subsistence hunting in brazil
TRANSCRIPT
8/20/2019 Subsistence Hunting in Brazil
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/subsistence-hunting-in-brazil 1/17
An interdisciplinary journal exploring linkages between society, environment and development
Users Online: 11
Impact Factor for 2014 is 1.644 Click here to view optimized website for mobile devices Journal is indexed with Science Citation IndexExpanded
Previous article Next article
A !IC"EYear : 201 ! Volume : 1" ! Issue : " ! Page : 2 #$2%#
#articipator$ %onitorin& and %ana&ement of S'bsistence ('ntin& in the #ia&a)'*#'r's eserve+,razil
Marina Al u!uer!ue "e#ina de Mattos $ieira 1 + %duardo Matheus von Muhlen - + &lenn ' (hepard1 Monitorin# and )ildlife *se Pro#ramme+ Pia#a,uInstitute-Mamirau. (ustaina le /evelopment Institute+ Manaus+ AM /epartment of %colo# + National "esearch Institute of Ama on+ Manaus+ AM+ 3ra il2 Monitorin# and )ildlife *se Pro#ramme+ Pia#a,uInstitute-Mamirau. (ustaina le /evelopment Institute+ Manaus+ AM 3iosciences entre+ /epartment of 3othanic+ %colo#
and 5oolo# + Federal *niversit of "io &rande do Norte+ Natal+ "N+ 3ra il6 /epartment of %colo# + National "esearch Institute of Ama on+ Manaus+ AM /epartment of Anthropolo# + Museum %milio &oeldi of Par.+ 3el7m+ PA+ 3ra il
Correspondence Address 8Marina Al u!uer!ue "e#ina de Mattos $ieiraMonitorin# and )ildlife *se Pro#ramme+ Pia#a,uInstitute-Mamirau. (ustaina le /evelopment Institute+ Manaus+ AM /epartment of %colo# + National "esearch Institute ofAma on+ Manaus+ AM3ra il
8/20/2019 Subsistence Hunting in Brazil
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/subsistence-hunting-in-brazil 2/17
8/20/2019 Subsistence Hunting in Brazil
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/subsistence-hunting-in-brazil 3/17
(ow to cite this article/de Mattos $ieira MA+ von Muhlen %M+ (hepard &'9 Participator Monitorin# and Mana#ement of (u sistence 'untin# in the Pia#a,u<Purus "eserve+ 3ra il9
onservat (oc 201= 1682=4<D4
(ow to cite this 3 "/de Mattos $ieira MA+ von Muhlen %M+ (hepard &'9 Participator Monitorin# and Mana#ement of (u sistence 'untin# in the Pia#a,u<Purus "eserve+ 3ra il9
onservat (oc Eserial online 201= Ecited 201= /ec 24 1682=4<D49 Availa le from8 http8--www9conservationandsociet 9or#-text9aspG201=-16-6-2=4-1;06::
Introd'ction
'untin# and other forms of wildlife use #enerate complex impacts in socioenvironmental s stems+ oth from the point of view of the #ame species
?Peres 2000 Hevi et al9 200: %ndo et al9 2010@ and the hunter ?3ulmer 1:D; *rton 1: = "o inson and "edford 1::1 (hepard 2002@9Mana#ement of such d namic s stems depends on institutional structures uilt around adaptive+ participator measures ?Armita#e et al9 200:@that provide a shared understandin# etween the parties involved in decision<ma in# a out wildlife use ?)atson 2016@9 As more protected areasin Hatin America have included local people in the decision<ma in# processes+ it has ecome increasin#l important to uild mana#ement s stemsthat incorporate local nowled#e and experiences ?3er es et al9 2000@9
'untin# has een formall prohi ited in 3ra il since 1:D; ?3ra ilian Federal Haw No =1:;+ 1:D;@+ however it remains an essential element in thelivelihoods of diverse indi#enous and non<indi#enous populations+ especiall in the Ama on ?Peres 2000 "o inson and 3ennet 2000@9 >his #rosscontradiction etween le#islation and practice+ literall rele#atin# huntin# to the realm of criminalit + hindered an attempt at wildlife mana#ementin 3ra il for decades9 'owever a new opportunit has emer#ed in the context of the National ( stem of Protected Areas+ which #ives inha itants of (ustaina le /evelopment "eserves ?"/(@ the ri#ht to use natural resources and participate in mana#ement ?(N* 2000@9 Hocal nowled#e andmana#ement practices are contemplated in the draftin# of each "/(Bs Protected Area Mana#ement Plan+ which Besta lishes onin# and standards#overnin# the land use and mana#ement of natural resourcesB ?3ra ilian Federal Haw No :: = of 2000+ Article 2@9
Participator + adaptive mana#ement of wildlife use in protected areas re!uires efficient monitorin# s stems ?>or#ler et al9 2000@ in order tounderstand patterns+ trac chan#es+ and revise and update re#ulations9 >he #oal is to contri ute to the livelihoods of people who depend onwildlife harvest without endan#erin# animal populations or their ecolo#ical functions9 Monitorin# pro#ramme should e desi#ned to addressimpacts at appropriate temporal and spatial scales+ while involvin# oth scientific experts and local resource users ?Ferra et al9 200 Hu ar et al9
8/20/2019 Subsistence Hunting in Brazil
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/subsistence-hunting-in-brazil 4/17
2011@9 ommunit < ased monitorin# is particularl relevant in countries where investment in research is limited9 Participator s stems mashorten decision<ma in# time frames ?/anielsen et al9 200:@+ promote local autonom in resource mana#ement ? onstantino et al9 2012@ andstren#then communit resource ri#hts ?Funder et al9 2016@9
>hou#h the actual de#ree of local participation varies+ numerous huntin# studies in (outh America have demonstrated the importance of involvin#local populations in data collection+ anal sis+ and even research desi#n ?(ou a<Ma ure et al9 2000 Noss et al9 2004 >ownsend et al9 200=Marinelli et al9 200; onstantino et al9 200 $alsecchi 2012@9 3 trainin# hunters to record their own offta e+ the spatial and temporal covera#eof monitorin# increases several orders of ma#nitude over what is t picall feasi le for individual researchers durin# a sin#le field season?(hepard et al9 2012@9 (uch results+ if relia le+ can clarif the relative importance of different species to local users+ predict on#oin# impacts+provide ro ust comparisons of different huntin# strate#ies across different environments and seasons+ and also create a colla orative environmentfor developin# mana#ement protocols ? ampos<"o o and *lloa 2006@9
