summarry of all os topics-20110527

8/4/2019 Summarry of All OS Topics-20110527

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SummaryofAllOuterSpaceTopicsSpringSemester

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OUTLINEOFTOPICS

GENERALCONCEPTANDHISTORYOFDEVELOPMENTOFOUTERSPACEACTIVITIESv GENERALCONCEPTOFOUTERSPACEv HISTORYOFOUTERSPACEACTIVITIESIN1950Sv 1960Sv 1970Sv HISTORYOFOUTERSPACEACTIVITIESINEASTASIA(JAPAN,KOREA,ANDCHINA)

DEFINITIONOFOUTERSPACEANDBOUNDARYBETWEENAIRANDOUTERSPACE

v DEFINITIONOFOUTERSPACEv BOUNDARYBETWEENAIRSPACEANDOUTERSPACE

OUTERSPACELAWMAKINGORGAN:COPUOSv GENERALINTRODUCTIONv STRUCTUREOFCOPUOSv LAWMAKINGPROCESSv MAINACHIVEMENT

BASICLAWOFOUTERSPACE:1967PRINCIPLESTREATYOFOUTERSPACE

v PRINCIPLEOFFREEEXPLORATIONANDUSE(ARITCLEIOFOUTERSPACETREATY)v PRINCIPLEOFNON-APPROPRIATIONANDAPPLICATIONOFINTERNATIONALLAWv PRINCIPLEOFPEACEFULUSEOFOUTERSPACEv PRINCIPLEOFINTERNATIONALLIABILITYv PRINCIPLEOFRESCUEANDASSISTANCEv PRINCIPLEOFINTERNATIONALCOOPERATION

OTHERTREATIESOFOUTERSPACE

v RESCUEAGREEMENTv LIABILITYCONVENTIONv REGISTRATIONCONVETIONv MOONAGREEMENT

CASESTUDY:COSMOS954CASEAND1972LIABILITYCONVENTION

v FACTv CLAIMANDISSUEv APPLICATIONv DISPUTESETTLEMENTv IMPACTOFCASE


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ENVIRONMENTALPROTECTIONOFOUTERSPACEv OVERVIEWOFENVIRONMENTALPROTECTIONINOUTERSPACEv SPACEPOLLUTIONv SPACEDEBRISv LEGALSYSTEMENVIRONMENTALPROTECTIONINOUTERSPACEv INTRODUCTIONOFSOLUTIONSTOOUTERSPACEGENERALPOLLUTIONv FUTUREDEVELOPMENTOFLEGALSYSTEMOFENVIRONMENTALPROTECTIONOF

OUTERSPACE

RESCUEOFASTRONAUTANDRETURNOFOUTERSPACEOBJECT

v HISTORICALOVERVIEWANDDEVELOPMENTOFTHERESCUEOFASTRONAUTANDRETURNOFSPACEOBJECT

v LEGALDOCUMENTSRELATINGTOTHERESCUEANDRETURNOFASTRONAUTSANDTHERETURNOFOUTERSPACEOBJECTS

v PROBLEMSWITHTHEEXISTINGLEGALFRAMEWORKOFTHEAGREEMENTONTHERESCUEOFASTRONAUTSRETURNOFASTRONAUTSANDTHERETURNOFOBJECTS

LAUNCHEDINTOOUTERSPACE

v THERESCUEANDRETURNOFASTRONAUTSv THELEGALREGIMEOFTHERETURNOFSPACEOBJECTSLAUNCHEDINTOOUTERSPACEv SPACETOURISM2010:THERESCUEOFSPACETOURISTSANDTHERETURNOF

PRIVATESPACECRAFT

GEOSTATIONARYORBIT:GENERALCONCEPTANDLEGALSTATUS,1976BOGOTA

DECLARATIONANDTHEATTITUDEOFINTERNATIONALSOCIETYv CONCEPTOFGEOSTATIONARYORBITv 1976BOGOTADECLARATIONv

CURRENTLEGALSTATUSOFGEOSTATIONARYORBITv EXISTINGPROBLEMSANDFUTUREDEVELOPMENTOFGEOSTATIONARYORBITv THEINTERNATIONALATTITUDESABOUTTHEGEOSTATIONARYORBIT

DSBANDTELECOMMUNICATIONINOUTERSPACE

v 1982DBSPRINCIPLESv LEGALPROBLEMSOFDBSv GENERALINTRODUCTIONOFDIRECTTELEVISIONBROADCASTINGBYSATELLITEv INTERNATIONALLEGALSOURCESOFDBSv GENERALINTRODUCTIONOFTELECOMMUNICATIONv LEGALFRAMEWORKOFTELECOMMUNICATION

REMOTESENSINGANDINTERNATIONALLAW

v INTRODUCTIONTOREMOTESENSINGv LEGALASPECTSOFREMOTESENSINGINTERNATIONALLAWv LEGALASPECTSOFREMOTESENSINGNATIONALLAWv REMOTESENSINGANDNATIONALSOVEREIGNTYv COMMERCIALIZATIONOFREMOTESENSINGv FUTUREDEVELOPMENTOFREMOTESENSING


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TRANSPORTATIONSYSTEMINOUTERSPACEv GENERALINTRODUCTIONOFSPACETRANSPORTATIONv OBJECTSOFTRANSPORTATIONSYSTEMINOUTERSPACEv LEGALASPECTSOFSPACETRANSPORTATIONSYSTEMv NUCLEARUSEOFSPACETRANSPORTATIONv FUTUREDEVELOPMENTOFSPACETRANSPORTATION

SPACESTATIONINGENERALANDINTERNATIONALSPACESTATION

v GENERALINTRODUCTIONABOUTINTERNATIONALSPACEACTIVITIESv ACTIVITIESININTERNATIONALSPACESTATIONv LEGALASPECTOFINTERNATIONALSPACESTATIONv GENERALINTRODUCTIONABOUTSPACESTATIONv ACTIVITIESINSPACESTATIONv LEGALASPECTOFSPACESTATION

PRINCIPLEOFPEACEFULUSEOFOUTERSPACEANDMILITARYUSEOFOUTERSPACE.v GENERALINTRODUCTIONOFMILITARYUSEINOUTERSPACEv REGULATIONONMILITARYUSEINOUTERSPACEv STARWARANDMNDv WEAPONSINMILITARYUSEOFOUTERSPACEv DISTINGUISHBETWEENMILITARYUSEANDPEACEFULUSE


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I. GENERALCONCEPTANDHISTORYOFDEVELOPMENTOFOUTERSPACEACTIVITIES

1. GENERALCONCEPTOFOUTERSPACE

Outer space (often simply called space) is the void that exists beyond any celestial

body including the Earth. It is not completely empty (i.e. a perfect vacuum), but contains a low

density of particles, predominantly hydrogen plasma, as well as electromagneticradiation, magnetic fields, and neutrinos. Theoretically, it also contains dark matter and dark

energy.

Afterthefirst20yearsofexploration,focusshiftedfromone-offflightstorenewablehardware,suchastheSpaceShuttleprogram,andfromcompetitiontocooperationaswiththeInternational Space Station. From the 1990s onwards, private interests beganpromotingspace tourismand then private spaceexplorationof theMoon. In the 2000s,thePeople's Republic of Chinainitiated asuccessful manned spaceflight program,whiletheEuropeanUnion,Japan,andIndiahavealsoplannedfuturemannedspacemissions.TheUnitedStateshascommittedtoreturntotheMoonby2018andlaterMars.China,Russia,Japan,andIndiahave advocatedmannedmissionsto theMoonduring the21stcentury,while the European Union has advocatedmanned missions to both the Moon andMarsduringthe21stcentury.

Asthedevelopmentoftechnologyandeconomy,theouterspaceactivitiesarenotonlylimitedtothoserelatingtopoliticsandmilitary.Theaimofouterspaceactivitiesaregreatlyextended, suchasouter space travel, telecommunicationservice,weatherreportandevensatellitetelevisionserviceforthedailylifeofcommonpeople.

2. HISTORYOFOUTERSPACEACTIVITIESIN1950SForthousandsofyears,humanbeingshavebeenobservingthesky.Exploringthe

spaceisadreamandonlyadreamforsolongtimeuntilthe20 thcentury.Withlong-timeaccumulated astronomy knowledge and efficient rockets invented, physical spaceexplorationbecomereality.

