows shya shyweak shyto shyno shycorrelation shywith shythe shyother shyvariables shywhereas shythe shyremaining shyfive variables show moderate to high intercorrelations The figures also indicate that 517 individuals shyhave shycomplete shydata shyat shyage shy10 shyand shy193 shyhave shymissing shyvalues shyon shyall shysix shyvariables shyat that age The corresponding figures for age 13 are 540 individuals with complete data and shy169 shyindividuals shywith shymissing shyvalues shyon shyall shysix shyvariables shyDistributional shyanalyses shyshows shythat shyall shysix shyvariables shyare shyapproximately shynormally shydistributed shyat shyeach shytime shypoint

Because shyall shy the shy individuals shywith shymissing shyvalues shyat shyage shy10 shyhave shy these shymissing shyvalues shyacross shyall shythe shysix shyvariables shynone shyof shythem shyis shyeligible shyfor shyimputation1 shyThe shysame shyapplies shyfor shyage shy13 shyexcept shyfor shyone shyindividual shywho shyhad shya shymissing shyvalue shyfor shyonly shyone shyvariable shyThe shystan-dard shyprocedure shyfor shyimputation shyin shythe shymodule shyIMPUTE2 shywas shyused shyand shythe shyresults shyare shyshown shyin shyFig shy93 shyin shywhich shyit shycan shybe shyseen shythat shythe shyone shyindividual shywith shymissing shyvalue shyon shyexactly shyone shyvariable shywas shysuccessfully shyimputed shywith shyregard shyto shythe shyvariable shylow school motivation

In shyFig shy94 shyand shyFig shy95 shythe shyresults shyof shyperforming shyresidue shyanalysis shyusing shythe shyRESIDUE shymodule shyseparately shyat shyeach shyage shyare shypresented shyIn shythese shyanalyses shywe shylook shyfor shyresidue shycases shythat shydo shynot shyconform shyto shyour shychosen shyset shyof shycriteria shyfor shyretaining shya shycase shythere shyshould shyexist shyat shy

1The procedure IMPUTE could still be used to clean the original file from these individuals Certain modules in SLEIPNER for example CLUSTER require files with no missing cases It is then sufficient to specify 0 (null) as shythe shynumber shyof shyallowed shymissing shyvalues shyper shycase shywhen shyusing shyIMPUTE2See shychapter shy8 shyfor shydetails


least shyone shyother shycase shyin shythe shydata shyset shyto shywhich shythe shyaverage shysquared shyEuclidean shydistance shy(henceforth shydenoted shyASED) shycomputed shywith shyraw shyvalues shyis shyless shythan shy134 shyIn shyother shywords shya shycase shyis shyconsidered shya shyresidue shycase shyif shyall shyits shyASEDs shyto shythe shyother shycases shyare shylarger shythan shy134

FIG shy91 shyDescriptive shystatistics shyof shyage shy10 shydata shyresulting shyfrom shythe shyDESCRIBE shymodule shyThe shyvariables shyappear shyin shythe shyorder shylisted shyin shythe shytext shyPart shyof shythe shyoutput shyis shyhere shyomitted




FIG shy93 shyThe shyresult shyof shyimputing shythe shyone shyindividual shywith shyone shymissing shyvalue shyat shyage shy13 shyThe shyvariables shyappear shyin shythe shyorder shylisted shyin shythe shytext shyPart shyof shythe shyoutput shyis shyhere shyomitted


FIG shy94 shyResidue shyanalysis shyon shythe shydata shyset shyfrom shyage shy10 shyusing shythe shymodule shyRESIDUE shyPart shyof shythe shyoutput shyis shyhere shyomitted



The shychoice shyof shythe shythreshold shy134 shydemands shysome shyexplanation shyIt shyis shyoften shythe shycase shythat shythe shyscales shyof shythe shyvariables shyincluded shyin shythe shyanalysis shyhave shyvarying shyproperties shyand shyit shyis shynatural shyto shystandardize shythem shybefore shyfurther shyanalyses shyare shyconducted shyIn shythis shycase shyit shymight shybe shyreason-able shyto shyuse shythe shySLEIPNER shydefault shythreshold shyvalue shyof shy5 shyas shythe shycut-off shypoint shyfor shyassigning shya shycase shyto shythe shyresidue shyset shy(ie shya shycase shyis shya shyresidue shycase shyif shyall shyits shyASEDs shyto shyother shycases shyare shylarger shythan shy5) shyHowever shyfor shythe shypresent shydata shysets shyall shythe shyvariables shyare shyon shya shycomparable shy1 shyto shy7 shyscale shyand shyit shywas shydecided shyto shyretain shythat shyscale shyin shythe shyanalysis shyso shythat shyinformation shyis shypreserved shyabout shylevel shyand shyscatter shydifferences shybetween shythe shyvariables shyTable shy93 shyillustrates shythe types of deviations between two value profiles that correspond to different ASED val-ues shyHere shya shycase shyis shykept shyfor shyfurther shyanalysis shyif shyit shyhas shya shyldquotwinrdquo shythat shycorresponds shyto shyexactly shyone shyof shythe shyentries shyin shyTable shy93 shyup shyto shyand shyincluding shy1334 shyAfter shycareful shyconsideration shywe shydecided shythat shythe shythreshold shyof shy134 shyfor shyregarding shytwo shycases shyas shysimilar shywas shyreasonable shyand shyit shy


was shyadopted shyin shythe shyresidue shyanalyses shyIt shywould shyhave shybeen shyconceivable shyto shydemand shya shyhigher shydegree shyof shysimilarity shyto shyretain shya shycase shybut shyin shythe shypresent shyapplication shywe shysettled shyfor shyremov-ing shyonly shythose shycases shythat shywere shyclearly shydissimilar shyto shyall shyother shycases

As shyshown shyin shyFig shy94 shyand shyFig shy95 three residue cases were identified two at age 10 and shyone shyat shyage shy13 shyAs shyit shyturned shyout shythe shytwo shyresidue shycases shyat shyage shy10 shywere shyactually shymutually shysimilar albeit at a larger dissimilarity coefficient than was allowed something that is not normally expected The child with the ID number 101 (with profile 214477 on the six variables) shyhad shyno shyconduct shyproblems shywas shyaverage shyon shytimidity shyand shydisharmony shybut shyextremely shyhigh shyon shylack of concentration shyand shylow school motivation shyThe shychild shywith shythe shyid-number shy201 shy(133566) shywas shyalso shylow shyon shyconduct shyproblems shyaverage shyon shytimidity shybut shyabove shyaverage shyon shydisharmony shyhigh shyon shylack of concentration shyand shyhigh shyon shylow school motivation

TABLE 93ASED shyBetween shyTwo shyCases shyas shya shyFunction shyof shyNumber shyof shyUnits shyDeviation shyand shyNumber shyof shyVariables shyThat shyDeviate

1 Unit Deviation on X Variables

2 Units Deviation on X Variables


ASED

shy shy shy 0X=1 167X=2 334X=3 05X=4 667

shy X=1 667X=5 shy 834X=1 X=1 834X=6 shy 10X=2 X=1 10X=3 X=1 1167

shy X=2 1334X=4 X=1 1334X=5 X=1 15

shy X=1 15

Empty shycells shycorrespond shyto shyX=0

Although shy these shycases shywere shyodd shycases shy in shy themselves shyone shycan shy still shydiscern shy the shy same shy type shyof contrast in both profiles which is the co-occurrence of no ldquopurerdquo conduct problems together shy with shy school shy performance shy related shy problems shy However shy an shy examination shy of shy these shyindividualsrsquo profiles at age 13 shows that although their school maladjustment was still at the shysame shylevel shyas shyat shyage shy10 shytheir shylevel shyof shyconduct shyproblems shyhad shyworsened shyto shywell shyabove shyaverage shyby shyage shy13 shyTimidity shyalso shyrose shyin shyboth shycases shyespecially shyfor shychild shy101 shywhose shyscore shybecame extremely high The value profiles associated with these individuals at age 13 were 557566 shyand shy565656 shyrespectively shyand shywere shynot shyfound shyin shythe shyresidue shyat shythat shyage


At shy age shy 13 shy only shy one shy residue shy case shy was shy observed shy The shy child shy with shy the shy ID shy number shy 86 shy(237677) shy was shy characterized shy by shy being shy extremely shy high shy on shy timidity disharmony lack of concentration shyand shylow school motivation shybut shybelow shyaverage shyon shypure shyconduct shyproblems shyHence shythe shyopposing shyrelation shyof shyconduct shyproblems shyto shyschool shyperformance shyrelated shyproblems shyis shyalso shypresent shyin shythis shyresidue shycase shyas shyit shywas shyin shythe shyprevious shytwo shycases shyat shyage shy10 shyThe shyexcep-tion shyis shyin shythis shycase shythat shythis shyis shycoupled shywith shyhigh shylevels shyon shytimidity shyas shywell shyas shydisharmony shyExamining the profile of this child at age 10 (674476) reveals a profile that is very high on conduct shyproblems shyas shywell shyas shyschool shyadjustment shybut shysomewhat shyaverage shyon shytimidity shyand shydis-harmony shyIn shyother shywords shythe shyopposing shyrelation shyof shyconduct shyproblems shyto shyschool shyperformance shyrelated shyproblems shywas shynot shypresent shyat shyage shy10 shynor shywas shythe shycase shyfound shyto shybe shyin shythe shyresidue shyat shythat shyage shyA shyfurther shyanalysis shyof shythe shyresidue shycases shywould shybe shyinteresting shybut shywas shynot shycarried shyout shyhere3

23 Cross-Sectional Classifications

231 Introduction

Some shy characteristics shy of shy the shy SLEIPNER shy output shy for shy the shy chosen shy solution shy from shyWARD shycluster shyanalysis shyon shythe shydata shyset shyfrom shyage shy10 shyare shyshown shyin shyFig shy96 shyTable shy94 shysummarizes shythe shysame shycharacteristics shyfor shy the shydata shyset shyfrom shyage shy13 shyBoth shyanalyses shywere shyperformed shyon shythe shyoriginal shydata shywithout shystandardization shyof shythe shyvariables shyAs shymentioned shybefore shythe shyreason shyfor shythis shyis shythat shyall shyvariables shyare shyalready shyon shythe shysame shycomparable shyscale shyfrom shy1 shyto shy7 shyand shywe shywanted shy to shyretain shy the shy information shycontained shyin shyvarying shystandard shydeviations shyAs shy is shy implied shy in shy Fig shy 96 shy and shy Table shy 96 shy at shy age shy 10 shy the shy seven-clusters shy solution shy was shychosen shyand shyat shyage shy13 shythe shynine-clusters shysolution shywas shychosen shyFor shyeach shysolution shyalso shyshown shy are shy the shy centroids shy of shy the shy clusters shy and shy the shy standard shy deviations shy of shy the shy variables shyinvolved The homogeneity coefficients are also presented and are the average of all ASEDs shycomputed shyseparately shybetween shyall shypossible shypairs shyof shyindividuals shyin shyeach shycluster shyThe shypercentage shyof shyexplained shyerror shysums shyof shysquares shyfor shythe shysolutions shyat shyage shy10 shyand shyat shyage shy

3For instance using other information sources to try to ascertain whether the observed profiles were likely to have been influenced by error of measurement or whether they could be regarded as ldquotruerdquo outliers


13 shyare shy6126 shyand shy6718 shyrespectively shywhich shyare shyhere shyconsidered shyreasonably shysatisfac-tory shyalbeit shynot shyvery shyhigh

FIG shy96 shyThe shy7-clusters shysolution shyfrom shycluster shyanalysis shyof shythe shydata shyset shyat shyage shy10 shyThe shymod-ule shyCLUSTER shyoption shyWard shywas shyused shyBetween shyparentheses shyis shythe shynumber shyof shyindividuals shyin shythe shycorresponding shycluster shyNot shyshown shyfor shythis shysolution shyis shythe shycluster shymembership shyof shythe shyindividuals shythe shyincrease shyin shythe shyESS shy(1965) shyand shythe shyexplained shyESS shy(6127)


TABLE 94The shyNini-Clusters shySolution shyof shythe shyData shySet shyat shyAge shy13

Clu

ster

shyN

ame

Agg

ress

ion

Mot

or shy shy

Res

tless

-ne

ss

Tim

idity

Dis

harm

ony

Lack

shyof shy shy

Con

cent

ra-

tion

Low

shySch

ool shy

Mot

ivat

ion shy

shy M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD N HCA6L1 38 076 39 68 41 64 39 63 40 10 38 79 146 119A6L3 24 10 15 57 53 99 39 95 28 11 34 96 54 189A6L8 25 12 34 11 28 11 22 73 31 10 27 79 74 220A6L10 61 83 62 80 28 13 54 11 58 94 55 81 68 200A6L11 37 43 31 11 63 59 44 11 44 75 43 79 36 141A6L13 44 11 60 73 44 14 52 97 65 49 62 68 43 185A6L14 16 88 13 75 33 16 15 66 13 52 15 72 45 166A6L15 53 63 50 72 41 84 49 99 48 93 45 81 35 139A6L25 51 10 52 99 23 97 43 12 30 11 32 83 39 216

The shymeans shy(M) shyand shythe shystandard shydeviations shy(SD) shyofthe shyvariables shyin shyeach shycluster shyare shygiven together with homogeenity coefficient (HC) shyand shythe shynumber shyof shyindividuals shyin shythe shycluster shy(N)

Later shyin shythe shycourse shyof shycomparing shyand shylinking shythe shytwo shysolutions shy(ie shywhen shywe shyinvestigate shystructural shyand shyindividual shystability shyand shychange shyover shyage) shywe shysay shymore shyabout shythe shyinterpretation shyof shythe shyclusters shyin shyeach shysolution

232 Deciding the Number of ClustersTable shy95 shypresents shythe shyincrease shyin shythe shyerror shysum shyof shysquares shyhenceforth shyESS shyas shywell shyas shythe shypercentage shyexplained shyESS shyfor shythe shylast shy23 shyiterations shyin shythe shyWard shycluster shyanalyses shyfor shythe shytwo shydata shysets shyusing shySLEIPNERrsquos shymodule shyCLUSTER

A few points need clarification at this point There are no definitive rules that will auto-matically shygenerate shya shylogical shycut-off shypoint shyin shycluster shyanalysis shyThere shyare shyhowever shyprocedures shyfor shydetermining shythe shynumber shyof shyclusters shyand shygeneral shyrecommendations shyabout shyhow shyto shyproceed shyon shythe shyissue shy(see shyeg shyMilligan shyamp shyCooper shy1985) shyWe shyalso shypresented shyour shyset shyof shyguidelines shyin shychapter shy4 shyThese shyare shyused shyas shya shybasis shyfor shythe shyline shyof shyreasoning shywe shynow shypresent

It shy is shyoften shypreferred shythat shya shymanageable shynumber shyof shyclusters shy is shyobtained shyIf shy the shylevel shyof shydescription is too fine-grained it may not be useful and some other type of analysis may be shyrequired shyIn shyaddition shyprovided shywe shyare shyworking shywith shyhierarchical shycluster shyanalysis shyand shyprovided shywe shypreserve shy the shyhierarchical shynature shyof shy the shysolution shyfor shyfuture shyuse shy the shydecision shyabout shythe shynumber shyof shyclusters shyis shynot shyso shycritical shyas shyone shycould shymove shyup shyand shydown shythe shyhierarchy shyin shydifferent shyanalyses shyor shypresentations shydepending shyon shythe shylevel shyof shydetail shythat shyis shymost shyuseful shyin the specific case Having said that there are almost always certain characteristics of the shysolution shythat shymay shyshed shylight shyon shythe shyquestion shyof shywhere shyto shyplace shythe shycut-off shypoint shyFor shyinstance shyan shyacceptable shyminimum shylevel shyof shythe shypercentage shyexplained shyESS shycan shybe shyrequired shyand shy in shy the shyspirit shyof shy factor shyanalysis shyone shycould shy look shyfor shya shysharp shy increase shy (or shydecrease) shy in shy


the shyvalue shyof shythe shyoptimizing shyfunction shyhere shythe shyincrease shyin shythe shyESS shyor shyinspect shythe shyresulting shy shydendogram shyfor shya shysuitable shycut-off shypoint

Other shycharacteristics shyof shythe shyresulting shysolution shymay shyalso shybe shyinspected shysuch shyas shythe shymeans shyin shya shycluster shyoften shydenoted shythe shycentroid shyof shythe shycluster shyand shythe shyassociated shyvariances shyNor-mally shyit shyis shyrequired shythat shythe shyvariances shyof shythe shyincorporated shyvariables shybe shysmall shyand shynot shyincrease shymuch as a result of a previous merge Also with regard to the homogeneity coefficient the result shyof shya shymerge shyof shytwo shyclusters shywith shymoderate shyhomogeneity shyshould shynot shybe shya shycluster shywith shya much higher homogeneity coefficient4 shythan shythe shyparent shyclusters shyFurthermore shysometimes shythere shymay shybe shytheoretical shyreasons shyfor shywhy shytwo shyclusters shyshould shynot shybe shyjoined

Table shy95 shy shows shyhow shyconsiderations shy regarding shy the shypercentage shyof shy explained shyESS shyand shythe shyincrease shyin shyESS shycome shyto shybear shyon shychoice shyof shya shysolution shyTable shy94 shyand shyFig shy96 shyshow shythe shycentroids the associated standard deviations and the homogeneity coefficients

All shythese shyconsiderations shytaken shytogether shyled shyto shythe shychoice shyof shythe shyseven-cluster shysolution shyat shyage shy10 shyand shythe shynine-cluster shysolution shyat shyage shy13 shyas shythe shyprimary shysolutions

TABLE 95Summary shyTable shyfor shythe shyLast shy23 shyIterations shyin shyWard shyCluster shyAnalysis shyon shythe shyData shySet shyFrom shyAge shy10 shyand shyAge shy13

Iteration Increase in ESS

Explained ESS Iteration Increase in ESS

Explained ESS

492 668048 769654 517 609084 788058493 733633 764166 518 641282 783376494 766026 758436 519 641731 778690

495 878457 751865 520 676848 773747496 911775 745045 521 716758 768513497 948946 737947 522 861238 762224498 1020833 730311 523 934568 755400499 1271616 720799 524 991490 748160500 1288805 711158 525 1047178 740514501 1321713 701272 526 1337173 730749502 1373170 691001 527 1366566 720771503 1419730 680381 528 1528791 709607504 1600895 668406 529 1666541 697438505 1726673 655490 530 1714608 684918506 1830577 641797 531 1793664 671821507 1925998 627391 532 2263423 655293508 1965078 612692 533 2750084 635212509 2401810 594726 534 3038346 613026510 6403127 546829 535 5055844 576108

4The lower the coefficient the better the homogeneity within a cluster


511 6516453 498085 536 5859970 533318512 7618999 441094 537 7597601 477840513 5663220 323932 538 8898990 339838514 3305760 0000 539 6539950 0000

shy Age shy10 shy shy Age shy13 shy

The shybold shyentry shycorresponds shyto shythe shychosen shysolutions shyat shyeach shyage shy(7 shyclusters shyat shyage shy10 shyand shy9 shyclusters shyat shyage shy13)

24 shyStructural shyStability shyand shyChange

In shythe shynext shystep shyof shythe shyanalysis shywe shyfocus shyon shythe shystability shyover shyage shyof shya shyclustering shysolution shyThere are several key issues that should be discussed and if possible verified at the onset of shysuch shyan shyanalysis shyFor shybrevity shywe shyconsider shyonly shythe shycase shyof shytwo shymeasurement shyoccasions shyas shyin shythe shydata shyset shystudied shyhere shySee shyalso shychapter shy3 shyand shychapter shy7

If shythe shysame shyvariables shyhave shybeen shymeasured shyat shythe shytwo shytime shypoints shyand shycan shyalso shybe shyregarded shyas shyhaving shythe shysame shymeaning shyat shythese shytwo shydifferent shyoccasions shyand shyif shythe shytwo shysolutions shyare shyessentially shyidentical shyat shysome shydescriptive shylevel shywe shyspeak shyof shyperfect shystructural stability shyIf shythe shytwo shysolutions shyare shyonly shypartially shyidentical shywe shyspeak shyof shypartial structural stability shyTypi-cally shythis shymeans shythat shysome shyclusters shydissolve shyover shytime shyand shynew shyclusters shymay shybe shyformed shywhereas shyother shyclusters shyremain shystable shyIf shythe shymatching shyis shypoor shyindicating shythat shythe shysolutions shyare shylargely shydifferent shythe shysolution shyis shythen shyconsidered shystructurally shyunstable shyFortunately shythe shylatter shyalthough shytheoretically shyfeasible shyis shynot shyusually shyencountered shyin shypractice

Individual stability and change shydenoting shy the shy tendency shy for shy individuals shy in shyone shycluster shy to shyreemerge shyin shya shysimilar shyor shya shynew shycluster shyat shya shyhigher shyage shyis shyanother shystabilitychange shyissue shythat shyis shyclosely shyrelated shybut shynot shyequivalent shyto shystructural shystability shyas shybecomes shyapparent shylater shyon shyin shythe shyanalysis

In shy the shy following shy we shy describe shy the shy clusters shy by shy their shy respective shy centroids shy In shy studying shystructural shystability shywe shycompare shy two shysets shyof shycentroids shy taken shyfrom shydifferent shymeasurement shyoccasions shyThe shycomparison shyuses shya shymatching shyprocedure shydescribed shyin shychapter shy7 shywhich shypairs shythose shycentroids shyeach shytaken shyfrom shya shydifferent shyoccasion shywhich shyare shymost shysimilar shy(provided shythat shynone shyof shythese shycandidate shycentroids shyis shyalready shypaired shywith shysome shyother shycentroid shyin shya shyprevious shymatching) shyThis shyprocedure shyis shy intuitively shyattractive shyas shy it shyprovides shya shybasis shyfor shyconsidering shythe shysolutions shyfrom shythe shytwo shyoccasions shyas shya shytotal shythat shyis shythe shyclusters shyreceive shytheir shymeaning shynot shyonly shy in shy relation shy to shy the shyother shyclusters shypresent shy in shy the shy solution shy from shy the shy same shyage shybut shyalso shyin shyrelation shyto shythe shycluster shysolution shyfrom shythe shyother shyage shystudied shyThis shydoes shycome shyout shyat shya shyprice shyhowever shyIf shystructural shystability shyis shynot shyperfect shymatching shyclusters shybecomes shyincreasingly shydependent shyon shythe shymatches shyalready shymade shyPoorly shymatched shyclusters shymay shyappear shyat shythe shylast shystages shyof shythe shymatching shyprocedure shyThese shyclusters shymay shybe shymore shysimilar shyto shyanother shycluster shythat shyis shynot shyavailable shybecause shyit shyhas shyalready shybeen shymatched shyThis shyphenomenon shymust shybe shyidenti-fied and discussed in the interpretation of the results

We shymatched shy the shysolutions shyfrom shyage shy10 shyand shyage shy13 shyusing shy the shyCENTROID shymethod shy in shySLEIPNER shyIn shyFig shy97 shythe shyrows shynumbered shy1 shyto shy9 shyunder shythe shyheadings shyldquoAllwage shy13rdquo shyare shythe shy9-clusters shycentroids shyobtained shyfrom shythe shycluster shyanalysis shyof shythe shyage shy13 shydata shyset shyentered shyin shythe shyorder shyin shywhich shythey shyappear shyin shythe shyWard shysolution shyThe shycentroids shyfor shyage shy10 shyare shynot shyshown shy(please shynote shythat shytwo shydummy shyrows shyhad shyto shybe shyadded shyto shythe shyage shy10 shycentroids shyto shymake shythe shynumber shyof shycentroids shyequal shyto shythat shyof shyage shy13) shyFor shyconvenience shywe shysometimes shyrefer shyto shy


the shyclusters shyat shyage shy10 shyby shypreceding shythe shyoriginal shyname shythat shyappears shyin shythe shyward shysolution shyby shythe prefix A3L Thus cluster 1 at age 10 is referred to as A3L1 and cluster 5 at age 10 is referred to as A3L5 and so on Likewise we prefix the clusters for age 13 by A6L5 shyThus shycluster shy1 shyat shyage shy13 shyis shyreferred shyto shyas shyA6L1 shyand shycluster shy3 shyat shyage shy13 shyis shynow shyA6L3 shyand shyso shyon shyThe shynames shygiven shyin shyFig shy97 shydo shynot shyfollow shythis shyrule shybecause shythey shyare shyautomatically shynamed shyby shySLEIPNER shyFor shyinstance shyCA1 shyequals shyA3L1 shyand shyso shyon

As shyshown shyin shyFig shy97 shy the shycorrespondence shybetween shythe shytwo shysolutions shyis shyquite shyhigh shyas shyjudged shyby shythe shyaverage shysquared shyEuclidean shydistances shybetween shythe shyseven shycentroids shyfrom shyage shy10 shyand shyseven shy(out shyof shynine) shycentroids shyfrom shyage shy13 shythe shybest shymatch shyhaving shyan shyASED shyof shy073 shyand shythe shy shyworst shy shymatch shy shyhaving shy shyan shy shyASED shy shyof shy675 shyPlease shynote shythat shyCA8 shyand shyCA9 shyindicate

FIG 97 Modified output from the module CENTROID when run on the seven-clusters solution at age 10 (CA1 to CA7 in the figure) and the nine-clusters solution at age 13 (CB1 to CB9 in the figure) CA8 and CA9 in the figure are dummy entries Not shown are the

shy

5At shyage shy10 shythe shyboys shywere shyin shyelementary shyschool shyyear shy3 shyand shyat shyage shy13 shyin shyelementary shyschool shyyear shy6 shyin shythe shySwedish shyschool shysystem shyHence shythe shyldquoA3rdquo shyand shythe shyldquoA6rdquo shyin shyldquoA3Lrdquo shyand shyldquoA6Lrdquo shywhich shyare shya shyshorthand shyway shyof shydepicting shythe shySwedish shynames shyfor shythose shyschool shyyears shyThe shyldquoLrdquo shyin shyboth shyexpressions shyrefers shyto shythe shyratings shybeing shymade shyby shythe shyteachers


centroids shyat shyage shy10 shyCA1 shyto shyCA7 shyand shyCB1 shyto shyCB9 shyappear shyin shythe shysame shyorder shyfound shyin shythe shyWard shysolutions

dummy shycentroids shyfor shyage shy10 shyand shyshould shynot shybe shyinterpreted shyTable shy96 shypresents shythe shymatching shytogether shywith shythe shynames shyand shysizes shyassociated shywith shyeach shycluster shyA shygraphical shydepiction shyof shythis shystate shyof shyaffair shyis shyshown shyin shyFig shy98

It shycan shybe shyseen shyin shyFig shy98 shythat shythe shylargest shyclusters shyin shyeach shysolution shynamely shyA3L1 shyand shyA6L1 shyare shyalso shythose shythat shymatch shybest shyThese shyclusters shyexhibit shyaverage shylevels shyin shyall shysix shyvari-ables shyClusters shyA3L12 shyand shyA6L14 shyare shyvery shylow shyon shyall shyvariables shyexcept shyfor shytimidity shyindi-cating shya shygenerally shygood shyadjustment shythat shyis shymore shypronounced shyat shyage shy13 shythan shyat shyage shy10 shyA shymirror image of this profile can be found in A3L10 and A6L10 These clusters show a high degree shyof shyadjustment shyproblems shyin shyall shyvariables shyexcept shyfor shytimidity shyAgain shyit shyseems shythat shythis shyprofile is more pronounced at age 13 than it is at age 10 Clusters A3L18 and A6L3 are characterized shyby shymoderately shylow shylevels shyof shyaggression disharmony lack of concentration shyand shylow school motivation shybut shylow shyon shymotor restlessness shyand shyhigh shyon shytimidity shyClusters shyA3L5 shyand shyA6L15 shyare shyabove shyaverage shyon shymost shyvariables shyClusters shyA3L13 shyand shyA6L8 shyare shylow shyin shyall shyvariables shyexcept shymotor restlessness shywhich shyis shymore shypronounced shyat shyage shy10 shythan shyat shyage shy13 shyClusters shyA3L17 shyand shyA6L25 shyare shyabove shyaverage shyon shyaggression shyand shymotor restlessness shybut shylow shyon shytimidity

The shytwo shyremaining shyclusters shyin shythe shynine-clusters shysolution shyfrom shyage shy13 shy(from shywhich shyseven shywere shyemployed shyin shythe shyprevious shymatching) shyare shydepicted shyin shyFig shy99 shyThe shyclusters shyare shymatched shywith the best fitting clusters from age 10 without any consideration of previous matches It can shybe shyseen shythat shyA6L13 shyhas shya shygood shymatch shyat shyage shy10 shyOnly shyCluster shyA6L11 shyat shyage shy13

TABLE 96The shyOutput shyShown shyin shyFig shy97 shyis shyRecaptured shyShowing shythe shyNames shyand shySizes shyof shythe shyClus-ters shyand shythe shyASEDs shyBetween shythe shyMatched shyCtusters

Seven-Clusters Solution of Age 10 Data Set N ASED N

Nine-Clusters Solution of Age 13 Data Set

A3L1 133 073 146 A6L1A3L12 54 155 45 A6L14A3L10 59 259 68 A6L10A3L18 82 277 54 A6L3A3L5 85 547 35 A6L15A3L13 21 580 74 A6L8A3L17 81 675 39 A6L25

shy shy shy 36 A6L11 shy shy shy 43 A6L13

SUM 515 shy 540 SUM


FIG shy98 shyCluster shymeans shy(=centroids) shyof shythe shyseven-cluster shysolution shyfrom shyage shy10 shy graphically captured when matched against the seven best fitting centroids from the shynine-cluster solution of age 13 The six presented variables in the figure are ordered as follows shyAggression shyMotor shyRestlessness shyTimidity shyDisharmony shyLack shyof shyConcentration shyand shyLack shyof shySchool shyMotivation


FIG shy99 shyThe shytwo shyage shy13 shyclusters shythat shywere shynot shyused shyin shythe shyseven-clusters shymatch shydepicted shytogether shywith shythe shybest shymatching shyclusters shyfrom shyage shy10 shyThe shysix shypresented shyvariables shyin shythe shyfigure are ordered as follows Aggression Motor Restlessness Timidity Disharmony Lack shyof shyConcentration shyand shyLack shyof shySchool shyMotivation

remains shyunique shycharacterized shyby shyhigh shylevels shyof shytimidity shyand shynormal shyranges shyfor shythe shyother shyvariables It is interesting to note that when inspecting the hierarchy of classification at age 13 we find that the seven-clusters solution is reached by merging A6L13 and A6L10 both of shywhich shywere shyfound shyclosest shy to shyA3L10 shybut shyunder shydifferent shymatching shyconditions shyCluster shyA6L11 shyhowever shyis shyfound shyintact shyin shythe shyseven-cluster shysolution shyat shyage shy13