>he "/( model in 3ra il provides a le#al context for developin# s stems for monitorin# wildlife use+ in which+ local populations are prota#onists in
#atherin# data and developin# strate#ies for sustaina le use9 >his stud presents the results of one ear of self monitorin# hunters in Pia#a,u<Purus+ discusses how the o served patterns reflect informal local huntin# re#ulations+ and su##ests how this information could e incorporatedinto a formal mana#ement s stem9 >he stud was carried out in five terra firme ?terra firme portion of land that does not flood in the hi#h<waterseason@ communities within the "/( Pia#a,u<Purus in the 3ra ilian state of Ama onas9
%aterials and %ethods
St'd$ site
>he Pia#a,u<Purus (ustaina le /evelopment "eserve ?"/(<PP@+ created in 2006 the (tate &overnment of Ama onas+ is located alon# theHower Purus "iver etween the Purus<Madeira and Purus<Juru. watersheds ? EFi#ure 1 @+ startin# 226 m upstream from the cit of Manaus9 >here#ion was heavil exploited for terrestrial and a!uatic animals durin# the first half of twentieth centur 9 'untin# remains an importantsu sistence activit for caboclo 1 residents of the "/(<PP and is practised in almost all communities of the reserve ?>erra 200; Muhlen 200 @9Accordin# to >erra ?200;@+ huntin# pla s a role e!ual to that of fishin# and su sistence a#riculture in nine communities of the "/(<PP9 Kver =0species of terrestrial verte rates are hunted+ especiall lar#e un#ulates and medium to lar#e rodents9 'unters in these communities usuall carrcartrid#e shot#uns with cali res ran#in# from 1D to 62+ ut 20 cali re is preferred9 >he shot#uns are mainl inherited from relatives or purchased
8/20/2019 Subsistence Hunting in Brazil
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/subsistence-hunting-in-brazil 5/17
secondhand amon# ac!uainted hunters9 Ammunition are mostl prepared manuall hunters usin# #unpowder and lead shots ou#ht or tradedwith fluvial merchants ? regatões @+ fishin# oats+ or in cit mar ets9
&igure 1 Location of the RDS Piagaçu-Purs and the five communities of the study: (UI) Uixi (!") !varisto (PI) Pinheiros (#$ I) #ari I and (#$ II) #ari II
Click here to view
>he "/(<PP circumscri es two indi#enous reserves ?>I Ha#o A apu. and >I Itixi Mitari@+ and is ordered to the south the A ufari 3iolo#ical"eserve ?"%3IK@ and Nascentes do Ha#o Jari National Par ?PA"NA@+ formin# a mosaic of protected areas #overned several different co<mana#ement re#imes9 >he reserve is comprised of oth flooded forests and upland terra firme landscapes full =DC of the area of the reserve
is terra firme 9 >he 64+246 ha reserve is divided into seven administrative sectors+ representin# mana#ement units with a certain de#ree of ecos stem ?h drolo#ical c cles+ ve#etation t pes@ and socioeconomic ?demo#raphics+ land use@ homo#eneit 9 >he reserve contains =;communities and 4+000 residents who fish+ hunt+ and practice small<scale a#riculture and extractivism ?/eus et al9 2006 Instituto Pia#a,u 2010@9
(ince its creation+ the "/(<PP see s to conciliate natural resource use with socioenvironmental sustaina ilit throu#h participator onin# of theterritor ?e9#9+ definin# non<ta e vs9 intensive use areas@+ and ela oration of rules to re#ulate use and access to resources9 >he process isoverseen the Mana#ement ouncil+ composed of 1= #overnment representatives and 1: civil societ representatives includin# local leaders of the administrative sectors and trade unions 2 9 Althou#h compliance and monitorin# are formall the residentsB dut and the #overnmentBsresponsi ilit + most such protected areas in 3ra il rel on non<#overnmental or#anisations or universities to carr out these functions ?(eixas and$ieira+ 2014@9 "/(<PP is no different+ and monitorin# is carried out mostl the Pia#a,u Institute9 >he process of onin# and re#ulatin# naturalresource use in the reserve e#an in 2004 throu#h a partnership etween Pia#a,u Institute and the entre for Protected Areas of Ama onas (tate? %* -(/(@9 >his initial surve concentrated on fishin# resources in communities in the northern part of the reserve9 >he onin# process is still inpro#ress+ and aims to specif areas sector for su sistence use+ commercial mana#ement+ and protection9 /urin# this process proposals areinitiall collected from each communit + then a sector<wide unified proposal is discussed for approval the Mana#ement ouncil9 urrentl theformal mana#ement plan for the southern part of the reserve is ein# finali ed+ and will re!uire validation the reserveBs Mana#ement ounciland approval state authorities9
For this stud + five communities situated in terra firme ha itat were chosen+ preselected ased on their si#nificant documented consumption of
8/20/2019 Subsistence Hunting in Brazil
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/subsistence-hunting-in-brazil 6/17