Reviewing history, we could easily found that war and arm race accelerate thedevelopment of space exploration. Especially, the creation of V-2 rocket andIntercontinentalballisticmissilepreparedsolidtechnicalbasisforfuturesuccessinspaceexploration.SpaceRace,whichstartedfrom1950sduetoColdWar,drovetheearlyeraofspaceexploration.

InOctober4th, 1957, the SovietUnions satellite Sputnik1became the firstman-

madeobjecttoorbittheearth.Adog-namedLeikacarriedbySputnik2inNovember1957becamethefirstlivingbeinginorbit.TheUnitedStateslauncheditsfirstsatelliteExplorer1onJanuary31,1958.Fromthen,theexcitingtimeofhumanbeingsspaceexplorationjustbegan.


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3. 1960S

A lot of achievements were made in 1960s, including the launch of artificialsatellites,orbitalhumanspaceflightandvoyagestotheMoon.ThefirsthumanspaceflightwasaccomplishedonApril 12,1961bySoviet cosmonautYuriGagarin. Inresponse, theU.S.conductedProjectMercuryandGeminiProgram.AlanShepardtookasuborbitalflightin 1961, and John Glenn became the first American to orbit the Earth in 1962. SovietresponsewastheSoyuzProgram,whichmadeinnovationsofboththelaunchvehicleandspacecraft. On July 20, 1969, Apollo 11 landed on the Moon. American astronautsArmstrongandAldrinbecamethefirstpeopletosetsteponmoonsurface.Besides,theU.S.alsomadetheplanetaryresearchincludingMercury,Venus,andMarsbyitsMarinerProgram.

4. 1970SIn conclusion, during the 1970s, the outer space science reached great

achievements.ThetwoleadingnationsinthefieldofastronomyareRussiaandtheUnitedStates.Russiahasachievedmilestone developmentssuchas landingonVenus inAugust1970,takingLunars sample tothe earth inSeptember1970,having first lunarrover inNovember 1970;having firstMars impact, firstMars lander in1971;having firstVenusorbiter and lander in 1975. The United States also had respectable successes such ashaving firstMarsorbiter, firstmannedLunarrover in1971;having first Jupiter flybyin1972;havingfirstSaturnflyby,VenusflybyandFirstMercuryflybyin1973;havingfirstlanderreturning data andFirst picturesfromMartiansurface in1975;havingapproachclosertoSolarin1976,havingfirstUranusandfirstNeptuneflybyin1977.

By the early 1970s orbiting communications and navigation satellites were in

everydayuse,andtheMarinerspacecraftwasorbitingandmappingthesurfaceofMars.Bytheendofthedecade,theVoyagerspacecrafthadsentbackdetailedimagesofJupiterandSaturn,theirrings,andtheirmoons.Skylab,Americasfirstspacestation,wasahuman

5. HISTORYOFOUTERSPACEACTIVITIESINEASTASIA(JAPAN,KOREA,ANDCHINA)ImportanteventsofhistoryofspaceactivitiesofJapan,China,andKorea:

JapansHistoryofOuterSpaceActivities:

Beginnings(19551969):TheJapanesespaceprogramwhichwasestablishedbyHideoItokawa,gotitsstartin1955attheUniversityofTokyo,wheretheinstituteofindustrialSciencebeganworkwithsoundingrockets.

FirstSteps:AcquisitionofU.S.Technology(1970s) Increasing IndigenousCapabilities(1980s) Initiation of for indigenous launcherandsatellitecommunicationscapabilities

Japans Reach Exceeds Its Grasp (1990 2003) Failures involved satellites,Rockets and Space Craft but Successful Launch of H-2A Creation of the NewAerospaceExplorationAgency(JAXA)

Recent Years (2004 2010) Launch development, Lunar and interplanetarymission,Technologytests,Earthobservationprogramme.


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ChinasHistoryofOuterSpaceActivities:

During the Sino-SovietTreaty ofFriendshipperiod (195660) BeginwiththeestablishmentoftheFifthAcademyoftheNationalDefenseMinistryin1956,QianXuesen as a director Cooperation with the USSR to acquire Soviet missiletechnologyfrom1957to1959

AftertheSino-SovietSplit(196076)On27October1966,Chinalauncheditsfirst successful nuclearmissile inXinjiangprovinceWith the launch of its firstman-madesatelliteDongFangHong(TheEastisRed)in1970,bywhichChinaismarkedthefifthnationofcapabilitytolaunchsatellites.

AfterMaoZedongsdeath(19771990) AftertheendoftheColdWar(19902000)GreatprogressinSpaceTechnology,SpaceApplications,SpaceScienceSpaceTechnology:recoverableremote-sensingsatellites, DFH (Dongfonghong) telecommunications satellites, FY (Fengyun)meteorological satellites and SJ (Shijian) scientific research and technologicalexperimentsatellites.

AftertheEntryinto21stCentury(20012010)OnOctober15and16,2003,itlaunchedandretrievedtheShenzhouVmannedspacecraft. Havingmastered the basic technologies formanned spacecraft, Chinabecame the third country in the world to develop manned spaceflightindependently.The first spacecraft of Chinese Lunar Exploration Program, Change 1, an un-mannedlunarorbiterwassuccessfullylaunchedatXichangSatelliteLaunchCenteronOctober24,2007.Change2waslaunchedonOctober1,2010.

KoreasHistoryofOuterSpaceActivities OnApril8,2008,YiSo-Yeon,thefirstastronautofKorea,spenttendaysconducting scientificexperimentsaboardtheInternationalSpaceStation.

II. DEFINITIONOFOUTERSPACEANDBOUNDARYBETWEENAIRANDOUTER

SPACE

1. DEFINITIONOFOUTERSPACEDefinitionsunderTreaties:nodefinition.Generallyspeaking,itistheareabeyond

theairspaceoftheearth.However,OuterSpaceTreaty1967,artIprovidestheideaforconceptofouterspace,i.e.,includingmoonandcelestialbodyandlegalstatusofouterspace,i.e.,theprovinceofallmankind,orcommonuse/heritage.

DefinitioninpracticeofStates:complyfollowthealtitude-basedlinebetweenair

spaceandouterspacevariously.Thisaltitudehasbeen90-110kmor20,100mor36,000m,interalia,90-110kmisthemostcommononepracticedbyleadingsatellitetechnologycountries(Russia,U.S.,Germany,andAustralia).3.Tendencyofthedefinition:theAttitudeof110kmfromsealevelforreasons:(i)opinioninthelatestmeetingofCOPOUS(theUNCommitteeonthePeacefulUseofOuterSpace);(ii)asamatterofscience:beyondthisaltitudenoforceofgravity;(iii)accordingtothepracticeoflaunchingsatellite:itisthecommonaltitudewhichsatellitewentintoitsorbit(SpunkIin1957reached96km).


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2. BOUNDARYBETWEENAIRSPACEANDOUTERSPACE

An official definition of Airspace or Outer Space has not been approved by theUnitedNationsandtheconflictsbetweenmanytheoriesontheboundarybetweenAirspaceandOuterSpacehasnotbeensettled. Ontheviewoflaw,thelegalregimeofAirspaceandOuterspacearedifferent.Underthe1967TreatyonPrinciplesGoverningtheActivitiesofStatesintheExplorationandUseofOuter Space, Outer Space shall be free for exploration and use by all States withoutdiscriminationof any kindwhileAirspace is the subject to the exclusive sovereigntyofStates.

The crucial issue to determine the boundary iswhere the States sovereignty toairspace ends. This leads to various theories on the height of airspace. The height ofairspaceiscalculateddifferently;however,ICAOacceptsthedistanceof100kmabovetheEarths sea levelbased onKrmn line.Therefore, the boundarybetween AirspaceandOuterSpaceisprovisionallydefinedatthedistanceof100kmabovetheEarthssealevel.

III. OUTERSPACELAWMAKINGORGAN:COPUOS1. GENERALINTRODUCTION

COPUOSstandsforcommitteeonpeacefulusesofouterspace.ItwasfirstestablishedasanadhoccommitteebyUNGAthoughUNResolution1348(XIII)in1958.In1959,theAdHocCommitteewastransformedintoastandingcommitteeofUNthroughUNResolution1472(XIV).