25 shyIndividual shyStability shyand shyChange

To shystudy shyindividual shymovements shybetween shyclusters shyat shydifferent shyages shywe shyused shythe shyEXACON shymodule shyin shySLEIPNER shyfor shythe shyexact shyanalysis shyof shysingle shycells shyin shya shycontingency shytable shy(chap shy8 shy this shyvolume shyBergman shyamp shyEl shyKhouri shy1987) shyFig shy910 shyshows shythe shyresults shyfrom shysuch shyan shyanalysis shy in shywhich shy the shy rows shycorrespond shy to shy the shy seven-clusters shy solution shyat shyage shy10 shyand shy the shycolumns correspond to the nine-clusters solution at age 13 The first row in a cell is the observed frequency in that cell the second row is the expected frequency and the fifth row is the hypergeometrical probability associated with the discrepancy between the first and shythe shysecond shyrows shyA shytype shyis shysaid shyto shyoccur shyin shya shycell shyif shythe shyobserved shyfrequency shyis shyso shymuch shylarger shythan shythe shyexpected shyone shythat shythe shyassociated shyhypergeometrical shyprobability shyis shylow shyThat shyis we observe a significantly larger frequency than we expect to observe by chance alone In shythe shyreverse shysetting shywhen shywe shyobserve shyless shythan shywe shyexpect shyby shychance shyalone shywe shysay shythat shywe shyhave shyan shyantitype

251 Looking for Types

As shyshown shyin shyFig shy910 shyfour shyof shythe shyseven shyprimary shymatches shypresented shypreviously shyare shyindeed shytypes shyindicating shypartial shyindividual shystability shyThese shyfour shymatches shyare shycell shy(11) shycell shy(1010) shycell shy(183) shyand shycell shy(1214) shywith shythe shyhighest shyassociated shyprobability shybeing shy0006 shyfor shycell shy(11) shyThus shya shylarger shyproportion shyof shyindividuals shythan shyexpected shyby shychance shybelong shyto shyclusters shy1 shy10 12 and 18 at age 10 and retain their profiles at age 13 These individuals are those who show shy shymoderate shyvalues shyon shyall shy shyvariables shy(the shy shylargest shycluster shyin shyboth shy shysolutions) shythose shy shywho


FIG shy910 shyA shycross-tabulation shyof shythe shysolution shyat shyage shy10 shyand shythe shysolution shyat shyage shy13 shywith shythe shyexact shyanalysis shyof shythe shycells shyin shythe shytable shyThe shyoutput shyis shyproduced shyby shyEXACON shyin shySLEIPNER but modified to fit the page The entries in each cell are as follows First is given shythe shyobserved shyfrequency shywhich shyis shyfollowed shyby shythe shyexpected shyfrequency shythe shyCHI-2 shycomponent shythe shybinomial shyprobability shyand shythe shyhypergeometrical shyprobability shyin shythat shyorder shyNot shown in the figure is the overall CHI-2 which is 2552339 and the contingency coefficient which is 6020


are shynormal shywith shya shyslight shyexpression shyof shytimidity those with a multiple problem profile but who shyare shysomewhat shymoderate shywith shyrespect shyto shytimidity shyand shythose shywith shyno shymotor restlessness shybut shywho shyare shyabove shyaverage shyon shytimidity shyand shybelow shyaverage shyon shythe shyrest shyof shythe shyvariables

It shycan shyalso shybe shyseen shyfrom shyFig shy910 shythat shythe shytwo shysecondary shymatches shy(shown shyin shyFig shy99) shyare also types The first match corresponds to cell (10 13) with patterns at both ages char-acterized shyby shysevere shyproblems shyon shyall shyvariables shyexcept shyfor shytimidity shywhich shyis shyin shythe shynormal shyrange shyand shyaggression shywhich shygets shymoderated shywith shyage shyThe shysecond shymatch shycorresponds shyto shycell shy(5 shy11) shywith shypatterns shycharacterized shyby shyhigh shyto shymoderate shyadjustment shyproblems shyand shyhigh shyto shyvery shyhigh shyexpressions shyof shytimidity shyas shyone shymoves shyfrom shyage shy10 shyto shyage shy13 shyThe shyprobabilities shy shyassociated shy with shy those shy two shy cells shy are shy well shy below shy 01 shy Fig shy 911 shy shows shy pictorially shy the shy six shy shylongitudinal shystreams shydescribed

252 Looking for Antitypes

Next shywe shy look shy for shy the shymost shy infrequent shy individual shymovements shybetween shy the shy two shyages shyWe shyassume shythat shythese shyoccur shyfor shythe shymost shydissimilar shyclusters shyTable shy97 shycontains shya shydissimilarity shymatrix shybetween shythe shyseven shyclusters shyat shyage shy10 shyand shythe shynine shyclusters shyat shyage shy13 shySeven shycells shycorresponding shyto shythe shyseven shyhighest shyASEDs shydissimilarities shybetween shyclusters shyone shyfrom shyeach shyage shywere shyselected shyfor shyanalysis shyIt shycan shybe shyseen shyin shyFig shy910 shythat shyas shyanticipated shysix shyprobabili-ties out of seven confirm the existence of antitypes with the probabilities ranging between 0009 shyand shy0126 shyFig shy912 shyshows shypictorially shythe shysix shyldquodry-streamsrdquo shydescribed shyhere

253 Exploring the Remaining Cells

Exploring shy the shy contingency shy table shy in shy Fig shy 910 shy further shy we shy had shy to shy adjust shy for shy the shy mass shy significance problem as discussed by Krauth and Lienert (1973) and von Eye (1990b) We used shya shyconservative shytest shyand shy

TABLE 97The shyDissimilarity shyMatrix shyComputed shyBetween shythe shyCentroids shyat shyAge shy10 shyand shyThose shyof shyAge shy13 the Dissimilarity Coefficient Being the Average Squared Euclidean Distance shy shy Age 13

A6L1 A6L3 A6L8 A6L10 A6L11 A6L13 A6L14 A6L15 A6L25A A3L1 0073 1687 0875 4143 1455 3965 4135 1436 1287g A3L5 0980 3474 4607 2430 0650 1402 9910 0547 3100e A3L10 3692 9681 8574 0259 4637 0476 1724 1034 3936 shy A3L12 4205 2733 1176 1386 6777 1412 0155 8813 55071 A3L13 3041 4839 0580 8941 6988 9932 2513 6024 26530 A3L17 1184 5642 2697 1458 3912 2397 8583 0917 0675 shy A3L18 1592 0277 1362 9635 1843 8501 1800 4769 4491

The bold entries in the table are the seven highest dissimilarity coefficients


FIG 911 Significant longitudinal streams between age 10 and age 13 Numbers attached to the end of the arrows indicate how many more times the flow was observed as compared to what would be expected from chance alone Only significant streams are presented and an exact shy1-tailed shyhypergeometric shytest shywas shyused shyplt01 shyplt001 shyand shyplt0001


FIG 912 Significant longitudinal ldquodryrdquo streams between age 10 and age 13 Numbers attached to the arrows indicate how many times less the flow was observed as compared to what would be expected from chance alone A ldquocurrenrdquo indicates that no individuals moved in the direction of the arrow Only significant dry streams are presented and an exact shy1-tailed shyhypergeometric shytest shywas shyused shyplt shy05 shyplt01 shyand shyplt001


multiplied shythe shyresulting shyprobability shyin shyeach shycell shyby shy94 shywhich shyis shytwice shythe shynumber shyof shycells shyremaining shy in shy the shy table shy following shy the shy tests shy for shy types shy and shyantitypes shypreviously shymade shy (see shysections shy251 shyand shy522) shyAfter shyadjusting shythe shyprobabilities shyit shycan shybe shyseen shythat shycell shy(110) shyis shyan shyantitype shywith shyplt05 shyand shythat shycell shy(1710) shyis shya shytype shywith shyplt01 shyIt shycan shybe shyseen shyin shyFig shy911 that the type we find corresponds to individuals with a profile of slightly above aver-age shyscores shyon shyall shyvariables shyexcept shytimidity shyand shywho shymove shyto shyanother shycluster shywith shythe shysame shyshape shybut shywith shythe shyproblems shymore shypronounced shyFig shy913 shyshows shythe shypairs shyof shyclusters shyalready shymentioned

26 shyReplicating shyResults shyon shya shyRandom shyHalf

At shyeach shyage shya shyrandomly shychosen shysubset shyof shyone shyhalf shyof shythe shytotal shydata shyset shywas shyselected shyand shyana-lyzed shyin shythe shysame shyfashion shyas shythe shytotal shysample shyhad shybeen shyanalyzed shyat shyeach shyage shywith shythe shychoice shyof shyparameters shydictated shyby shythe shychoices shythat shywere shymade shyfor shythe shytotal shysample shyat shyeach shyage

As shymay shybe shyexpected shydue shyto shythe shysmaller shysample shysize shythe shyresidue shyanalysis shyyielded shymore shyresidue shycases shythan shyobtained shywhen shyanalyzing shythe shytotal shysample shySome shyof shythe shyindividuals shywho shybarely shymet shythe shyconditions shyto shybe shyretained shyin shythe shyanalysis shyon shythe shytotal shysample shyappeared shyhere shyin shythe shyresidue shybecause shythe shycases shyto shywhich shythey shywere shymost shysimilar shywere shynot shyselected shyto shybe shyin shythis shysubset shyIn shytotal shyfour shyindividuals shyat shyage shy10 shyappeared shyin shythe shyresidue shyanalysis shyof shywhich shytwo were those found in the analysis of the total sample and five individuals appeared in the shyresidue shyat shyage shy13 shynone shyof shywhom shywere shyfound shyin shythe shytotal shysample

261 Replicating the Cross-sectional Cluster Structure

Using shyCENTROID shyin shySLEIPNER shywe shycompared shythe shyseven-clusters shysolution shyfor shythe shyran-dom shyhalf shywith shythe shyseven-clusters shysolution shyfor shythe shytotal shysample shyat shyage shy10 shyand shywe shycompared shythe shynine-clusters shysolution shyfor shythe shyrandom shyhalf shyat shyage shy13 shywith shythat shyof shythe shytotal shysample shyThe shyASEDs shyassociated shywith shythese shymatches shyranged shyfor shyage shy10 shyfrom shy05 shyto shy369 shywith shya shymean shy

FIG shy913 shyOne shytype shyand shyone shyantitype shynot shyhypothesized shybut shyfound shyin shythe shymatched shyand shycross-tabulated shysolutions

of shy223 shyand shyfor shyage shy13 shythe shyASEDs shyranged shybetween shy035 shyand shy543 shywith shya shymean shyof shy260 shyThis shyrepresents shya shygood shyagreement shybetween shythe shysolutions shyThe shypercentage shyof shyESS shyexplained shyin shythe shynew shyanalysis shywas shy6185 shyfor shythe shyage shy10 shyrandom shyhalf shyand shy7104 shyfor shythe shyage shy13 shyrandom shy


half These percentages can be compared to the corresponding figures for the total samples namely shy6127 shyfor shyage shy10 shyand shy6718 shyfor shyage shy13 shyThe shyresult shyfrom shymultidimensional shyscaling shyanalysis shyusing shythe shyEuclidean shydistance shymodel shyin shySPSS shyis shyshown shyin shyFig shy914 shyThere shythe shycen-troids shyfor shyboth shythe shytotal shysample shyand shythe shyrandom shyhalf shyat shyage shy10 shyare shythe shyscaled shyobjects shyThe shyfigure captures well the intended replication A similar analysis for age 13 is shown in Fig shy915 shyThe shyresults shyof shythese shyanalyses shyshow shythat shythe shyresults shyconcerning shythe shycluster shystructure shyreplicate shywell shyon shya shyrandom shyhalf

262 Replicating the Cross-Sectional Classification With Regard to Individual Cluster Membership

Because shycluster shyanaly shysis shyis shysensitive shyto shysampling shyvariation shya shyrelevant shyquestion shyconcerns shywhether the resulting classification can be generalized to a larger population We now focus the shyinterest shyon shyindividual shyclass shymembership shynot shyon shycluster shycentroids shyas shywere shyjust shydiscussed shyIn shy the shyabsence shyof shydata shy from shythe shy larger shypopulation shywe shyaddressed shy the shyquestion shy indirectly shyInstead shy of shy measuring shy the shy degree shy of shy recovery shy of shy cluster shy structure shy between shy the shy solution shyobtained shyfor shythe shymain shysample shyand shythat shyof shya shylarger shypopulation shywe shyproceeded shyto shymeasure shythe shyagreement shybetween shythe shysolution shyfor shythe shymain shysample shyand shythe shysolution shyobtained shyfor shya shyset shyof shy20 shyrandom shyhalves shyThus shyin shyeach shyanalysis shythe shymain shysample shyplays shythe shyrole shyof shya shypopulation

FIG shy914 shyMultidimensional shyscaling shyof shythe shycentroids shyobtained shyfrom shythe shytotal shysample shy(A3L1-A3L18) shyand shyfrom shya shyrandomly shychosen shyhalf shy(H3L1ndashH3L19) shyat shyage shy10 shyMatched shycentroids shyare shybounded shywith shya shyblack shyline


FIG shy915 shyMultidimensional shyscaling shyof shythe shycentroids shyobtained shyfrom shythe shytotal shysample shy(A6L1ndashA6L25) shyand shyfrom shya shyrandomly shychosen shyhalf shy(H6L1ndashH6L33) shyat shyage shy13 shyMatched shycentroids shyare shybounded shywith shya shyblack shyline

for shywhich shya shyclustering shysolution shy is shyknown shyand shya shy random shyhalf shyplays shy the shy role shyof shya shysample shywhose shysolution shyis shyto shybe shyvalidated shyIt shyis shybelieved shythat shya shymeasure shyobtained shybased shyon shythis shyline shyof reasoning would reflect a conservative approximation of the degree of generalizability of the classification results for the main sample to the real population

At shyeach shyage shythe shyadjusted shyRand shyindex shy(Hubert shyamp shyArabie shy1985) shywas shycomputed shybetween shythe shy solution shy obtained shy for shy the shy main shy sample shy and shy a shy corresponding shy solution shy obtained shy from shya shysimilar shyanalysis shyon shya shyrandom shyhalf shyA shyset shyof shy20 shyrandom shyhalves shywas shydrawn shyfor shyeach shyage shygroup shyand shythe shyindex shywas shycomputed shybetween shyeach shyof shythem shyand shythe shymain shysolution shyThe shyindi-ces shyranged shybetween shy31 shyand shy50 shywith shya shymedian shyof shy37 shyat shyage shy10 shyand shybetween shy37 shyand shy57 shywith shya shymedian shyof shy45 shyat shyage shy13 shyThe shyranges shyand shymedians shyof shythe shyindices shyreported shyhere shycan shybe shyregarded shyas shyfairly shyacceptable shyat shyleast shywith shyregard shyto shyage shy13 shyThe shyseven-clusters shysolution shyat shyage shy10 shywith shya shymoderate shybut shyacceptable shypercentage shyof shyexplained shyESS shymay shyhave shybeen shytoo shyfuzzy shya shysolution shyto shyallow shyfor shygood shyreplications shyon shyreduced shydata shysets

263 Replicating the Linking Over Time

To shy test shy the shy replicability shy of shy the shy longitudinal shy analysis shy of shy types shy and shy antitypes shy presented shyearlier we proceeded as follows We first linked the two clustering solutions (one from age shy10 shyand shyone shy from shyage shy13) shyobtained shy for shy the shy random shyhalf shyusing shyEXACON shyyielding shya shy


shycontingency shytable shysimilar shyto shythat shypresented shyin shyFig shy910 shyNext shyfor shythe shycells shyfor shywhich shytypes shywere shydetermined shyin shythe shyoriginal shyanalysis shybased shyon shythe shywhole shysample shywe shyfound shythe shycorre-sponding shycells shyin shythe shynew shytable shybased shyon shythe shyrandom shyhalf shyThe shycorrespondence shywas shyestab-lished shybased shyon shythe shymatches shythat shywere shydone shybetween shythe shycentroids shyof shythe shytotal shyset shyand shythe shycentroids shyof shythe shyrandom shyhalf shyat shydifferent shyages shyWe shyfound shyfor shythese shyoriginal shyldquotype shycellsrdquo shythat shyin the new analysis of the random half four cells out of seven showed significant types with shyprobabilities shyranging shyfrom shy0001 shyto shy05 shyand shytwo shycells shyshowed shytendencies shywith shyexact shyprobabilities shyof shy08 shyand shy09 shyOnly shyone shycell shycompletely shyfailed shyto shyshow shya shytype shyThree shycells shyout shyof six showed significant antitypes Overall the replicability of the LICUR linking results on shya shyrandom shyhalf shyappears shyto shybe shyfairly shygood

In shysummary shythe shystructure shyof shythe shysolutions shyobtained shyfor shythe shytotal shysample shyseems shyto shyhold shyeven shy when shy a shy random shy subset shy is shy analyzed shyThe shy analyses shy that shy were shy conducted shy to shy link shy the shyresults shyacross shyage shywere shyalso shyshown shyto shybe shyreplicable shyto shya shyreasonable shyextent

There shy is shy of shy course shy a shy multitude shy of shy ways shy for shy conducting shy replication shy and shy validation shy shyanalysis shyFor shya shydiscussion shyof shythese shyissues shythe shyreader shyis shyreferred shyto shychapter shy7

27 shyTesting shythe shyResults shyAgainst shya shyNull shyHypothesis shyof shyNo shyRelationships shyin shythe shyData

It is of some interest to find out whether the obtained cluster solution is of a comparable ldquoqualityrdquo shywith shywhat shycould shybe shyexpected shy to shybe shy found shy in shysimilar shydata shysets shy in shywhich shyall shy the shyrelationships shyhave shybeen shyremoved6 shyIf shythis shyis shythe shycase shythe shyresults shycan shybe shyregarded shyas shyldquounin-terestingrdquo shyin shythe shysense shythat shythey shyare shyonly shywhat shycould shybe shyexpected shyto shyresult shyfrom shyanalyzing shya shyrandom shydata shyset

The shyquality shyof shy the shy structure shy can shybe shy summarized shyby shy some shy index shy (eg shy the shypercentage shyexplained shyESS) shyAnd shyfor shythe shypurpose shyof shycomparison shytwo shytests shywere shyindicated shyin shychapter shy7 shymaking shydifferent shyassumptions

Using shySIMULATE shywe shygenerated shy20 shyrandom shydata shysets shyand shycomputed shyfor shyeach shyone shythe shyrelevant shyindices shyof shythe shyldquoqualityrdquo shyof shythe shycluster shysolution shyAs shyshown shyin shyFig shy916 shyfor shyage shy10 shythe first test is significant for most indices indicating that the quality of the original solu-tion shyis shyhigher shythan shyfor shyany shyof shythe shysolutions shybased shyon shyrandom shydata shyFor shyinstance shythe shypercent shyof shy explained shy variance shy in shy the shy original shy data shy set shy (613 shy ) shy is shy higher shy than shy in shy any shy of shy the shy 20 shyldquoshakenrdquo shysamples shyThe shyt values generated by the second test are also highly significant

The shysame shyprocedure shywas shythen shyapplied shyfor shythe shyage shy13 shydata shyset shyyielding shysimilar shyresults shyThe shyresults shyshow shythat shythe shycluster shystructure shyfound shycannot shybe shyregarded shyas shyoriginating shyfrom shyan shyanalysis shyof shya shyrandom shydata shyset shyin shywhich shythere shyare shyno shyrelationships shybetween shythe shyvariables shyin shythe value profile

6This shyissue shywas shydiscussed shyin shychapter shy7


FIG shy916 shyThe shyresult shyfrom shythe shysimulation shyprocedure shyusing shySIMULATE shyin shySLEIPNER shyThe shyfirst row in the table evaluates the original seven-cluster solution for age 10 The next num-bered shy20 shyrows shyrefers shyto shyevaluating shythe shyseven-cluster shysolution shyfor shy20 shyldquoshakenrdquo shysamples

3 shyANALYZING shyPATTERNS shyOF shySCHOOL shyADJUSTMENT shyWITHIN shyAN shyAGE-INVARIANT shyCLASSIFICATION shySTRUCTURE

31 shyIntroduction

If shythe shyassumption shycan shybe shymade shythat shythe shyvariables shyunder shyinvestigation shydo shynot shydiffer shyin shymeaning shyfrom shyone shypoint shyto shyanother shyand shyif shythe shydevelopmental shyspan shyunder shystudy shyis shyshort shyenough shyto shyallow shyan shyinterspersion shyof shyvalue shypatterns shyacross shythe shytime shyspan shywe shycan shythen shypostulate shythat shya finite number of patterns common to both points in time are sufficient to classify the shypatterns shyindependent shyof shywhich shypoint shyin shytime shythey shybelong shyto shyIn shyother shywords shywe shyassume shythat shy


a common classificatory grid can be used at both points in time We call this approach the ISOA shyapproach shywhich shyhas shybeen shyaddressed shyin shychapter shy6 shyand shymore shythoroughly shydiscussed shyin shyBergman shyand shyEl shyKhouri shy(1999)

In shythe shycontext shyof shy this shystudy shyISOA shyamounts shyto shythe shyfollowing shyFirst shycreate shya shynew shydata shyset that comprises the observed variable profiles regardless of which age they come from Because shyeach shyindividual shyoccurs shytwice shyin shythe shynew shydata shyset shyeach shytime shywith shya shymeasurement shyvector shy from shy a shy different shy time shy point shy the shy elements shy of shy the shy new shy data shy set shy are shy referred shy to shy as shysubindividuals shySecond shyperform shya shypreparatory shyanalysis shyincluding shyimputation shyand shyresidue shyanalysis shyand shyproceed shywith shya shycluster shyanalysis shyon shy the shynew shydata shyset shywith shysubindividuals shyas shythe shyobjects shyThird shyapply shya shyrelevant shyprocedure shyto shychoose shya shysatisfactory shyclustering shysolution shyFourth shycreate shya shynew shydata shyset shywhere shythe shyelements shyare shythe shyindividuals shyand shyfor shyeach shyindi-vidual shythe shymeasurement shyvector shynow shyconsists shyof shytwo shycategorical shyvariables shyreferring shyto shythe shycorresponding two subindividualsrsquo classification status in the obtained solution

32 shyAge-Invariant shyCluster shyStructure

In shymerging shythe shydata shyfrom shyage shy10 shyand shyage shy13 shywe shydemanded shythat shyonly shyindividuals shythat shywere shyrepresented shyin shyboth shydata shysets shybe shypresent shyin shythe shynew shydata shyset shyThe shynew shydata shyset shycomprised shyof shy904 shysubindividuals shywas shysubmitted shyto shya shyresidue shyanalysis shyresulting shyin shyone shyresidue shycase shyThe shynew shydata shyset shyminus shythe shyresidue shywas shythen shyinput shyto shycluster shyanalysis shyusing shyWardrsquos shymethod shyA shynine-clusters shysolution shywas shyselected shywith shya shypercentage shyexplained shyESS shyof shy6471 shysome shyof shythe shycharacteristics shyof shythis shysolution shyare shyshown shyin shyTable shy98 shyThe shyclusters shy(states) shythat shyreplicated shyon shya shyrandom shyhalf shyare shydepicted shygraphically shyin shyFigure shy920 shyand shytheir shynumerical shynames shyin shythe shyfigure are prefixed by ldquoIrdquo


Part shyof shythe shyoutput shyfrom shythe shyISOA shymodule shyin shySLEIPNER shyis shyshown shyin shyFig shy917 shyAs shyshown shyin shythe figure the percentage distributions for each age across the different states (the clusters in shythe shy9-clusters shysolution) shyare shynot shymarkedly shydifferent shybetween shyages shyIn shythis shyrestricted shysense shythere shyis shystructural shystability

TABLE 98The shyNine-Clusters shySolution shyfor shythe shyData shySet shyComprised shyod shySubindividuals shyin shythe shyISOA shyAnalysis

Clu

ster

N

ame

Aggr

essi

on

Mot

or

Rest

less

ness

Tim

idity

Dis

harm

ony

Lack

of

Con

cent

ra-

tion

Low

Sch

ool

Mot

ivat

ion shy

shy M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD N HCI1 shy 34 shy 10 shy 34 shy 99 shy 36 shy 12 shy 34 shy 83 shy 28 shy 98 shy 33 shy 94 shy 115 shy 205 shyI3 shy 39 shy 76 shy 44 shy 70 shy 37 shy 78 shy 40 shy 73 shy 42 shy 59 shy 39 shy 77 shy 157 shy 106 shyI6 shy 19 shy 83 shy 20 shy 93 shy 45 shy 10 shy 21 shy 96 shy 23 shy 10 shy 20 shy 72 shy 83 shy 174 shyI9 shy 36 shy 84 shy 39 shy 67 shy 55 shy 87 shy 42 shy 70 shy 47 shy 95 shy 43 shy 75 shy 90 shy 130 shy


I19 shy 54 shy 12 shy 58 shy 10 shy 40 shy 13 shy 55 shy 98 shy 60 shy 97 shy 56 shy 10 shy 182 shy 245 shyI23 shy 18 shy 12 shy 14 shy 52 shy 24 shy 10 shy 19 shy 11 shy 15 shy 76 shy 16 shy 83 shy 72 shy 183 shyI24 shy 30 shy 89 shy 18 shy 75 shy 59 shy 87 shy 40 shy 11 shy 32 shy 12 shy 38 shy 74 shy 74 shy 184 shyI25 shy 20 shy 88 shy 43 shy 10 shy 18 shy 75 shy 20 shy 79 shy 34 shy 10 shy 26 shy 95 shy 40 shy 175 shyI33 shy 51 shy 98 shy 57 shy 79 shy 20 shy 84 shy 43 shy 11 shy 44 shy 11 shy 39 shy 10 shy 90 shy 203 shy

The shymeans shyand shythe shystandard shydeviations shyof shythe shyvariables shyin shyeach shyclusters shyare shygiven shytogether shywith the homogenity coefficient (Hc) shyand shythe shynumber shyof shysubindividuals shy(N) shyin shythe shycluster shyThe shyexplained shyerror shysum shyof shysquares shyis shy6471 shy

FIG shy917 shyPart shyof shythe shyoutput shyfrom shyISOA shyshowing shythe shypercentages shyof shyindividuals shycharacter-ized shyby shydifferent shytypical shystates shyat shydifferent shyoccasions shyThe shynumbers shyunder shythe shyheading shyState shyare shystate shy(=cluster) shynames shyThey shyare shyreferred shyto shyin shythe shytext shyby shypreceding shyeach shyname shywith shythe shyletter shyldquoIrdquo shyfor shyexample shyState shyI1 shyState shyI3 shyState shyI6 shyand shyso shyforth shyinstead shyof shyState shy1 shyState shy3 shyState shy6 shyand shyso shyforth


For shyconvenience shywe shyrefer shyto shythese shystates shyby shypreceding shythe shyoriginal shyname shythat shyappears shyin shythe shyWard shysolution shyand shyin shyFig shy917 with the prefix I Thus the state called ldquoIrdquo in Figure shy917 shyis shyreferred shyto shyas shyI1 shythe shystate shycalled shy3 shywill shybe shyreferred shyto shyas shyI3 shyand shyso shyon


Now to the issue of individual stability and change If for each individual the specific state (cluster) shyto shywhich shyhe shyor shyshe shybelongs shyat shytime shy1 shyis shycross-tabulated shyagainst shythe shystates shyat shytime shy2 shythen shythe shyresults shycan shybe shyanalyzed shyin shya shycontingency shytable shywith shythe shyhelp shyof shyEXACON shyWe shydo shythis shyand shytest shyfor shytypes shyand shyantitypes shyin shymuch shythe shysame shyway shywe shytested shyindividual shystability shywhen shyapplying shythe shyLICUR shymethodology

The question we first want to answer is if there are any specific states that individuals tend shyto shystay shyin shymore shyfrequently shythan shywould shybe shyexpected shyby shychance shyalone shythat shyis shywhether shyor shynot shy there shy is shy individual shy stability shyWe shyalso shywould shy like shy to shyexplore shy the shy table shy in shy search shyof shymovement between states that cannot be ascribed to chance fluctuations that is typical individual change With regard to the first question it turns out that eight out of nine tested cells shythose shycorresponding shyto shyindividuals shyhaving shythe shysame shytypical shystate shyacross shythe shytwo shyocca-sions show significant types Five of these eight cells do this with probabilities less than 0001 shytwo shycells shywith shyprobabilities shyless shythan shy01 shyand shyone shycell shywith shya shyprobability shyless shythan shy05 shyThat shyis shyeight shyout shyof shynine shystates shyexhibit shyindividual shystability

The one cell that did not show a significant type corresponds to state I1 illustrated in Fig shy918 shyThis shystate shyis shycharacterized shyby shyaverage shylevels shyof shyvalues shyin shyall shythe shyvariables shyand shyit shyis shyvery shysimilar shyto shythe shylargest shyclusters shyin shythe shyLICUR shyanaly shyses shynamely shyA3 shyL1 shyand shyA6L1 shyand shywhose shylinkage shyacross shytime shyactually shyshowed shya shytype shyAn shyinspection shyof shythe shyremaining shyclusters shyin shyFig shy920 shyhowever shyreveals shya shysecond shystate shy13 shywith shysimilar shyshape shyto shyI1 shybut shysomewhat shymore shyelevated shyThe shylargest shymovement shyfrom shystate shyI1 shyactually shyoccurs shyto shy13 shyHowever shyafter shycorrec-tion for mass significance it falls short of being significant