#ame animal meat ?>erra 200; Muhlen 2010@9 >he communities of *ixi+ Pinheiros and %varisto are located in the A apu. sector+ while Mari I andMari II are located in the Jari<ArumL sector of the reserve ? EFi#ure 1 @9 In the A apu. sector+ the most recent settlement dates to the mid twentiethcentur + when a merchant settled to exploit ru er trees Hevea brasiliensis and 3ra il nut Bertholletia excelsa ?A#nello 1:DD@9 Klder villa#es+mostl involved in the ru er trade in the earl twentieth centur + had #rown #raduall throu#h the centur as commercial exploitation of fish andwildlife intensified9 In the 1:D0s+ huntin# was anned the 3ra ilian Federal Haw+ ut measures of control were onl enforced after the creationof Instituto 3rasileiro do Meio Am iente e dos "ecursos Naturais "enov.veis ?3ra ilian Institute of %nvironment and "enewa le Natural "esourcesI3AMA@ in 1: :9 3 this period+ exploitation of natural resources e#an to decline+ althou#h it still represented the main income source for thesepopulations9 Nowada s+ 3ra il nut harvest and small<scale commercial fishin# are the two main sources of income in A apu.9 *ixi is the oldest andlar#est communit in this sector+ with 1=0 adult residents formall reco#nised in the 1: 0s+ while Pinheiros and %varisto have :0 and 12 residents+respectivel 9 In the Jari<ArumL sector+ the most recent settlement was esta lished in the earl twentieth centur + associated with the exploitationof ru er+ wildlife+ and rosewood Aniba rosaeodora 9 >oda + most of their income is derived from anana and manioc ?cassava flour@ a#riculture9Mari I has D0 adult residents while Mari II has onl 1=9 Mari I was formall reco#ni ed in the 1::0s and Mari II was created from adismem erment of Mari I in 200D over reli#ious ? atholic-Protestant@ differences9
0ata collection methods and anal$sis
/ata on #ame animal harvest were collected in the five stud communities etween Novem er 2011 and /ecem er 2012+ ta in# advanta#e of thewildlife monitorin# pro#ramme alread put in place the Pia#a,u Institute9 >he voluntar pro#ramme sou#ht residents willin# to fill out self monitorin# forms9 All residents of the five communities were invited to participate durin# communit meetin# and individual house visits9 Amon#104 households visited+ more than ;0C were initiall interested in the monitorin#+ ut after a ear+ onl 6; families actuall returned informationa out their huntin# events9 Most hunters had little schoolin#+ ut in ever household there is at least one literate person ?usuall the wife or aschool<a#ed child@ who too responsi ilit for fillin# out the monitorin# sheets9 Participants were trained and monitorin# sheets were collected inthe field Institute researchers at intervals no #reater than 4= da s9 Individual accompaniment was carried out a researcher visitin#households periodicall 9 In two communities ?*ixi and Mari I@ we also counted on one resident in each communit who voluntaril tooresponsi ilit for concentratin# the data9 At the end of the monitorin# ear+ meetin#s were held in each participatin# communit to present thedata and discuss results9 %ver monitor attended the meetin#s+ allowin# for a discussion of various limitations that were found in the data+ forexample+ the extent to which monitorin# underestimated actual huntin# returns9
Participatin# families recorded the followin# information for each huntin# event8 1@ date+ 2@ time of departure and arrival+ 6@ num er of hunters+4@ location of hunt+ =@ success or failure+ D@ num er of animals ta en species ;@ sex of animals @ if the hunt was independent or associatedwith other ever da activities ?e9#9+ fishin#+ a#riculture@+ :@ whether the meat was destined for su sistence or sale+ and 10@ means of
8/20/2019 Subsistence Hunting in Brazil
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/subsistence-hunting-in-brazil 7/17
transportation ?e9#9+ wal in#+ canoe@9 >he data sheets used in this stud was inspired those used in other pu lished studies ?(ou a<Ma ure etal9 2000 Noss et al9 2004 >ownsend et al9 200= Khl<(chacherer et al9 200;@ and further adapted and refined durin# communit wor shops in200:9 >he sheets are illustrated with iconic representations of animals and other information+ allowin# people with minimal formal education toannotate asic data such as species and !uantit 9
In addition to the data on #ame offta e+ we also carried out semi<structured interviews with nowled#ea le hunters identified throu#h snow allsamplin# ?3aile 1: ;@ as indicated other communit mem ers9 )e as ed them to tell us more detailed information a out traditional huntin#norms and informal communit rules and a#reements9 )e also carried out content anal sis ?3aile 1: ;@ of the formal rules presented in thereserveBs nearl complete mana#ement plan9 )e evaluated the proposed formal onin# maps for the Jari<ArumL sector to see how well thereflected field data9 Finall + huntin# data were evaluated for their potential utilit in refinin# the measures proposed in the current mana#ementplan9
es'lts
Self monitorin& of h'ntin&
In all+ ;4 of the 104 families ?;1C@ from the five communities a#reed to participate in self monitorin#9 Kf these+ a out half successfull completeddata sheets a out huntin# activities ? E>a le 1 @9 3etween Novem er 2011 and /ecem er 2012+ a total of =0: huntin# events were recorded 6;families+ representin# 6=C of the total families9 =0 records descri e unsuccessful huntin# events+ while 4=: records descri e successful huntin#events ? E>a le 1 @9
'able 1 Summary of househo%ds num&er of 'artici'ating monitors and hunting events recorded
Click here to view
>he effective monitors ?those who successfull completed data sheets@ tended to e the most respected hunters in each communit 9 In Mari I+ thesupport of one resident re#arded locall as one of the est hunters+ and who had previousl colla orated on other wildlife research+ was essentialfor continued monitorin# throu#hout the ear9 'is personal support was clearl responsi le for the hi#h proportion of effective monitors in this