Itsmissionistoreviewthescopeofinternationalcooperationinpeacefulusesof

outer space, to devise programs in this field, to encourage continued research and thedisseminationof informationonouterspacematters,andto studylegalproblemsarisingfromtheexplorationofouterspace.

Since its creation, COPUOS has passed a total of 5 treaties, 2 declarations and 3principles. Currently, it has 70 members and boasts of two subcommittees LegalSubcommitteeandScientificandTechnicalSubcommittee.

2. STRUCTUREOFCOPOUS

In1962,theCommitteecreatedtwosubcommitteesofthewhole:onelegal,andtheotherScientificandTechnical,to considerspecificproposalsconcerningthedevelopment

of International cooperation, in their respective fields, of space exploration forpeacefulpurposes. The two subcommittees submit annual reports to the Committee before thesessionofCOPUOSinJune.

3. LAWMAKINGPROCESS


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The space law-making process in the United Nations began in 1958, when theGeneralAssemblyoftheUnitedNationsestablishedtheCommitteeonthePeacefulUsesofOuterSpace(COPUOS).

COPUOShastwostandingSubcommitteesofthewhole,theLegalSubcommitteeandtheScientificandTechnicalSubcommittee.COPUOSanditstwoSubcommitteesmeetannuallytoconsiderproblemsputbeforethemby the General Assembly, reports submitted to them and issues raised by the MemberStates.

COPUOS and the Subcommittees, working on the basis of consensus, makerecommendationstotheGeneralAssembly.

COPUOS at the end of its session issues a report for discussion in the FourthCommitteeoftheUnitedNationsGeneralAssembly.TheFourthCommitteethendraftsaresolutionforsubmissiontotheGeneralAssembly.

4. MAINACHIEVEMENTThe five sets of legalprinciplesadoptedbytheUnitedNationsGeneralAssembly

providefortheapplicationofinternationallawandpromotionofinternationalcooperationand understanding in space activities, the dissemination and exchange of informationthrough transnational direct television broadcasting via satellites and remote satelliteobservations of Earth and general standards regulating the safe use of nuclear powersourcesnecessaryfortheexplorationanduseofouterspace.- 1967:OuterSpaceTreaty- 1968:RescueAgreement- 1972:LiabilityConvention- 1975:RegistrationConvention-1979:MoonAgreementTheUnitedNationsGeneralAssemblyhasadoptedfivesetsofdeclarationsandlegal

principles for the application of international law and promotion of internationalcooperation,unfetteredexchangeofinformationandtechnologyandtogeneratestandardsregulatingthesafeuseofnuclearpowersourcesnecessaryfortheexplorationanduseofouterspace:- DeclarationofLegalPrinciplesGoverningtheActivitiesofStatesintheExplorationandUsesofOuterSpace(1963)

- BroadcastingPrinciples(1982)- RemoteSensingPrinciples(1986)- NuclearPowerSourcesPrinciples(1992)- DeclarationonInternationalCooperation(1996)

TheSessionofCOPUOSwillheldmeetingonceayear,thefirstsessionwasheldin1958inNewYork,UnitedState.thelastsessionisThefifty-thirdsessionoftheCommitteeonthePeacefulUsesofOuterSpacewasheldfrom9-18June2010attheUnitedNationOfficeatVienna,ViennaInternationalCenter,Vienna,Austria.andupcomingsessionisthefifty-fourthsessionoftheCommitteeonthePeacefulUsesofOuterSpacewillbeheldfrom


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1-10June2011attheUnitedNationOfficeatVienna,ViennaInternationalCenter,Vienna,Austria.

IV. BASICLAWOFOUTERSPACE:1967PRINCIPLESTREATYOFOUTERSPACE

1. PRINCIPLEOFFREEEXPLORATIONANDUSE(ARTICLEIOFOUTERSPACETREATY)

InthewordsofArticleI,wemaydefinepossiblerequirementsforPrincipleoffreeexplorationand use Outerspace is tobe explored and used for the benefits and in theinterestsofallcountriesAccesstoexplorationanduseofouterspacedoesnotdiscriminateagainst users based on their degree of economic or scientific development (withoutdiscriminationofanykind)Benefitsaresharedequally(onabasisofequality);andTheusebyallstatesmustbeconsistentwithinternationallaw,generalrulesofinternationallawandcustomaryinternationallaw(inaccordancewithinternationallaw)

Infact,thisprincipleremainsill-definedintermsofsharingbenefitsthatarefoundbystates inouter space. Legallyobserved,OuterSpace andHighSea havesomething incommon(freeuseandexploration,forthebenefitsofhumankind)althoughbeingquitedifferenttosomeextent.

Overall,theexistingoverallspacelawregimeworksbutnotverywell.Someexistingissueshavebeenunresolved,suchasambiguitiesanddefinitionalproblemssetoutOuterSpace Treaties, exclusion commercial interest, and private ownership and operation ofspaceassetsuch

2. PRINCIPLEOFNON-APPROPRIATIONANDAPPLICATIONOFINTERNATIONALLAW

ArticleIIandArticleIIIof1967OuterSpaceTreaty:

ArticleII(PrincipleofNon-appropriation)Outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, is not subject to nationalappropriationby claimof sovereignty, bymeansof use or occupation, orby any othermeans.ArticleIII(PrincipleofApplicationofInternationalLaw)

States Parties to the Treaty shall carryonactivities in the explorationand use ofouterspace,includingtheMoonandothercelestialbodies,inaccordancewithinternationallaw,including the Charter of the United Nations, in the interest ofmaintaining internationalpeaceandsecurityandpromotinginternationalcooperationandunderstanding.

3. PRINCIPLEOFPEACEFULUSEOFOUTERSPACE

TheprincipleofpeacefuluseoftheouterspaceisstatedintheArticleIVofthe1967TreatyofOuterSpace.Thisarticleprohibitsonweaponsofmassdestructionandlimitsthemilitaryactivityinordertomaintainthepeacefulpurpose.However,thereisnocommoninterpretationofthenotionpeacefulandtheextentoftheprincipleofthepeacefuluseofouterspace.AccordingtotheformerSovietUnion,peacefulpurposemeansnomilitarywhiletheUSgivesitsdefinitionasnoaggressive.


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AfterUNISPACE II in1982, three categoriesofmilitaryusesofouterspaceweredistinguished: So-called support systems such as satellites for communication,meteorology and navigation, which can also be used for civil purposes. Militarysurveillance systems, such as high definition cameras, electronic intelligence systems,radars,earlywarningsystemsandnucleartestsdetectors.

Space-basedweapons systems, inparticular anti-satelliteweapons and laserandparticlebeams-weapons.

4. PRINCIPLEOFINTERNATIONALLIABILITY

ArticleVIandVIIof1967outerspacetreatytalkaboutthisprinciple.ArticleVI

States Parties to the Treaty shall bear international responsibility for nationalactivities in outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, whether suchactivitiesarecarriedonbygovernmentalagenciesorbynon-governmentalentities,andforassuringthatnationalactivitiesarecarriedoutinconformitywiththeprovisionssetforthinthepresentTreaty.Theactivitiesofnon-governmentalentitiesinouterspace,includingtheMoonandothercelestialbodies,shallrequireauthorizationandcontinuingsupervisionbytheappropriateStatePartytotheTreaty.Whenactivitiesarecarriedoninouterspace,including the Moon and other celestial bodies, by an international organization,responsibility for compliancewith this Treaty shall be borne both by the internationalorganizationandbytheStatesPartiestotheTreatyparticipatinginsuchorganization.

ArticleVII

EachStatePartytotheTreatythatlaunchesorprocuresthelaunchingofanobjectintoouterspace,includingtheMoonandothercelestialbodies,andeachStatePartyfromwhose territory or facility an object is launched, is internationally liable for damage to

anotherStatePartytotheTreatyortoitsnaturalorjuridicalpersonsbysuchobjectoritscomponentpartsontheEarth,inairspaceorinouterspace,includingtheMoonandothercelestialbodies.