35 shyComparing shyISOA shyStates shyto shyLICUR shyClusters

It shyis shyinstructive shyat shythis shypoint shyto shycompare shythe shyseven shycentroids shyat shyage shy10 shyand shythe shynine shycentroids shyat age 13 which formed the basis for the LICUR study to the nine centroids defining the states in the ISOA analysis Using CENTROID we obtain a good match for the first comparison shywith shya shyrange shyof shyASEDs shybetween shy02 shyand shy388 shyand shya shymean shyof shy278 shyThe shybest shymatching shycentroids shywere shyA3L12 shyand shyI23 shywhich shycorrespond shyto shynot shyhav shying shyany shyproblems shyand shyA3L10 shyand shyI19 shywhich shycorrespond shyto shybeing shyhigh shyon shyall shyproblems shyexcept shytimidity shywhich shywas shyaverage shyAn shyalmost shyperfect shymatch shywas shyalso shyfound shyfor shyA3L17 shyand shyI33 shywhich shyhad shya shysim-ilar shyshape shyto shythat shyof shyI19 shybut shyless shyextreme shythat shyis shyabove shyaverage shyon shymost shyvariables shyexcept shyfor shytimidity shywhich shyhere shywas shylow shyFig shy918 shydepicts shygraphically shythe shyresult shyof shythis shymatching shyprocedure shyfor shythe shyseven shycentroids shyat shyage shy10 shyand shyseven shyout shyof shynine shycentroids shyfound shyin shythe shyISOA shyanalysis


FIG shy918 shyThe shyseven-clusters shysolution shyfrom shyage shy10 shyLICUR shyanalysis shy(A3L1ndashA3L18) shymatched shyto shyseven shyout shyof shynine shyclusters shyin shythe shynine-clusters shysolution shyfrom shyISOA shyanalysis shy(I3 shyand shyI24 shydid shynot shymatch)

A shysimilar shycomparison shyof shythe shynine shystates shyin shyISOA shyto shythe shynine-clusters shysolution shyat shyage shy13 shywas shymade shyThe shyrange shyof shythe shyASEDs shywas shybetween shy082 shyand shy12128 shyFig shy919 shydepicts shygraphi-cally shythe shyresult shyof shythis shymatching shyprocedure shyIt shyshould shybe shynoted shythat shythe shyupper shybound shyon shythe shyASEDs reflects a mismatch due to the fact that the degrees of freedom are reduced as the


matching shyproceeds shysuch shythat shythe shylast shytwo shycentroids shyare shyjust shycoupled shytogether shyas shyleftovers shyHaving shysaid shythat shya shynice shymatching shyappears shyin shythis shyanalysis shyfor shyseven shyout shyof shynine shypairs shyIt shyturns out that in this case the first and the third

FIG shy919 shyThe shyseven shygood shymatches shywhen shythe shynine-cluster shysolution shyfrom shyage shy13 shyis shymatched shyto shythe shynine-cluster shysolution shyfrom shythe shyISOA shyanalysis

match shycorrespond shyto shythe shytwo shyISOA shystates shythat shydid shynot shyappear shyin shythe shyprevious shymatching shyat shyage shy10 shyIn shyother shywords shythe shyseven-clusters shysolution shyat shyage shy10 shydid shynot shyinclude shytwo shystates shy


from shy the shy nine-clusters shy solution shy in shy the shy ISOA shy analysis shy but shy these shy two shy states shy were shy matched shystrongly shyin shythe shycomparison shywith shythe shynine-clusters shysolution shyat shyage shy13 shyThat shythese shystates shywere shynot shyfound at age 10 may reflect a successful fine-tuning of the states in ISOA which takes into consideration information from both ages Notice that one of these states is I3 with a profile corresponding shyto shyaverage shyon shyall shyprob-lems shyand shythe shyother shyis shyI24 shywhich shycorresponds shyto shybeing shyaverage shyon shyall shyvariables shyexcept shymotor restlessness shywhich shyis shylow shyand shytimidity shywhich shyis shyhigh

36 shyExploring shythe shyRemaining shyCells

We shynow shy turn shyback shy to shy the shy ISOA shyanalyses shyproper shy In shysection shy34 shy individual shy stability shywas shystudied shyby shyinvestigating shythose shycells shythat shycorrespond shyto shyindividuals shyhaving shythe shysame shytypical shystate shyat shyboth shyage shy10 shyand shyat shyage shy13 shyExploring shythe shyremaining shycells shyand shyadjusting shyfor shymass shysignificance results in the identification of a significant antitype originating in I19 which is shycharacterized shyas shyaverage shyon shytimidity and high on all other variables Significantly fewer (plt01) shy than shywould shybe shyexpected shychanged shystate shy to shyI24 shywhich shyis shyhigh shyon shy timidity shy low shyon shymotor restlessness shyand shybelow shyaverage shyon shythe shyother shyvariables

In shysummary shythe shyclusters shythat shyemerge shyin shythe shyISOA shyanalysis shyseem shylargely shyto shycoincide shywith shythose shyprovided shyby shythe shyLICUR shymethodology shyLess shystate shymigration shywas shyfound shyin shythe shyISOA shyanalysis than in the LICUR analysis State stability was confirmed for all states except one but shystate shychanges shydid shynot shyoccur shyfrequently


We shyrepeated shythe shyISOA shyanalysis shyfor shya shyrandom shyhalf shyof shythe shyoriginal shydata shyset shyNine shytypical shystates shywere shyextracted shyfor shythe shyrandom shyhalf shyand shythey shywere shymatched shyto shythe shynine shytypical shystates shythat shywere shyfound shyfor shy the shycomplete shydata shyset shyTable shy99 shyshows shy the shyresults shy from shythat shymatch shy in shywhich shy the shytypical shystates shyare shyarranged shyin shyorder shyof shyincreasing shydissimilarity shyas shyindicated shyby shythe shyASEDs shyAs shydepicted shyin shyFig shy920 shygood shymatching shywas shyachieved shyfor shyseven shyout shyof shythe shynine shycentroid shypairs shyinvolved shyAlso shyshown shyin shyTable shy99 shyboth shyfor shythe shycomplete shydata shyset shyand shyfor shythe shyrandom shyhalf shyare shythe shypercentages shyof shyindividuals shyat shyeach shyage shywho shywere shycharacterized shyby shya shycertain shystate shyHowever shypercentages shyin shythe shyseven shycomparable shystates shyvaried shyconsiderably shybetween shythe shycomplete shydata shyset shyand shythe shyrandom shyhalf shyWhen shystate shystability shyfor shythe shyseven shygood shymatches shywas shytested shyfor shytypes shyin shythe random half five showed significant types and one showed a strong tendency

4 shyANALYZING shyALL shyPOSSIBLE shyPATTERNS shyOF shySCHOOL shyADJUSTMENT shyAND shyALL shyPOSSIBLE shyPATTERNS shyOF shyCHANGE

41 shyIntroduction

In a multidimensional space defined by categorical variables we can analyze the frequency of shy occurrence shy of shy certain shy patterns shy relative shy to shy all shy possible shy patterns shy that shy can shy occur shy in shy that shyspace Significantly overrepresented patterns called types shy as shy well shy as shy underrepresented shy shypatterns shy called shy antitypes highlight special relations between the categories that define each of those patterns A type may then be characterized as a ldquosignificant clusterrdquo of similar cases shydensely shyoccupying shythe shyregion shyof shyspace shywhere shythe shycorresponding shypattern shyis shylocated shyIn shycontrast shyantitypes shyindicate shyremarkably shysparsely shypopulated shyregions shyin shythe shymultidimensional shyspace shyTo shyaccomplish shythis shykind shy


TABLE 99The shyPercentages shyof shyIndividuals shyCharacterized shyby shyDifferent shyTypical shyStates shyat shyDifferent shyOccasions shyBoth shyfor shythe shyComplete shyData shySet shyand shyfor shyOne shyRandomly shyChosen shyHalf shySet shy The Complete Data

Set shy A Randomly Chosen Half Set

H1 shy

State Name

Age 10 Age 13 ASED Age 10 Age 13 State Name

13 1681 1796 037 2222 2489 IH4119 1925 2106 090 1156 1333 IH119 843 1131 138 978 800 IH216 996 843 163 1333 1511 IH24

125 487 399 199 844 711 IH23124 885 754 222 1333 933 IH11133 1217 776 561 489 756 IH32

I1 1305 1242 2936 1244 1111 IH8123 642 953 19299 400 356 IH13

shy 100 100 shy 100 100 shy

The shyASEDs shybetween shytypical shystatesrsquo shycentroids shyare shyalso shygiven

of analysis configural frequency analysis (CFA) initiated by Gustaf Lienert can be used as shypreviously shydiscussed shyin shychapter shy5 shy(see shyKrauth shyamp shyLienert shy1982 shyand shyvon shyEye shy1990a shyfor shyoverviews)

The shynotion shyof shya shy type shyin shyCFA shycan shybe shycompared shy in shya shyrestricted shysense shy to shy the shynotion shyof shycluster shyin shycluster shyanalysis shyBoth shythe shytype shyand shythe shycluster shyrepresent shyagglomerations shyof shycases shythat shyhave shyprocedural shydifferences shyin shythe shyway shythey shyare shyformed shyThey shyshare shysome shybut shynot shyall shyof shytheir shycharacteristics7

In shythe shyintended shyanalysis shyfor shyour shydata shyset shywe shywanted shyto shybe shyable shyto shydo shythe shyfollowing shy(a) shyTo shylocate shythe shyldquodenserdquo shypatterns shy(types) shy(b) shyto shylocate shythe shyldquowhite shyspotsrdquo shy(antitypes) shy(c) shyto shylink shythe shyresults shyfrom shy(a) shyand shyfrom shy(b) shylongitudinally shyand shy(d) shyto shyanalyze shychange shyscores shydirectly shyso that typical as well as atypical change patterns can be identified

42 shyCFA shyof shyPatterns shyof shySchool shyAdjustment

We shylooked shyfor shytypes shyand shyantitypes shydirectly shyin shyeach shyage shygroup shyTo shydo shythis shyeach shyvariable shywas shyfirst dichotomized to reflect the presence or absence of a school adjust ment problem After careful consideration it was decided that values between one and five on the original

shy shy shy7For shyinstance shyin shycluster shyanalysis shywe shysimply shycluster shywhat shywe shyobserve shyIn shyCFA shyit shyis shyactually shythe shydiscrepancy shybetween shywhat shywe shyobserve shyand shywhat shywe shyexpect shythat shyis shythe shyfocus shyand shyit shyis shythe shyprobability shyof shysuch shya shydiscrepancy shythat underlies the definition of types and antitypes Also the two notions differ in the way they cover cases In cluster analysis each case belongs to a definite cluster that is the clusters cover all the cases In CFA a limited number shyof shycases shybelong shyto shydifferent shytypes shy(or shyantitypes) shythe shyrest shyare shyneither shytypes shynor shyantitypes


shy

shy

FIG shy920 shyThe shynine-cluster shyISOA shysolution shyfrom shythe shycomplete shydata shyset shymatched shyagainst shythe shynine-cluster shysolution shyfrom shya shyrandomly shyselected shyhalf shyset shyOnly shythe shybest shyseven shymatches shyare shyshown shyhere


scale shyof shyeach shyvariable shywere shyto shybe shycollapsed shyinto shyone shycategory shycategory shyldquo1rdquo shyrepresenting shythe shyabsence shyof shyan shyadjustment shyproblem shyin shythat shyregard shyThe shytwo shyremaining shyvalues shysix shyand shyseven shywere shyto shybe shycollapsed shyto shyanother shycategory shycategory shyldquo2rdquo shyrepresenting shythe shypresence shyof shyan shyadjustment shyproblem shyThus shythe shypattern shy111111 shydenotes shyno shypronounced shyadjustment shyprob-lems shyon shyany shyof shythe shyvariables shywhereas shy112211 shydenotes shyproblems shywith shyregard shyto shytimidity shyand shydisharmony shybut shynot shythe shyrest shyof shythe shyvariables shyand shyso shyon shyThe shynumber shyand shythe shypercentage shyof shyindividuals shyfalling shyinto shyone shyof shythe shytwo shycategories shyfor shyeach shyvariable shyat shyeach shypoint shyin shytime shyare shyshown shyin shyTable shy910

421 Configurations at Age 10

We shyperformed shyCFA shyon shythe shydata shyset shyat shyage shy10 shyusing shythe shyCFA shymodule shyin shySLEIPNER shyTable shy911 shysummarizes shythe shyresults shyfor shythose shypatterns shyfor shywhich shyadjusted shyprobabilities8 shyfell shybelow shy10 (ie significant types and antitypes after correction for the mass significance problem see shychap shy5) shyAdjusting shyalso shy for shy the shy fact shy that shy2 shykinds shyof shy tests shywere shymade shy that shy is shyone shyfortypes shyand shyone shyfor shyantitypes shy13 shypatterns shywere shyfound shyof shywhich shy12 shyhad shyan shyadjusted shyprob-ability shybelow shy05 shyand shyone shypattern shy(121222) shyhad shyan shyadjusted shyprobability shybelow shy1 shyOf shythese shy13 shypatterns shyseven shywere shytypes shyand shysix shywere shyantitypes

TABLE 910The shyFrequency shyand shythe shyPercentage shyof shyIndividuals shyFalling shyInto shyOne shyof shythe shyCategories shy1 shyor shy2 shyfor shyAll shythe shyVariables shyat shyAge shy10 shyand shyat shyAge shy13 shy Absence of Problems 1 Presence of Problems 2 shy N Percent N Percent

Age 10 shyAggression 368 (7146) 147 (2854)Motor shyRestlessness 313 (6078) 202 (3922)Timidity 338 (6563) 177 (34 shy37)Disharmony 352 (6835) 163 (3165)Lack shyof shyConcentration 331 (6427) 184 (3573)Low shySchool shyMotivation 380 (7379) 135 (2621)

Age 13 shyAggression 363 (6722) 177 (3278)Motor shyRestlessness 337 (6241) 203 (3759)Timidity 375 (6844) 165 (3056)Disharmony 370 (6852) 170 (3148)Lack shyof shyConcentration 344 (6370) 196 (3630)Low shySchool shyMotivation 374 (6926) 166 (3074)

8The shyadjusted shyprobabilities shyin shyTable shy911 shyare shygiven shyfor shyonly shyone shykind shyof shytest shy(either shya shytest shyfor shytypes shyor shya shytest shyfor shyantitypes) shyWe shyadjust shyfor shythe shyfact shythat shywe shyare shydoing shytwo shykinds shyof shytests shyby shymultiplying shythe shyprobabilities shyin shyTable shy911 shyby shytwo


shy

TABLE 911Seven shyTypes shyand shySix shyAntitypes shyResulting shyFrom shya shyCFA shyat shyAge shy10

PatternTypeshy

Antitype Observed Expected Chi-SquareBinomial

ProbabilityAdjusted

Probability111111 T 138 4493 19278 0000 0000112111 T 58 2254 5578 0000 0000221221 T 11 244 3007 0000 0029221122 T 9 198 2490 0002 0134121222 T 9 230 1947 0006 0397221222 T 30 87 97643 0000 0000222222 T 13 44 36205 0000 0000122111 AT 1 1387 1194 0000 0007111121 AT 7 2392 1197 0000 0023211121 AT 0 903 903 0001 0070111221 AT 0 1050 1050 0000 0015111112 AT 2 1602 1227 0000 0008121112 AT 0 985 985 0000 0030

The shyorder shyof shythe shyvariables shyin shythe shypatterns shyis shyas shyfollows shyAggression shyMotor shyRestlessness shyTimidity shyDisharmony shyLack shyof shyConcentration shyand shyLack shyof shySchool shyMotivation

The shypattern shydenoting shyproblems shyon shyall shyvariables shy222222 shyand shy the shypattern shydenoting shyno shyproblems shyon shyany shyof shythe shyvariables shy111111 shyboth shyemerged shyas shystrong shytypes shySimilar shypatterns shyin shywhich shythe shystatus shyof shytimidity shyalone shyis shyreversed shy221222 shyand shy112111 shywere shyalso shyrevealed shyas shytypes shyOf shythe shy196 shyindividuals shywho shyexcluding shytimidity shyhad shyno shyproblems shyon shyany shyof shythe shyother shyvariables shy58 shyhad shyadjustment shyproblems shyon shytimidity shyOf shythe shy43 shyindividuals shywho shyexcluding shytimidity shy had shy problems shy on shy all shy the shy remaining shy variables shy only shy 13 shy individuals shy had shy also shy a shy shyproblem shyon shytimidity

Interestingly shyof shy140 shyindividuals shywho shyexcluding shylow school motivation shyhad shyno shyproblems shyonly shytwo shyindividuals shyhad shyproblems shyon shylow school motivation shyThe shycorresponding shypattern shy111112 came out as an antitype Similarly the pattern 111121 which reflected adjustment problems shy only shy on shy lack of concentration shy came shy out shy as shy an shy antitype shy Of shy 145 shy individuals shywho shyexcluding shylack of concentration shyhad shyno shyproblems shyonly shyseven shywere shyhigh shyon shylack of concentration

No shyindividuals shyhad shyproblems shyon shyonly shyaggression shyand shylack of concentration shy211121 shyor shyon shyonly shydisharmony shyand shylack of concentration shy111221 shyor shyon shyonly shymotor restlessness shyand shylow school motivation shy121112 shyOnly shyone shyindividual shyhad shya shyjoint shyproblem shyon shytimidity shyand shymotor restlessness shy122111 shyAll shyof shythese shypatterns shycame shyout shyas shyantitypes

Timidity was low in five of the seven emerging types and high in the pattern denoting adjustment shyproblems shyon shyall shythe shyother shyvariables shyand shyhigh shyin shythe shypattern shydenoting shyno shyadjustment shy


problems shyon shyall shythe shyother shyvariables shyBut shymotor restlessness shyand shylack of concentration shywere shyhigh in concert in five of the emerging types and low in concert in two

Multiproblems shy except shy for shy timidity shy and shy low school motivation shy that shy is shy 221221 shy came shyout shyas shya shytype shyas shywell shyas shymultiproblems shyexcept shyfor shytimidity shyand shydisharmony shy221122 shyand shy shymultiproblems shyexcept shyfor shytimidity shyand shyaggression shy121222 shywhich shyalso shycame shyout shyas shytypes


The shyresult shyfrom shyCFA shyon shythe shydata shyset shyat shyage shy13 shyis shysummarized shyin shyTable shy912 shyOnly shythe shypatterns shyfor shywhich shyadjusted shyprobabilities9 shywere shybelow shy10 shyare shyshown shyIn shyall shy13 shypatterns shywere shyfound shyof which five were types and eight were antitypes Of these 13 patterns 12 patterns have an adjusted shyprobability shybelow shy05 shyand shyone shypattern shy111211 shyhas shya shyprobability shybelow shy1

All the types identified in this analysis matched types that emerged at age 10 Similar to the shyresults shyshown shyfor shyage shy10 shythe shypattern shydenoting shyproblems shyon shyall shyvariables shy222222 shyand shythe shypattern shydenoting shyno shyproblems shyon shyany shyof shythe shyvariables shy111111 shyboth shyemerged shyas shytypes shyIn shyaddition shywhen shythe shystatus shyof shytimidity shyalone shyis shyreversed shyboth shypatterns shy221222 shyand shy112111 shyalso shyemerged shyas shytypes shyAnother shypattern shydenoting shymultiproblems shyon shyall shyvariables shyexcept shyfor shytimidity shyand shydisharmony shy221122 shyalso shyemerged shyas shya shytype

Four shyof shythe shyantitypes shythat shyemerged shyat shyage shy10 shyreemerged shyat shyage shy13 shyOnly shyone shyindividual shyhad shyproblems shyon shyonly shydisharmony shyand shylack of concentration shy111221 shyand shynone shyon shyonly shymotor restlessness shy and shy low school motivation shy 121112 shyOnly shyone shy individual shy had shy a shy joint shyproblem shyon shytimidity shyand shymotor restlessness shy122111 shyFour shyindividuals shyhad shyproblems shyonly shyon shylack of concentration

No shyindividuals shywere shyfound shyhaving shyproblems shyonly shyon shylow school motivation shyand shyeither shyof shy aggression shy or shy disharmony shy the shy corresponding shy antitype shy patterns shy being shy 211112 shy and shy111212 shyrespectively shyOnly shyone shyindividual shyhad shyproblems shyon shymotor restlessness shyand shydishar-mony shy121211 shyand shyone shyindividual shyhad shyproblems shyon shylack of concentration shyand shylow school motivation shy111122

43 shyDevelopmental shyTypes shyand shyAntitypes

The shymajority shyof shythe shypatterns shythat shyemerged shyat shyage shy10 shyas shytypes shyor shyantitypes shyre-emerged shyat shyage shy13 also as types or antitypes As discussed in 422 all the five types emerging at age 13 had also shybeen shyfound shyas shytypes shyat shyage shy10 shyand shyfour shyof shythe shyeight shyantitypes shyat shyage shy13 shyhad shyalso shybeen shyfound shyat shyage shy10 shyIn shyall shythis shyresult shyindicates shygood shystructural shystability shyin shythe shydata

To shystudy shyindividual shystability shywe shylinked shyresulting shytypes shyat shyage shy10 shyand shythe shyresulting shytypes shyat shyage shy13 shyby shyway shyof shya shytwo-way shycontingency shytable shyusing shyEXACON shyThe shycommon shypatterns shywere included along with the five remaining nonshared patterns at age 10 and four non-shared shypatterns shyat shyage shy13 shyThe shyrest shyof shythe shypatterns shyat shyeach shyage shywere shymerged shyinto shyone shyother shycategory



TABLE 912Five shyTypes shyand shyEight shyAntitypes shyResulting shyFrom shya shyCFA shyat shyAge shy13

PatternTypeshy

Antitype Observed ExpectedChi-

SquareBinomial

ProbabilityAdjusted

Probability111111 T 123 3648 20522 0000 0000112111 T 62 1670 12289 0000 0000221122 T 21 329 9515 0000 0000221222 T 45 151 125417 0000 0000222222 T 16 69 33947 0000 0000122111 AT 1 1077 886 0002 0143121211 AT 1 1077 886 0002 0143111121 AT 4 2202 1474 0000 0001111221 AT 1 1008 818 0004 0271211112 AT 0 847 847 0002 0124121112 AT 0 1099 1099 0000 0009111212 AT 0 780 780 0004 0244111122 AT 1 1029 839 0003 0223


Because shythe shypatterns shycorresponding shyto shyantitypes shyare shysometimes shyempty shythe shyresulting shytable shyhad shy11 shyrows shyand shy11 shycolumns shycorresponding shyto shy11 shypatterns shyat shyage shy10 shyand shy11 shypatterns shyat shyage shy13 shyIn shythe shyfollowing shywe shyare shyonly shyinterested shyin shythe shydevelopmental shytypes shythat shyemerged shySeven shynonempty patterns common to both ages were represented in the table five of which were ty shypes shy111111 shy112111 shy221122 shy221222 shyand shy222222 shyThe shycorresponding shycells shywere shytested shyfor individual stability and the results showing significant stability are presented in Fig shy921 Four individual stabilities were significant The one type that didnrsquot show individual stability shywas shy221122 shyIn shythis shycase shyno shyindividual shyhaving shythis shypattern shyat shyage shy10 shyhad shythe shysame shypattern shyat shyage shy13

44 shyAnalyzing shyAll shyPatterns shyof shyChange

We shyalso shyanalyzed shychange shypatterns shyobtained shyby shycreating shyfor shyeach shyindividual shya shychange shypat-tern shy comprised shy of shy six shy new shy change shy variables shy each shy corresponding shy to shy one shy of shy the shy original shyvariables shyThus shyfor shythe shyaggression shyvariable shythe shycorresponding shychange shyvariable shychange in aggression shycould shybe shycoded shyas shyhaving shyone shyof shythree shypossible shyvalues shy1 shy2 shyor shy3 shydepending shyon whether for a specific individual his or her value on aggression shyincreased shyremained shythe shysame shyor shydecreased shyfrom shyage shy10 shyto shyage shy13 shyThe shysame shyapplied shyfor shythe shyremaining shychange shyvariableschange in motor restlessness change in timidity change in disharmony change in lack of concentration shyand shychange in low school motivation shyFor shyexample shythe shychange shypattern shyldquo331233rdquo shydenotes shyan shyincrease shyin shythe shytimidity shyvariable shyfrom shyage shy10 shyto shyage shy13 shyno shychange shyin shythe shydisharmony shyvariable shyand shydecrease shyin shyall shythe shyremaining shyvariables


shy

FIG shy921 shyLongitudinal shystreams shyof shyindividuals shybetween shyestablished shytypes shyat shyage shy10 shy(seven shytypes) and at age 13 (five types) Solid arrows depict frequencies significantly higher than shywould shybe shyexpected shyby shychance shyalone shyFigures shyattached shyto shyarrows shyindicate shyhow shymany shymore shytimes shythe shymovement shywas shyobserved shyas shycompared shyto shywhat shywould shybe shyexpected shyfrom shychance shyalone shyAn shyexact shy1-tailed shyhypergeometric shytest shywas shyused shyplt01 shyplt001 shyand shyplt0001

The shyresults10 shyfrom shya shyCFA shyon shythe shydata shyset shycreated shyin shythis shyway shyare shysummarized shyin shyTable shy913 shyAll shyof shy the shypatterns shydepicted shyare shydevelopmental shy types shyand shy they shy show shy for shyall shyof shy the shy shyvariables shyexcept shyTimidity shyeither shyan shyincrease shyfrom shyage shy10 shyto shyage shy13 shyor shya shydecrease

10In shythese shyanalyses shythe shyantitypes shywere shynot shystudied


TABLE 913Six shyDevelopmental shyTypes shyResulting shyFrom shya shyCFA shyof shyChange shyPatterns shyFrom shyAge shy10 shyto shyAge shy13

Pat-tern

Observed Expected Chi-Square Binomial Probobility Adjusted Probability

111111 19 125 25248 0000 0000112111 7 82 4674 0000 0167113111 12 115 10184 0000 0000331333 10 63 13957 0000 0000332333 6 41 7575 0000 0034333333 7 58 7075 0000 0019

This shyis shya shysurprisingly shyclear-cut shyresult shydemonstrating shythe shydevelopmental shycoherence shyof shygen-eralized shymaladjustment shywith shythe shyexception shyof shytimidity shywhich shystands shyout shyon shyits shyown

5 shySUMMARY shyAND shyDISCUSSION shyOF shyEMPIRICAL shyFINDINGS

51 Summary of the Results of the Cross-Sectional Classification Analysis shyWith shyLinking

In shy this shychapter shy results shyconcerning shystability shyand shychange shy in shypatterns shyof shyschool shyadjustment shywere shypresented shyA shyvariety shyof shyperson-oriented shymethods shywere shyused shyLICUR shyISOA shyand shyCFA shyThe significance of the results was tested against a model of no relationships and a random half shyof shythe shydata shyset shywas shyanalyzed shyin shythe shysame shymanner shyas shythe shycomplete shydata shyset shyto shyprovide shyindication shyof shythe shysensitivity shyof shythe shyresults shyto shysampling shyvariation shyThis shywas shyconducted shyboth shywith regard to the cluster centroids and with regard to the complete classification (ie individual shyclass shymemberships) shyas shywell shyas shywith shyregard shyto shydevelopmental shytypes shyNot shysurpris-ingly shythe shyresults shyindicate shythat shyindividual shyclass shymembership shyis shymore shysensitive shyto shysampling shyvariation shythan shycluster shycentroids

Broadly shyspeaking shyconsistent shyresults shywere shyobtained shythat shyprovide shysome shysupport shyfor shythe shygener-alizability shyof shythe shyresults shyover shythe shymethod-sample shyspace shystudied shyhere shyThis shyis shyclearer shyfor shycluster shystructure shythan shyfor shyindividual shyclass shymembership shyConsidering shythe shylong shytime shyperiod shybetween shythe shytwo shymeasurements shy(3 shyyears) shyit shyseems shyreasonable shyto shybegin shyby shypresenting shyan shyoverview shyof shythe shyresults shyfrom shythe shyLICUR shymethod shywhich shyitself shyis shyalso shyapplicable shyin shysituations shywhen shyfundamental shystructural shychanges shyhave shytaken shyplace shybetween shythe shymeasurement shyoccasions shyHowever shyas shywas shyalready shypointed shyout shysimilar shyresults shywere shyobtained shyusing shythe shyISOA shymethod shyin shywhich shyone shyis shyrequired shyto shymake shystronger shyassumptions shyabout shystructural shyinvariance shyThe shyresults shyof shythe shyLICUR shyanalyses shyare shysummarized shyverbally shyin shyFig shy922 shy(based shyon shyFig shy911)t

As shyshown shyin shyFig shy922 shythere shyare shyseven shytypical shypatterns shythat shydescribe shyschool shyadjustment shyat shyage shy10 shyThree shyof shythese shyindicate shyan shyalmost shygeneralized shypattern shyof shygood shyadjustment shywith shythe shyexception shythat shyfor shyone shyof shythem shytimidity shyis shyhigh shySimilar shyclusters shyto shythese shythree shywere shyalso shyfound shyat shyage shy13 shyThe shytypical shypattern shywith shytruly shygeneralized shygood shyadjustment shy(A3L12A6L14) shyand shythe shytypical shypattern shywith shygeneralized shygood shyadjustment shyexcept shyfor shyhigh shytimidity shy(A3L18A6L3) both show significant individual stability Two typical patterns indicate


FIG shy922 shyVerbal shysummary shyof shythe shyresults shyof shythe shycross-sectional shycluster shyanalyses shyfollowed shyby linking Arrows between clusters indicate significant developmental streams The per-centages shyindicate shythe shycluster shysize shyrelative shyto shythe shytotal shysample shysize

average adjustment at both age 10 and age 13 of which only one shows a significant shyindividual shystability shy(A3L1A6L1) shyThe shyother shyone shycharacterized shyby shylow shyin shytimidity shy(A3L17) shyshows significant individual change into a typical pattern characterized by generalized bad


adjustment shywith shythe shyexception shythat shytimidity shyis shybelow shyaverage shy(A6L10) shyThere shyis shyone shytypi-cal shypattern shyat shy age shy10 shywhich shy is shy characterized shyby shyvery shybad shyadjustment shyon shyall shydimensions shyexcept shytimidity shywhich shyis shynormal shy(A3L10) shyJudging shyby shythe shyindividual shystability shyand shychange shyobserved shyit shycan shybe shydepicted shyas shyevolving shyinto shytwo shydifferent shytypical shypatterns shyat shyage shy13 shyboth shycharacterized shyby shygeneralized shymaladjustment shyexcept shythat shyin shyone shyof shythem shytimidity shyis shybelow shyaverage shy(A6L10) shywhereas shyin shythe shyother shypattern shytimidity shyand shyaggression shyare shyin shythe shynormal shyrange shy(A6L13) shyFinally shythere shyis shya shytypical shypattern shyin shywhich shyadjustment shyis shynot shygood shyon shyany shydimension shyand shytimidity shyis shyhigh shy(A3L5) shyIt shycan shybe shydescribed shyas shyevolving shyinto shya shycluster shyat shyage shy13 shycharacterized shyby shyimproved shyadjustment shywhich shyis shynow shyabout shyaverage shyexcept shyfor shytimidity shywhich shyis shyvery shyhigh shy(A6L11)