8/20/2019 Subsistence Hunting in Brazil
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/subsistence-hunting-in-brazil 8/17
communit ?1= of 22 total families@9 *ixi+ the lar#est communit + had a relativel lower participation of effective monitors ?11 of 42 total families@+ut once a#ain these were considered the most successful hunters of the communit 9 In *ixi+ the sharin# and sellin# of #ame meat etween
nei#h ours is common+ and appears to contri ute to the emer#ence of speciali ed hunters who provide wildlife meat for those who spend moretime in other harvestin# activities9 Animals are usuall sold B!uartersB for the medium si ed species+ or ilo for lar#e odied mammals+ with amaximum price e!uivalent to a out *(/ 1 per #9 Pa ment in these cases is understood communit mem ers not as profit per se ut ascompensation for the hunterBs expenses+ such as ammunition and fuel9
>here were onl two effective monitors in %varisto+ ut these were a#ain the two est hunters+ responsi le for distri utin# #ame meat to allfamilies9 In Pinheiros+ the nine effective monitors also participated in other research and extension pro#rammes promoted Pia#a,u Institute+li el contri utin# to their willin#ness to participate9 All six families of Mari II a#reed to participate in the monitorin#+ ut none returned anhuntin# data9 >he claimed to have lost the data sheets durin# a heav flood in 2012+ when most were forced to move from their homes9
onsiderin# onl effective monitors+ each famil hunted an avera#e of 16 times per ear ?(/ 109D@+ or approximatel one huntin# event per
month9 Kne hunter reported onl a sin#le huntin# event+ while the #reatest return was reported a hunter with 4 records9 Kn avera#e+ *ixirecorded 1: huntin# events per famil per ear while Mari I+ Pinheiros+ and %varisto recorded rou#hl half that amount+ with 11+ 10+ and ninehuntin# events-famil - ear+ respectivel 9
Kf the 4=: successful hunts+ onl three were mar ed Bfor saleB and nine were mar ed oth Bfor consumptionB and Bfor saleB+ and the rest weremar ed onl Bfor consumptionB9 In the two cases+ where a a#uar or puma was hunted+ the monitor wrote in Bself defenceB as the ustification forthe ill+ rather than mar in# one of the two options presented in the form8 Bfor consumptionB or Bfor saleB9
In A apu. sector+ *ixi recorded 4; different huntin# locations+ Pinheiros recorded 6= and %varisto+ three9 Kf these = huntin# locations+ 26C werementioned in seven or more huntin# events9 >hou#h these communities are relativel close to each other+ onl seven huntin# #rounds overlapped9Mari I communit in the Jari<ArumL sector reported usin# 62 huntin# #rounds+ six of which included seven or more huntin# events9 urrentl noformal land onin# proposals exist for the A apu. sector9 'owever+ residents of two of the three communities in this stud a#reed to protect aspecific area at the head of Ha e A apu.9 Proposals for conservation areas and commercial and su sistence use areas have alread een receivedfrom each communit of the Jari<ArumL sector9 >here is a#reement over approximatel =0C of the area proposed for protection amon# three of the seven communities+ includin# Mari I and Mari II9 >wo of the six huntin# locations+ most used Mari I+ are located within the protection areathat three of the communities in this sector proposed+ su##estin# that communit mem ers alread include huntin# vulnera ilit in their criteriafor mana#ement priorities9 Indeed+ the people of Mari I had alread proposed a specific measure to re#ulate the use of a certain stream withespeciall hi#h huntin# pressure9 onflict emer#ed in an area of overlap with a su sistence area proposed a fourth communit + which did not
8/20/2019 Subsistence Hunting in Brazil
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/subsistence-hunting-in-brazil 9/17
feel the necessit to impose protected area since it is ordered to the south a more strictl protected area+ the "%3IK A ufari9 >hedisa#reement etween proposals reflects conflicts over resource use amon# users in the sector9 A sector<wide unified proposal is re!uired to solicitapproval from the Mana#ement ouncil9
Kverall 60 animal species were recorded+ with 16 species of mammals+ 10 reptiles+ and seven irds ? E>a le 2 @9
'able 2 ffta e &y s'ecies and community during a year of monitoring
Click here to view
Kf the 4=: successful huntin# events+ :=1 individual animals were illed+ which corresponds to an avera#e of two animals per huntin# event9'owever+ of the total num er of huntin# events ?N =0:@+ more than half ?=6C@ represented onl a sin#le animal+ while 1 C ?N :1@represented events with two animals+ mainl spotted paca Cuniculus paca, white<lipped peccar Tayassu peccary and collared peccar Peccary tajacu >he three huntin# events with the lar#est num er of individuals illed in the same event were lac ellied whistlin# duc !"endrocygnaautumnalis @+ correspondin# to 22+ 1D+ and 1= individuals per event9 >hese sporadic+ hi#h ield huntin# events were responsi le for increasin# theoverall avera#e9 'owever+ offta e of a!uatic reptiles ma e underestimated+ as these are considered locall primaril as fishin# resources+ ratherthan as #ame animals9
Kf the #ame species hunted+ onl four are listed as threatened to some de#ree on the International *nion for onservation of Nature and Natural