5. PRINCIPLEOFRESCUEANDASSISTANCEArticlesVIIIandVoftheSpaceTreatycontainthegeneralrulesapplicabletorescue

andassistance.ArticleVprovidesthatStatepartiestothetreatyshallregardastronautsasenvoysofmankindinouterspaceandtheastronautofonestateshallrendertothemallpossibleassistanceandshallimmediatelyinformtootherstatepartiestotheTreatyorthesecretary-General of theUnitedNationsofanyphenomenatheydiscoverin outer space,

includingtheMoonandothercelestialbodies,withcouldconstituteadangertothelifeorhealth of astronauts. Article VIII, last sentence provides that space objects or theircomponent parts found outside the territorial limits of the state of registry shall bereturnedtothatstatebyotherstates,ifnecessaryafterclarifyingtheiridentity.


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6. PRINCIPLEOFINTERNATIONALCOOPERATION

Principleofinternationalcooperationismainlydiscussedinthefollowingarticlesinthe Treaty onPrinciple Governing the Activities ofStates in the ExplorationandUse ofOuterSpace,includingtheMoonandOtherCelestialBodies.

ArticleIXensuresthepeacefulusesofouterspaceexploration;ifoneStatePartybelieves that the activities of another State Party would cause potentially harmfulinterference with the activities of other States Parties in outer space, appropriateinternationalconsultationscanbecalledfor.

ArticleXstatesthatalllaunchesmaybeobservedbyotherStatesParties,butthatthisopportunityandtheconditionsunderwhichitcouldbeaffordedshallbedeterminedbyagreementbetweentheStates.

ArticleXIcallsforStatesPartiestoinformtheSecretary-General,thepublic,andtheinternationalscientificcommunityofallofitsactivitiesinouterspacetothegreatestextentpossible. The Secretary-General in turn disseminates this information immediately andeffectively.

ArticleXIIoftheOuterSpaceTreatystatesthatfacilities,equipment,andvehicleson the celestial bodies shallbeavailable toother state-partiesona basis of reciprocityprovidedreasonablepriornoticeisgiven.

V. OTHERTREATIESOFOUTERSPACE1. RESCUEAGREEMENTTheRescueAgreementwasconsideredandnegotiatedby theLegalSubcommittee

from1962to1967."AgreementontheRescueofAstronauts,theReturnofAstronauts,and

theReturnofObjectsLaunchedinOuterSpacewasapprovedonDecember19,1967,bytheGeneralAssemblyoftheUnitedNations(Resolution2345(XXII).Uptodate,thereare90statessignedontheAgreement

TheRescueAgreementconsistsofthePreambleand10Articlesproposed2mainaspectsoftheTreaty.ItsprovisionselaborateontherescueprovisionsinArticleVofthe1967 Outer Space Treaty including: Obligations relating to Rescue and Return ofAstronautsprovided inArticleI, IIand IVof the Agreementwhichset out the duties ofstates including: duty to notify (Article I), Duty to Rescue and Render Assistance toAstronautsinDistress(ArticleII)andDutytoReturntheAstronautsinDistress(ArticleIV)

ReturnofSpaceObjects:providedinArticleVoftheAgreement,whichsetouttheliabilityofthestatespartiesengagedintherescueandthedutyoftheLaunchingAuthority.

2. LIABILITYCONVENTION

Thesubjectofliabilityfordamagesfromspacevehicleaccidentswasfirstaddressed

byCOPUOSin1959andwasimmediatelygivenprioritystatus.InJune1962,theUnitedStatessubmittedthefirstdraftproposalonliability.Afterover10yearsofnegotiation,theLiabilityConventionhasbeenadoptedandopenforsignatureonMarch29,1972anduntilnow,thereare92StatessignedontheConvention.


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LiabilityConventionelaboratesArticleVIandVIIoftheOuterSpaceTreatywhichcontainsthePreambleand25Articlespresentingthegeneralresponsibilityofstates,whichlaunches the satellite, whichmeans that States bear international responsibility for allspaceobjectsthatarelaunchedwithintheirterritory.Thismeansthatregardlessofwholaunches the spaceobject, if itwas launched fromStateAs territory, or from StateAsfacility,orifStateAcausedthelaunchtohappen,thenStateAisfullyliablefordamagesthatresultfromthatspaceobject.IncaseofjointLaunches:Iftwostatesworktogethertolaunch a space object, then both of those states are jointly and severally liable for thedamage that object causes. Thismeans that the injuredparty can sue either of the twostatesforthefullamountofdamage

3. REGISTRATIONCONVENTIONIt was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1974 and went into force

in 1976. A registry of launchings has been maintained by the Secretariat since 1962, inaccordance with General Assembly resolution 1721 B (XVI) of December 20, 1961 .Themainfunctionof the Register is tomake provision for the national registration by launchingStatesofobjectslaunchedintoouterspace,serveasacentralregisterofobjectslaunchedinto outer space, and to provide for States Partiesadditionalmeans and procedures toassistintheidentificationofspaceobjects.

As of 1 January 2008,51 States have ratified, 4 have signedand two internationalintergovernmentalorganizations(EuropeanSpaceAgencyandEuropeanOrganizationfortheExploitationofMeteorologicalSatellites)havedeclaredtheiracceptanceof therightsandobligationsprovidedforintheRegistrationConvention.

4. MOONAGREEMENT The Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial

Bodies, better known as the Moon Treaty or Moon Agreement,wasadoptedonDecember18,1979.OnJuly11,1984,theMoonTreatytechnicallyenteredintoforcetoratifyingpartiesbytheminimumfivenations:Chile,thePhilippines,Uruguay,theNetherlandsandAustria.However,August 2004, only 10States had ratified, and an additional 5 had signed theAgreement.

The Moon Agreement supplements the Outer Space Treaty and confirmed thedemilitarizationoftheMoonandothercelestialbodiesasprovidedfor inthattreaty.TheAgreementalsoprohibitstheuseorthreatofuseofforce,oranyotherhostileactionorthreatofhostileactionontheMoon,whichisreservedexclusivelyforpeacefulactivities.It

prohibitstheuseoftheMooninordertocommitanyhostileactortoengageinanysuchthreatinrelationtotheEarth,theMoon,spacecraft,thepersonnelofspacecraft,orman-madespaceobjects


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VI. CASESTUDY:COSMOS954CASEAND1972LIABILITYCONVENTION

1. FACT

Cosmos954,anuclearpoweredsatellite,waslaunchedintheSovietUnionon18September1977.ByNovember,U.StrackingRadarshadobservedanunusualdecayinitsorbit. On 6 January 1978 the satellite lost its attitude stabilization system, a terminalailment.On24 JanuaryCosmos 954 crashed inthe ice and snownearGreat SlaveLake,NorthwestTerritories,Canada.

Afterthat, someeffortshad beenpaidbyCanada toreduce the ham itmightgetfromthisaccident.WiththehelpofUSA,TheMorningLightOperationbeganinCanadatodetectandresearchtheareaswherethedebrisweredeposited.Afterthat,itisthusbeyonddoubton the basis oftheoperationsdescribedabove andonthebasisof admissionsbyrepresentativesoftheUnionofSovietSocialistRepublicsthatthedebrisfoundintheareascoveredbytheoperationsoriginatedfromtheSovietspaceobjectidentifiedastheCosmos954satellite.

2. CLAIMANDISSUE

ClaimsofCanada:

Canada's claim is based jointly and separately on (a) the relevant internationalagreementsandin particular the1972Conventionon InternationalLiability forDamagecausedbySpaceObjects,towhichbothCanadaandtheUnionofSovietSocialistRepublicsareparties,and(b)generalprinciplesofinternationallaw.

COSMOS954senteringintoCanadianterritorywithoutpermissionresultedinthedamagetothepropertyofCanadaanddamagetothestate-sovereigntyright,basedonthe

Article 2 of the 1972 Liability Convention, and the Canada claimed payment from theGovernmentofUSSRofthesumof$6,041,174.70.ClaimsofSovietUnion:

BasedontheArticle1ofthe1972LiabilityConvention,thedamageshouldbeactualdamage,soSovietrefusedtocompensate.

Regarding thepreventivemeasurerelatedtointernational law,CanadadeniedtheaidsofSoviet.Inaddition,Andalso,Canadassearchandrecoveryprogrammewaspartlymotivated by the desire to gather intelligence about the construction of the Cosmossatelliteandnotforsafetyreasons.Therefore,Sovietsaid,theyhavenoliabilityaboutthepreventivecostsunderthegeneralprincipleofInternationalLaw.Theissueofthiscase

Whether the damages caused by the crashof the COAMOS 954 are compensabledamagesdefinedintheartIof1972Liabilityconvention?