The shy amount shy of shy information shy contained shy in shy the shy results shy from shy the shy type shy of shy analysis shy just shy shysummarized shy is shy enormous shy and shy by shy necessity shy an shy overview shy like shy the shy one shy given shy must shy be shy superficial We now turn to more detailed discussions of a variety of aspects


There shyis shyconsiderable shystructural shystability shy in shy typical shypatterns shyof shyschool shyadjustment shyThe shyonly shyexceptions shyare shythat shyone shyof shythe shytwo shytypical shypatterns shyfound shyat shyage shy10 shyindicating shybad shyadjustment shycan shybe shydepicted shyas shydifferentiating shyinto shytwo shyldquospecializedrdquo shytypical shypatterns shyat shyage shy13 shyeach shywith shydifferent shylevels shyof shytimidity shyas shywell shyas shygeneral shylevel shydifference shyin shythe shydegree shyof shybad shyadjustment shyThe shyother shyexception shyis shythat shythe shyother shypattern shyindicating shybad shyadjustment shyand shyhigh shytimidity shycan shybe shydepicted shyas shyevolving shyinto shya shypattern shyin shywhich shybad shyadjustment shyis shynow shymoderated shybut shytimidity shyis shyvery shyhigh shyExcept shyfor shytimidity shywhich shysometimes shyexhibits shylarge shydifferences shywith shythe shyother shydimensions in a typical profile the clusters are usually not very uneven and the values on the different shydimensions shystay shylargely shywithin shythe shyldquogoodrdquo shyor shyldquobadrdquo shyadjustment shyregion shyThese shytypical shypatterns shyof shygood shyand shybad shyadjustment shywarrant shyseparate shydiscussions shywhich shyare shynow shyprovided

In shy accordance shy with shy the shy problem shy gravitation shy hypothesis shy discussed shy by shy Bergman shy and shy shyMagnusson shy(1997) shywe shysee shyhere shythat shythe shypercentage shyof shyboys shycharacterized shyby shypatterns shyindi-cating shyaverage shyadjustment shyhas shydiminished shy(from shy415 shyto shy342) shyand shycorrespondingly shythe shypercentage shyof shyboys shycharacterized shyby shypatterns shyindicating shygood shyor shybad shyadjustment shyhas shyincreased shyThe shymain shyidea shyof shythis shyhypothesis shywhich shywas shyfor-mulated shywithin shythe shyarea shyof shyadjustment shyprob-lems shyis shythat shyfrom shya shydynamic shysystems shyperspective shyit shyis shyexpected shythat shymaladjustment shyin shyisolated shydimensions shy(partly shycorresponding shyto shyldquoaveragerdquo shyadjustment) shyis shyan shyunstable shyphenomenon shywhich shywill shyoften shyevolve shyinto shyeither shya shytotal shyabsence shyof shyadjustment shyproblems shyor shyinto shygeneralized shyadjust-ment shyproblems shyThis shyhypothesis shyhas shyfound shysome shysupport shyalso shywithin shyother shyareas shy(see shyeg shyRoumlnkauml shyand shyPulkkinen shy1995 shyon shyldquoproblem shyaccumulationrdquo shyand shyStattin shyand shyMagnussoru shy1996 shyon evidence of problem gravitation when studying antisocial development) Here we find only shya shytendency shyof shythe shyoccurrence shyof shythis shyphenomenon shybut shythis shymight shydepend shyon shythe shyfact shythat shythe shywhole shyadjustment shyspectrum shywas shystudied shynot shyonly shythe shynegative shyside shyFocusing shyjust shyon shybad shyadjustment shywe shysee shythe shystrongest shystructural shychange shyin shythe shydirection shyof shythe shyhypothesis


As shyshown shyin shyFig shy922 there are four typical patterns at age 10 which exhibit significant indi-vidual shystability shytwo shycharacterized shyby shybroadly shyspeaking shygood shyadjustment shyone shyby shyaverage shyadjustment and one by bad adjustment There are three significant movements or changes


(1) shyone shyfrom shyaverage shyadjustment shyto shybad shyadjustment shyexcept shyfor shytimidity shywhich shyis shylow shyat shyboth shyoccasions shy(2) shyone shybetween shyfairly shysimilar shyclusters shywithin shythe shyvery shybad shyadjustment shyregion shyand shy(3) shyone shyfor shythose shywho shyremain shyhigh shyin shytimidity shybut shyoverall shyadjustment shyimproves shyThe shyfour shystable streams also appear in the CFA analysis The following significant developmental types were found with the same value configuration at both time points No problems at all all shyproblems shyexcept shytimidity timidity shyas shythe shyonly shyproblem shyand shyall shyproblems shyIt shyis shyinteresting shyto shynote shythat shythe shythree shyage shy10 shyclusters shythat shydid shynot shyexhibit shyindividual shystability shywere shyalso shythe shythree shyclusters shythat shyhad shythe shyworst shymatches shyto shythe shyage shy13 shyclusters shythat shyis shythey shywere shythe shytypical shypatterns shythat shywere shythe shyleast shystructurally shystable

54 shySyndromes shyof shyBad shySchool shyAdjustment

At age 10 two syndromes with generalized bad adjustment emerged The first one could be described shyas shyhaving shypronounced shyconduct shyproblems shyand shydisharmony shybut shybeing shywithin shythe shynormal shyrange shywith shyregard shyto shytimidity (A3L10) This cluster is related to two typical profiles at age 13 both with regard to structure and with regard to individual streams specifically (a) shya shycluster shycontaining shychildren shywith shyindications shyof shyconduct shyproblems shyand shydisharmony shybut shybeing shybelow shyaverage shywith shyregard shyto shytimidity shy(A6L10) shyand shy(b) shya shycluster shycharacterized shyby shychildren shywith shypronounced shyconduct shyproblems shybut shyin shythe shynormal shyrange shywith shyregard shyto shytimidity shyand shyaggression shy(A6L13)

The shytimidity shydimension shyis shyrather shylike shythe shyinhibition-uninhibition shydimension shyas shydiscussed shyby shyKagan shy(1994) shyHe shyalso shyproposed shythat shyinhibition shymight shyfunction shyas shya shyprotection shyagainst shyexternalizing shyproblems shybecause shyinhibited shychildren shywould shybe shyprone shyto shyshow shymore shyguilt shyand shyanxiety shywhen shybreaking shyagainst shythe shyrules shyof shysociety shy(cf shyalso shyAchenbach shy1995) shyFrom shythis shystandpoint shythe shyresults shyjust shydiscussed shycan shybe shyre-garded shyas shya shyconsequence shyof shythe shyfact shythat shya shytrait shyof shyldquouninhibitionrdquo shyprovides shyno shyprotection shyin shythe shycontext shyof shyunfavorable shycircumstances shyand shydispositions shyresulting shyin shygeneralized shyexternalizing shyadjustment shyproblems shyIt shyshould shybe shynoted shythat shythose shywho shyare shyhigh shyin shytimidity shynever shydeveloped shysevere shyadjustment shyproblems shyat shyage shy13 shyas shydiscussed shyin shythe shynext shyparagraph

The shyother shysyndrome shywith shybelow-average shyadjustment shyat shyage shy10 shy(A3L5) shyshows shyindications shyof shyconduct shyproblems shyand shydisharmony shyand shyis shyfairly shyhigh shyin shytimidity shyIt shyrelates shyto shyone shytypical shyprofile at age 13 specifically the one cluster in which the adjustment is normal but timidity shyis shyvery shyhigh shy(A6L11) shyAgain shythe shyresults shyprovide shysome shysupport shyfor shythe shyincompatibility shyof shyinhibition shywith shygeneralized shyexternalizing shyproblems shyof shythe shytype shystudied shyhere shyThis shyis shyconsis-tent with the finding that the significant developmental stream from average adjustment to bad shyadjustment shyconcerns shya shycluster shythat shyis shylow shyin shytimidity shy(A3L17)

A shyslightly shydifferent shyview shyof shythe shyspecial shyrole shyof shytimidity shywas shyobtained shyby shyanalyzing shythe shyfrequency shy of shy the shy different shy possible shy maximum shy and shy minimum shy combinations shy of shy the shy pro-files following the earlier described MAMIN rationale (see chap shy3) shyBecause shy the shyvari-ables shyare shynot shycontinuous shythere shyare shyties shythat shyfor shya shygiven shyindividual shycan shylead shyto shymore shythan shyone shymaximum-minimum shycombination shyWe shychose shyto shycount shyall shycombinations shyAs shysuch shythe shyresults of the significance tests must be interpreted with caution The following maximum-minimum combinations emerged most frequently at both ages and were significant types (plt05 shy after shy Bonferroni shy correction) shy timidity shy minimum shy and shy either shy motor restlessness shy or shylack of concentration shymaximum shyand shytimidity shymaximum shyand shymotor restlessness shyor shyaggres-sion minimum Thus it seems that there is a strong profile form contrast between timidity shy


on shyone shyhand shyand shymotor restlessness lack of concentration shyand shyaggression shyon shy the shyother shyhand shyThese shyresults shyare shyconsistent shywith shythose shyreported shyand shyalso shysupport shyan shyinterpretation shyof shya shypossible shydisjunctive shyrelation shybetween shythe shyinhibition shydimension shyand shyconduct shyproblems shyPlease shynote shythat shyalthough shywe shytalk shyhere shyabout shypairs shyof shyvariables shyit shyis shystill shyin shythe shycontext shyof shythe whole profile The product moment correlations between these variables do not reveal this shysubtle shyinformation shyas shywitnessed shyby shythe shyfact shythat shythey shyare shylow shyand shyeven shyslightly shypositive shybetween shytimidity shyand shylack of concentration

The shyresults shyjust shydiscussed shysuggest shythe shypossibility shythat shyinhibition shyin shyboys shyserves shya shyprotective shyrole shyagainst shy the shydevelopment shyof shygeneralized shyexternalizing shyschool shyadjustment shyproblems shyIn the profile studied here two indicators of what is usually described as internalizing shyproblems shy were shy used shy timidity shy (which shy just shy has shy been shy discussed) shy and shy disharmony shy It shy is shy shyinteresting shyto shynote shythat shydisharmony shyemerges shyas shya shycomponent shyin shythe shyexternalizing shyproblem shysyndrome shyand shydoes shynot shyappear shytogether shywith shytimidity shyany shymore shythan shydo shyconduct shyproblems shyHowever it should be pointed out that although the first criterion for being coded as high in shydisharmony is unhappiness the definition also includes that ldquothey are often in restrained or in open conflict with their surroundings or themselvesrdquo For the subgroup of children with shydisharmony shywhere shythe shysecond shycriterion shyapplies shywe shywould shyexpect shya shyrelation shyto shysevere shyconduct problems which tend to lead to conflicts with others

With shyregard shy to shy the shy internalizing-externalizing shyproblem shydistinction shywe shysee shya shycomplex shy shypicture shyemerging shyFor shythe shylimited shyset shyof shyindicators shystudied shyhere shywe shysee shyevidence shythat shyone shyindicator shy of shy internalizing shy problems shy (ie shy disharmony shy or shy unhappiness) shy tends shy to shy appear shytogether shy with shy conduct shy problems shy consistent shy with shy the shy theory shy of shy multiple shy dysfunction shy(Zoccolillo shy 1992) shy whereas shy the shy other shy indicator shy of shy internalizing shy problems shy (ie shy timidity) shyrelates shyto shyconduct shyproblems shyin shya shytotally shydifferent shyway shyin shythe shyindividual shyvalue shypatterns

The shy results shy reported shyhere shy indicate shy that shy severe shy externalizing shyproblems shyof shy the shy type shywe shystudied shyappear shytogether shyto shythe shyextent shythat shy it shy is shyalmost shymeaningless shyto shytalk shyabout shythem shyas shyisolated problems In fact the CFA analysis not only supports the typical profiles discussed here shybut shyalso shypoints shyto shysingle shyexternalizing shyproblems shybeing shyantitypes shyoccurring shymore shyrarely shythan shyunder shy a shymodel shy of shy independence shyThe shyCFA shychange shy analysis shy also shy shows shy that shy all shy the shyproblems shystudied shyexcept shytimidity shyhave shya shystrong shytendency shyto shychange shyin shythe shysame shyway shythey shyall shyincrease shyor shyall shydecrease shysupporting shythe shypreviously shydiscussed shyphenomenon shyof shyproblem shygravitation shyBecause shygood shyadjustment shy is shyalso shy included shy in shy the shyanalyses shy the shyphenomenon shycould shyinstead shybe shycoined shyhere shyas shypolarization

Naturally one must be very careful not to generalize these findings beyond the realm of school shyadjustment shyThere shyare shyalso shyof shycourse shyimportant shyaspects shyof shythe shyinternalizing-externalizing shydomains shythat shyhave shynot shybeen shystudied shyhere shy(like shydepression shyand shypeer shyrelations) shyFor shya shydiscussion shyof shy this shy issue shyfrom shya shypattern shyperspective shy the shyreader shy is shy referred shy to shyBergman shyand shyMagnusson shy(1991) shywho shystudied shythe shysame shysample shyof shyboys shystudied shyhere shyin shyother shyrespects shyfocusing shyon shypat-terns shyof shybad shyadjustment shyand shyto shyWaringngby shyBergman shyand shyMagnusson shy(1999) shywho shystudied shygirlsrsquo shyinternalizing shyand shyexternalizing shyproblems shyfrom shya shydevelopmental shyperspective

So shyfar shythe shyprimary shyfocus shyhas shybeen shyon shyone shyof shythe shytwo shyindicators shyof shyinternalizing shyproblems shytimidity shyin shyrelation shyto shyexternalizing shyproblems shyHowever shythe shyother shyindicator shyof shyinternalizing shyproblems shydisharmony shyis shyhighly shyinteresting shyas shyit shycan shybe shyregarded shyas shyan shyindicator shyof shythe shygeneral shywell-being shyof shythe shychild shyin shythe shyschool shyenvironment shyWe shyhave shyseen shypreviously shythat shya shyhigh shylevel shyof shydisharmony shytends shyto shybe shylinked shystrongly shyto shygeneralized shyexternalizing shyadjustment shyproblems


We shypropose shythat shydisharmony shycan shybe shyregarded shyas shythe shychildrsquos shyexperience shyof shythe shyoutcome shyof shyhis shyor shyher shyadjustment shyprocess shyHence shywe shyexpect shythe shystrong shycoupling shyindicated shyearlier shyDis-harmony shyis shyseen shyas shya shynecessary shyconsequence shyof shythe shyother shyproblems shyIt shyis shyexpected shyto shybe shyvery shyrare shywith shyboys shyhaving shygeneralized shyconduct shyproblems shybut shy feeling shycontent shy in shy school shy (ie shybeing shylow shyin shydisharmony) shyBut shywe shygo shyeven shyfurther shyWe shywould shyalso shyexpect shythat shyit shyis shyalmost shyimpossible shyfor shya shychild shywho shyhas shytruly shygeneralized shygood shyadjustment shyto shybe shyhigh shyin shydisharmony shyHence shywe shyexpect shyvalue shycombinations shyindicative shyof shythis shyphenomenon shyto shybe shyrare shyor shyldquowhite shyspotsrdquo shyin shythe shyterminology shyintroduced shyin shychapter shy3 shyTo shytest shythese shyhypotheses shywe shyused shythe shyRESIDAN shymethodology shydescribed shyearlier shyand shyinvestigated shywhether shythe shypatterns shy666266 shyand 222622 were ldquooddrdquo To do this we identified the dissimilarity value thresholds that as shyclosely shyas shypossible shysplit shythe shydata shyset shyinto shythe shy5 shymost shydeviant shycases shyand shythe shyrest shyThis shythreshold shyvalue shyis shy67 shyfor shyboth shyages shyand shyit shyprovided shyresidues shyof shy4 shyand shy37 shyat shyage shy10 shyand shy13 shyrespectively shyWe shythen shyadded shythe shypattern shy222622 shyto shythe shydata shyset shyexclusive shyof shythe shyresidue shyand shynoted shyif shyit shycame shyout shyin shythe shyresidue shyWe shythen shyrepeated shythis shylast shystep shyfor shypattern shy666266 shyAt shyboth shyages shypattern shy222622 shycame shyout shyin shythe shyresidue shyas shyexpected shybut shyonly shyat shyage shy13 shydid shythe shypattern shy666266 shycome shyout shyin shythe shyresidue shyTo shysupport shythe shynotion shythat shyit shyis shythe shycontrast shybetween shydisharmony shyand shythe shyothers shythat shyis shythe shycrucial shycomponent shywe shyalso shytested shyin shythe shysame shyway shythe shypatterns shy666466 shyand shy222422 shyboth shyof shywhich shyare shysimilar shyto shythe shytwo shypatterns shyoriginally shytested shybut shywith shya shysmaller shycontrast shybetween shydisharmony shyand shythe shyother shyvariables shyin shythe shypat-terns shyWe shyexpected shythat shythey shywould shynot shycome shyout shyin shythe shyresidue shyThese shyhypotheses shywere shyconfirmed for both ages

Although shythe shyinformation shyprovided shyby shythese shysimple shytests shyshould shynot shybe shyoverestimated shythey shygive shysome shysupport shyto shyan shyinterpretation shyof shydisharmony shyas shya shyconsequence shyof shythe shychildrsquos shygeneral shy adjustment shy situation shy Of shy course shy the shy causality shy could shy be shy bidirectional shy what shy the shyresults shyjust shydiscussed shyshow shyis shythat shythe shycoupling shybetween shydisharmony shyand shythe shyother shyfactors shyis shyessential

55 shyTypical shyPatterns shyof shyGood shyAdjustment

In shythe shybeginning shyof shythis shychapter shywe shypointed shyout shythat shybroadly shyspeaking shyconsiderably shyless shyattention shyhas shybeen shygiven shy to shy studying shygood shyadjustment shy than shy to shy studying shybad shyadjustment shyFurthermore shywhen shygood shyadjustment shyis shystudied shyit shyis shyoften shyoperationalized shyas shythe shyldquoabsence shyof shybad shyadjustmentrdquo shywhich shycan shybe shya shyproblematic shyapproach shy(see shyeg shyJahoda shy1958) shyHere shywe shyhave shy the shyadvantage shyof shyhaving shyeach shy indicator shymeasuring shy the shyfull shy range shyof shyadjustment shyfrom shybad shyto shygood shyFor shysome shyindicators shythis shyadvantage shyis shybought shyat shythe shyprice shyof shya shypossible shybipolarity shy(different shyends shyof shythe shyscale shymay shynot shyfully shymeasure shyalong shythe shysame shydimension) shyThis shyissue shyis shydiscussed shyin shythe shynext shysection shyThere shyseems shyto shybe shya shydearth shyof shystudies shyfocusing shyon shypatterns shyof shygood shyschool shyadjustment shyand shywe shyhave shytreated shyour shyresults shyhere shyfrom shythe shystand-point of reporting briefly of a terra incognita

The first observation we want to make is that with the exception of timidity shygood shyschool shyadjustment shyseems shyto shybe shyseparated shyfrom shybad shyadjustment shyin shya shygeneral shysense shywith shyno shytypical shypatterns shycontaining shyelements shyfrom shyboth shyspheres shyThis shysupports shyour shydecision shyto shydiscuss shythese shytwo domains separately We find three typical patterns with generalized good adjustment but shywith shyvarying shylevels shyof shy timidity shyat shyage shy10 shyThe shypattern shymost shystrongly shyindicating shygood shyadjustment shyis shyalso shycharacterized shyby shybeing shylow shyon shytimidity shyand shythe shytypical shypattern shywith shythe shy


second shyhighest shygeneral shylevel shyof shygood shyadjustment shyis shyalso shycharacterized shyby shylow shytimidity shyThe shythird shy and shy largest shy pattern shy indicating shy fairly shygood shyadjustment shy is shy above shyaverage shy in shy timidity shyHence shyit shyseems shyas shyif shyin shythese shydata shytimidity shycan shybe shyregarded shyas shya shyldquoprotectiverdquo shyfactor shynot shyonly shyagainst shysevere shyconduct shyproblems shybut shyalso shyagainst shyvery shygood shyadjustment

As shywas shyfound shywith shyregard shyto shybad shyadjustment shyand shyagain shymaking shyan shyexception shyfor shytimid-ity we also find when reviewing the typical patterns indicating some form of good adjust-ment shythat shygood shyadjustment shystrongly shytends shyto shyoccur shyin shyall shyindicators shysimultaneously shywe shysee shyno shyevidence shyof shyldquospecializationrdquo shyThere shyare shysome shyreasons shyto shybelieve shythat shy this shypicture shywill shygeneralize shyless shywell shythan shyit shywill shywhen shystudying shythe shynegative shyside shy(Magnusson shyamp shyMahoney shy2002 shyMahoney shyamp shyBergman shy2002) shybut shya shyfurther shyanalysis shyand shydiscussion shyof shythe shyissue shyis shydeferred shyto shyanother shypublication shyThen shyCFA shyanalyses shyshould shyalso shybe shyadded shythat shydichotomize shythe shydata shyinto shyldquogood-not shygood shyadjustmentrdquo shyfor shyeach shyindicator shyinstead shyof shyldquobad-not shybad shyadjust-mentrdquo shywhich shywas shyused shyin shythe shyanalyses shyreported shyhere

6 shySOME shyMETHODOLOGICAL shyCONSIDERATIONS

It shywas shymentioned shyearlier shythat shythe shypicture shythat shyemerged shywhen shyanalyzing shythe shypresent shydata shyset shywas shysimilar shyregardless shyof shywhat shymethod shywas shyused shyand shythe shymain shyresults shywere shyreplicated shyon shya shyrandom shyhalf shyThe shyquestion shycan shythen shybe shyraised shyas shyto shywhy shywhen shyinterpreting shythe shyempirical shyfindings we did not lean primarily on the results from the ISOA analysis This method may be the most powerful one because a common classificatory grid is created that enables the researcher to undertake fine-grained analyses of the underlying pattern structure and to study shychanging shyfrequencies shyand shyindividual shychange shywithin shythis shystructure shyHere shythe shyassump-tions shyunderlying shyISOA shymust shybe shydiscussed shyIt shyis shynot shynecessary shy(as shyit shyis shysometimes shyclaimed) shythat shyall shytypical shypatterns shyare shycommon shyto shyboth shyoccasions shyOn shythe shycontrary shythe shymethod shyallows shyfor such differences in structure in that a typical pattern unique to one occasion will be first identified as a cluster in the initial cluster analysis and then in the subsequent analysis it will shyfrequently shybe shyobserved shyon shythat shyoccasion shyin shywhich shyit shyis shyunique shyand shymuch shyless shyso shyat shythe shyother occasion However in order to interpret these findings one has to assume that the variables in the profiles have the same meaning at both occasions We judge the present situation shyas shya shyborderline shycase shyin shythis shyregard shyOn shyone shyhand shyit shyis shyattempted shyto shymeasure shyexactly shythe shysame shyvariables shywith shythe shysame shyinstructions shyto shythe shyteachers shyand shyso shyforth shyOn shythe shyother shyhand shysome shyof shythe shyvariables shychange shytheir shymeaning shyto shysome shyextent shyFor shyinstance shymotor rest-lessness shyis shymore shylikely shyto shybe shytolerated shyby shyteachers shyin shychildren shyat shylower shyages shy(ldquosmall shyboys shywith shyants shyin shytheir shypantsrdquo) shyThus shythe shysame shyscore shyat shyage shy13 shyas shyat shyage shy10 shymay shymean shya shylower shydegree of the behavior at the higher age For this reason we focused primarily on the find-ings shyfrom shyLICUR shyand shyCFA shywhich shyare shymore shyrobust shymethods shyalthough shyit shyprobably shywould shyhave been defensible to make more use of the ISOA findings

We have briefly mentioned the potential complications caused by the fact that some of shy the shy indicators shymay shynot shycompletely shymeasure shy in shy the shysame shydimension shywhen shygoing shy from shyone shyextreme shy to shy the shyother shy If shy this shy is shy taken shy in shyconjunction shywith shy the shy results shyobtained shywhen shydividing shythe shyobtained shyclusters shyinto shygroups shyrepresenting shyeither shygeneralized shygood shyaverage shyor shybad shyadjustment shy(excluding shytimidity) shyit shythen shysupports shythe shycontention shyreached shyby shyBerg-man shy and shyMagnusson shy (1987) shy that shywhen shy studying shy adjustment shy problems shy it shy can shybe shyuseful shyto shyonly shydiscriminate shy in shy the shynegative shyend shyof shyeach shy indicator shy to shyensure shy they shyare shyunidimen-


sional shyThe shysame shyline shyof shyreasoning shycould shybe shyapplied shywhen shystudying shypositive shyadjustment shyThe shyquasiabsolute shyscaling shysuggested shyby shyBergman shyand shyMagnusson shy(1987) shymay shybe shya shyuseful shymethod Nevertheless we believe that as a first overview of an adjustment area the shystrategy shyfollowed shyhere shyis shyreasonable shyIt shyis shyhowever shyincomplete shyand shyshould shybe shyfollowed shyup shyby shyseparate shyanalyses shywithin shythe shypositive shyand shynegative shyadjustment shyareas

Let shyus shycome shyback shyto shythe shyissue shyof shywhether shyone shyshould shyor shyshould shynot shysimultaneously shystudy shygood shyand shybad shyadjustment shyWe shycould shyhave shyextended shyour shystudy shyand shyincluded shyfor shyinstance shya shyCFA shyanalysis shyof shythe shypositive shyside shysimilar shyto shyour shyanalysis shyof shythe shynegative shyside shyNow shyonly shythe shyother shythree shytypes shyof shyanalyses shycover shythe shywhole shyadjustment shyspectrum shyWe shyconsider shythis shyaddi-tional shyCFA shyanalysis shyas shythe shynext shystep shyof shya shymore shythorough shyanalysis shyof shypositive shyadjustment shyWhat shywe shycould shyhave shydone shybut shydid shynot shydo shyfor shypractical shyreasons shywould shybe shyto shymodify shythe shyCFA shyanalysis shyto shyinclude shythe shypositive shyside shyby shymaking shyeach shyvariable shytrichotomous shymeasuring shygood shynormal shyor shybad shyadjustment shyIn shythis shyway shythere shywould shyhave shybeen shythree shyto shythe shypower shyof shysix shy(=729) shydifferent shypatterns shyto shystudy shyFor shysuch shyan shyanalysis shythe shysample shyis shytoo shysmall shyhigh-lighting a limitation of CFA (cf also von Eye 1990b) Broadly speaking we think the find-ings shyreported shyhere shysupport shyour shycontention shythat shyafter shyan shyinitial shybirdrsquos-eye shystudy shyof shypatterns shyrelating shyto shy the shywhole shyadjustment shyspectrum shyin shythe shydimensions shyunder shystudy shy it shy is shynormally shymost shyuseful shyto shyconcentrate shyon shyeither shygood shyor shybad shyadjustment shyto shyachieve shya shygreater shydepth shyin shythe shyanalyses shyand shyavoid shyproblems shyof shythe shytype shydiscussed

To shystay shyon shyour shymain shytrack shywe shyhave shynot shycomplemented shythe shyperson-oriented shyanalyses shywith shyvariable-oriented shy analyses shy except shy for shy computing shy the shy correlations shybetween shy the shyvariables shyWithout shydenying shythe shypotential shyusefulness shyof shymore shysophisticated shyvariable-oriented shyanalysis shywithin shythe shyarea shystudied shywe shypoint shyout shythat shyit shydoes shynot shyseem shyeasy shyto shycapture shythe shyessence shyof shythe shyresults shyreported shyhere shywithout shystudying shythe shyvalue shypatterns shyFor shyinstance shythe shycorrelations shyindicate shythat shyto shysome shyextent shytimidity shyis shypositively shyrelated shyto shylow school motivation shyand shydis-harmony shynegatively shyrelated shyto shymotor restlessness shyand shybroadly shyspeaking shyhas shyweak shyor shyno shyrelationship shyto shythe shyother shyindicators shyFrom shya shypattern shyperspective shythis shyresult shyis shymisleading shyand shydoes shynot shypoint shyin shythe shydirection shyof shythe shytypical shypatterns shythat shywere shyobtained shyand shyin shywhich shytimidity shyoften shystood shyout shyas shythe shycrucial shycomponent shyIn shyour shyopinion shyvariable-based shydimensional shyanal-yses shyin shythe shyadjustment shyproblem shyarea shyusually shyprovide shyonly shylimited shyinformation shyabout shyhow shythe shyproblems shyare shyorganized shywithin shythe shyindividual shyThe shyso-called shyco-morbidity shyissue shymay shydemand shythat shypattern-oriented shyanalyses shybe shycarried shyout shyif shysyndromes shylike shythose shywe shyfound shyare shyto shyhave shythe shychance shyof shybeing shydetected

Chapter 10 DISCUSSION AND DIRECTIONS

In shythis shybook shya shyperson-oriented shyperspective shywas shypresented shyand shya shytool shychest shyof shybasic shymethods shyfor carrying out research within this framework was described and exemplified with empir-ical shyresearch shyTaking shythis shytheoretical shyframework shyseriously shyhas shyfar-reaching shyimplications shyfor shyhow shyempirical shyresearch shyis shycarried shyout shyHowever shyas shypointed shyout shybefore shyit shyis shyimportant shynot shyto shyconfuse shythe shyperson shyapproach shywith shythe shymethods shycommonly shyused shyto shycarry shyit shyout shyfor shyexample shycluster shyanalysis shyand shyso shyforth shyIndeed shya shywide shyrange shyof shymethods shyis shypossible shyfor shyuse shywithin shythe shyperson shyapproach shyand shythe shychoice shyshould shyalway shys shybe shymade shyin shysuch shya shyway shyso shythat shythe shymethod shymatches the specific problem For reasons that should be clear to the reader by now in the most shycommon shytypes shyof shysituations shyit shyis shydesirable shythat shythe shymethod shyused shycaptures shyas shymuch shyas shypossible shythe shysystem shyas shya shyfunctioning shywhole shyThis shypoint shyis shynow shyelaborated

It shyis shyimportant shyto shyrecognize shythat shya shyperson shyapproach shynormally shyhas shyconsequences shyfor shythe shytype shyof shymeasurements shyfor shywhich shyone shyshould shystrive shyIt shyoften shyimplies shythat shya shymultivariate shymea-surement procedure is implemented ensuring that the different components of the profile are shycomparable shythis shypoint shywas shyelaborated shyin shychapter shy3