"esources "ed Hist ?I* N 691@8 #agothrix cana$ >hreatened+ Tapirus terrestris$ $ulnera le+ Tayassu pecari <$ulnera le+ and Chelonoidis denticulata <$ulnera le9
>he data show that primate huntin# is fairl limited overall9 'unters noted a preference for wooll mon e due to its flavour+ while remainin#species tend to e avoided either ecause of food ta oos+ or ecause of sense of unease at illin# creatures so inherentl human9 >here is noindication of over harvest of primate species9 Man residents stated that once the had adopted an primate as a pet+ the could not rin#themselves to eat mon e s an more9 "eferences to infant mon e sB similarit to human a ies and their human<li e expressions and #estureswere mentioned fre!uentl hunters to explain their avoidance of these species ?$ieira 2016@9
8/20/2019 Subsistence Hunting in Brazil
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/subsistence-hunting-in-brazil 10/17
Kf the total of :=1 ills+ the sex of 1 0 individuals was not identified in the records9 Kf these+ D0C were events involvin# the lac elliedwhistlin# duc + which+ li e certain other ird species ? %itu tuberosa + Cairina moschata @+ does not exhi it profound sexual dimorphism9 >he mainmammal species recorded ?spotted paca+ white<lipped peccar and collared peccar @ showed sex ratio of 1819 ? E>a le 6 @9
'able " Sex ratio of the main s'ecies recorded (*+, individua%s i%%ed)
Click here to view
>he most commonl hunted species were spotted paca+ white<lipped peccar + lac ellied whistlin# duc + and collared peccar + a pattern similarto that found in other studies in the Ama on ? onstantino et al9 200 $alsecchi 2012@9 >he relative importance of each species varied #reatldependin# on the huntin# #rounds+ reflectin# the travel method and the most common huntin# techni!ues in each communit ? E>a le 4 @9
'able # .ime of day and trans'ortation method of hunting events &y sector
Click here to view
In Mari I+ the most commonl ta en species were spotted paca and muscov duc + oth associated with this communities fre!uent use of canoetransportation9 'unters mostl use canoes motori ed with a small lawnmower st le en#ine attached to a lon# propeller shaft ? rabeta @9 >he use
oats to approach the est huntin# spots+ ut continue oar to avoid fri#htenin# the animals with en#ine noise9 In these communities+ most
families spend the most part of the da en#a#ed in a#riculture and the production of manioc ?cassava@ flour9 'untin# is preferentiall carried out incanoes+ either on the wa to the cultivated plots in the earl mornin# or at dus + or else spotli#htin# at ni#ht+ especiall when water level drops
etween Jul and (eptem er9
In the communities of the A apu. sector+ hunters prefer to hunt durin# the da + often travellin# motorised canoe to the trail head of thehuntin# #rounds9 'untin# in #roups to trac white<lipped peccar herds is common+ especiall when water levels rise and the animals ecomestranded on terra firme islands9 >he lac ellied whistlin# duc was hunted most often mem ers of Pinheiros+ especiall durin# the rainseason when the use huntin# #rounds in a flooded forest near the communit where the duc s nest9 Mem ers of this communit were also seento hunt with do#s to flush lac a#outi "asyprocta fuliginosa, armadillo "asypus sp9+ and collared peccar Pecari tajacu from their urrows9
8/20/2019 Subsistence Hunting in Brazil
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/subsistence-hunting-in-brazil 11/17
All communities hunted more often durin# the hi#h<water period+ etween Ma and Jul + when huntin# #rounds are more easil accessi le canoe9 'owever+ the relative importance of different species varies throu#hout the ear ? EFi#ure 2 @9 3oth in A apu. sector and in Mari I+ thespecies showed the same pattern with respect to the avera#e monthl water level and therefore the data are #rouped9 Har#er #ame species arehunted more at hi#h water levels while waterfowl are hunted more often durin# the dr months etween Novem er and Fe ruar 9
&igure 2 #onth%y offta e (*ovem&er , // to Decem&er , /,) and average month%y 0ater %eve%1 2or scientific names see .a&%e ,
Click here to view
>he neotropical cormorant Phalacrocorax brasilianus and the lac ellied whistlin# duc were hunted mostl durin# the earl hi#h<water season+when the con#re#ate to reed+ and can e seen nestin# or with chic s9 >he same pattern is found for muscov duc + despite ein# hunted earround9 'untin# patterns for tinamous Tinamus sp9 and armadillos appeared unrelated to flood levels+ since the huntin# of these species is lar#elopportunistic9 All other species were hunted more durin# hi#h<water months9 )hite<lipped peccar and deer were hunted routinel durin# peaflood months ? etween Ma and Jul @9 ollared peccar + lac a#outi and wooll mon e s are the most important #ame species at the e#innin#of the hi#h<water season and are replaced tapir+ spotted paca+ and ellow spotted river turtles as the hi#h<water season advances9 Kverallseasonal variation in offta e appears associated mostl with accessi ilit as a result of water levels+ ut finer variations also appear to reflect
phenolo#ical c cles+ particularl related to food availa ilit 9 As one hunter noted+
E'untin# is etter when the land starts dr in# out than when it starts floodin#9 )hen the water level starts droppin# fallen fruits float on thewater9 >he float around until the reach the river an s9 >he water starts droppin# and the fruits come ashore9 >hen the #ame comes in and eatsthat fruit+ whether itBs a peccar + paca+ or a tapir9 Jul and Au#ust are #ood months for huntin# those animals ?hunter from communit Mari I@9