3. APPLICATION

In the international outer space law, damage is divided into 4 categories: directdamage, indirect damage, moral damage and nominal damage. The Article I of 1972LiabilityConventionstipulatesthatthetermdamagemeanslossoflife,personalinjuryor


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otherimpairmentofhealth;orlossofordamagetopropertyofStateorofpersons,naturalor juridical, or property of international intergovernmental organizations. All thingsconsidered,underthesubstantiveprinciplesandrulesinthe1967OuterSpaceTreatyand1972LiabilityConventiontheabsoluteliabilityoflaunchingstateissetdownandclaimantswill be entitled to compensation for direct damages and also indirect damage. Mortaldamages based on pain, suffering and humiliation, as well as on other things, areconsideredtoberecoverable.IntheCosmos954case,theanswertothetwoissuesareasfollowing:

Firstly,thereisnodirectoractualdamagecausedbytheCosmos954satelliteandtheclean-upcostsmightbetreatedasindirectorconsequentialdamageinthesenseofArticleVIIoftheOuterSpaceTreaty.Soitiscompensable.

Secondly,accordingtotheclaim,thedepositofhazardousradioactivedebrisfromthesatellitethroughoutalargeareaofCanadianterritory,andthepresenceofthatdebrisintheenvironmentrenderingpartofCanadasterritoryunfitforuse,constituteddamageto property within the meaning of the convention. Thus it fell in the scope of actualdamage.

4. DISPUTESETTLEMENT

TheCosmos954incidentfinallywasjustsettledbytheprotocolbetweenCanadaandSovietUnionandleftthemajorityprovisionsoftherelatedinternationallawuntestedbut it also can be prove that the related law of outer space can be applied in such acircumstance.Moreover,thesettlementsofthiscaseagoodsignofpeacefulendsforthesetwo countries by just ending up the diplomatic channels in accordance with the 1967LiabilityConvention.TheProtocolwasdoneonApril2,1981andwassimplyincludedjust3articles.Basically,articleIandarticleIIofprotocolaffirmedthatthefinalcompensation

for fromU.S.S.Rwas totally3millionC$whichmeanhalfor less thanhalfofthe actualclaim fromCanadaandthiswasconsideredas fullandfinal settlementbetweenCanadaandSovietUnion.Forarticle3isjustsomethingabouttheenforcementofthisprotocolforthecontractingparties.

Besidesthat,wecouldalsomakefurtheranalysisofotherrelatedlawthatmightbeapplicableto thisincident, for instance,The1975ConventiononRegistrationofObjectsLaunchedintoOuterSpace,1963ViennaConventiononCivilLiabilityforNuclearDamageandotherprinciplesofInternationalEnvironmentalLaw.

5. IMPACTOFCASE

The Cosmos 954 case revealed problems in the 1972 Liability Convention andstimulated the formulationof the 1992PrinciplesRelevanttothe Use ofNuclearPowerSourcesinOuterSpace. The definition of damage in 1972 Liability Convention should be modified toembrace such expenses as incurred for search, recovery and clean-up operations, andexpensesforassistancereceivedfromthirdpartiesinordertokeepconsistencywithintheConventionandwiththeestablishedrulesofinternationalliability.


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The1992NPSPrinciplesprovidedacomprehensivelegalframeworkontheuseofnuclear power sources in outer space, laying out guidelines and criteria for safe use,stipulating duties of launching states of notification of re-entry, specifying liability andcompensationandsoforth.Constructiveasitmaybe,itsnotlegallybinding.Effortsshouldbemadetoincorporatethoseprinciplesintouniversallyparticipatedtreaties,inorderforthosestandardstoplaymoreeffectiveroles.

VII. ENVIRONMENTALPROTECTIONOFOUTERSPACE1. OVERVIEWOFENVIRONMENTALPROTECTIONINOUTERSPACE

AfterSovietUnionssuccessfullaunchofSputnik1in1957,manyspaceactivities

have been conducted, related to telecommunication, remote sensing and transportation.Meanwhile,theseactivitiescausepollutionincludingchemical,biological,radiologicalandspacedebrispollution.

To deal with these environmental problems, environmental protection of outerspacehasbeencarriedout.Theenvironmentincludesterrestrialenvironmentandextra-terrestrialenvironment.

Fortheprotection,Internationalcooperationisveryimportant.Severaltreatiesarerelatedtotheprotectionespecially1967OuterSpaceTreatyand1979MoonAgreement.General principles of International Environmental Law are also applicable, such asprincipleofsustainabledevelopment,principleofcooperationandprecautionaryprinciple.

2. SPACEPOLLUTION

Spacepollution

SpaceDebrisTherearenotreaties,whichhavegivenadefinitionofthisword.Ingeneraluse,the termdebrisconsistsofspent spaceobjects,usedrocketstage,

separation devices, shrouds clamps, and all large and small fragments including theparticlesremainingafterthedisintegrationofthespaceobjects.Sourcesofspacedebris:InactivePayloads,OperationalDebris,FragmentationDebrisNuclearcontamination

Amajorsourceofsuchcontaminationinouterspacewouldbeaccidentalsatellitecollisionsandexplosionsthatcreatenuclearspacedebrisandradiation.AcollisioninvolvingaNPS-equippedspacecraftcaninvolvebothimmediateandlong-termconsequences

CommercialactivitiesTelecommunications

Telecommunications was the first aspect of outer space activity to becommercialized. It remains the most lucrative sector of space commerce.Telecommunicationsisalsothesectorwiththeleastpotential forenvironmentaldamagefromitsprimaryactivity.


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Transportation

Space transportation activities have the greatest present potential for adverseenvironmental effects. These activities involve the highest risk of accidents, and theycreatemorewasteanddebristhandoothertypesofspacecommerce.

RemoteSensing

Remote sensing isused for resourcemapping,monitoring forest coverand otheruses. It is a small but a competitive and politically controversial are of the commercialactivitiesinspace.Environmentalaffect

Forward pollution ispollution that occurs inouter spaceas the result of humanactivity.Itisthemostcommonformofpollutionintheouterspaceenvironmentbysolidwastes.ChemicalPollutionisatypeofaforwardpollution.Back pollution on the other hand, is pollution that occurs on the Earth as a result ofextraterrestrialmatterenteringtheEarthsenvironment.Themostdangeroussortofbackpollutionsofarisradioactivewaste.

3. SPACEDEBRIS

Space Debris, which is defined as the objects in orbit around Earth created byhumans, and that no longer serve any useful purposes, now becomes the concernedproblemsforhumankindasitspollutionaregraduallyincreasing.Generally,itcontainssomany wastes, junk and other component parts resulting from the explosion, collision,breakups,unsuccessfuloperatedsatellitesandmore.Someofdebrispiecesare10cminsizeorlargerwhicheasilyruinotherspacecraftorpeopleontheearthiftheyfalldowntotheearthsurface.AlthoughnowwedontreallyhavetheexactinternationalagreementsortreatiestogoverntheSpaceDebriswhile1967OuterSpaceTreatyjustfocusesonspace

activities betweenstateand stateon the globe, COPUOS and Inter-Agency SpaceDebrisCoordination Committee (IADC) did publish the guideline to mitigate and prevent theincreasingof SpaceDebrisandto guidetheruleoftheroad for avoiding the collisionofsatellites.

4. LEGALSYSTEMENVIRONMENTALPROTECTIONINOUTERSPACE

The environmental problem of outer spacecausedetrimental effect to the spaceenvironment itself, the atmosphere, the earth, and or human activities in theseenvironments. So the legal basis for the environmental protection of outer space isextremelyneeded.Theimportantlegalbasesfortheprotectionof spaceenvironmentare

the1967OuterSpaceTreaty,the1979MoonTreaty,andthe1972LiabilityConvention.

The most relevant provisions that can be interpreted as the legal basis for theprotectionofspaceenvironmentare:

TheOuterSpaceTreaty

ArticleIX:obligatesthestatepartiestoconducttheexplorationoftheouterspaceastoavoidtheharmfulcontaminationofthemandalsoadversechangeintheenvironmentoftheEarth.ArticleIII:requiresstatestoconducttheexplorationanduseofouterspacein


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accordancewithinternationallawincludingtheCharteroftheUnitedNation.ArticleVI&VII:imposestheliabilityonthelaunchingstatesfordamagecausedbythespaceobject.