1 shySTUDYING shyPROCESSES

It shyhas shybeen shysaid shyagain shyand shyagain shy that shy it shy is shyof shycrucial shy importance shy that shy the shymethods shyused shyfor shystudying a developmental phenomenon should have an affinity to the process under study there shymust shybe shya shymatch shybetween shythe shyproblem shyand shythe shymethod shy(Magnusson shyBergman shyRudinger shyamp shyToumlrestad shy1991) shyFrom shythis shyperspective shyit shyis shyworrisome shythat shymany shyof shythe shystatistical shymeth-ods shyused shytoday shyfor shystudying shydevelopmental shyprocesses shyare shytoo shyindirect shyfor shythis shypurpose shyFor shyinstance shya shystatic shystatistical shymodel shyof shythe shydata shyis shyused shyfrequently shyto shymake shyinferences shyabout shya shyprocess shywhich shy from shy the shy researcherrsquos shy theoretical shyperspective shy is shy regarded shyas shydynamic shywith shycontinuous shyongoing shyinteractions shyIn shythis shycase shythere shyis shya shyhigh shyrisk shythat shythe shyessential shyproperties shyof shythe shyprocess shyof shyinterest shyare shynot shymirrored shyby shythe shymethod shyused shyfor shyits shystudy shy(Bergman shy2002)

Examples shyof shythis shymismatch shyof shyproblem shyand shymethod shyabound shyand shywithout shypointing shyout shyany shyone shyin shyparticular shythe shypoint shyis shyillustrated shyby shythe shyfollowing shygeneric shyexample shyData shyare shyavailable shyfrom shyn shyindividuals shyat shyt shypoints shyin shytime shyconcerning shyk shyvariables shyThe shylinear shyrelation-ships over time for the different variables are modeled and (a) the fit of the model to data is shystudied shyand shy(b) shythe shysize shyof shyvarious shyparameters shyis shyexamined shythat shyare shybelieved shyto shyldquoexplainrdquo shythe shyrelationships shyWithout shydenying shythe shyusefulness shyof shysuch shyan shyapproach shyfor shyproviding shybasic shyinformation shyabout shy the shydata shyset shyand shy the shygeneric shy relationships shy the shy results shy indicate shy it shymust shybe shypointed shyout shythat shyfrom shythe shyperspective shyof shyunderstanding shythe shyprocess shyof shyinterest shysuch shyan shyanalysis shymight shynot shybe shyvery shyinformative

The first reason for the mismatch in this case is that usually when carrying out such a test higher shyorder shyinteractions shyand shynonlinearities shyin shythe shydata shyare shyignored shy(ie shythe shyanalysis shyis shybased shyon shythe shyvariance-covariance shymatrix) shyThe shyresearcher shymight shynot shyeven shyknow shythis shyis shya shymistake shyas shymodel shyfit is often measured as the modelrsquos ability to reproduce the variance-covariance matrix

The shysecond shyreason shyis shythat shyit shymight shynot shybe shyreasonable shyto shybelieve shythat shythe shymodel shyof shythe shydata shyin shyany way mirrors the process as it is understood For instance a linear regression coefficient of


size shyβ shybetween shylatent shy(or shymanifest) shyvariable shy1 shyand shyvariable shy2 shyimplies shythat shya shychange shyof shyone shyunit shyin shyvariable shy1 shywould shylead shyto shya shychange shyof shyβ shyin shyvariable shy2 shyfor shyeach shyindividual shyBut shywhat shydoes shythis shymean shyIs shyit shyreasonable shyto shybelieve shythat shythe shysame shysimple shylaw shyapplies shyto shyall shypersons shystudied shyAnd shythat shythe shyprocess shycontains shyno shyinteractions shyand shyit shyis shypossible shyto shyconceptualize shythat shyone shyvariable shycan be changed without affecting or reconfiguring the whole system

Considerations shy like shy these shy lead shy one shy into shy the shy labyrinth shy of shy causal shy inferences shy in shy shynonexperimental shy research shyand shy inevitably shybrings shy into shy focus shy the shyneed shy for shya shymore shy realistic shymodel of the process under study To obtain a first idea of how the k shyvariables shyunder shystudy shyare shy related shywithin shy and shybetween shy the shy t shy time shypoints shy a shy standard shyvariable-oriented shyapproach shycan shybe shyuseful shybut shyas shya shymeans shyof shyunderstanding shythe shydynamics shythat shydecide shyhow shythe shyvariables shyevolve shy in shy interaction shy over shy time shy such shy an shy approach shy seems shy more shy often shy than shy not shy almost shy shyuseless shyThis shyviewpoint shyhas shybeen shyexpressed shyby shyseveral shyresearchers shyfor shyinstance shyBergman shy(2002) shyBailey shy(1994) shyand shySoumlrensen shy(1998) shySoumlrensen shy(1998) shysays

The failure to consider mechanism of change and to try to formulate them in models of the processes we investigate however primitive the result may be has important consequences for the state of sociological research The almost universal use of sta-tistical models and specifications has two sets of important implications First we are constrained by the statistical models to not consider whether or not we actually obtain from our research a greater understanding of the processes we investigate In other words the statistical models give us theoretical blindershellip Second we may actually produce results that on closer consideration seem theoretically unfounded and very likely misleading (pp 14ndash1)

It shyshould shybe shyrecognized shythat shythe shylimitations shyof shystandard shyvariable-oriented shymethods shyin shythe shycontext shydiscussed shyhere shydo shynot shygeneralize shyto shyall shyvariable-oriented shymethods shyIt shyis shyencourag-ing that new developments within the field of p shytechnique shyand shytime-series shyanalysis shy(Nes-selroade shyamp shyGhisletta shy2000 shySchmitz shy1987) shycome shypart shyof shy the shyway shy toward shymirroring shy the shysingle shyindividualrsquos shydevelopment shyNew shymethods shyfor shylatent shygrowth shycurve shymodeling shyallow shyan shyindividualization shyof shydevelopmental shy trajectories shywithin shy the shycontext shyof shy the shypowerful shySEM shyframework shy Still shy in shy the shy opinion shy of shy the shy present shy writers shy these shy statistical shy methods shy cannot shynormally shybe shyexpected shyto shyprovide shymore shythan shya shypartial shyadjustment shyto shythe shyneed shyfor shyexplaining shythe shymechanism shyof shychange shyThere shyremains shythe shyneed shyfor shyan shyapproach shycloser shyto shythe shyprocess shyan shyapproach shythat shyaims shyat shyexplaining shythe shynonlinear shydynamics shyof shychange

Within shy the shy natural shy sciences shy it shy is shy now shy acknowledged shy that shy many shy phenomena shy are shy best shydescribed shyby shydynamic shysystems shythat shyare shynonlinear shyThe shystudy shyof shysuch shysystems shyis shygiven shyhere shythe acronym NOLIDS Such systems began to be studied about a century ago first as a branch shyof shymathematics shy(Poincareacute shy1946) shyThe shyanalytical shyproblems shyin shysolving shythe shydifferential shyequations of change tend to be very difficult and only by using modern computers can a larger shyclass shyof shyproblems shynow shybe shyldquosolvedrdquo shyUsing shyNOLIDS shyit shyhas shybeen shyshown shyin shya shynumber shyof shysituations shythat shya shysimple shynonlinear shydeterministic shychange shymodel shycan shyexplain shyvery shycomplex shybehavior shy involving shyeven shyseemingly shyrandom shybehavior shy in shy the shyform shyof shydeterministic shychaos shy(see shyeg shyGleick shy1987 shyJackson shy1989 shyand shySmith shyamp shyThelen shy1993) shyA shygood shyexample shyof shythe shypotential shyof shythis shyapproach shyis shygiven shyby shyKelso shyand shyhis shyco-workers shyin shytheir shyresearch shyon shythe shydynamics shyof shymotor shycoordination shy(Kelso shy1995)

Discussion and directions 1

Bergman shy(2002) shysummarized shycertain shyaspects shyof shyNOLIDS shyin shythe shyfollowing shyway

1 shy shyThe shyfrequent shyexistence shyof shysudden shychanges shyin shythe shybehavior shyof shya shysystem shywhich shycould shybe shydescribed shyas shyqualitative shychange shyin shyquantitative shysystems shyand shythe shyimportance shyof shystudy-ing shythese shyphenomena shyin shyorder shyto shyunderstand shythe shysystem shy(Kelso shy2000) shyThis shyis shythe shyantithesis shyof shylinear shymodeling

2 shy shyThe shyimportance shyof shyobtaining shya shyglobal shyqualitative shyunderstanding shyof shythe shycharacter shyof shythe shysystems shydynamics shyThis shywas shypointed shyout shyalready shyby shyPoincareacute shythe shyldquofather shyof shyNOLIDSrdquo shyalmost shy100 shyyears shyago

3 The difficulties in identifyingchoosing relevant system properties for carrying out NOLIDS modeling (including defining time scales relevant collective variables and the shylevel shyof shyanalysis)

So shyif shyNOLIDS shyholds shysuch shypromise shywhy shyis shyit shynot shyused shymore shyfrequently shyThe shyreasons shyfor shythis shyare shypartly shygiven shyin shynumber shy3 shyjust shymentioned shyIn shyfact shysuccessful shyapplications shyof shyNOL-IDS shywithin shythe shybehavioral shysciences shyseem shyto shyfall shywithin shythe shyarea shyof shyexperimental shyresearch shyand shyto shybe shyconcerned shywith shymore shymolecular shybehavior shyin shysituations shyin shywhich shyone shycan shyachieve shysufficient control and adequate measurements of the system under study This seems to be a shynecessary shyprerequisite shyfor shythe shycomplex shytask shyof shymapping shyout shythe shybehavior shyof shythe shysystem shyand shythe shymechanisms shyfor shyits shychange shy(see shyKelso shy2000 shyfor shyan shyeven shymore shypessimistic shyview shyof shythese shypossibilities) shyNevertheless shyNOLIDS shyholds shygreat shypromise shyfor shythe shyfuture shyand shythe shygrowing shyinterface shybetween shyit shyand shystatistical shyscience shywill shyprobably shylead shyto shyimproved shymeth-ods for parameter estimation and model identification (see eg Berliner 1992 and Chat-terjee shyamp shyYilmaz shy1992) shyIt shyis shyalso shytrue shythat shythe shyintroduction shyof shypowerful shyconcepts shytaken shyfrom shyNOLIDS shylike shyattractors shybifurcation shymultistability shychaos shyand shyso shyforth shyinto shydevelopmental shyscience shyand shypsychology shyin shygeneral shywill shyenrich shyour shythinking shyof shyprocesses shyeven shythough shyin shya shyfirst step no actual NOLIDS modeling is undertaken

So shywhere shydo shythe shyperson-oriented shymethods shywe shypresented shyin shy this shyvolume shycome shyin shywith shyregard shyto shythe shyprocess shyperspective shyjust shypresented shyFirst shyit shymight shybe shyargued shythat shysimilar shyto shystandard statistical methods they are static approaches in the specific sense that they pic-ture shystates shyat shydifferent shydiscrete shypoints shyin shytime shyThe shymultivariate shydensities shyand shywhite shyspots shyof shythe shyk shyvariables shyfrom shythe shyt shytime shypoints shyare shystudied shyThe shyresults shyof shythe shyanalyses shydo shynot shymirror shya shychange shyprocess shyin shycontinuous shytime shyHowever shyas shydiscussed shyin shychapter shy2 shyand shychapter shy3 shythe shyperson-oriented shyapproach shywe shypresent shydoes shytake shyinteractions shyand shyaspects shyof shythe shysystem shyas shya shyfunctioning shywhole shyinto shyaccount shyto shya shygreater shydegree shythan shyconventional shyapproaches shyOne shyimportant shyaspect shyfrom shya shyNOLIDS shyperspective shyis shythe shyattractor shywhich shycan shybe shyregarded shyas shya shyldquofunctionalrdquo shysystem shystate shyat shywhich shythe shysystem shytends shyto shystabilize shyIt shyis shycharacterized shyby shya shyspe-cific pattern of values in the variables describing the system Here it seems reasonable to assume that the concentration within the person approach on typical configurations offers the shypossibility shyof shydetecting shysuch shyattractors shyNevertheless shythe shyimportance shyof shydevising shynew shyperson-oriented shymethods shyof shya shymore shyprocess-oriented shynature shyshould shybe shyemphasized

2 shyTHEORY-TESTING shyAND shyEXPLORATIONA shycriticism shysometimes shylaunched shyagainst shythe shyperson-oriented shyapproach shyis shythat shyit shyis shyatheoretical shyas shyno shystatistical shymodel shyis shyformulated shyand shytested shyThis shycriticism shyis shyunfounded shyThe shyfollowing shythree shyconsiderations shyare shyrelevant


1 shyAs shy was shy discussed shy above shy when shy conducting shy research shy within shy a shy holistic shyinteractionistic shyframework shyand shywhen shystudying shyprocesses shywithin shythe shycontexts shydiscussed it is normally very difficult to construct a statistical model of the process shy of shy such shy a shy quality shy that shy it shy can shy be shy said shy to shy bridge shy the shy gulf shy between shytheory shyand shymethod shyThe shystatistical shymodel shycan shybe shyuseful shyfor shyother shypurposes shybut shyit shyis shyrarely shya shygood shymodel shyof shythe shyprocess shyas shywe shyunderstand shyit shyWe shyclaim shythat shy the shy information shygenerated shyby shy the shy approach shywe shy suggest shy can shy in shymany shysituations shybe shymore shyrelevant shyfor shypurposes shyof shytheory shyconstruction shyand shytesting shythan shyconventional shyapproaches

2 shyThe shyimportance shyof shycareful shyobservation shyand shydescription shyin shycontrast shyto shypremature shy formal shy model shy building shy should shy be shy recognized shy This shy applies shy in shyparticular to the initial stages in a complex field in which careful observa-tion and description of the phenomena under study is a necessary first step Theories shycan shyprovide shydirections shyas shyto shywhat shyto shylook shyfor shybut shyif shythey shyare shypre-maturely shytransformed shyinto shystatistical shymodels shythey shycan shybecome shyldquoblindersrdquo shyThey shymay shyactually shyprevent shythe shyresearcher shyfrom shyseeing shywhat shyis shyto shybe shyseern shyThis shypoint shyhas shybeen shymade shyby shyamong shyothers shyCronbach shy(1975) shyGreenwald shyPratkanis shyLieppe shyamp shyBaumgardner shy(1986) shyand shyMagnusson shy(1992) shyWe shypro-pose shythat shythe shytype shyof shyresearch shycontexts shywe shyare shydiscussing shyin shythis shyvolume shyare shyhighly complex fields which are just opening up and that the admonition given shypreviously shyapplies shyespecially shyto shythem

3 It is a misunderstanding that a sound scientific approach in which theories shyare shyformulated shyand shytested shyshould shyin shyany shyway shybe shysynonymous shywith shyan shyapproach shyin shywhich shya shystatistical shymodel shyof shydata shyis shyconstructed shyand shyused shyas shya shymeans shyof shytesting shyonersquos shytheory shy(Magnusson shy2001) shyIt shyis shytrue shythat shythe shySEM shyapproach shycan shybe shyhighly shyuseful shyfor shytesting shytheories shyand shyrepresents shya shymajor shystep shyforward shywhen shyit shyis shyappropriately shyapplied shyNevertheless shywe shyhave shyargued shyin shythis shyvolume shythat shyin shythe shysituations shywe shyare shydiscussing shythis shyis shynormally shynot shythe shycase shyHowever shysuch shya shymodel-testing shyapproach shyis shyin shyno shyway shynecessary shyto shyconducting shytheory-driven shyresearch shyWhat shyis shynecessary shyis shythat shy(a) shythe shyresults shyof shythe shyanalyses shyare shyrelevant shyto shyunderstanding shythe shyprocess shyunder shystudy shyand shy(b) shythat shythe shytheory shylead shyto shypredictions shy(preferably shycontrasting shyempirical shypre-dictions shybetween shycontrasting shytheories) shythat shycan shybe shytested shyThis shyis shythe shycase shywith shythe shyperson shyapproach shypresented shyhere

3 shyACCURATE shyPREDICTION shyVERSUS shyIDENTIFICATION shyOF shyPRINCIPLES shyAND shyMECHANISMS shyAS shyTHE shySCIENTIFIC shyGOAL shyIN shy

DEVELOPMENTAL shyRESEARCH

James Watson (1913) formulated the goal for scientific psychology as to predict and control behavior shy Watson shy purposely shy used shy his shy formulation shy to shy motivate shy psychology shy as shy a shy natural shy shyscience

In general terms the role of science is to arrive at and formulate overriding scientific ldquolawsrdquo shyfor shythe shyregulation shyof shyphenomena shyand shyprocesses shyIn shythe shynatural shysciences shythe shycriterion shyfor the establishment of a scientific law is normally its predictive power Thus in his


ambition shy to shymake shypsychology shya shynatural shy science shy it shywas shyonly shynatural shy that shyWatson shy in shyhis shy shyformulation shyof shythe shygoal shyof shypsychology shyreferred shyto shyprediction shyof shypsychological shyphenomena shyas an overriding goal The view that accurate prediction is the criterion of scientific success is still implicitly or explicitly strong and influential in psychological research Because it has shya shystrong shyimpact shyon shytheorizing shyresearch shystrategies shyand shymethodology shyin shydevelopmental shyresearch shythe shyfollowing shyquestion shycalls shyfor shysome shyelaboration shyAre shythe shyphenomena shybeing shystud-ied shyin shydevelopmental shyresearch shyof shya shycharacter shythat shymakes shyaccurate shyprediction shythe shyappropriate shycriterion of scientific success The answer to that question has implications for the issues discussed shyin shythis shyvolume shyWith shyreference shyto shythe shyholistic shyview shyon shydevelopmental shyprocesses shypresented shyand shydiscussed shyin shychapter shy2 shya shyfew shycomments shyare shypertinent shyhere

The shyfrequent shyuse shyof shythe shyconcept shyof shyprediction shysuffers shyfrom shya shylack shyof shydistinction shybetween shy(a) shystatistical shyprediction shyin shyan shyexperimental shydesign shyand shy(b) shyprediction shyover shytime shyof shythe shylife shycourse shyof shyindividuals shyThe shyconcept shyof shyprediction shyis shyalso shyapplicable shyin shynumerous shypractical shysituations shyto shywhich shypsychological shymethods shy are shybeing shyapplied shy for shy example shy in shypersonnel shy selection shyor shydecision shymaking shyIn shysuch shysituations shy the shycertainty shywith shywhich shypredictions shyare shymade shy that shy is shythe shyprobability shythat shycertain shyevents shywill shyoccur shyis shyof shybasic shyinterest shyIn shythese shyexamples shystatistical shyprediction shyis shya shyuseful shytool shyfor shyestimating shythe shycertainty shyof shya shycertain shyoutcome

The shyproblem shyarises shywhen shyhigh shystatistical shyprediction shy is shyconfused shywith shyprediction shyover shytime shyacross shythe shylife shycourse shyof shyindividuals shyand shywith shythe shyoverriding shycriterion shyof shythe shydisci-plinersquos scientific status Fostered by the development and application of technically sophis-ticated shystatistical shytools shyprediction shyhas shysurvived shyas shya shycentral shygoal shyfor shyresearch shyon shyindividual shydevelopment even in areas in which it is not very appropriate The psychological signifi-cance shyof shysingle shyvariables shyor shycomposites shyof shyvariables shyfor shythe shyprocesses shyof shyindividual shydevel-opment is often directly interpreted from how well data that are supposed to reflect these processes shypredict shydata shyfor shylater shyoutcomes shyin shystatistical shyterms

The role of prediction and the scientific goal for research in life sciences was discussed by shyCrick shy(1988) shythe shyNobel shylaureate shywho shywas shyone shyof shythe shydiscoverers shyof shythe shygenetic shycode shyHis shyown shyexperiences shyfrom shyresearch shyin shyphysics shyand shymolecular shybiology shyled shyhim shyto shythe shyconclusion shythat shylawfulness shyin shybiological shyprocesses shycan shynever shybe shyexpressed shyin shyprecise shylaws shyvalidated shyby shyhigh shyprediction shy in shy statistical shy designs shy as shy in shyphysics shy but shy instead shy should shybe shy expressed shyin shymechanisms shyand shyprinciples shyunderlying shyand shyguiding shy the shyprocesses shyCrickrsquos shyconclusion shyis shyequally shyvalid shyfor shyresearch shyon shyindividual shydevelopmental shyprocesses shyGiven shythe shycomplex shyoften shynonlinear shyinterplay shyof shymental shybiological shyand shybehavioral shysubsystems shywithin shythe shyindi-vidual shyand shythe shycomplex shyinterplay shybetween shythe shyindividual shyand shyan shyenvironment shyoperating shyin shya shyprobabilistic shymanner shyit shyis shyunrealistic shyto shyhope shyfor shyaccurate shyprediction shyover shythe shylife shycourse shyfor shysingle individuals Nowadays most developmentalists agree that the overriding scientific goal shy for shydevelopmental shy research shy is shy to shycontribute shy to shy the shyunderstanding shyof shydevelopmental shyprocesses shyat shythe shylevel shyof shythe shyindividual shyby shyidentifying shyoperating shymechanisms shyand shyguiding shyprinciples To achieve that goal the final analysis of data in an empirical study of a specific problem shyhas shyoften shyto shybe shymade shywith shyreference shyto shya shyperson shyapproach shyThe shypurpose shyof shy this shyvolume shyhas shybeen shyto shypresent shya shynumber shyof shymethods shyfor shythis shytype shyof shyanalysis

Research shy on shy the shy weather shy offers shy a shy metaphor shy that shy demonstrates shy the shy necessity shy for shy the shy shydistinction shybetween shyaccurate shystatistical shyprediction shyusing shya shyvariable shyapproach shyon shy the shyone shyhand shyand shyunderstanding shythe shyunderlying shyprocesses shyon shythe shyother shy(Magnusson shy1985) shyThe shyfact shythat shyit shyis shypossible shyto shypredict shythe shyaverage shysummer shyautumn shywinter shyand shyspring shytemperatures shy


in shySweden shyyears shybeforehand shydoes shynot shyhelp shyour shyunderstanding shyof shythe shymeteorological shypro-cesses But by applying strict scientific modeling meteorologists now have a good under-standing shyof shythe shynature shyof shythe shyprocesses shyand shyunderlying shyprinciples shyand shymechanisms shywithout shybeing shyable shyto shymake shyaccurate shyweather shyforecasts shyover shya shylonger shytime shyperiod

31 shyUnderstanding shythe shyConstraints shyof shyDevelopment

Robert shyCairns shyoften shytalked shyabout shythe shycorrelated shyconstraints shyin shydevelopment shy(eg shyCairns shyGariepy shy amp shy Hood shy 1990) shy By shy this shy he shy meant shy that shy embedded shy in shy the shy inherent shy structure shy of shya shy functional shydevelopmental shysystem shyis shy the shynotion shy that shyas shy the shyparts shyat shy the shydifferent shy levels shybecome shyorganized shysome shydevelopmental shypaths shywill shybe shyexcluded shywhile shyother shyfactors shyemerge shytogether shyWe shybelieve shythat shythe shymethods shypresented shyhere shyare shyrelevant shyfor shythe shystudy shyof shydevelop-ment shyaccording shyto shythis shyperspective shyHowever shywe shyhave shyfocused shyprimarily shyon shyissues shyrelating shyto finding the typical developmental paths The other side of the coinmdashthat constraints also imply shya shyprescription shyfor shywhat shywill shynot shyoccurmdashhas shybeen shymentioned shywhen shyintroducing shythe shyconcept shyof shywhite spots

The shysearch shyfor shytypical shypatterns shyshould shybe shycomplemented shyby shya shysearch shyfor shywhite shyspots shythe shypatterns shythat shyseldom shyor shynever shyoccur shyThis shycould shybe shydone shycross-sectionally shyor shylongitudinally shylooking shyfor shypathways shyof shypattern shydevelopment shythat shyfor shysome shyreason shyare shynot shytraveled shyDiffer-ent ways of doing this cross-sectionally were presented (searching for antitypes identifica-tion shyof shya shyresidue shyetc) shyWithin shythe shylimitations shyof shywhat shyis shytheoretically shypossible shythe shypatterns shythat shyoccur shyoften shyand shythose shythat shyoccur shyseldom shyor shynot shyat shyall shytogether shymap shyout shythe shyempirical shyterrain shybeing shystudied shyA shysearch shyfor shythe shyboundaries shyof shyareas shycontaining shynonoccurring shydevel-opmental shypatterns shyis shyrarely shyundertaken shyAnd shyyet shyone shycan shyoften shymake shytheoretical shypredictions shyabout shywhite shyspots shythat shyare shytestable shyAs shymentioned shyin shychapter shy3 shyboundary shyconditions shywere shydiscussed shyby shyLewin shy (1933) shy in shy terms shyof shyldquoregion shyof shy freedom shyof shymovementrdquo shy (p shy598) shyand shyValsiner shy(1984) shypointed shyout shythat shythe shyobserved shyvariability shyof shya shyperson shyis shyonly shya shyfraction shyof shyhis shyor shyher shypossible shyrange shyof shyvariability shyA shycomplementary shyperspective shyon shythis shypoint shyis shyoffered shyby shyKagan shyet shyalrsquos shy(1998) shyemphasis shyon shystudying shythe shyextreme shycases shyas shybeing shynot shyonly shyquantita-tively shybut shyalso shyqualitatively shydifferent shyfrom shythe shyrest shyof shythe shysample shyand shyteaching shyus shyimportant shythings shyabout shythe shyconstraints shyof shythe shysystem

In shyour shyopinion shythe shyserious shystudy shyof shyconstraints shyin shythe shyform shyof shyboundaries shyand shywhite shyspots shyis shya shyrare shyinstance shyof shya shypromising shyapproach shyto shyunderstanding shythe shyempirical shyworld shythat shyhas shybeen shy left shyalmost shyunattended shyMethods shy for shy studying shysuch shyconstraints shyare shyunderdeveloped shyand shydevising shyimproved shymethods shymust shybe shygiven shya shyhigh shypriority

32 shySearching shyfor shyTypes

It shywas shypointed shyout shyin shychapter shy3 shythat shythe shyword shyldquotyperdquo shyhas shybeen shygiven shymany shymeanings shyand shythat shythe concept exists far beyond the area of classification We also noted that it has often come to imply something that is fixed or innate and that this is not the interpretation we employ We shyare shystrongly shyopposed shyto shya shyrevival shyof shytypological shythinking shyin shywhich shypersons shyare shyseen shyas shybelonging shyto shyunalterable shypermanent shyclasses shyA shynumber shyof shyways shyof shylooking shyat shytypes shyboth shyconceptually shyand shymethodologically shyhave shybeen shypresented shyin shythis shybook shyLet shyus shydwell shyhere shya shymoment on one specific perspective A type can sometimes be regarded as an expression of an shyattractor shyin shya shydynamic shysystem shyThus shythe shytype shyneeds shynot shybe shypart shyof shya shycomplete shytypology shy


applying shyto shyall shyor shyeven shyto shymost shypeople shyIt shyis shyjust shyan shyldquoimportantrdquo shyco-occurrence shyof shyvalues shyin shythe shyvariables shyrelating shyto shythe shysystem shyunder shystudy shySuch shya shylow-key shyapproach shyin shywhich shyone shyor shya shyfew shytypes shyare shyfound shytogether shynot shycovering shythe shywhole shysample shycan shysometimes shybe shymore shyreal-istic shythan shyaiming shyat shya shycomplete shytypology shy(Bergman shyamp shyEl-Khouri shy2001) shyIt shycan shyalso shyform shya shyroad shyto shynew shystudies shydirected shytoward shyexplaining shythe shytype(s) shyfound shyand shyrelating shythe shyresults shyto shythose shyalready shyknown shyabout shypairwise shyrelationships shybetween shythe shyvariables shyIn shythis shyway shyit shycan shyalso shyform shya shybridge shyto shya shyvariable-oriented shyapproach

4 shySOME shyGUIDELINES shyFOR shyFUTURE shyRESEARCH

At shythe shybasis shyof shyall shysuccessful shyquantitative shyempirical shyresearch shyis shyof shycourse shysound shymeasure-ment shyNowhere shyis shythis shymore shytrue shythan shywhen shypatterns shyare shythe shyfocus shyof shyinterest shyAs shydiscussed shyin shychapter shy3 shynot shyonly shymust shyeach shyvariable shyin shyitself shybe shywell shymeasured shythey shymust shyall shyhave shya shycomparative meaning that enables the researcher to form individual profiles of values that are shyinterpretable shyIt shyis shyimportant shyto shyconsider shyprocedures shyfor shyconstructing shymultivariate shymea-surements shyFor shyinstance shyin shythe shycontext shyof shystudying shyadjustment shyproblems shywe shyargued shythat shyquasiabsolute shyscaling shycould shybe shyuseful shy(Bergman shyamp shyMagnusson shy1991) shyWe shythen shysuggested shythat it is important to obtain a multivariate measurement procedure reflecting both varying prevalences shyof shydifferent shyproblems shyand shyvarying shyprevalences shyfor shythe shysame shyproblem shyover shytime shyThis shyissue shyof shyachieving shycomparable shymeasures shyseems shyto shybe shyone shythat shyis shytoo shyoften shydodged shyand shysometimes shyunsuccessfully shy circumvented shyby shybasing shy the shy analyses shyon shy standardized shy scores shyThe shylimitations shyof shymany shypattern-oriented shymethods shyin shyhandling shyerrors shyof shymeasurement shyalso shyhighlight shythe shyimportance shyof shyreliability shyissues shywith shyregard shyto shythe shyvariables shyinvolved

But shyas shypreviously shydiscussed shy the shymost shy important shy issue shyconcerning shymeasurement shy in shya shypattern-oriented perspective is that the variables in the profile together provide a reasonable representation shyof shya shymeaningful shy(sub)whole shywith shygood shycorrespondence shyto shythe shysystem shyunder shystudy shyVariables shycannot shyjust shybe shyldquothrown shyinrdquo shyas shyis shysometimes shydone shyin shyfor shyinstance shyfactor shyanalysis shyThey shymust shybe shycarefully shyconsidered shyand shytheir shyinclusion shymust shybe shytheoretically shymoti-vated shyIn shyfact shyit shyis shyprecisely shythe shytype shyof shyldquothrow shyinrdquo shyexploratory shyapproach shyin shycluster shyanalysis shythat shyhas shycontributed shy to shy the shyundeservedly shybad shyreputation shyof shy this shy type shyof shymethod shyThe shyold shysaying shyldquogarbage shyin shygarbage shyoutrdquo shyis shyrelevant shyhere