'les &overnin& wildlife 'se
In 3ra il+ there are no le#al measures re#ulatin# the use of wildlife+ aside from the #eneral prohi ition in the 1:D; law9 >he mana#ement plan of
8/20/2019 Subsistence Hunting in Brazil
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/subsistence-hunting-in-brazil 12/17
the Pia#a,u<Purus reserve is ased on Article 6;+ para#raph I of the %nvironmental rimes Haw ?3ra ilian Federal Haw No9 :D0=+ 1:: @ thatsupports su sistence huntin# of ush meat9 >he law states that illin# an animal is not a crime when it is re!uired to satisf the hun#er of thehunter or his famil + providin# a somewhat precarious le#al loophole for developin# mana#ement strate#ies in protected areas9 In contrast to therestrictiveness and unidimensionalit of 3ra ilian le#islation+ we o served a rich set of informal institutions and traditional rules re#ulatin# huntin#in the stud communities+ includin# #eneralised cultural norms and consciousl adopted rules9 )e explore food ta oos and other cultural normselsewhere ?$ieira et al9 2016+ unpu lished data@+ focusin# our anal sis here on conscious rules+ that have een formalised to some de#ree inwritten documents9
/evelopment of the mana#ement plan for the "/(<PP resulted in the adoption of 61 rules #overnin# the use of a!uatic wildlife and 1: rules#overnin# the use of terrestrial wildlife+ as stipulated residents+ with Pia#a,u Institute and %* -(/( actin# as intermediaries9 >he set of rulesis valid onl for su sistence huntin# 6 and onl if approved the Mana#ement 3oard and the protected area #overnin# od ?(tate entre forProtected Areas+ %* -(/(@9 >he rules #overnin# the use of terrestrial wildlife were created in a participator plannin# wor shop held in 200: representatives from all administrative sectors of the "/(<PP9 (ome of these rules draw from existin# informal rules alread in place in the
communities+ while others represent mana#ement strate#ies su##ested those intermediatin# the meetin#9
>hou#h communities have een apprehensive a out developin# re#ulations for su sistence huntin#+ one of the stud communities had alreaddeveloped a set of formal rules9 In 2012+ *ixi communit residents convened a meetin# to re#ulate wildlife use in the communit 9 >he meetin#minutes ? E>a le = @ descri e a set rules limitin# huntin# on commemorative occasions+ namel small or lar#e reli#ious festivals9 >wo rules weredeveloped to control access outside users8 teachers and visitors9 A specific plannin# measure was included for the huntin# of spottedpaca Cuniculus paca dependin# on the sex of the animal and the season9 >he month of Au#ust is considered amon# locals to e an important timein the reproduction c cle of the species+ a time when the species is also more accessi le+ and hence vulnera le to indiscriminate spotli#ht huntin#9>he minutes also esta lish an expiration date for the rules+ lendin# them an adaptive character9
'able 3ritten ru%es for the use of 0i%d%ife &y communities in the study
Click here to view
8/20/2019 Subsistence Hunting in Brazil
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/subsistence-hunting-in-brazil 13/17
>he remainin# communities have no written rules+ althou#h one rule is consensuall ac nowled#ed amon# the residents interviewed8 B(ellin##ame meat to outsiders is for iddenB9 Meanwhile+ u in# and sellin# huntin# products amon# nei#h ours is tolerated to maintain social ties in thecommunit 9 In Mari I+ a #roup of residents who often hunt to#ether cited a specific measure re#ulatin# huntin# locations in which hunters rotatedhuntin# alon# a set of streams for a defined time period9 >here is some de#ree of a#reement etween these home #rown communit rules and theformal rules in the mana#ement plan9 'owever the mana#ement plan specificall ans outsiders from huntin#+ while *ixi proposed re#ulations forspecific #roups of outsiders ?teachers and visitors@9
0isc'ssion
(potted paca was the species with the hi#hest num er of recorded ills+ and two communities have proposed specific re#ulator measures for this
species8 *ixi proposed a a# limit of a sin#le female for the critical month of Au#ust+ while Mari I has put into place a stream rotation s stem9>hese+ and other local su##estions+ will e incorporated into the formal "/(<PP mana#ement plan9 No communit control measures were foundassociated with the huntin# of white<lipped and collared peccaries+ ut under the mana#ement plan sector specific !uotas ma e set9
3lac ellied whistlin# duc s and muscov duc represent the third and fifth most hunted species9 >hese duc s are often hunted durin# thereedin# period9 Althou#h there are specific rules in the mana#ement plan re#ardin# huntin# waterfowl durin# the reedin# period+ this period
also represents #reater accessi ilit for hunters9 (easonal data is useful in monitorin# huntin# controls relevant to a speciesB reproductive c cle if complementar data on the reproductive iolo# of the species exists ?Moller et al9 2004@9 'owever the local peoplesB difficult in distin#uishin#
etween male and female irds hinders the development of mana#ement measure ased on reproductive iolo# 9 Kne of the wea nesses of thecurrent monitorin# s stem is that data on the a#e and reproductive status of individuals was not collected+ important data that could e added infuture monitorin# activities9 >hese examples represent nown deficiencies that could e incorporated into the monitorin# s stem9