The Moon Treaty requires states in Article 7 to take measure to prevent thedisruption of the existing balance of its environment, whether by introducing adversechangeinthatenvironment,byitsharmfulcontaminationandalsotakemeasurestoavoidharmfully affecting the environment of the earth through the introduction of extra-environmentalmatterorotherwise.

TheLiabilityConvention:istheprimaryinstrumentforallocatingcompensationfor damage caused by space objects or its component parts in the regime of absoluteliabilityfordamagecausedbyaspaceobjectonthesurfaceoftheearthortotheaircraftflight1whilethe fault-based liability istobe appliedwhen the damageoccurs intheouterspace.Thisregimecontributeslimitedliabilityasitthetermdamageonlyrefertoactualanddirectdamage,thetermspaceobjectoritscomponentpartsisstillunclearnuncertain, and the difficultyofproving faultof the state ifdamage fallwithin the fault-basedregime.

BesidetheseUNspacetreaties,therearealsootherlegalinstruments,whichcanbeinterpretedasthebasisforspaceenvironmentprotectionsuchasTestBanTreaty(1963)prohibitingtheexplosionofnuclearweaponinouterspaceandalsonuclearpowersourcesPrinciple(notbinding).

Also international environmental law is also a basis for the protection of spaceenvironment especially relevant principle such as sustainable development principle,principleofstateresponsibility,principleintergenerationalequityetc.Theapplicationofthese principles are still in a low status and not certain and it is really uncertain andquestionabletobeappliedinthespacecontext.

The legal space for space environment protection is still weak, uncertain, andlacking of enforcement mechanism. So to protect space environment we need moreconcrete,certain,andeffectivelegalsystem.

5. INTRODUCTIONOFSOLUTIONSTOOUTERSPACEGENERALPOLLUTION

The present legal system, including international treaties and customaryinternational law,areagainstsuchpollution.Alsomanyinternationalorganizations,suchasILC,IAEAandUNEP,havemadeeffortstocombattheproblem.Nevertheless,thereisnosatisfactory solutionto the problemso far.Yet, there aremanyproblemsinthepresentlegalsystem, suchas the uncleardefinitionof some concepts, the limited application of

some conventions, the rigid requirement of consensus, which renders the conventionssparselyparticipatedandbasicallynotregulatingsubstantiveissuesandsoon. Bettersolutiontotheproblemofenvironmentalpollutionbyouterspaceactivitiesshallbesoughtthroughfurthernegotiationsamongcountries,basedonappropriateforum.Emphasisshouldbeputtotheadoptionofpreventivemeasures,consideringthedifficultyandhighcostofundoingthepollutions.


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Currently there are many ideas on how to clean up space debris, which facefeasibilityandsafetychallenges.Technologyneedstobeimprovedandsuchcleaningupoperations need to be tested out before considerable improvement of the spaceenvironmentcanbeperceived.

6. FUTUREDEVELOPMENTOFLEGALSYSTEMOFENVIRONMENTALPROTECTIONOFOUTERSPACE

Asthepresentlegalsystemofenvironmentalprotectionofouterspacestillremainsin the initial and theoretical level, including some general principles, lacking of validdoctrinesorrulesinpracticalsense,sufferingfromthemanifestshortagesdeficienciesinpresenttreaties,anadvancedorderoflegalsystemofenvironmentalprotectionofouterspaceisurgentlyexpected.

Facing the failureofconsensus and hardlaw toaddressadequately the currentproblems that plague the space environment, soft law combined with a committedregime-building approach focusing on promoting a Space Environment FrameworkConventionaimingatbuildingannewInter-governmentalSpaceAgencyunderUNdealingwith coordination of environmental issues with real power and authority and an newadvanced legal system and order in this area,may be the first step towards the futuredevelopmentoflegalsystemofenvironmentalprotectionofouterspace.

VIII. RESCUEOFASTRONAUTANDRETURNOFOUTERSPACEOBJECT

1. HISTORICALOVERVIEWANDDEVELOPMENTOFTHERESCUEOFASTRONAUTANDRETURNOFSPACEOBJECT

Inshort,the1968RescueAgreementwasthesecondofthefourspacelawtreatiestobeadopted,andthefirsttobeadoptedafterthe1967OuterSpaceTreaty.Aftermanyspaceaccidentsresultedinthelossofbothastronautsandspaceobjects,itbroughttotheinternational concerning inparticular theexistence ofarticleVof the1967Outer SpaceTreatythatastronautsisregardedasEnvoysofMankind.Inrespondtothespacetragedy,the Soviet Union pushed for the 1968 Rescue Agreement to be concluded before theagreement on liability. The Soviet Union attached great importance to this agreementbecauseithadfewerresourcesthantheUnitedStatesforrecoveringreturningspacecraftandastronautsfromthehighseasinallpartsoftheworld,anditwasthereforemorelikelythantheUnitedStatestorequireassistancefromthethirdStates. The United States and the Soviet Union as the super-space powers played a

predominantroleindraftingthetext.BothagreeduponatextandjointlysubmittedittoLegalSub-CommitteeofCOPUOSon13December1967,justonedaybeforeitwasscheduletomeet.TheLegalSub-CommitteemetinaSpecialSessionon14and15December,andproposedseveralamendmentstothedrafttextbeforeforwardingthedrafttotheCOPUOS.TheCOPUOSmetonSaturday16Decembertoconsiderthedraft.TheDraftwasthensenttotheGeneralAssembly,whichreceiveditandapprovedthetextonTuesday19December1967byaunanimousvote.


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2. LEGALDOCUMENTSRELATINGTOTHERESCUEANDRETURNOFASTRONAUTSANDTHERETURNOFOUTERSPACEOBJECTS

Theinternationalcommunityhasbeenputtingemphasisupontherescueandreturnofastronautsaswellasthereturnofspaceobjectsofalltime.Consideringtheparticularityoftheidentityandactivitiesoftheastronauts,oncetheyareindangerinouterspace,orforcedtoreturntoearth,allpossiblerescuesshouldbeprovided.

After the 1963 Declaration of Legal Principles and 1967 Outer Space Treatyestablishingthebasicprinciplesfortheissueofrescueandreturnofastronautsandthereturnofobjectslaunchedintoouterspace,the1968RescueAgreementwasbroughttoelaborate the basicprinciples and also to fill in the voids left by the 1967Outer SpaceTreaty.Sincetherearemanynewconditionsandproblemsnow,theneedforadditionalappropriatelegalruleshasemerged.

3. PROBLEMSWITHTHEEXISTINGLEGALFRAMEWORKOFTHEAGREEMENTONTHERESCUEOFASTRONAUTSRETURNOFASTRONAUTSANDTHERETURNOFOBJECTS

LAUNCHEDINTOOUTERSPACE

Even though the 1968 Rescue Agreement was negotiated to elaborate and givefurtherconcreteexpressionofarticle5and8ofOuterSpaceTreaty,someambiguityandgaps still remain.Therefore,weneed to strengthen someprovisions byremoving someambiguityandfillinggapsiftheagreementcomesupfortheamendment.

Aswe havealreadymentionedabove, there isa levelof uncertaintywhether therightsandobligationssetforthintheagreementarebindingonnon-contractingparties.Additionally, the ambiguity of the term personnel of spacecraft leads to a significantconcernforthesimpletravelers,whodonotcarryoutmission,iftheyaresubjectinthe

rescueagreementwhenfacedanaccidentoremergency.Moreover,itisnecessarytodefineclearlytheobligationforacontractingpartyiftheintendedlandinghappened.Asalreadynotice,assistanceinouterspaceisdesirableintermoflegalprinciplebut

it requires further development of technology to make law applicable. Furthermore,expense provisions inproviding assistance to astronauts and dispute settlement clauseconcerning the interpretation and application of the agreement should be included.Additionally,internationallawshouldspecifysomelimitationforhostileorillegalactivitiestotheextentofreturningastronauts.

Therefore, it is necessary to address the abovementioned problem aimed atprovidingabetterfurtherdevelopmentoftheRescueAgreement.