To shyall shyresearchers shy the shyquestions shyof shy trustworthiness shyand shygeneralizability shyof shy the shyresults shyare shyat shythe shyforefront shyIt shyhas shybeen shyargued shyin shyprevious shychapters shythat shypattern-oriented shymethods shyproduce shy trustworthy shy results shy if shyapplied shywith shygood shy judgment shyon shysound shydata shyAs shydiscussed shyin shy chapter shy 7 the issue of generalizability of the results has many aspects with the first one shy being shy what shy is shy to shy be shy generalized shy (individual shy class shy memberships shy centroids shy relative shy shyfrequencies shyof shycentroids shyonly shymajor shycentroids shyetc) shyThe shyother shymain shyaspect shyhas shyto shydo shywith shyto which universe shy the shygeneralization shyis shydirected shy(from shya shyrandom shysample shyto shya shypopulation shyfrom shyone shypopulation shyto shyanother shyclass shyof shypopulations shyfrom shyone shyset shyof shyvariables shyto shyanother shyset shyof shyvariables shyetc) shyThese shyissues shydeserve shymore shyattention shythan shythey shyusually shyhave shybeen shygiven shyThe need for replication of findings which is generally underemphasized (Rutter amp Pick-les shy1990) shymust shybe shytaken shyeven shymore shyseriously shywhen shyusing shyperson-oriented shymethodology shywhere shyin shymany shycases shyno shyproper shymodeling shyof shymeasurement shyor shysampling shyerror shyis shypossible shyBut shyin shymost shysituations shythe shyresults shyfrom shyreplications shyare shymore shyinformative shythan shythe shyresults shyof shystatistical shydeliberations shyon shyone shyparticular shysample


In shythis shybook shywe shyhave shyadvocated shythe shyusefulness shyof shyperson-oriented shymethodology shywithin shya shyperson-oriented theoretical framework We have also briefly discussed limitations inherent in shy the shy use shy of shy many shy standard shy variable-oriented shy methods shy in shy the shy contexts shy we shy highlighted shyIt shymust shynot shybe shyinterpreted shythat shywe shypass shyjudgment shyon shycertain shymethods shyas shybeing shyldquogoodrdquo shyor shyldquobadrdquo shyOf shycourse shya shystandard shyvariable-oriented shymethod shycan shybe shyhighly shyuseful shyif shyapplied shyin shyan shyappropriate shysituation shyTo shyreiterate shyIt shyis shythe shymatch shybetween shythe shyproblem shyand shythe shymethod shythat shy is shy of shy importance shyWe shybelieve shy it shy often shy is shy highly shyproductive shy to shymix shy the shy two shy types shyof shyapproaches shyor shy rather shyalternate shybetween shy them shyTo shyobtain shya shypreliminary shyunderstanding shyof shya shynew shyarea shyit shyis shyfrequently shyuseful shyto shyapply shyvariable-oriented shymethods shy(eg shyby shycomputing shycorrelations shyperforming shyfactor shyanalysis shycomparing shymeans) shyin shyorder shyto shyobtain shya shyprovisory shyunderstanding shyof shywhich shy factors shyare shy involved shy in shy individual shyprocesses shyBased shyon shy this shy and shygood shytheory shyit shymight shybe shypossible shyto shyconstruct shyreliable shyand shyvalid shyscales shymeasuring shycentral shyconcepts and to form relevant profiles mirroring the system under study A person-oriented methodology can then be used to findtest for typical (developmental) configurations Sometimes shyafter shysuch shyan shyapproach shyhas shybeen shycarried shyout shyit shymight shybe shypossible shyto shyformulate shya shynonlinear SEM model in which important interactions that have been previously identified are shyincorporated shyThis shymight shylead shyto shynew shytheoretical shyformulations shythat shycan shybe shyempirically shytested shymost shyfrequently shyby shya shyperson-oriented shymethodology shyand shyso shyon shyHaving shysaid shythis shywe shymust shyalso shypoint shyout shythat shyin shyour shyexperience shythe shyvariable shyand shythe shyperson shyperspectives shyare shynot shyeasy shyto shyreconcile shyFinding shyways shyto shyintegrate shythese shytwo shyperspectives shyis shya shychallenge shywe shyshould shycontinue shyto shywork shytoward

REFERENCES

Achenbach shyTM shy(1995) shyDevelopmental shyissues shyin shyassessment shytaxonomy shyand shydiagnosis shyof shychild shyand shyadolescent shypsychopathology shyIn shyDCicchetti shyamp shyDJCohen shy(Eds) shyDevelopmental psychopathology Theory and methods shy(Vol shy1 shypp shy57ndash80) shyNew shyYork shyWiley

Ahn shyW shyamp shyMedin shyDL shy (1992) shyA shy two-stage shymodel shyof shycategory shyconstruction shyCognitive Science 16 shy81ndash121

Allport shyGW shy(1961) shyPattern and growth in personality shyNew shyYork shyHolt shyRinehart shyamp shyWinstonAmerican shyPsychological shyAssociation shy(APA) shy(1983) shyDiagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental

Disorders shy(3rd shyed) shy(DSM-III) shyWashington shyDC shyAuthor shyAmerican shyPsychological shyAssociationAnastasi shyA shy(1968) shyDifferential psychology shyNew shyYork shyMacmillanAnderberg shyMR shy(1973) shyCluster analysis for applications shyNew shyYork shyAcademic shyPressAndersson shyT shy(1988) shyAlkoholvanor i ett utvecklingsperspektiv shy[Drinking shyhabits shyin shya shydevelopmental shy

perspective] shy Unpublished shy doctoral shy dissertation shy Department shy of shy Psychology shy University shy of shy shyStockholm

Andrews shyDF shy(1972) shyPlots shyof shyhigh-dimensional shydata shyBiometrics 28 shy125ndash135Arabie shy P shy amp shy Hubert shy LJ shy (1996) shy An shy overview shy of shy combinatorial shy data shy analysis shy In shy PArabie shy

LJHubert shy amp shy GDe shy Soete shy (Eds) shy Clustering and classification shy (pp shy 5ndash63) shy Singapore shy World shyScientific Publishing

Asendorpf shyJB shy(2000) shyA shyperson-centered shyapproach shyto shypersonality shyand shysocial shyrelationships shyFindings shyfrom shy the shy Berlin shy Relationship shy Study shy In shy LRBergman shy RBCairns shy L-GNilsson shy amp shy LNystedt shy(Eds) shyDevelopmental science and the holistic approach shy(pp shy281ndash298) shyMahwah shyNJ shyLawrence shyErlbaum shyAssociates

Backteman shy G shy amp shy Magnusson shy D shy (1981) shy Longitudinal shy stability shy of shy personality shy characteristics shy shyJournal of Personality 4 shy689ndash703

Bailey shy KD shy (1994) shy Typologies and taxonomies An introduction to classification techniques shyNew shyYork shySAGE

Baltes shy PB shy (1979) shy Life-span shy developmental shy psychology shy Some shy converging shy observations shy on shyhistory shy and shy theory shy In shy PBBaltes shy amp shy OGBrim shy (Eds) shy Life-span development and behavior shy shy(Vol shy2 shypp shy255ndash279) shyNew shyYork shyAcademic shyPress

Baltes shy PB shy Lindenberger shy U shy amp shy Staudinger shy UM shy (1998) shy Life-span shy theory shy in shy developmental shy shypsychology shyIn shyRMLerner shy(Vol shyEd) shyamp shyWDamon shy(Ed-in-Chief) shyHandbook of child psychology Theoretical models of human development shy(Vol shy1 shypp shy1029ndash1143) shyNew shyYork shyWiley

Barton shyS shy(1994) shyChaos shyself-organization shyand shypsychology shyAmerican Psychologist 49 shy5ndash15Bateson shy PPG shy (1978) shy How shy does shy behavior shy develop shy In shy PPGBateson shy amp shy PHKlopfer shy (Eds) shy

shyPerspectives in ecology Vol 3 Social behavior shyNew shyYork shyPlenum shyPressBereiter shy C shy (1963) shy Some shy persistent shy dilemmas shy in shy the shy measurement shy of shy change shy In shy CHarris shy (Ed) shy

Problems in measuring change shy(pp shy3ndash20) shyMadison shyWI shyUniversity shyof shyWisconsin shyPressBergman shy LR shy (1972) shy Change shy as shy the shy dependent shy variable shy Reports from the Psychological

Laboratories shyUniversity shyof shyStockholm shy(Suppl shy14)Bergman shyLR shy(1973) shyParentrsquos shyeducation shyand shymean shychange shyin shyintelligence shyScandinavian Journal of

Psychology 23 shy425ndash441Bergman shyLR shy(1988a) shyModeling shyreality shySome shycomments shyIn shyMRutter shy(Ed) shyStudies of psychosocial

risk shy(pp shy354ndash366) shyCambridge shyEngland shyCambridge shyUniversity shyPressBergman shyLR shy(1988b) shyYou shycanrsquot shyclassify shyall shyof shythe shypeople shyall shyof shythe shytime shyMultivariate Behavioral

Research 23 shy425ndash441Bergman shy LR shy (1993) shy Some shy methodological shy issues shy in shy longitudinal shy research shy Looking shy ahead shy In shy

DMagnusson shy amp shy PCasaer shy (Eds) shy Longitudinal research on individual development Present status and future perspectives shy(pp shy217ndash241) shyCambridge shyEngland shyCambridge shyUniversity shyPress

10 References

Bergman shyLR shy(1995) shyDescribing shyindividual shydevelopment shyusing shyi-states shyas shyobjects shyanalysis shy(ISOA) shyReports from the Department of Psychology shyStockholm shyUniversity shy(No shy806)

Bergman shyLR shy(1998) shyA shypattern-oriented shyapproach shyto shystudying shyindividual shydevelopment shySnapshots shyand shyprocesses shyIn shyRBCairns shyLRBergman shyamp shyJKagan shy(Eds) shyMethods and models for studying the individual shy(pp shy83ndash121) shyThousand shyOaks shyCA shySage

Bergman shy LR shy (2000) shy The shy application shy of shy a shy person-oriented shy approach shy Types shy and shy clusters shy In shyLRBergman shy RBCairns shy L-GNilsson shy amp shy LNystedt shy (Eds) shy Developmental science and the holistic approach shy(pp shy137ndash154) shyMahwah shyNJ shyLawrence shyErlbaum shyAssociates

Bergman shyLR shy(2002) shyStudying shyprocesses shySome shymethodological shyconsiderations shyIn shyL shyPulkkinen shyamp shyACaspi shy(Eds) shyPaths to successful development Personality in the life course shy(pp shy177ndash199) shyCambridge shyEngland shyCambridge shyUniversity shyPress

Bergman shyLR shy(in shypress) shyStudying shyindividual shypatterns shyof shydevelopment shyusing shyi-state shysequence shyanalysis shy(ISSA)

Bergman shyLR shyEklund shyG shyamp shyMagnusson shyD shy(1991) shyStudying shyindividual shydevelopment shyProblems shyand shy methods shy In shy DMagnusson shy LRBergman shy GRudinger shy amp shy BToumlrestad shy (Eds) shy Matching problems and methods in longitudinal research Stability and change shy (pp shy 1ndash27) shy Cambridge shyEngland shyCambridge shyUniversity shyPress

Bergman shyLR shyamp shyEl-Khouri shyBM shy(1986) shyOn shythe shypreparatory shyanalysis shyof shymultivariate shydata shybefore shy(longitudinal) shycluster shyanalysis shySome shytheoretical shyconsiderations shyand shya shydata shyprogram shyReports from the Department of Psychology shyStockholm shyUniversity shy(No shy651)

Bergman shyLR shyamp shyEl shyKhouri shyBM shy(1987) shyEXACONmdasha shyFortran shy77 shyprogram shyfor shythe shyexact shyanalysis shyof shysingle shycells shyin shya shycontingency shytable shyEducational and Psychological Measurement 47 shy155ndash161

Bergman shy LR shy amp shy El shy Khouri shy BM shy (1999) shy Studying shy individual shy patterns shy of shy development shy using shy shyi-states shyas shyobjects shyanalysis shy(ISOA) shyBiometrical Journal 41 shy753ndash770

Bergman shyLR shyamp shyEl shyKhouri shyBM shy(2001) shyDevelopmental shyprocesses shyand shy the shymodern shy typological shyperspective shyEuropean Psychologist 6 shy177ndash186

Bergman LR amp El Khouri BM (in press) Rater-based classification methodsBergman shyLR shyamp shyMagnusson shyD shy(1983) shyThe shydevelopment shyof shypatterns shyof shymaladjustment shyReport

from the project Individual Development and Environment shyPsychological shyDepartment shyStockholm shyUniversity shy(No shy50)

Bergman shyLR shyamp shyMagnusson shyD shy(1984a) shyPatterns shyof shyadjustment shyproblems shyat shyage shy10 shyAn shyempirical shyand shymethodological shystudy shyReports from the Department of Psychology shyUniversity shyof shyStockholm shy(No shy615)

Bergman shyLR shyamp shyMagnusson shyD shy(1984b) shyPatterns shyof shyadjustment shyproblems shyat shyage shy13 shyAn shyempirical shyand shymethodological shystudy shyReports from the Department of Psychology shyUniversity shyof shyStockholm shy(No shy620)

Bergman shyLR shyamp shyMagnusson shyD shy(1986) shyType shyA shybehavior shyA shylongitudinal shystudy shyfrom shychildhood shyto shyadulthood shyPsychosomatic Medicine 48 shy134ndash142

Bergman shyLR shyamp shyMagnusson shyD shy (1987) shyA shyperson shyapproach shy to shy the shy study shyof shy the shydevelopment shyof shyadjustment shyproblems shyAn shyempirical shyexample shyand shysome shyresearch shyconsiderations shyIn shyDMagnusson shyamp shyAOumlhman shy(Eds) shyPsychopathology An interactional perspective shy (pp shy383ndash401) shyNew shyYork shyAcademic shyPress

Bergman shyLR shyamp shyMagnusson shyD shy(1990) shyGeneral shyissues shyabout shydata shyquality shyin shylongitudinal shyresearch shyIn shy DMagnusson shy amp shy LRBergman shy (Eds) shy Data quality in longitudinal research shy (pp shy 1ndash31) shy shyCambridge shyEngland shyCambridge shyUniversity shyPress

Bergman shyLR shyamp shyMagnusson shyD shy(1991) shyStability shyand shychange shyin shypatterns shyof shyextrinsic shyadjustment shyproblems shy In shy DMagnusson shy LRBergman shy GRudinger shy amp shy BToumlrestad shy (Eds) shy Problems and methods in longitudinal research Stability and change shy (pp shy 323ndash346) shy Cambridge shy England shyCambridge shyUniversity shyPress

References 11

Bergman shyLR shyamp shyMagnusson shyD shy(1997) shyA shyperson-oriented shyapproach shyin shyresearch shyon shydevelopmental shypsychopathology shyDevelopment and Psychopathology 9 shy291ndash319

Bergman LR amp Eye Avon (1987) Normal approximations of exact tests in configural frequency analysis shyBiometric Journal 29 shy849ndash855

Berliner shyLM shy(1992) shyStatistics shyprobability shyand shychaos shyStatistical Science 7 shy69ndash90Bishop shyYMM shyFeinberg shySE shyamp shyHolland shyPW shy(1975) shyDiscrete multivariate analysis Theory and

practice shyCambridge shyMA shyMIT shyPressBlashfield RK (1980) The growth of cluster analysis Tryon Ward and Johnson Multivariate

Behavioral Research 15 shy439ndash458Blashfield RK amp Aldenderfer MS (1988) The methods and problems of cluster analysis In

JRNesselroade shyamp shyRBCattell shy(Eds) shyHandbook of multivariate experimental psychology shy(2nd shyed shypp shy447ndash473) shyNew shyYork shyPlenum

Block shyJ shy(1971) shyLives through time shyBerkeley shyCA shyBancroft shyBooksBreckenridge shyJN shy(1989) shyReplicating shycluster shyanalysis shyMethod shyconsistency shyand shyvalidity shyMultivariate

Behavioral Research 24 shy147ndash161Cairns shyRB shy(1979) shySocial development The origins and plasticity of interchanges shySan shyFrancisco shy

WHFreeman shyamp shyCoCairns shyRB shy(1986) shyPhenomena shylost shyIssues shyin shythe shystudy shyof shydevelopment shyIn shyJValsiner shy(Ed) shyThe

individual subject and scientific psychology shy(pp shy79ndash112) shyNew shyYork shyPlenum shyPressCairns shy RB shy (2000) shy Developmental shy science shy Three shy audacious shy implications shy In shy LRBergman shy

RBCairns shyL-GNilsson shyamp shyLNystedt shy(Eds) shyDevelopmental science and the holistic approach shy(pp shy49ndash62) shyMahwah shyNJ shyLawrence shyErlbaum shyAssociates

Cairns shyRB shyamp shyCairns shyBD shy(1994) shyLifelines and risks Pathways of youth in our time shyNew shyYork shyCambridge shyUniversity shyPress

Cairns shyRB shyElder shyGH shy Jr shyamp shyCostello shyEJ shy (Eds) shy (1996) shyDevelopmental Science shyNew shyYork shyCambridge shyUniversity shyPress

Cairns shy RB shy amp shy Gariepy shy J-L shy amp shy Hood shy KE shy (1990) shy Development shy microevolution shy and shy social shybehavior shyPsychological Review 97 shy49ndash65

Cairns RB amp Rodkin PC (1998) Phenomena regained From configurations to pathways In RBCairns shyLRBergman shyamp shyJKagan shy (Eds) shyMethods and models for studying the individual shy shy(pp shy245ndash263) shyThousand shyOaks shyCA shySage

Carmichael shyJW shyamp shySneath shyPHA shy(1969) shyTaxometric shymaps shySystematic Zoology 18 shy402ndash415Casti shyJL shy(1989) shyAlternate realities Mathematical models of nature and man shyNew shyYork shyWileyCattell shy RB shy (1957) shy Personality and motivation structure and measurement shy New shy York shy World shy

BookCattell shyRB shyamp shyCoulter shyMA shy(1966) shyPrinciples shyof shybehavioural shytaxonomy shyand shythe shymathematical shybasis shy

of shythe shytaxonom shycomputer shyprogram shyBritish Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology 19 shy237ndash269

Chatterjee shyS shyamp shyYilmaz shyMR shy(1992) shyChaos shyfractals shyand shystatistics shyStatistical Science 7 shy49ndash68Cicchetti shy D shy (1996) shy Child shy maltreatment shy Implications shy for shy developmental shy theory shy and shy research shy

Human Development 39 shy18ndash39Clogg shyCC shy(1979) shySome shylatent shystructure shymodels shyfor shythe shyanalysis shyof shyLikert-type shydata shySocial Science

Research 8 shy237ndash269Clogg shy CC shy (1981a) shy Latent shy structure shy models shy of shy mobility shy American Journal of Sociology shy shy

86 shy836ndash868Clogg shyCC shy(1981b) shyNew shydevelopments shyin shylatent shystructure shyanalysis shyIn shyDMJackson shyamp shyEF shyBorgatt shy

(Eds) shyFactor analysis and measurement shy(pp shy215ndash246) shyBeverly shyHills shyCA shySageClogg shyCC shyEliason shySR shyamp shyGrego shy JM shy (1990) shyModels shy for shy the shy analysis shy of shy change shy in shydiscrete shy

shyvariables shyIn shyAvon shyEye shy(Ed) shyStatistical methods in longitudinal research Vol II Time series and categorical longitudinal data shy(pp shy409ndash441) shyNew shyYork shyAcademic shyPress

1 References

Coie shyJD shyWatt shyNF shyWest shySG shyHawkins shyJD shyAsarnow shyJR shyMarkman shyHJ shyRamey shySL shyShure shyMB shyamp shyLong shyB shy(1993) shyThe shyscience shyof shyprevention shyA shyconceptual shyframework shyand shysome shydirections shyfor shya shynational shyresearch shyprogram shyAmerican Psychologist 48 shy1013ndash1022

Colinvaux shyP shy(1980) shyWhy big fierce animals are rare shyPrinceton shyNJ shyPrinceton shyUniversity shyPressCollins shy LM shy amp shyWugalter shy SE shy (1992) shy Latent shy class shy models shy for shy stage-sequential shy dynamic shy latent shy

variables shyMultivariate Behavioral Research 27 shy131ndash157Cormack RM (1971) A review of classification Journal of the Royal Statistical Society shy shy

134 shy321ndash367Cowen shyEL shy(1991) shyIn shypursuit shyof shywellness shyAmerican Psychologist 46 shy404ndash408Cox shyA shyRutter shyM shyYule shyB shyamp shyQuinton shyD shy(1977) shyBias shyresulting shyfrom shymissing shyinformation shySome shy

epidemiological findings British Journal of Preventive Social Medicine 31 shy131ndash136Crick shy F shy (1988) shy What mad pursuit A personal view of scientific discovery shy New shy York shy shy

Basic shyBooksCronbach LJ (1975) Beyond the two disciplines of scientific psychology American Psychologist

30 shy116ndash127Cronbach LJ amp Gleser GC (1953) Assessing similarity between profiles Psychological Bulletin

50 shy456ndash473Cronbach shyLJ shyGleser shyGC shyNanda shyH shyamp shyRajaratnam shyN shy(1971) shyThe dependability of behavioral

measurements Multifacet studies of generalizability shyNew shyYork shyWileyCudeck shyR shyDu shyTroit shyS shyamp shySoumlrbom shyD shy(Eds) shy(2001) shyStructural equation modeling Present and

futuremdashA Festschrift in honor of Karl GJoumlreskog Chicago Scientific Software InternationalCurran shyPJ shyamp shyBollen shyKA shy(2001) shyThe shybest shyof shyboth shyworlds shyCombining shyautoregressive shyand shylatent shy

curve shy models shy In shy LMCollins shy amp shyAGSayer shy (Eds) shy New methods for the analysis of change shy shy(pp shy105ndash136) shyWashington shyDC shyAmerican shyPsychological shyAssociation

DeNeve shyKM shyamp shyCooper shyH shy (1998) shyThe shyhappy shypersonality shyA shymeta-analysis shyof shy137 shypersonality shytraits shyand shysubjective shywell-being shyPsychological Bulletin 124 shy197ndash229

De Soete G (1993) Using latent classification analysis in categorization research In shyIVan shy Mechelen shy JHampton shy RSMichalski shy amp shy PTheuns shy (Eds) shy Categories and concepts shy shy(pp shy309ndash330) shySan shyDiego shyAcademic shyPress

De shySoete shyG shyamp shyDeSarbo shyWS shy(1991) shyA shylatent shyclass shyprobit shymodel shyfor shyanalyzing shypick shyanyN shydata shyJournal of Classification 4 shy155ndash173

Diday shyE shyamp shySimon shyJC shy(1976) shyClustering shyanalysis shyIn shyKSFu shy(Ed) shyCommunication and cybernetics shy10 shy(pp shy47ndash94) shyBerlin shySpringer shyVerlag

Diener shyE shySuh shyEM shyLucas shyRE shyamp shySmith shyHL shy(1999) shySubjective shywell-being shyThree shydecades shyof shyprogress shyPsychological Bulletin 125 shy276ndash302

Dubes shyR shyamp shyJain shyAK shy(1979) shyValidity shystudies shyin shyclustering shymethodologies shyPattern Recognition 11 shy235ndash254

Durlak shy JA shy (1997) shy Successful prevention programs for children and adolescents shy New shy York shy shyPlenum shyPress

Edelbrock shy C shy (1979) shy Mixture shy model shy tests shy of shy hierarchical shy clustering shy algorithms shyThe shy problem shy of shy shyclassifying shyeverybody shyMultivariate Behavioral Research 14 shy367ndash384

Ekman shyG shy(1951) shyOn shytypological shyand shydimensional shysystems shyof shyreference shyin shydescribing shypersonality shyActa Psychologica 8 shy1ndash24

Ekman shyG shy(1952) shyDifferentiell psykologi shy[Differential shypsychology] shyUppsala shySweden shyAlmqvist shyamp shyWiksell

El-Khouri shy BM shy amp shy Bergman shy LR shy (1992) shy M-PREP shyA shy Fortran shy 77 shy program shy for shy the shy preparatory shy shyanalysis shyof shymultivariate shydata shyReports from the Department of Psychology shyStockholm shyUniversity shy(No shy751)

Everitt shyB shy(1974) shyCluster analysis shyNew shyYork shyWileyEysenck shyHJ shy(1953) shyThe structure of human personality shyNew shyYork shyWiley shyamp shySons

References 1

Fortier shy JJ shyamp shySolomon shyH shy (1966) shyClustering shyprocedures shy In shyPRKrishnaiah shy (Ed) shyMultivariate analysis shy(pp shy493ndash506) shyNew shyYork shyAcademic shyPress

Frank shyO shyamp shyHarary shyF shy(1982) shyCluster shyinference shyby shyusing shytransitivity shyindices shyin shyempirical shygraphs shyJournal of the American Statistical Association 77 shy835ndash840

Gangestad shyS shyamp shySnyder shyM shy(1985) shyTo shycarve shynature shyat shyits shyjoints shyOn shythe shyexistence shyof shydiscrete shyclasses shyin shypersonality shyPsychological Review 92 shy317ndash349

Gleick shyJ shy(1987) shyChaos Making a new science shyNew shyYork shyViking shyPressGordon shyAD shy (1981) shy Classification Methods for the exploratory analysis of multivariate data shy

shyLondon shyChapman shyamp shyHallGordon AD (1996) Hierarchical classification In PArabie LJHubert amp GDe Soete (Eds)

shyClustering and classification (pp 65ndash121) Singapore World Scientific PublishingGordon shyAD shyamp shyHendersson shyJT shy(1977) shyAn shyalgorithm shyfor shyEuclidean shysum shyof shysquares shyBiometrics

33 shy355Greenwald shy AG shy Pratkanis shy AR shy Lieppe shy MR shy amp shy Baumgardner shy MH shy (1986) shy Under shy what shy

shyconditions shydoes shytheory shyobstruct shyresearch shyprogress shyPsychological Review 93 shy216ndash229Gregson shyRAM shy(1975) shyPsychometrics of similarity shyNew shyYork shyAcademic shyPressGroves shyRM shy(1989) shySurvey errors and survey costs shyNew shyYork shyJohn shyWileyGustafson shySB shyamp shyRitzer shyDR shy(1995) shyThe shydark shyside shyof shynormal shyA shypsychopathy-linked shypattern shycalled shy

aberrant shyself-promotion shyEuropean Journal of Personality 9 shy147ndash183Haberman SJ (1973) The analysis of residuals in cross-classified tables Biometrics 29 shy205ndash220Harreacute shyR shy(2000) shyActs shyof shyliving shyScience 289 shy1303ndash1304Harris shyCW shy(1963) shyProblems in measuring change shyMadison shyWI shyUniversity shyof shyWisconsin shyPressHartigan shyJA shy(1975) shyClustering algorithms shyNew shyYork shyWileyHellvik shyO shy(1988) shyIntroduction to causal analysis Exploring survey data by crosstabulation shyOslo shy

Norwegian shyUniversity shyPressHildebrand shyDK shyLaing shyJD shyamp shyRosenthal shyH shy(1977) shyPrediction analysis of cross-classifications shy

New shyYork shyWileyHolm shyS shy(1979) shyA shysimple shysequentially shyrejective shymultiple shytest shyprocedure shyScandinavian Journal of

Statistics 6 shy65ndash70Hubert shyLJ shyamp shyArabie shyP shy(1985) shyComparing shypartitions shyJournal of Classification 2 shy193ndash218Jackson shyAE shy(1989) shyPerspectives on nonlinear dynamics shy(Vol shy1) shyCambridge shyEngland shyCambridge shy

University shyPressJahoda shyM shy(1958) shyCurrent concepts of positive mental health shyNew shyYork shyBasic shyBooksJardine shyN shyamp shySibson shyR shy(1968a) shyA shymodel shyof shytaxonomy shyMathematical Biosciences 2 shy465ndash482Jardine N amp Sibson R (1968b) The construction of hierarchic and non-hierarchic classification

Computer Journal 11 shy177ndash184Johnson shySC shy(1967) shyHierarchical shyclustering shyschemes shyPsychometrika 32 shy241Jones shy CJ shy amp shy Nesselroade shy JR shy (1990) shy Multivariate shy replicated shy single-subject shy designs shy and shy shy

P-technique shyfactor shyanalysis shyA shyselective shyreview shyof shythe shyliterature shyExperimental Aging Research 16 shy171ndash183

Kagan shyJ shy(1994) shyGalenrsquos prophecy Temperament in human nature shyNew shyYork shyBasic shyBooksKagan shyJ shy(2000) shyThe shymodern shysynthesis shyin shypsychological shydevelopment shyIn shyLRBergman shyRBCairns shy

L-GNilsson shyamp shyLNystedt shy(Eds) shyDevelopmental science and the holistic approach shy(pp shy65ndash80) shyMahwah shyNJ shyLawrence shyErlbaum shyAssociates

Kagan shy J shy Snidman shy N shy amp shy Arcus shy D shy (1998) shy The shy value shy of shy extreme shy groups shy In shy RBCairns shyLRBergman shyamp shyJKagan shy(Eds) shyMethods and models for studying the individual shy(pp shy65ndash80) shyThousand shyOaks shyCA shySage

Kelso shyJAS shy(1995) shyDynamic patterns The self-organization of brain and behavior shyCambridge shyMA shyMIT shyPress

14 References

Kelso shyJAS shy(2000) shyPrinciples shyof shydynamic shypattern shyformation shyand shychange shyfor shya shyscience shyof shyhuman shybehavior shyIn shyLRBergman shyRBCairns shyL-GNilsson shyamp shyLNystedt shy(Eds) shyDevelopmental science and the holistic approach shy(pp shy63ndash83) shyMahwah shyNJ shyLawrence shyErlbaum shyAssociates

Kitchener shy RF shy (1982) shy Holism shy and shy the shy organismic shy model shy of shy developmental shy psychology shy Human Development 25 shy233ndash249

Krauth shy J shy (1993) shy Einfuumlhrung in die Konfigurationsfrequenzanalyse (KFA) shy [Introduction shy to shy configuration frequency analysismdashCFA] Weinheim Basel Beltz Psychologie-Verlag-Union

Krauth J (1985) Typological personality research by configural frequency analysis Personality and Individual Differences 6 shy161ndash168