>he most pro lematic aspect of self monitorin# results involves ille#al huntin# practices+ such as commercial sale or transportation of ush meat+the use of traps+ the eepin# of wild animals as pets in captivit or sale of wildlife+ and the illin# of endan#ered animals+ all practices prohi ited
3ra ilBs %nvironmental rimes Haw ?3ra ilian Federal Haw No9 :D0= of 1:: @9
>he reported illin# of the (outh American tapir Tapirus terrestris, one of the onl hunted species re#arded as >hreatened I* N ?691@+ is lowut pro a l underestimated once hunters are aware of its special protection Haw9 Amon# the local population there is a series of eliefs and
8/20/2019 Subsistence Hunting in Brazil
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/subsistence-hunting-in-brazil 14/17
practices involvin# the BcareB ? &elo@ of salt lic s where tapirs concentrate+ apparitions of spiritual ein#s for those who diso e these norms+ and anavoidance of tapir meat as reimoso ?reimoso ' unwholesome@ for those in vulnera le states such as illness or pre#nanc 9 >hese sociocultural normsappear to act+ at least in part+ as re#ulator measures to restrict the consumption of this vulnera le species9 >hese eliefs and practices will eexplored in a separate article+ and represent an especiall rich area for understandin# huntin# in its full socioenvironmental richness andreconcilin# formal reserve plannin# with informal mana#ement practices ?$ieira 2016@9
>he sale and transport of ush meat is oth a le#al and conceptual pro lem9 >he local sale of meat amon# nei#h ours and transportation of meatfor famil sustenance durin# lon# trips is formall prohi ited 3ra ilian law ?3ra ilian Federal Haw No9 :D0=+ 1:: + the %nvironmental rimesHaw@+ however+ these are common practices in the reserve+ in fact+ transportation of limited !uantities of meat for lon# trips is a local rule thatma e incorporated in the official mana#ement plan9 (uch le#al contradictions further complicate the formal re#ulation of huntin# in the reserve+and will need to e resolved in the lon# term9 'owever+ at the current time+ huntin# and sale to outsiders and restrictions on external hunters aremore immediate concerns shared the local population and the external re#ulator rules9
>he reserve monitorin# plan prohi its huntin# do#s+ however+ some communities continue to use them+ #eneratin# conflict in some localities9 /o#sare nown for their a ilit to corner #ame species ut also to scare animals awa 9 onflicts re#ardin# huntin# with do#s were also o served
oster ?200 @ in Nicara#ua+ and this aspect ma re!uire special attention in monitorin#9
Althou#h all communit mem ers were invited to participate in self monitorin#+ reco#nised hunters were the ones who most effectivel returnedmonitorin# data9 >his+ in part+ reflects their pride in their social status as #ood hunters+ ut also su##ests their reco#nition of the importance of the resource ?(ou a<Ma ure et al9 2000 Noss et al9 2004 Khl<(chacherer et al9 200;@9 (elf monitorin# represents a vast increment in datacollection effort at a much reduced cost over the t pical sin#le researcher huntin# stud ?(ou a<Ma ure et al9 2000 Noss et al9 2004 Khl<(chacherer et al9 200; onstantino et al9 200 /emelas 2012 $alsecchi 2012@9 /ata collection the hunters themselves allows immediaterecordin# of huntin# events+ an advanta#e over recall methods that are nown to lose accurac after more than a 24 hour time lapse ?/ufour1::=@9 >he data presented here is certainl an underestimate of total offta e for the re#ion+ ut validatin# the data retrospectivel + and
nowin# precisel how man families were and were not monitored+ it is possi le to o tain a rou#h estimate of the overall offta e num ers9
(elf monitorin# over a one< ear period also permitted the evaluation of temporal and spatial fluctuations of huntin# activities+ and ethno#raphico servation and interviews revealed the social+ ecolo#ical and lo#istical ustifications for these variations9 'owever+ the current monitorin# s stemdid not trac huntin# events to precise #eo#raphic coordinates9 >his improvement to the data collection protocol mi#ht improve accurac of the
onin# process currentl underwa in the reserve9
8/20/2019 Subsistence Hunting in Brazil
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/subsistence-hunting-in-brazil 15/17
Concl'sions
(everal authors have noted conditions that facilitate the success of communit < ased monitorin# pro#rammes8 1@ the importance of the iolo#icalresource for local populations+ 2@ communit ri#hts to mana#e resource usa#e+ 6@ communit political or#anisation and the presence of leaders+and 4@ colla oration amon# decision ma ers ? onstantino et al9 2012@9 Man + if not all+ of these conditions are met in the stud communities inthe "/(<PP9 )ildlife is indeed an important food resource+ and hunters themselves proved to e the most successful monitors9 All communitieshave local administrative leaders+ however+ in communities where the population is not concentrated near the administrative centre+ monitorin#was hindered9 In some cases+ local leaders and assistants trained other research pro#rammes were instrumental partners in implementin# thehuntin# monitorin# s stem9
>he stud hi#hli#hts a num er of challen#es to participator monitorin# and wildlife co<mana#ement9 >he first+ o served in man otherconservation initiatives ?'umavindu and (ta#e 2014@+ is financial sustaina ilit 9 >he Pia#a,u Institute monitorin# pro#ramme stud was desi#nedto minimi e costs involvin# effective sta eholders+ and thus+ avoidin# the need for paid monitors9 'owever+ it will still re!uire external inputs tocontinue developin#9 Knce local residents appropriate the monitorin# s stem+ external dependence tends to drop ?Funder et al9 2016@+ utconflictin# mana#ement ri#hts will complicate this process in the "/(<PP9