4. THERESCUEANDRETURNOFASTRONAUTSThesafetyandrescueofspacecraftandastronauts,areof thefirstprioritywhenit

comestotheastronautsareindistress.Iftheastronauts indistressarefoundorknown tobeonthehighseasorinany

other place not under the jurisdiction of any State, those states partieswhich are in apositiontodoso,shall,ifnecessary,extendassistanceinsearchandrescueoperationsfortheastronautstoassuretheirspeedyrescue.Thesestateshaveafurtherdutytoinform


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thelaunchingauthorityandtheUNSecretary-Generalofthestepstheyaretakingandtheirprogress.

StatesPartiestotheTreatyshallregardastronautsasenvoysofmankindinouterspaceandshallrendertothemallpossibleassistanceintheeventofaccident,distress,oremergency landing on the territory or another State Party or on the high seas. Whenastronautsmakesuchalanding,theyshallbesafelyandpromptlyreturnedtotheStateoftheregistryoftheirspacevehicle.

5. THELEGALREGIMEOFTHERETURNOFSPACEOBJECTSLAUNCHEDINTOOUTERSPACE

TheRescueAgreement cameandenteredintoforce onDecember3,1968.Itwasratifiedby90Statesandsignedby27others.Thisagreementelaboratesontheelementofarticle5and8oftheOuterSpaceTreaty.ItprovidesthatStatesshalltakeallpossiblestepstorescueandassistastronautsindistressandpromptlyreturnthemtothelaunchingState,andStatesshall,uponrequest,provideassistancetolaunchingStatesinrecoveringspaceobjectsthatreturntoEarthoutsidetheterritoryoftheLaunchingState.

TherearethreeprincipalaspectstothewayinwhichtheRescueAgreementdealswith the issues relating to the return to the launching authority of space object or itscomponentpartsreturningtoearthfromspace.Theyare:(1)thedutiesofstatespartiesengagedinrecoveryandreturnofthespaceobjectoritscomponentparts,(2)thedutiesofthelaunchingauthority,and(3)definitionofspaceobjects.

TheConventiononRegistrationofObjectsLaunchedintoOuterSpace,usuallycalledRegistration Convention, was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 12November1974,openedforsignatureon14January1975,andenteredintoforceon15September1976.RegistrationConventionisclosesttotheRescueAgreement,especiallyin

theArticle5paragraph3.Bothagreementandconventionaresignificantlegalregimesofthereturnofspaceobjectlaunchedintoouterspace.

6. SPACETOURISM2010:THERESCUEOFSPACETOURISTSANDTHERETURNOFPRIVATESPACECRAFT

Haveyoueverdreamtofvisitingthemoonwiththeoneyouloved?Well,keepondreaming,thenexteraofhumanspaceflightisabouttobegin.Aspredicted,in2013aspacehotelwillbebuilt,andby2030spacetravelwouldbeavailabletoallclassesofpeopleifthespace tourism industry isproperly flourished.Now the greatest challenges of the spacetourismwouldbethe safety concernsof its passengersand the shortageof the current

international law and the five U.N. treaties which did far too little to encourage thedevelopmentofthisindustry.ThroughrevisionsoftheOuterSpaceTreatyandtheRescueAgreement, international space law must articulate the legal effects of space tourism,including the duty to rescue and return of the space touristsand private spacecraft.Ashumankind realize its ambitions and ventures further into space, the internationalcommunityneedsmorespecific,internationalregulationstokeeppeacebetweennationsoftheworldduringtimeofcuriosityandtechnologicaladvancement.


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IX. GEOSTATIONARYORBIT:GENERALCONCEPTANDLEGALSTATUS,1976BOGOTADECLARATIONANDTHEATTITUDEOFINTERNATIONALSOCIETY

1. CONCEPTOFGEOSTATIONARYORBIT

Geostationaryorbit,alsonamedGeostationaryEarthOrbit(GEO),orGeostationarySatelliteOrbit,isageosynchronousorbitdirectlyabovetheEarth'sequator(0latitude)around35,786kmhigh,withaperiodequaltotheEarth'srotationalperiodandanorbitaleccentricityofapproximatelyzero. So farit isknownasa limitednaturalresourcefromouter space, with special strategic importance in navigation, telecommunication, earthobservation,astronomicalscienceandotherfields

2. 1976BOGOTADECLARATION

Geostationaryorbit(GO)havetremendouseconomicvaluebecauseonlysatelliteswhich are allowed to remain on it can be used for the purpose of telecommunication,weatherforecast,broadcastingHowever,thenumberofsatelliteswhichcanbeplacedonGOis limited.InternationalTelecommunicationUnion(ITU)isinchargeofallocationandadministrationoftheGO.TheallocationmethodusedbyITUisfirstcome,firstserved.Being afraid that before the developing countries technologies allow them to orbit thesatellitesintotheGO,thedevelopedcountriesalreadyoccupyalltheGO,eightequatorialcountriesmetinBogotaonDecember3,1976signedtheBogotDeclarationtoclaimtheirsovereigntyoverthesegmentofGOwhichisdirectlyabovetheirterritories.

TheBogotaDeclaration,asachallengetothedevelopedcountries,ultimatelyfailed,butitwassuccessfulinraisingthevoiceofdevelopingcountriesovertheouterspaceissueafieldinwhichthedevelopedcountriesplayapredominantroles.Asaresult,Article33

of the ITU's International Telecommunications Convention 1973 which regulating theallocationmethodofGOwasamendedin1982torequirethattheITUtakeintoaccount"the special needs of developing countries and the geographical situation of particularcountries"whenallocatingtheGO.

3. CURRENTLEGALSTATUSOFGEOSTATIONARYORBIT

The current legal regime of GSO was laid down in the 1985 and 1988 ITU

WARC-ORBmeetingsandmainlyfeaturesanarcallotmentmechanismthatrejects

the sovereignty claimproposedby equatorial States in the Bogota Declaration but

leaveitapartofouterspacetowhicheveryStateshouldhaveequalaccess.Ittriesto

strikeabalancebetweentheconventionalfirstcomefirstserveprinciplesandtheequalaccessofallStates.Theguidinglegalprinciplesarenon-exclusiveuseandnon-

appropriation,obligationofefficientandeconomicaluse,andequitableaccessofallcountries.Thecurrentadministrativeorganof theGSOis theRadio communication

SectorofITU,andtheUNCOPUOSisservingasaninternationallegislativebodyon

GSOuse.


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4. EXISTINGPROBLEMSANDFUTUREDEVELOPMENTOFGEOSTATIONARYORBIT

Theoretically, the total number of satellites capable of remainingingeostationaryorbitis approximately 2000.The current number of satellites ingeostationaryorbitis 220. Thegeostationaryorbitand direct satellite broadcastingcontroversiesaretheresultoftheinevitableconflictbetweentheequitableandefficientallocationofresources.

UndertheRadioRegulationsoftheITU,whenasatelliteoperatorwishestodevelopa communications satellite system, it obtains of a state Member informs the Radiocommunication Bureau of its intention to assign a particular set of frequencies and ageostationary position to this operator. Upon receipt of the Member's notification, theapplication is reviewed against the Table of Allocations to ensure that the frequenciesemployed by the proposed system have been allocated for the type of servicecontemplated.

Simple arithmetic demonstrates that the 35,786 kilometer altitude of thegeostationaryorbitisclearlyabovetheninetyto100kilometerlowerboundarylimitsetbythelowestorbitingsatellites.ThisconclusionhasbeenreachedbytheSovietUnionwhichadvocates the demarcation of the boundary between airspace and outer space at analtitudeof100kilometers.Thesuperpowersarenotaloneindeclaringthegeostationaryorbittobewellwithintheboundsofouterspaceandthussubjecttotheprovisionsofthe1967OuterSpaceTreaty.

Ingeostationaryorbit,however, thenatureofthedebrisis different.Nonetheless,theuniqueutilityofthegeostationaryorbithasresultedinhighconcentrationsofdebrisbeinglocatedthere.Geostationarydebristendstoremainacontinualthreatintheareaforalongtime.