Krauth shyJ shyamp shyLienert shyGA shy(1973) shyKFA Die Konfigurationsfrequenzanalyse und ihre Anwendung in Psychologie und Medizin [CFA configuration frequency analysis and its application in psychology and shymedicine] shyFreiburg shyGermany shyAlber

Krauth J amp Lienert GA (1982) Fundamentals and modifications of configural frequency analysis (CFA) shyInterdisciplinaria 3 shy1

Lambert shyJM shyamp shyWilliams shyWT shy(1966) shyMultivariate shymethods shyin shyplant shyecology shyVI shyComparison shyof shyinformation-analysis shyand shyassociation-analysis shyJournal of Ecology 54 shy634ndash664

Lance GN amp Williams WT (1966) Computer programs for hierarchical polythetic classification (ldquosimilarity shyanalysesrdquo) shyComputer Journal 9 shy60ndash64

Lazarsfeld shy PE shy amp shy Henry shy NW shy (1968) shy Latent structure analysis New York Houghton Mifflin Company

Lehmacher W (1981) A more powerful simultaneous test procedure in configural frequency analysis Biometrical Journal 23 shy429ndash436

Lerman shyI shyamp shyPeter shyP shy(1985) shyEacutelaboration shyet shylogiciel shydrsquoun shyindice shyde shysimilariteacute shyentre shyobjects shydrsquoun shytype shyquelconque Application au problem de concencus en classification [Development and software of an shyindex shyof shysimilarity shybetween shyobjects shyof shyarbitrary shytypes shyApplication shyof shythe shyproblem shyof shyconsensus shyin classification] Rapports de Recherche No 434 shyRennes shyInstitut shyNationale shyde shyRecherche shyen shyInformatique shyet shyen shyAutomatique

Lerner shyRM shy(1984) shyOn the nature of human plasticity shyNew shyYork shyCambridge shyUniversity shyPressLerner shy RM shy (1991) shy Changing shy organism-context shy relations shy as shy the shy basis shy of shy development shy A shy

shydevelopmental shycontextual shyperspective shyDevelopmental Psychology 27 shy27ndash32Lewin shyK shy(1933) shyEnvironmental shyforces shyin shychild shybehavior shyand shydevelopment shyIn shyCMurchison shy(Ed) shyA

handbook of child psychology shy(2nd shyed shypp shy590ndash625) shyWorcester shyMA shyClark shyUniversity shyPressLienert shy GA shy amp shy Bergman shy LR shy (1985) shy Longisectional shy interaction shy structure shy analysis shy (LISA) shy in shy

shypsychopharmacology shyand shydevelopmental shypsychopathology shyNeuropsychobiology 14 shy27ndash34Lienert shy GA shy amp shy zur shy Oeveste shy H shy (1985) shy CFA shy as shy a shy statistical shy tool shy for shy developmental shy research shy

shyEducational amp Psychological Measurement 45 shy301ndash307Ling shy RF shy (1973) shy A shy probability shy theory shy of shy cluster shy analysis shy Journal of the American Statistical

Association 68 shy159ndash164Lord shyFM shy(1963) shyElementary shymodels shyfor shymeasuring shychange shyIn shyCWHarris shyProblems in measuring

change shy(pp shy21ndash38) shyMadison shyWI shyThe shyUniversity shyof shyWisconsin shyPressLorr shyM shyamp shyRadhakrishnan shyB shy(1967) shyA shycomparison shyof shytwo shymethods shyof shycluster shyanalysis shyEducational

and Psychological Measurement 27 shy47ndash53Luthar shy SS shy (1993) shyAnnotation shy Methodological shy and shy conceptual shy issues shy in shy research shy on shy childhood shy

resilience shyJournal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 34 shy441ndash453Macnaughton-Smith shyP shyWilliams shyWT shyDale shyMB shyamp shyMockett shyLG shy(1964) shyDissimilarity shyanalysis shy

A shynew shytechnique shyof shyhierarchical shysub-division shyNature 202 shy1034ndash1035MacQueen J (1967) Some methods for classification and analysis of multivariate observations In

LMLe shyCam shyamp shyJNeyman shy(Eds) shyProceedings of the Fifth Berkeley Symposium on Mathematical Statistics and Probability shy(Vol shy1 shypp shy281ndash297) shyBerkeley shyUniversity shyof shyCalifornia shyPress

References 1

Magnusson shy D shy (1976) shy The shy person shy and shy the shy situation shy in shy an shy interactional shy model shy of shy behavior shy shyScandinavian Journal of Psychology 17 shy253ndash271

Magnusson shyD shy(1985) shyImplications shyof shyan shyinteractional shyparadigm shyfor shyresearch shyon shyhuman shydevelopment shyInternational Journal of Behavioral Development 8 shy115ndash137

Magnusson shyD shy(1988) shyIndividual shydevelopment shyfrom shyan shyinteractional shyperspective shyIn shyD shyMagnusson shy(Series shyEd) shyPaths through life shy(Vol shy1) shyHillsdale shyNJ shyLawrence shyErlbaum shyAssociates

Magnusson shy D shy (1990) shy Personality shy development shy from shy an shy interactional shy perspective shy In shy L shy Pervin shy(Ed) shyHandbook of personality shy(pp shy193ndash222) shyNew shyYork shyGuilford shyPress

Magnusson shy D shy (1992) shy Back shy to shy the shy phenomena shyTheory shy methods shy and shy statistics shy in shy psychological shyresearch shyEuropean Journal of Personality 6 shy1ndash14

Magnusson shyD shy(1993) shyHuman shyontogeny shyA shylongitudinal shyperspective shyIn shyDMagnusson shyamp shyPCasaer shy(Eds) shyLongitudinal research on individual development Present status and future perspectives shy(pp shy1ndash25) shyCambridge shyEngland shyCambridge shyUniversity shyPress

Magnusson shyD shy(1995) shyIndividual shydevelopment shyA shyholistic shyintegrated shymodel shyIn shyPMoen shyGHElder shyamp shyKLuumlscher shy(Eds) shyLinking lives and contexts Perspectives on the ecology of human development shy(pp shy19ndash60) shyWashington shyDC shyAPA shyBooks

Magnusson shy D shy (1996) shy Towards shy a shy developmental shy science shy In shy DMagnusson shy (Ed) shy The life-span development of individuals Behavioral neurobiological and psychosocial perspectives shy shy(pp shyXVndashXVII) shyCambridge shyMA shyCambridge shyUniversity shyPress

Magnusson shyD shy(1998a) shyThe shylogic shyand shyimplications shyof shya shyperson shyapproach shyIn shyRBCairns shyLRBergman shyamp shyJKagan shy(Eds) shyMethods and models for studying the individual shy(pp shy33ndash63) shyThousand shyOaks shyCA shySage

Magnusson shyD shy(1998b) shyThe shyperson shyin shydevelopmental shyresearch shyIn shyJGAdair shyDBeacutelanger shyamp shyKLDion shy(Eds) shyAdvances in psychological sciences shy (Vol shy1 shypp shy495ndash511) shyHove shyEngland shyPsychology shyPress

Magnusson shy D shy (1999a) shy Holistic shy interactionism shy A shy perspective shy for shy research shy on shy personality shy shydevelopment shyIn shyLPervin shyamp shyOJohn shy(Eds) shyHandbook of personality shy(pp shy219ndash247) shyNew shyYork shyGuilford

Magnusson shyD shy(1999b) shyOn shythe shyindividual shyA shyperson shyapproach shyto shydevelopmental shyresearch shyEuropean Psychologist 4 shy205ndash218

Magnusson shyD shy(2000) shyThe shyindividual shyas shythe shyorganizing shyprinciple shyin shypsychological shyinquiry shyA shyholistic shyapproach shyIn shyLRBergman shyRBCairns shyL-GNilsson shyamp shyLNystedt shy(Eds) shyDevelopmental science and the holistic approach shy(pp shy33ndash47) shyMahwah shyNJ shyLawrence shyErlbaum shyAssociates

Magnusson shy D shy (2001) shy The shy holistic-interactionistic shy paradigm shy Some shy directions shy for shy empirical shy shydevelopmental shyresearch shyEuropean Psychologist 6 shy153ndash162

Magnusson shyD shyamp shyAllen shyVL shy(1983a) shyImplications shyand shyapplications shyof shyan shyinteractional shyperspective shyfor shyhuman shydevelopment shyIn shyDMagnusson shyamp shyVLAllen shy(Eds) shyHuman development An interactional perspective shy(pp shy369ndash387) shyNew shyYork shyAcademic shyPress

Magnusson shy D shy amp shyAllen shy VL shy (1983b) shyAn shy interactional shy perspective shy for shy human shy development shy In shyDMagnusson shyamp shyVLAllen shy(Eds) shyHuman development An interactional perspective shy(pp shy3ndash31) shyNew shyYork shyAcademic shyPress

Magnusson shyD shyAndersson shyT shyamp shyToumlrestad shyB shy(1993) shyMethodological shyimplications shyof shya shypeephole shyperspective shy on shy personality shy In shy DCFunder shy RDParke shy CTomlinson-Keasey shy amp shy KWideman shy(Eds) shy Studying lives through time Personality and development shy (pp shy 207ndash220) shyWashington shyDC shyAmerican shyPsychological shyAssociation

Magnusson shyD shyamp shyBergman shyLR shy(1988) shyIndividual shyand shyvariable-based shyapproaches shyto shylongitudinal shyresearch shy on shy early shy risk shy factors shy In shy MRutter shy (Ed) shy Studies of psychosocial risk The power of longitudinal data shy(pp shy45ndash61) shyCambridge shyEngland shyCambridge shyUniversity shyPress

1 References

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Magnusson shy D shy Bergman shy LR shy Rudinger shy G shy amp shyToumlrestad shy B shy (1991) shy Problems and methods in longitudinal research Stability and change shyCambridge shyEngland shyCambridge shyUniversity shyPress

Magnusson D amp Cairns RB (1996) Developmental science Toward a unified framework In RBCairns shyGHElder shyJr shyEJCostello shyamp shyAMcGuire shy(Eds) shyDevelopmental science shy(pp shy7ndash30) shyNew shyYork shyCambridge shyUniversity shyPress

Magnusson shyD shyDuneacuter shyA shyamp shyZetterblom shyG shy(1975) shyAdjustment A longitudinal study shyStockholm shyAlmqvist shyamp shyWiksell

Magnusson shy D shy amp shy Mahoney shy JL shy (2002) shy A shy holistic shy person shy approach shy for shy research shy on shy positive shy shydevelopment shy In shyLGAspenwill shyamp shyUMStaudinger shy(Eds) shyHuman strengths shyWashington shyDC shyAPA shyBooks

Magnusson shy D shy amp shy Stattin shy H shy (1998) shy Person-context shy interaction shy theories shy In shy RMLerner shy shy(Vol shy Ed) shy amp shy WDamon shy (Ed-in-Chief) shy Handbook of child psychology Theoretical models of human development shy(Vol shy1 shypp shy685ndash759) shyNew shyYork shyWiley

Magnusson shyD shyStattin shyH shyamp shyAllen shyVL shy(1986) shyDifferential shymaturation shyamong shygirls shyand shyits shyrelation shyto shysocial shyadjustment shyA shylongitudinal shyperspective shyIn shyPBaltes shyDFeatherman shyamp shyR shyLerner shy(Eds) shyLife span development shy(Vol shy7 shypp shy134ndash172) shyNew shyYork shyAcademic shyPress

Mahoney shyJL shyamp shyBergman shyLR shy(2002) shyToward a developmental perspective to the study of positive adaptation shyManuscript shyin shypreparation

Mayr shyE shy(1997) shyThis is biology shyCambridge shyMA shyThe shyBelknap shyPress shyof shyHarvard shyUniversity shyPressMcArdle shyJJ shyamp shyEpstein shyDB shy(1987) shyLatent shygrowth shycurves shywithin shydevelopmental shystructural shyequation shy

models shyChild Development 58 shy110ndash133McQuitty shy LL shy (1956) shy Agreement shy analysis shy Classifying shy persons shy by shy predominant shy patterns shy of shy

responses shyBritish Journal of Statistical Psychology 9 shy5ndash16McQuitty shyLL shy(1964) shyCapabilities shyand shyimprovements shyof shylinkage shyanalysis shyas shya shyclustering shymethod shy

Educational and Psychological Measurement 24 shy441ndash456McQuitty shy LL shy (1966) shy Similarity shy analysis shy by shy reciprocal shy pairs shy for shy discrete shy and shy continuous shy data shy

shyEducational and Psychological Measurement 26 shy825ndash831Meehl shyPE shy(1992) shyFactors shyand shytaxa shytraits shyand shytypes shydifferences shyof shydegree shyand shydifferences shyin shykind shy

Journal of Personality 60 shy117ndash174Meehl shyPE shyamp shyYonce shyLJ shy(1992) shyTaxometric shyanalysis shyby shythe shymethod shyof shycoherent shycut shykinetics shy[Tech shy

Rep] shyMinneapolis shyMN shyUniversity shyof shyMinnesota shyPsychology shyDepartmentMiller shyKF shy (1987) shyGeometric shymethods shy in shydevelopmental shy research shy In shy JBisanz shyCJ shyBrainerd shyamp shy

RKail shy(Eds) shyFormal methods in developmental psychology shy(pp shy216ndash262) shyNew shyYork shySpringer shyVerlag

Milligan shy GW shy (1996) shy Clustering shy validation shy Results shy and shy implications shy for shy applied shy analyses shy In shyPArabie shy LHubert shy amp shy GDe shy Soete shy (Eds) shy Clustering and classification shy (pp shy 341ndash375) shy River shyEdge NJ World Scientific Press Publishers Co

Milligan GW (1980) An examination of the effect of six types of error perturbation on fifteen shyclustering shyalgorithms shyPsychometrika 45 shy325ndash342

Milligan shyGW shy(1981a) shyA shyMonte shyCarlo shystudy shyof shythirty shyinternal shycriterion shymeasures shyfor shycluster shyanalyses shyPsykometrika 46 shy187ndash199

Milligan shyGW shy(1981b) shyA shyreview shyof shyMonte shyCarlo shytests shyof shycluster shyanalysis shyMultivariate Behavioral Research 16 shy379ndash407

Milligan shyGW shyamp shyCooper shyMC shy(1985) shyAn shyexamination shyof shyprocedures shyfor shydetermining shythe shynumber shyof shyclusters shyin shya shydata shyset shyPsykometrika 50 shy159ndash179

Misiak shyH shyamp shySexton shyV shy(1966) shyHistory of psychology shyNew shyYork shyGrune shyamp shyStratton

References 1

Miyamoto shy S shy (1990) shy Fuzzy sets in information retrieval and cluster analysis shy Dordrecht shy The shy shyNetherlands shyKluwer shyAcademic shyPress

Morey LC Blashfield RK amp Skinner HA (1983) A comparison of cluster analysis techniques within shya shysequential shyvalidation shyframework shyMultivariate Behavioral Research shy18 shy309ndash329

Mumford shyMD shyamp shyOwens shyWA shy(1984) shyIndividuality shyin shya shydevelopmental shycontext shySome shyempirical shyand shytheoretical shyconsiderations shyHuman Development shy27 shy84ndash108

Mutheacuten shy B shy amp shy Mutheacuten shy L shy (2000) shy Integrating shy person-centered shy and shy variable-centered shy analyses shyGrowth shymixture shymodeling shywith shylatent shytrajectory shyclasses shyAlcoholism Clinical and Experimental Research 24 shy882ndash891

Nesselroade shy JR shy amp shy Baltes shy PB shy (1984) shy Sequential shy strategies shy and shy the shy role shy of shy cohort shy effects shy in shybehavioral shydevelopment shyAdolescent shypersonality shy(1070ndash72) shyas shya shysample shycase shy In shySAMednick shyMHarway shy amp shy KMFinello shy (Eds) shy Handbook of longitudinal research shy (Vol shy 1 shy pp shy 55ndash87) shy shyNew shyYork shyPraeger

Nesselroade shy JR shy amp shy Ford shy DH shy (1985) shy P-technique shy comes shy of shy age shy Multivariate shy replicated shy shysingle-subject shydesigns shyfor shyresearch shyon shyolder shyadults shyResearch on Aging 7 shy46ndash80

Nesselroade shy JR shy amp shy Ghisletta shy P shy (2000) shy Beyond shy statistic shy concepts shy in shy modeling shy behavior shy In shyLRBergman shy RBCairns shy L-GNilsson shy amp shy LNystedt shy (Eds) shy Developmental science and the holistic approach shy(pp shy121ndash135) shyMahwah shyNJ shyLawrence shyErlbaum shyAssociates

Nesselroade shy JR shy amp shy Reese shy HW shy (1973) shy Life-span developmental psychology Methodological issues shyNew shyYork shyAcademic shyPress

Olweus shy D shy (1979) shy Stability shy of shy aggressive shy reaction shy patterns shy in shy males shy A shy review shy Psychological Bulletin 86 shy852ndash857

Pierzchala shyM shy (1990) shyA shy review shyof shy the shy state shyof shy the shyart shy in shyautomated shydata shyediting shyand shy imputation shyJournal of Official Statistics 6 shy1

Poincareacute shyH shy(1946) shyThe foundations of science shyLancaster shyEngland shyThe shyScience shyPressPulkkinen shy L shy Maumlnnikuuml shy K shy amp shy Nurmi shy J-E shy (2000) shy Self-description shy and shy personality shy styles shy In shy

LRBergman shy RBCairns shy L-GNilsson shy amp shy LNystedt shy (Eds) shy Developmental science and the holistic approach shy(pp shy265ndash280) shyMahwah shyNJ shyLawrence shyErlbaum shyAssociates

Raudenbush shySW shy (2001) shyToward shya shycoherent shy framework shy for shycomparing shy trajectories shyof shy individual shychange shyIn shyLMCollins shyamp shyAGSayer shy(Eds) shyNew methods for the analysis of change shy(pp shy35ndash64) shyWashington shyDC shyAmerican shyPsychological shyAssociation

Robins shyRW shyJohn shyOP shyamp shyCaspi shyA shy(1998) shyThe shytypological shyapproach shyto shystudying shypersonality shyIn shyRBCairns shyLRBergman shyamp shyJKagan shy (Eds) shyMethods and models for studying the individual shy shy(pp shy135ndash158) shyNew shyYork shySage

Rogosa shy D shy amp shy Willett shy JB shy (1985) shy Understanding shy correlates shy of shy change shy by shy modeling shy individual shy shydifferences shyin shygrowth shyPsychometrika 50 shy203ndash228

Rohlf shyFJ shy(1970) shyAdaptive shyhierarchical shyclustering shyschemes shySystematic Zoology 19 shy58ndash82Roumlnkauml shy A shy amp shy Pulkkinen shy L shy (1995) shy Accumulation shy of shy problems shy in shy social shy functioning shy in shy young

adulthood A developmental approach Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 69 shy381ndash391

Ross shy GJS shy (1969) shy Algorithm shy As shy 15 shy Single shy linkage shy cluster shy analysis shy Applied Statistics shy shy18 shy106ndash110

Rutter shyM shy(1989) shyAge shyas shyan shyambiguous shyvariable shyin shydevelopmental shyresearch shySome shyepidemiologi-cal shy considerations shy from shy developmental shy psychopathology shy International Journal of Behavioral Development 12 shy1ndash34

Rutter shyM shy(1994) shyFamily shydiscord shyand shyconduct shydisorder shyCause shyconsequence shyor shycorrelate shyJournal of Family Psychology 8 shy170ndash186

Rutter M amp Pickles A (1990) Improving the quality of psychiatric data classification cause and shy course shy In shy DMagnusson shy amp shy LRBergman shy (Eds) shy Data quality in longitudinal research shy shy(pp shy32ndash57) shyCambridge shyEngland shyCambridge shyUniversity shyPress

1 References

Ryff shyCD shyamp shySinger shyB shy(1998) shyThe shycontours shyof shyhuman shyhealth shyPsychological Inquiry 9 shy1ndash28Schaie shy KW shy (1965) shyA shy general shy model shy for shy the shy study shy of shy developmental shy problems shy Psychological

Bulletin 64 shy92ndash107Schmitz shyB shy(1987) shyZeitreihenanalyse in der Psychologie Verfahren zur Veraumlnderungsmessung und

Prozessdiagnostik shyWeinheim shyand shyBasel shyGermany shyDeutscher shyStudien shyVerlagSeligman shyMEP shy(1998) shyMessage shyfrom shythe shyPresident shyof shyAPA shyInternetmeddelande shyinfoumlr shyden shy106

e shyaringrliga shyAPA shykongressen shy[Internet shymessage shyat shy the shyprospect shyof shy the shy106th shyannual shyAPA shycongress] shy shyavailable shyat shyhttpwwwapaorgconvention98programmessagehtml shy(99ndash02ndash26)

Shepard shy RN shy (1988) shy George shy Millerrsquos shy data shy and shy the shy development shy of shy methods shy for shy representing shy shycognitive shystructures shyIn shyWHirst shy(Ed) shyThe making of cognitive science Essays in honor of George AMiller shy(pp shy45ndash70) shyNew shyYork shyCambridge shyUniversity shyPress

Shepard shyRN shyamp shyArabie shyP shy (1979) shyAdditive shyclustering shyRepresentation shyof shysimilarities shyof shydiscrete shyoverlapping shyproperties shyPsychological Review 80 shy87ndash123

Smith shy LB shy amp shy Thelen shy E shy (1993) shy A dynamic systems approach to development Applications shy shyCambridge shyMA shyMIT shyPress

Sokal shyRR shyamp shyMichener shyCD shy(1958) shyA shystatistical shymethod shyfor shyevaluating shysystematic shyrelationships shyUniversity of Kansas Science Bulletin 38 shy1409ndash1438

Soumlrensen shy AB shy (1998 shy October) shy Statistical models and mechanisms of social processes shy Paper shy shypresented shyat shythe shyconference shyon shyStatistical shyIssues shyin shythe shySocial shySciences shyRoyal shySwedish shyAcademy shyof shySciences shyStockholm shySweden

Stattin shyH shyamp shyMagnusson shyD shy(1990) shyPubertal shymaturation shyin shyfemale shydevelopment shyIn shyD shyMagnusson shy(Series shyEd) shyPaths through life shy(Vol shy2) shyHillsdale shyNJ shyLawrence shyErlbaum shyAssociates

Stattin shyH shyamp shyMagnusson shyD shy(1996) shyAntisocial shybehaviormdasha shyholistic shyapproach shyDevelopment and Psychopathology 8 shy617ndash645

Stevens shySS shy(1946) shyOn shythe shytheory shyof shyscales shyof shymeasurement shyScience 103 shy677ndash680Thelen shyE shy(1989) shySelf-organization shyin shydevelopmental shyprocesses shyCan shysystems shyapproaches shywork shyIn shy

MRGunnar shyamp shyEThelen shy(Eds) shySystems theory and development shy (pp shy77ndash117) shyHillsdale shyNJ shyLawrence shyErlbaum shyAssociates

Thelen shyE shyamp shySmith shyLB shy(1998) shyDynamic shysystems shytheory shyIn shyRMLerner shy(Vol shyEd) shyamp shyW shyDamon shy(Ed-in-Chief) shy Handbook of child psychology Theoretical models of human development shy shy(Vol shy1 shypp shy563ndash634) shyNew shyYork shyWiley

Thomae shy H shy (1979) shy The shy concept shy of shy development shy and shy life-span shy developmental shy psychology shy In shyPBBaltes shy amp shy JOGBrim shy (Eds) shy Life-span development and behavior shy (Vol shy 2 shy pp shy 281ndash312) shy shyNew shyYork shyAcademic shyPress

Townsend shy JT shy amp shy Ashby shy FG shy (1984) shy Measurement shy scales shy and shy statistics shy The shy misconception shy shymisconceived shyPsychological Bulletin 96 shy394ndash401

Udy shy S shy Jr shy (1959) shy lsquoBureaucracyrsquo shy and shy lsquorationalityrsquo shy in shyWeberrsquos shy organization shy theory shyAn shy empirical shystudy shyAmerican Sociological Review 24 shy791ndash795

Urban shy HB shy (1979) shy The shy concept shy of shy development shy from shy a shy systems shy perspective shy In shy PB shy Baltes shyamp shy OGBrim shy (Eds) shy Life-span development and behavior shy (Vol shy 2 shy pp shy 45ndash83) shy New shy York shy shyAcademic shyPress

Vaillant shyGE shy(1977) shyAdaptation to life shyBoston shyLittle shyBrown shyamp shyCoVallacher shy RB shy amp shy Nowak shy A shy (1994) shy Dynamical systems in social psychology shy San shy Diego shy shy

CA shyAcademic shyPressValsiner shyJ shy(1984) shyTwo shyalternative shyepistemological shyframeworks shyin shypsychology shyThe shytypological shyand shy

variational shymodes shyof shythinking shyThe Journal of Mind and Behavior 5 shy449ndash470Valsiner shyJ shy(1986) shyThe individual subject and scientific psychology shyNew shyYork shyPlenumVargha shyA shy (2001) shyKiacuteseacuterleti shyhelyzetek shyeacutes shyesoportok shyoumlsszehasonliacutetaacutesa shyuacutej shy statisztikai shymoacutedszerekkel shy

[Comparison shy of shy experimental shy conditions shy and shy groups shy by shy means shy of shy new shy alkotaacutes (Learning initiatives and creation)] shyBudapest shyELTE shyEoumltvoumls shyKiadoacute shy371ndash386

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Velleman shyPF shyamp shyWilkinson shyL shy(1993) shyNominal shyordinal shyinterval shyand shyratio shytypologies shyare shymisleading shyThe American Statistician 47 shy65ndash72

von shy Eye shyA shy (1987) shy BASIC programs for configural frequency analysis shy Unpublished shy computer shy shyprogram

von Eye A (1990a) Configural frequency analysis of longitudinal multivariate responses In Avon shyEye shy(Ed) shyStatistical methods in longitudinal research shy(Vol shy2 shypp shy545ndash570) shyNew shyYork shy shyAcademic shyPress

von shyEye shyA shy(1990b) shyIntroduction to configural frequency analysis The search for types and antitypes in cross-classifications shyCambridge shyEngland shyCambridge shyUniversity shyPress

von shyEye shyA shyamp shyBergman shyLR shy(1986) shyA shynote shyon shynumerical shyapproximations shyof shythe shybinomial shytest shyin shyconfigural frequency analysis EDV in Medizin und Biologie 17 shy108ndash111

von shy Eye shy A shy amp shy Clogg shy CC shy (1994) shy Latent variables analysis Applications for developmental research shyLondon shySage shyPublications

von Eye A Spiel C amp Wood P (1996) Configural frequency analysis in applied psychological research shyApplied Psychology An International Review 45 shy301ndash327

Waller shyNG shyamp shyMeehl shyPE shy(1998) shyMultivariate taxometric procedures Distinguishing types from continua shyThousand shyOaks shyCA shySage

Waringngby shyM shyBergman shyLR shyamp shyMagnusson shyD shy (1999) shyDevelopment shyof shy adjustment shyproblems shy in shygirls shyWhat shysyndromes shyemerge shyChild Development 70 shy678ndash699

Ward shyJH shy(1963) shyHierarchical shygrouping shyto shyoptimize shyan shyobjective shyfunction shyJournal of the American Statistical Association 58 shy236ndash244

Watson shyJB shy(1913) shyPsychology shyas shythe shybehaviorist shyviews shyit shyPsychological Review 20 158ndash177Weber shyM shy(1947) shyTheory of social and economic organization shyTranslated shyby shyAR shyHenderson shyamp shy

TParsons shyedited shyby shyTParsons shyGlencoe shyIL shyFree shyPressWerts shyCE shyamp shyLinn shyRL shy(1970) shyA shygeneral shylinear shymodel shyfor shystudying shygrowth shyPsychological Bulletin

73 shy17ndash22Wiener-Ehrlich shy WK shy (1981) shy Hierarchical shy vs shy generally shy overlapping shy models shy in shy psychiatric shy

classification Multivariate Behavioral Research 16 shy455ndash482Wikman shyA shy(1991) shyAtt shyutveckla shysociala shyindikatorer shy[To shydevelop shysocial shyindicators] shyUrval No 21 shy

Stockholm shyStockholm shyStatistiska shyCentralbyraringnWishart D (1969) An algorithm for hierarchical classification Biometrics 25 shy165ndash170Wishart shy D shy (1987) shy CLUSTAN shy [User shy manual] shy Cluster shy analysis shy software shy (pp shy 4ndash10) shy Scotland shy

shyComputing shyLaboratory shyUniversity shyof shySt shyAndrewsWohlwill shyJF shy(1970) shyThe shyage shyvariable shyin shypsychological shyresearch shyPsychological Review shy77 shy49ndash64Wood shyP shy(1990) shyApplications shyof shyscaling shyto shydevelopmental shyresearch shyIn shyAvon shyEye shy(Ed) shyStatistical

methods in longitudinal research shy(Vol shy1 shypp shy225ndash256) shyNew shyYork shyAcademic shyPressZoccollillo shyM shy(1992) shyCo-occurrence shyof shyconduct shydisorder shyand shyits shyadult shyoutcomes shywith shydepressive shy

and shy anxiety shy disorders shyA shy review shy Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 31 shy547ndash556

Zubin shy J shy (1937) shy The shy determination shy of shy response shy patterns shy in shy personality shy adjustment shy inventories shy shyJournal of Educational Psychology 28 shy401ndash413

AAchenbach shyTM shy183Ahn shyW shy72Aldenderfer shyMS shy54 shy113Allen shyVL shy6 shy14 shy26Allport shyGW shy135Anastasi shyA shy35Anderberg shyMR shy54 shy56Andersson shyT shy21 shy22Andrews shyDF shy63Arabie shyP shy54 shy63 shy98 shy113 shy129 shy163Arcus shyD shy13 shy50 shy195Asarnow shyJR shy134Asendorpf shyJB shy36Ashby shyFG shy37

BBackteman shyG shy136Bailey shyKD shy32 shy35 shy190Baltes shyPB shy8 shy16 shy17Barton shyS shy30 shy92Bateson shyPPG shy14Baumgardner shyMH shy193Bereiter shyC shy42Bergman shyLR shy6 shy13 shy19 shy20 shy23 shy25 shy26 shy29 shy31 shy32 shy36 shy38 shy39 shy41 shy42 shy43 shy44 shy47 shy48 shy50 shy53 shy58 shy59 shy60 shy67 shy72 shy79 shy85 shy87 shy88 shy90 shy92 shy94 shy95 shy101 shy119 shy134 shy135 shy136 shy139 shy156 shy166 shy182 shy185 shy187 shy188 shy189 shy190 shy196Berliner shyLM shy192Bishop shyYMM shy44 shy81 shy85Blashfield RK 32 shy54 shy68 shy97 shy101 shy113Block shyJ shy18 shy31 shy36 shy87 shy88Bollen shyKA shy30Breckenridge shyJN shy101