)ildlife use represents a more su tle income source for residents when compared to fisheries and a#riculture+ and is less a matter of concernamon# users+ a fact reflected in the somewhat limited initiatives at wildlife re#ulation9 In addition+ no measures of rules enforcement wereo served9 'owever+ "/(<PP has a communit surveillance s stem for fisheries that could serve as a model for evaluatin# and adaptin# huntin#re#ulations9
>he conflictin# le#al status of huntin# in 3ra ilian law discoura#es local wildlife mana#ement hunters+ since their ri#hts are still ver restricted9As a conse!uence+ informal rules that conflict with formal rules tend to e overloo ed or #iven a lind e e9 Kne example in this case was theprevalence of wild meat sales in the informal exchan#e econom + anned the current mana#ement re#ulations+ ut tolerated+ and in factcommon in some communities9 )ithout sufficient understandin# of the local socioenvironmental context+ the imposition of contradictor or illo#icalexternal re#ulations could render local mana#ement ineffective and unenforcea le while also stiflin# local capacit to resolve conflicts9
/espite disa#reements etween certain formal and informal rules re#ardin# the sale and transport of ush meat+ there was a #reater de#ree of
8/20/2019 Subsistence Hunting in Brazil
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/subsistence-hunting-in-brazil 16/17
communit a#reement with rules involvin# seasonal restrictions+ a# limits+ and !uotas9 >hese provide examples of how to foster communit <ased mana#ement of wildlife com inin# of locall #rounded measures with scientific data9 Kn#oin# monitorin# provides information that can feedac into a flexi le+ adaptive mana#ement plan includin# the testin# and revision of practices and rules ?Armita#e et al 200:@9 /ecisions made and
enforced at the local level are more effective at respondin# to the socioenvironmental d namics of ecos stems ?3er es et al9 2000@9 A s stemproperl involvin# local people in monitorin# these d namics allows for constant ad ustment and improvement9
)e o served how local participation in data collection increased oth the efficienc and the extent of data collection+ while also enhancin# localunderstandin# a out resource mana#ement9 >his+ and other "/( in 3ra il are provin# to e productive la oratories for developin# re#ulatormeasures in colla oration with local communities+ who have extensive traditional ecolo#ical nowled#e a out local resources and a vested interestin monitorin# and mana#in# their extractive activities9 >o#ether+ these factors facilitated the implementation of an efficient pilot s stem in Pia#a,u<Purus+ with the potential for incremental ad ustments+ and data #atherin# to monitor compliance and support decision<ma in# processes9Participator monitorin#+ appropriatel applied+ #enerates useful spatial+ temporal and !uantitative data on huntin# impacts while also deepenin#researchersB and administratorsB understandin# of local huntin# practices and traditional forms of social and ecolo#ical control9 (uch data and
understandin# are crucial to the mana#ement of huntin# in human<inha ited protected areas in remote tropical re#ions where #overnance is oftenlimited ?Ou et al9 2010@9
Acknowled&ements
>his stud is part of M$Bs masterBs de#ree which was completed in the Post#raduate Pro#ramme in %colo# of the National Institute for Ama on"esearch ?INPA@9 >he authors are #rateful to the "/(<PP residents for their colla oration and to the Pia#a,u Institute ?IPi@ and of Mamirau.(ustaina le /evelopment Institute ?I/(M@ for the scientific and lo#istic support9 >he authors are also than ful to the "ufford (mall &rantsFoundation for the financial support+ and to the NP! for M$Bs scholarship and to the I/(M for %MBs scholarship9
otes
19 >he term caboclo does not desi#nate ethnic identit per se+ ut rather refers to a lar#e part of the non<indi#enous rural population of Ama onia descended from intermarria#e and cultural and economic assimilation etween remnant indi#enous populations+ %uropeans and
8/20/2019 Subsistence Hunting in Brazil
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/subsistence-hunting-in-brazil 17/17
Afro<3ra ilian settlers especiall from northeastern 3ra il ?Murrieta+ 1:: @9
29 &overnment entities include two responsi le for indi#enous affairs ?F*NAI+ (%IN/@+ two involved in protected area mana#ement ?I M3io+(/(- %* @+ six representatives of local municipalities ?3eruri+ Anori+ >apau.@+ representatives of the health sector ?F$(@+ fish mana#ement?MPA-(%PA<AM@+ forest and a#ricultural resources ?I/AM@ and the Militar Police civil societ representatives include8 two representativesof the local fishin# sector ?(IN/A"P+ 3eruri Fishin# olon @+ one representative of the local rural wor ersB s ndicate ?(>>"@ one re#ionalnon<#overnmental or#anisation ?IPI@ 16 local representatives from the different reserve sectors and two representatives of the indi#enousterritories circumscri ed in the reserve and finall the pu lic<private or#anisation (unda)*o Ama&onas +ustent vel ?FA(@ that runsthe Bolsa (loresta welfare pro#ramme for Ama onas state9
69 B(u sistence huntin#B does not have a formal definition in 3ra ilian le#islation+ ut for the purposes of the Mana#ement Plan of the "/(<PP+it is understood followin# Article 6; of Federal Haw No9 :D0= of 1:: 9
E4=