CCairns shyBD shy94Cairns shyRB shy6 shy8 shy11 shy50 shy94 shy195Carmichael shyJW shy63Caspi shyA shy36Casti shyJL shy31 shy92Cattell shyRB shy32 shy63Chatterjee shyS shy192Cicchetti shyD shy13

Clogg shyCC shy20 shy44 shy70Coie shyJD shy134Colinvaux shyP shy31Collins shyLM shy44 shy81 shy85Cooper shyH shy135Cooper shyM shy68 shy90 shy150Cormack shyRM shy56Costello shyEJ shy11Coulter shyMA shy63Cowen shyEL shy135Cox shyA shy43Crick shyF shy194Cronbach shyLJ shy51 shy57 shy96 shy193Cudeck shyR shy29Curran shyPJ shy30

DDale shyMB shy62De shySoete shyG shy61DeNeve shyKM shy135DeSarbo shyWS shy61Diday shyE shy56Diener shyE shy135Du shyTroit shyS shy29Dubes shyR shy97Duneacuter shyA shy27 shy134 shy137Durlak shyJA shy135

EEdelbrock shyC shy50 shy53 shy58Eklund shyG shy6Ekman shyG shy35Elder shyGH shy11Eliason shySR shy44El-Khouri shyBM shy44 shy47 shy72 shy90 shy92 shy119 shy139 shy156 shy166 shy196Epstein shyDB shy30Everitt shyB shy54 shy56Eysenck shyHJ shy36

FFeinberg shySE shy44 shy81 shy85Ford shyDH shy29

AUTHOR INDEX

Author index 11

Fortier shyJJ shy63Frank shyO shy61GGangestad shyS shy13 shy31Garieacutepy shyJL shy195Ghisletta shyP shy29 shy84 shy191Gleick shyJ shy191Gleser shyGC shy57 shy96Gordon shyAD shy54 shy61 shy63 shy68Greenwald shyAG shy193Grego shyJM shy44Gregson shyRAM shy54Groves shyRM shy44 shy101Gustafson shySB shy36

HHaberman shySJ shy48Harary shyF shy61Harreacute shyR shy5 shy6Harris shyCW shy42Hartigan shyJA shy54Hawkins shyJ shy134Hellvik shyO shy20Hendersson shyJT shy63Henry shyNW shy61 shy81Hildebrand shyDK shy95Holland shyPW shy44 shy81 shy85Holm shyS shy78Hood shyKE shy195Hubert shyLJ shy54 shy98 shy113 shy129 shy163

JJackson shyAE shy191Jahoda shyM shy186Jain shyAK shy97Jardine shyN shy63John shyOP shy36Johnson shySC shy62Jones shyCJ shy84

KKagan shyJ shy13 shy50 shy183 shy195Kelso shyJAS shy30 shy191 shy192Kitchener shyRF shy8Krauth shyJ shy34 shy36 shy46 shy74 shy75 shy79 shy80 shy158 shy173

LLaing shyJ shyD shy95Lambert shyJM shy62Lance shyGN shy62 shy57 shy67Lazarsfeld shyPF shy61 shy81Lehmacher shyW shy79Lerman shyI shy56Lerner shyRM shy8 shy10Lewin shyK shy50 shy195Lienert shyGA shy46 shy74 shy75 shy80 shy94 shy95 shy158 shy173Lieppe shyMR shy193Lindenberger shyU shy8Ling shyRF shy63Linn shyRL shy42Long shyB shy134Lord shyFM shy42Lorr shyM shy59Lucas shyRE shy135Luthar shySS shy134

MMacnaughton-Smith shyP shy62MacQueen shyJ shy63Magnusson shyD shy4 shy5 shy6 shy7 shy8 shy9 shy10 shy11 shy12 shy13 shy14 shy15 shy18 shy19 shy20 shy21 shy22 shy23 shy25 shy26 shy27 shy29 shy32 shy38 shy39 shy41 shy43 shy44 shy50 shy87 shy92 shy94 shy134 shy135 shy136 shy137 shy182 shy183 shy185 shy187 shy188 shy189 shy193 shy194Mahoney shyJL shy8 shy135 shy187Maumlnnikouml shyK shy36Markman shyHJ shy134Mayr shyE shy9McArdle shyJJ shy30McQuitty shyLL shy62Meehl shyPE shy32 shy46 shy70 shy71Michener shyCD shy62Miller shyKF shy54Milligan shyGW shy59 shy60 shy68 shy90 shy96 shy98 shy101 shy102 shy121 shy129 shy150Misiak shyH shy36Miyamoto shyS shy67Mockett shyLG shy62Morey shyLC shy68 shy97 shy101Mumford shyMD shy86Mutheacuten shyB shy30Mutheacuten shyL shy30

1 Author index

NNanda shyH shy96Nesselroade shyJR shy17 shy29 shy84 shy101 shy191Nowak shyA shy30Nurmi shyJE shy36

OOlweus shyD shy134Owens shyWA shy86

PPeter shyP shy56Pickles shyA shy197Pierzchala shyM shy44Poincareacute shyH shy191Pratkanis shyAR shy193Pulkkinen shyL shy36 shy183

QQuinton shyD shy43

RRadhakrishnan shyB shy59Rajaratnam shyN shy96Ramey shySL shy134Raudenbush shySW shy30Reese shyHW shy101Ritzer shyDR shy36Robins shyRW shy36Rodkin shyPC shy6 shy50Rogosa shyD shy43Rohlf shyFJ shy63Roumlnkauml shyA shy183Rosenthal shyH shy95Ross shyGJS shy63Rudinger shyG shy189Rutter shyM shy16 shy43 shy134 shy197Ryff shyCD shy135

SSchaie shyKW shy17Schmitz shyB shy29 shy191Seligman shyMEP shy135Sexton shyV shy36Shepard shyRN shy54 shy63

Shure shyMB shy134Sibson shyR shy63Simon shyJC shy56Singer shyB shy135Skinner shyHA shy68 shy97 shy101Smith shyHL shy135Smith shyLB shy7 shy30 shy92 shy191Sneath shyPHA shy63Snidman shyN shy13 shy50 shy195Snyder shyM shy13 shy31Sokal shyRR shy62Solomon shyH shy63Soumlrbom shyD shy29Soumlrensen shyAB shy6 shy190Spiel shyC shy75 shy94Stattin shyH shy6 shy14 shy10 shy134 shy136 shy183Staudinger shyUM shy8Stevens shySS shy37Suh shyEM shy135

TThelen shyE shy7 shy12 shy30 shy92 shy191Thomae shyH shy9Toumlrestad shyB shy21 shy22 shy189Townsend shyJT shy37

UUdy shyS shyJr shy35Urban shyHB shy7

VVaillant shyGE shy135Vallacher shyRB shy30Valsiner shyJ shy13 shy31 shy84 shy195Velleman shyPF shy37von shyEye shyA shy20 shy46 shy47 shy75 shy76 shy79 shy90 shy94 shy158 shy173 shy188

WWaller shyNG shy32 shy71Waringngby shyM shy185Ward shyJH shy62Watson shyJB shy193Watt shyNF shy134Weber shyM shy35Werts shyCE shy42West shySG shy134

Author index 1

Wiener-Ehrlich shyWK shy32 shy46Wikman shyA shy43Wilkinson shyL shy37Willett shyJB shy43Williams shyWT shy62 shy57 shy67Wishart shyD shy59 shy63Wohlwill shyJF shy16Wood shyP shy45 shy75 shy85 shy94Wugalter shySE shy44 shy81 shy85

YYilmaz shyMR shy192Yonce shyLJ shy46 shy70Yule shyB shy43

ZZetterblom shyG shy27 shy134 shy137Zoccollillo shyM shy185Zubin shyJ shy74zur shyOeveste shyH shy94

AAdaptive shy8 shy9 shy12 shy18 shy20 shy23 shy25Adaptive shyability shy8 shy9Adjustment shy3 shy24 shy25 shy33 shy38 shy41 shy136 shy181

182 shy186 shy187Adjustment shyproblems shy25 shy33 shy38 shy39 shy41 shy

175 shy177Agglomerative shymethods shy62 shy63 shy68 shy113Aggression shy25 shy32 shy136 shy137 shy140 shy154 shy156

158 shy175ndash179 shy181ndash183Algorithm shy64Anti-classes shy50Antitype(s) shy48ndash50 shy75ndash80 shy90 shy117 shy161 shy169

172 shy173 shy175ndash178ASED shysee shyEuclidean shydistance

BBinominal shytest shy79Biological maturation 10 14ndash16Bonferroni shycorrection shy78

CCENTROID shy104 shy105 shy123 shy125 shy126 shy152 shy153

161 shy169Centroid shy(methods) shy32 shy33 shy66 shy98 shy99 shy101

102 shy150 shy152 shy154 shy162ndash164 shy169 shy170CFA configural frequency analysis 2 shy34

shy46ndash48 shy50 shy74ndash80 shy82 shy83 shy85 shy94 shy95 shy104105 shy117ndash120 shy128 shy173 shy175 shy177 shy179 shy187188

Chi-square shycomponent shy76 shy125Chronological shyage shy14ndash16Classifier 72ndash73Classification 28 shy31ndash38 shy41 shy44 shy46 shy47 shy52 shy55

60 shy61 shy68 shy69 shy71 shy72 shy74 shy81 shy86ndash89 shy90ndash9294ndash101 shy113 shy129 shy195

Classification phase 60Classificatory system 93CLUSTER shy104 shy114ndash116 shy140 shy148Cluster shyanalysis shy2 shy32ndash34 shy36ndash38 shy58ndash61 shy67

74 shy81 shy82 shy86 shy87 shy89 shy90 shy97 shy102 shy113 shy114138 shy139 shy148 shy150 shy173 shy187 shy189

Cluster shycentroids shy32 shy33 shy102Clustering shy45 shy96 shy97 shy100 shy102 shy113Conditional shyprobability shy69Conduct shyproblems shy32 shy33 shy147 shy183 shy184

Confirmatory set 79Contingency shytables shy46 shy81 shy90Correlation shy14 shy19 shy21 shy22 shy24 shy37 shy38 shy41 shy4998Cross-sectional shy1 shy2 shy14 shy15 shy24 shy36 shy46 shy88 shy94

95 shy117 shy138 shy147 shy161ndash162 shy180 shy195Cross-sectional shymatrix shy15Cross-tabulation shy2 shy80 shy90 shy95 shy98 shy157CWRITE shy104 shy128

DData shydescription shy106Data shypre-processing shy106DENSE shy104 shy129 shy130Density shyseeking shy63DESCRIBE shy104 shy107 shy108 shy140ndash142Descriptive shymethods shy45 shy85Development shytrack shy46 shy92Developmental shyprocess shy16 shy17 shy21 shy23 shy25 shy27

29 shy46 shy86 shy189 shy194Developmental shyresearch shy6 shy4 shy9ndash12 shy16ndash20 shy23

85 shy193Developmental shyscience shy6 shy11 shy17 shy192Dichotomized shy21 shy75ndash78 shy95 shy173 shy187Dichotomy shy117Disharmony shy21 shy22 shy136 shy137 shy140 shy146 shy147 shy154ndash156 shy175ndash177 shy179 shy183ndash186 shy188Dissimilarity shy2 shy32 shy36 shy37 shy54ndash58 shy59 shy63 shy64 shy65ndash67 shy93 shy97ndash99 shy146 shy158 shy172Dissimilarity shymatrix shy37 shy59 shy97 shy98 shy158Divisive shymethods shy62Dynamic shyinteraction shy8 shy9Dynamic shysystem shy1 shy13 shy30 shy92 shy183 shy191

EEnvironmental shyfactors shy17 shy23Euclidean shydistance shy37 shy56ndash58 shy66 shy93 shy98 shy99 shy107 shy109 shy123 shy125 shy140 shy154 shy162EV shyerror shysum shyof shysquares shy99EVALUATE shy104 shy105 shy129 shy131EXACON shy81 shy90 shy98 shy104 shy105 shy125 shy127 shy128 shy156 shy169 shy178Exact shycell-wise shytests shy2Expected shyfrequency shy34 shy49 shy75 shy80 shy117 shy125

156 shy166

SUBJECT INDEX

Subject index 1

Explained shyerror shysum shyof shysquares shyESS shy66 shy89 shy99114 shy115 shy117 shy129 shy150 shy162 shy164 shy166

Exploratory shyset shy79Externalizing shy(adjustment) shyproblems shy184 shy185

GGeneralizability shy38 shy97ndash101Gestalt shy1 shy31 shy101Good shyadjustment shy154Goodness-of-fit 129

HHierachical shyagglomerative shymethods shy113Hierachical shymethods shy61HLM shy30Holistic shy1 shy6 shy8ndash11 shy13 shy17 shy18 shy22 shy25 shy26 shy28Holistic shyframework shy31Holistic shyinteractionistic shyparadigm shy1 shy11 shy

17ndash28 shy31Holistic shymodel shy7 shy11 shy17Holistic shyview shy7ndash10 shy12 shy16 shy193Holistic-interactionistic shy6 shy8 shy9 shy13 shy17 shy18 shy22

26 shy27 shy192Holm-procedure shy79Homogeneity shy55 shy150

IIDA shyprogram shy6 shy14 shy21Identification phase 59Idiographic shy7Imputation shy39 shy44 shy51 shy107 shy138 shy140IMPUTE shy104ndash111 shy119 shy140Individual shychange shy47 shy93 shy125 shy152 shy156

169 shy178Individual shydifferences shy7 shy12 shy14ndash16 shy30Individual shylevel shy22Individual shystability shy47 shy125 shy150 shy152 shy156

169 shy172 shy178 shy182 shy183Individual shyvalue shypattern shy36 shy37Inhibiton shy183 shy184Integrated shyorganism shy7 shy13 shy16Integrated shyperson-environment shysystem shy7ndash9Interaction shystructure shyanalysis shyISA shy80Interactional shyparadigm shy1Interindividual shydifferences shy11 shy14 shy31 shy40 shy84

86 shy88Internalizing shy(adjustment) shyproblems shy184 shy185

Ipsative shystability shy88I-State shyas shyObjects shyAnalysis shyISOA shy2 shy47 shy91ndash93

104 shy105 shy119 shy121 shy122 shy132 shy166 shy168ndash172174 shy187

I-State shySequency shyAnalysis shyISSA shy47

LLack shyof shyconcentration shy32 shy136 shy137 shy140 shy146

147 shy154ndash156 shy175ndash177 shy179 shy184Latent shyclass shy46 shy81 shy85Latent shyclass shyanalysis shy44 shy85 shy69 shy70Latent shyclass shyprobability shy69Latent profile analysis 69Latent shystructure shyanalysis shy2 shy69 shy81Latent shytrait shyanalysis shy69Latent shytransition shyanalysis shyLTA shy2 shy44 shy85LICUR shy2 shy21 shy47 shy68 shy88 shy89 shy91 shy95 shy114 shy132

138 shy139 shy164 shy169 shy172 shy180 shy187Linear shymodels shy19 shy23 shy44Linear shyregression shymodels shy20 shy25LISA shy95LOGLIN shy2 shy46 shy81Log-linear shymodeling shy2 shy46 shy81 shy85Longitudinal shydesign shy16 shy17Longitudinal shyperspective shy46Longitudinal shytypology shy36 shy88Low shyschool shymotivation shy32 shy136 shy137 shy140 shy146

147 shy154ndash156 shy175ndash177 shy179 shy188

MMahalanobis shydistance shy57Maladjustment shy24 shy76 shy80 shy82 shy180 shy182 shy183MAMIN shy48 shy49 shy184Mass significance problem 78 shy90 shy158 shy

169 shy175Measurement shymodel(s) shy18 shy19Minkowski shy57 shy58Missing shydata shy(values) shy12 shy43 shy44 shy107 shy109

138 shy140 shy143Mode shyseeking shy63Model-based shymethods shy2 shy44 shy81 shy85Motor shyrestlessnes shy21 shy22 shy32 shy136 shy137 shy140

154ndash156 shy158 shy172 shy175ndash177 shy179 shy181 shy184187 shy188

Multidetermined shy7 shy8Multidimensional shyscaling shy45 shy85 shy162 shy163Multidimensional shydata shy74

1 Subject index

Multiple shytime-series shy29Multiproblems shy177Multivariate shyspace shy172

NNegative shyadjustment shy134 shy135 shy188NOLIDS shynonlinear shydynamic shysystems shy30 shy31

191 shy192Nomothetic shy7 shy20 shy23Nonlinear shymodels shy19

OObserved shyfrequency shy34 shy48 shy49 shy75ndash79 shy117

25 shy156Ontogenesis shy13Optimization-partitioning shytechniques shy62Outliers shy2 shy50 shy58 shy60

PPattern shy1ndash3 shy12 shy13 shy27 shy31 shy34 shy36 shy37 shy47 shy85

86 shy94 shy172 shy173 shy175ndash179 shy182 shy183186 shy195

Pattern shyanalysis shy13 shy26 shy27 shy37 shy38 shy51Pattern shydevelopment shy50 shy84ndash86 shy94 shy195Pattern-oriented shyanalysis shy51 shy103 shy105Personality shytypes shy13 shy87Person-oriented shyapproach shy1 shy18 shy26 shy38 shy44

135 shy189 shy192Point-biseral shycorrelation shy98 shy99Positive shyadaption shy135Power shy79 shy81 shy85Profile 2 shy31 shy32 shy34 shy38 shy43 shy47 shy48 shy74 shy85 shy87

88 shy97 shy101 shy119 shy147 shy166 shy171 shy196Protective shyfactors shy134 135Proximity shy55 shy69 shy107 shy109 shy113P-technique shy29 shy30 shy191

QQ-factor shyanalysis shy53 shy63 shy87Q-sort shy87Q-sort shymethology shy87Quasi-absolute shyscaling shy41 shy42 shy196

RRAND shyindex shy129 shy163RANDOM shy104 shy105 shy128Random shyhalf shy161ndash164 shy166 shy172 shy187Random shysamples shy91 shy101 shy128Rank shyorder shystability shy16Relocate shy90RELOCATE shy59 shy104 shy105 shy115 shy117 shy118 shy128RESIDAN shy2 shy50 shy58 shy59 shy89 shy93Residue shy50 shy59 shy88 shy89 shy100 shy109 shy146 shy161 shy166RESIDUE shy104 shy111 shy112 shy119 shy140 shy144 shy145

SSchool shyadjustment shy134 shy135 shy138 shy147 shy173

180 shy182 shy186School shyperformance shy147SHAKE shy104 shy105 shy128Short-term shydevelopment shy54ndash57 shy92Similarity shy2 shy27 shy33 shy34 shy37 shy38 shy45 shy52 shy54ndash57

87 shy88 shy94 shy96 shy97 shy123Similarity shymatrix shy37SIMULATE shy100 shy104 shy105 shy121 shy123 shy124 shy128Simulation shyanalysis shy121SLEIPNER shy3 shy44 shy51 shy58 shy79 shy91 shy94 shy98 shy100

101 shy103ndash105 shy107 shy115 shy128 shy132 shy136 shy138145 shy147 shy150 shy152 shy156 shy157 shy166 shy175

Snapshot-and-linking shyapproach shy88States shy3 shy13 shy31 shy92 shy93 shy129Stochastic shyprocess shy7 shy8Stockholm shyLaboratory shyfor shyDevelopment

shyScience shy103Structural shychange shy93 shy123 shy151 shy166Structural shyequation shymodeling shySEM shy19 shy29 shy38Structural shystability shy93 shy123 shy150ndash152 shy166 shy182SUBIND shy104 shy105 shy119 shy132 shy133Subindividual shy129 shy132Subjective shywell-being shy135Subsystem shy8 shy12 shy13 shy17 shy18

TTaxonicity shy70 shy71Teachers shyratings shy136 shy137Theory shydriven shy2Time-independent shy92Timidity shy137 shy140 shy146 shy147 shy154ndash156 shy158

Subject index 1

161 shy172 shy175ndash177 shy179 shy180ndash185 shy187 shy188Trichotomized shy46 shy76 shy78 shy95Trichotomy shy117Twin shy44 shy146Type(s) shy32 shy33 shy49 shy80 shy87 shy90 shy91 shy95 shy75 shy76


Typology shy32ndash35 shy53 shy195ndash196

UUltrametricity shy61Undivided shyorganism shy7

VValue profiles 31 shy33 shy74 shy86ndash89 shy93 shy99

119 shy146Variable shyapproach shy18ndash20 shy23 shy24 shy31 shy194Variable-oriented shyapproach shy26 shy50

WWardrsquos shymethod shy66ndash68 shy89 shy113 shy166White shyspots shy2 shy13 shy50 shy58 shy93 shy173 shy185 shy195

STUDYING shyINDIVIDUAL shy shyDEVELOPMENT shyIN shyAN shy

shyINTERINDIVIDUAL shyCONTEXT

A shyPerson-Oriented shyApproach


David Magnusson








LARS RBERGMAN

DAVID MAGNUSSON

BASSAM MEL KHOURI

shy shy




publisher












CIP



CONTENTS shy











11
















vi Contents
















44















Contents vii


















74


shy shy shy

75


76








viii Contents































Contents ix





















145


shy shy shy



148






x Contents





















shy shy shy







PREFACE







xii Preface




ABOUT THE AUTHORS


DAVID MAGNUSSON


BASSAM EL KHOURI


1 INTRODUCTION














Introduction




1 shyINTRODUCTION










































311 Conclusion






























































42 shyAssumptions
















TABLE 21
























441 Conclusion














511 Conclusion




CONSIDERATIONS









































































Raw score





20 536 3 0Total 1000







Raw score



Relative Frequency

3 minus111 0 2944 minus42 0 2195 27 1 1896 96 2 2347 165 3 308 233 3 219 302 3 410 371 3 6





















































































































shy


shy


shy


shy


shy

























































51 shyAlgorithm













Cp





7 Stop








shy


(1)


and


(2)



shy







ANALYSIS






Ward 0

β-flexible β shy











































PATTERNS











(1)


(2)














1 shy44 shy56




























Gender shy

1 4 0 0 2 2 0 82 1 1 2 1 1 6 12

shy 5 1 2 3 3 6 20

















PATTERN DEVELOPMENT































































331 Introduction





332 Outline of ISOA












































































1 shyINTRODUCTION








shy










































































shy











shy








































































































1 shyINTRODUCTION












122 Variables







Variable Name



























Output from CLUSTER

(231)Renamed

(24)

From CENTROID

(24)

Output from CLUSTER

(231)Renamed

(24)

From CENTROID






shy H6L14H6L33




1 I1 IH13 I3 IH26 I6 IH49 I9 IH8































ASED

shy shy shy 0X=1 167X=2 334X=3 05X=4 667


shy X=2 1334X=4 X=1 1334X=5 X=1 15

shy X=1 15






231 Introduction








Clu

ster

shyN

ame

Agg

ress

ion

Mot

or shy shy

Res

tless

-ne

ss

Tim

idity

Dis

harm

ony

Lack

shyof shy shy

Con

cent

ra-

tion

Low

shySch

ool shy

Mot

ivat

ion shy















Explained ESS

492 668048 769654 517 609084 788058493 733633 764166 518 641282 783376494 766026 758436 519 641731 778690

495 878457 751865 520 676848 773747496 911775 745045 521 716758 768513497 948946 737947 522 861238 762224498 1020833 730311 523 934568 755400499 1271616 720799 524 991490 748160500 1288805 711158 525 1047178 740514501 1321713 701272 526 1337173 730749502 1373170 691001 527 1366566 720771503 1419730 680381 528 1528791 709607504 1600895 668406 529 1666541 697438505 1726673 655490 530 1714608 684918506 1830577 641797 531 1793664 671821507 1925998 627391 532 2263423 655293508 1965078 612692 533 2750084 635212509 2401810 594726 534 3038346 613026510 6403127 546829 535 5055844 576108



511 6516453 498085 536 5859970 533318512 7618999 441094 537 7597601 477840513 5663220 323932 538 8898990 339838514 3305760 0000 539 6539950 0000













shy












SUM 515 shy 540 SUM



























































31 shyIntroduction










Clu

ster

N

ame

Aggr

essi

on

Mot

or

Rest

less

ness

Tim

idity

Dis

harm

ony

Lack

of

Con

cent

ra-

tion

Low

Sch

ool

Mot

ivat

ion shy





























41 shyIntroduction





H1 shy

State Name


13 1681 1796 037 2222 2489 IH4119 1925 2106 090 1156 1333 IH119 843 1131 138 978 800 IH216 996 843 163 1333 1511 IH24

125 487 399 199 844 711 IH23124 885 754 222 1333 933 IH11133 1217 776 561 489 756 IH32

I1 1305 1242 2936 1244 1111 IH8123 642 953 19299 400 356 IH13

shy 100 100 shy 100 100 shy









shy

shy











shy


PatternTypeshy


ProbabilityAdjusted





















PatternTypeshy


SquareBinomial

ProbabilityAdjusted







shy






Pat-tern


111111 19 125 25248 0000 0000112111 7 82 4674 0000 0167113111 12 115 10184 0000 0000331333 10 63 13957 0000 0000332333 6 41 7575 0000 0034333333 7 58 7075 0000 0019




































































































REFERENCES





















10 References



















References 11

























1 References
























References 1




















14 References























References 1



















1 References























References 1






















1 References























References 1



























AUTHOR INDEX

Author index 11







1 Author index




QQuinton shyD shy43








Author index 1

























156 shy166

SUBJECT INDEX

Subject index 1























1 Subject index




















Subject index 1









David Magnusson








LARS RBERGMAN

DAVID MAGNUSSON

BASSAM MEL KHOURI

shy shy




publisher












CIP



CONTENTS shy











11
















vi Contents
















44















Contents vii


















74


shy shy shy

75


76








viii Contents































Contents ix





















145


shy shy shy



148






x Contents





















shy shy shy







PREFACE







xii Preface




ABOUT THE AUTHORS


DAVID MAGNUSSON


BASSAM EL KHOURI


1 INTRODUCTION














Introduction




1 shyINTRODUCTION










































311 Conclusion






























































42 shyAssumptions
















TABLE 21
























441 Conclusion














511 Conclusion




CONSIDERATIONS









































































Raw score





20 536 3 0Total 1000







Raw score



Relative Frequency

3 minus111 0 2944 minus42 0 2195 27 1 1896 96 2 2347 165 3 308 233 3 219 302 3 410 371 3 6





















































































































shy


shy


shy


shy


shy

























































51 shyAlgorithm













Cp





7 Stop








shy


(1)


and


(2)



shy







ANALYSIS






Ward 0

β-flexible β shy











































PATTERNS











(1)


(2)














1 shy44 shy56




























Gender shy

1 4 0 0 2 2 0 82 1 1 2 1 1 6 12

shy 5 1 2 3 3 6 20

















PATTERN DEVELOPMENT































































331 Introduction





332 Outline of ISOA












































































1 shyINTRODUCTION








shy










































































shy











shy








































































































1 shyINTRODUCTION












122 Variables







Variable Name



























Output from CLUSTER

(231)Renamed

(24)

From CENTROID

(24)

Output from CLUSTER

(231)Renamed

(24)

From CENTROID






shy H6L14H6L33




1 I1 IH13 I3 IH26 I6 IH49 I9 IH8































ASED

shy shy shy 0X=1 167X=2 334X=3 05X=4 667


shy X=2 1334X=4 X=1 1334X=5 X=1 15

shy X=1 15






231 Introduction








Clu

ster

shyN

ame

Agg

ress

ion

Mot

or shy shy

Res

tless

-ne

ss

Tim

idity

Dis

harm

ony

Lack

shyof shy shy

Con

cent

ra-

tion

Low

shySch

ool shy

Mot

ivat

ion shy















Explained ESS

492 668048 769654 517 609084 788058493 733633 764166 518 641282 783376494 766026 758436 519 641731 778690

495 878457 751865 520 676848 773747496 911775 745045 521 716758 768513497 948946 737947 522 861238 762224498 1020833 730311 523 934568 755400499 1271616 720799 524 991490 748160500 1288805 711158 525 1047178 740514501 1321713 701272 526 1337173 730749502 1373170 691001 527 1366566 720771503 1419730 680381 528 1528791 709607504 1600895 668406 529 1666541 697438505 1726673 655490 530 1714608 684918506 1830577 641797 531 1793664 671821507 1925998 627391 532 2263423 655293508 1965078 612692 533 2750084 635212509 2401810 594726 534 3038346 613026510 6403127 546829 535 5055844 576108



511 6516453 498085 536 5859970 533318512 7618999 441094 537 7597601 477840513 5663220 323932 538 8898990 339838514 3305760 0000 539 6539950 0000













shy












SUM 515 shy 540 SUM



























































31 shyIntroduction










Clu

ster

N

ame

Aggr

essi

on

Mot

or

Rest

less

ness

Tim

idity

Dis

harm

ony

Lack

of

Con

cent

ra-

tion

Low

Sch

ool

Mot

ivat

ion shy





























41 shyIntroduction





H1 shy

State Name


13 1681 1796 037 2222 2489 IH4119 1925 2106 090 1156 1333 IH119 843 1131 138 978 800 IH216 996 843 163 1333 1511 IH24

125 487 399 199 844 711 IH23124 885 754 222 1333 933 IH11133 1217 776 561 489 756 IH32

I1 1305 1242 2936 1244 1111 IH8123 642 953 19299 400 356 IH13

shy 100 100 shy 100 100 shy









shy

shy











shy


PatternTypeshy


ProbabilityAdjusted





















PatternTypeshy


SquareBinomial

ProbabilityAdjusted







shy






Pat-tern


111111 19 125 25248 0000 0000112111 7 82 4674 0000 0167113111 12 115 10184 0000 0000331333 10 63 13957 0000 0000332333 6 41 7575 0000 0034333333 7 58 7075 0000 0019




































































































REFERENCES





















10 References



















References 11

























1 References
























References 1




















14 References























References 1



















1 References























References 1






















1 References























References 1



























AUTHOR INDEX

Author index 11







1 Author index




QQuinton shyD shy43








Author index 1

























156 shy166

SUBJECT INDEX

Subject index 1























1 Subject index




















Subject index 1








studying individual development in an interindividual context: a person-oriented approach

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