5.THEINTERNATIONALATTITUDESABOUTTHEGEOSTATIONARYORBIT

Aswehavetalkedabove,GSOspaceislimitedandthereareonlyafinitenumberoforbitalslotsavailable,whichmakesthegeostationaryorbitvaluable.Everystatewantstobenefit fromit.Theequatorial statesbelievethatgeostationary orbit is a scarcenaturalasset that isnot partofouterspace. Instead, theydeclaredthat the geostationaryorbitaboveeachcountryisthesovereignterritoryofthecountryandnoobjectshouldbeplacedinGSOwithouttheapprovaloftheunderlyingstate.Thedeclarationalsostatedthatsuchsovereignrightsareinthebestinterestofallcountriesandallmankind,notjustthemostdeveloped countries. However, the developed countries think the geostationary orbit isouterspaceandshouldnotbesubjecttonationalsovereignty.Eachnationhasunlimited

free access to the GSO and observes the current rule of First come First served. ThedevelopingcountriesclaimthatfreeaccesstotheGSObythedevelopednationsshouldberestricted and the first come first served rule should bemodified. They also claimanallocationofthegeostationaryorbit,whichtheybelieveitsfairforallnations.UtilizationofGeostationaryOrbit

Geostationaryorbit isaveryvaluableand limitednatural resourcefor all humankinds. Currently, it was most used for communications satellites and remote sensingsatellites. These satellites have revolutionized globalcommunications,television


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broadcastingandweather forecasting, and have a number of important defense andintelligenceapplications.Inordertomakebestuseofit,bothtechnologyandlawmakingare essential. The most significant and controversial legal issue for utilizing thegeostationary orbit is to allocate the orbit and radio frequencies resources properly,especiallyconcerningtheneedsofdevelopingcountries.X. DSBANDTELECOMMUNICATIONINOUTERSPACE

1. 1982DBSPRINCIPLES

Under the background of the heated debate on the conflict between State

sovereignty and free access to information, the 1982 DBS Principles (Pr inc ipl esGoverning the Use by States of Artificial Earth Satellites for International DirectTelevisionBroadcasting)wasadoptedbytheUNGAbyitsResolution37/92.Itisusuallyconsideredas themostimportantinstrumentregulatingtheinternationalDBSservices.

However, itremainsuncertainwhetherthe1982Principleshaveobtainedthe statusof

customary law. Despite the effort of trying tobalance the conflict, the 1982 Principles

requirestatestoconsultwithreceivingState(s)priortotheirprovidinganyDBSservice.

Thusthe1982Principlesbasicallystandinapositionofpro-priorconsentregime.

2. LEGALPROBLEMSOFDBS

In assessing the future of international programming byDBS systems, the focusshiftstotheUnitedNationsanditsabilitytodebateandreachcompromiseontheissuesofnational sovereignty, prior consent, program content, and equitable access to thetechnology.Onbalance,thedecadesofnegotiationsandresultingresolutionsinbothITU

andUNESCOshouldbejudgedassolidachievements.Unfortunately,thelackofconsensusfallsshortofthegoalofinternationalcooperation,butasuggestedmodeofcooperationhasbeensetforthinwhichbroadcastersandreceivingstatescanworksuccessfully.

The current state of telecommunications development reasonably suggests thatinternationaldirecttelevisionbroadcastingisnearfruition.Nevertheless,governmentsinpowermaybetemptedtoemploycensorship,andifso,theireffortsmustbemetheadonwith all the persuasion that progressive nations can muster. Certainly, the concern ofindividualcountriesabouttheintrusionofforeignculturesisunderstandable.Likewise,thethreatofculturalstandardizationisavalidone.Thenaturalreactiontocensor,however,shouldbemetbyrecognitionoftheneedofallpeoplestoexpressandcontinuetodeveloptheirownnationalideas.

3. GENERALINTRODUCTIONOFDIRECTTELEVISIONBROADCASTINGBYSATELLITE

DirectTelevisionBroadcastingbySatellite (DBS)orBroadcastingSatellite Service(BSS) is a radio-communication service in which the general public intends signalstransmittedorretransmittedbyspacestationsfordirectreception.Directreceptionbythegeneralpubliccouldbethroughindividualorcommunityreception.


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Individual reception is the reception of emissions from a space station in thebroadcasting satellite service by simple domestic installations and in particular thosepossessingsmallantennae.

Community reception is the reception of emissions from a space station in thebroadcastingsatelliteservicebyreceivingequipment,whichinsomecasesmaybecomplexandhaveantennaelargerthanthoseneededforindividualreceptionandintendedforuseby a group of general public at one location (e.g a village group or a school class), orthroughadistributionsystemcoveringalimitedarea(e.g.,signalsdistributedbycableorothermeanswithin a given area, such as the population of several classes in a schoolcomplex).

4. INTERNATIONALLEGALSOURCESOFDBS

The most refined international legal source of DBS is the 1982 Resolution onPrinciplesGoverningtheUsebyStatesofArtificialEarthSatellitesforInternationalDirectTelevisionBroadcasting,andthisis theonlyonewhichhasacomparativelyinternationalinfluence,becausethereisapoliticaldebatebetweendevelopinganddevelopedcountriessincetheimbalanceofDBStechnology.Thedevelopingcountriesholdthepro-regulationpoint,whichbasedontheprincipleofsovereignty;whilethedevelopedcountriesarguetheanti-regulationone,whichresultsfromtheprincipleoffreeflowofinformation.ThatswhytheinternationalsocietycannotreachaconsensusinthelawmakingareaofDBS.Otherrelated international legal sources are 1974 Brussels Convention and 1961 RomeConvention,whichactuallyarediscussedmoreintheIParea.

5. GENERALINTRODUCTIONOFTELECOMMUNICATION Telecommunication is: Any transmission, emission or reception of signs, signals,writing, images andsounds orintelligenceof any nature bywire, radio, opticalorotherelectromagnetic systems. The ITU Member countries have three instruments at theirdisposal as a means of sharing frequencies at the international level: the Table ofFrequency Allocations; assignment and allotment plans; and coordination procedures.World Radio-communication Conferences, which are held every two years, amend theRadioRegulations,whichcontainprovisionsregulatingtheuseoftheradiospectrumandgeostationaryorbitalpositionsvitalforthecontinuingoperationofexistingsystemsandfortheearlyintroductionofnewandinnovativeradiotechnologies.

6. LEGALFRAMEWORKOFTELECOMMUNICATIONConstitutionofITU,1992:ARTICLE 33-The Right of the Public to Use the International

Telecommunication Service: Member States recognize the right of the public tocorrespondbymeansof theinternationalserviceofpubliccorrespondence.Theservices,the charges and the safeguards shall be the same for all users in each category ofcorrespondencewithoutanypriorityorpreference.


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ARTICLE34-StoppageofTelecommunications:MemberStatesalsoreservetheright to stop\cut off, in accordance with their national law, any other privatetelecommunicationswhichmayappeardangerousto thesecurityof theStateorcontrarytoitslaws,topublicorderortodecency.

ARTICLE35-Suspension of Services:EachMemberStatereserves the righttosuspendtheinternational telecommunicationservice,eithergenerallyoronlyfor certainrelations and/or for certain kinds of correspondence, outgoing, incoming or in transit,provided that it immediately notifies such action to each of the other Member StatesthroughtheSecretary-General.

ARTICLE 36Responsibility: Member States accept no responsibility towardsusers of the international telecommunicationservices, particularlyas regardsclaims fordamages.

ARTICLE 40-Priority of Telecommunications Concerning Safety of Life:International telecommunication services must give absolute priority to alltelecommunicationsconcerningsafetyoflifeatsea,onland,intheairorinouterspace,aswellastoepidemiologicaltelecommunicationsofexceptionalurgencyoftheWorldHealthOrganization.

XI. REMOTESENSINGANDINTERNATIONALLAW

1. INTRODUCTIONTOREMOTESENSING

Remote sensing is defined as the sensing of the Earths surface from space bymakinguseofthepropertiesofelectromagneticwavesemitted,reflectedordiffractedbythesensedobjects,forthepurposeof improvingnaturalresourcesmanagement,landuseandtheprotectionoftheenvironment.

ThehistoryofremotesensingstartswithlaunchingofLandsatI(thefirstremotesensingsatellite)bytheUnitedStatesin1972.Todayremotesensingtechnologyisappliedinvariousfields including: (1)Meteorology;(2)Environmental research; (3)Agricultureandfishery;(4)Cartography;(5)Humanitarian;(6)Militaryandsoon.Remotesensinghasalsobeencommercialized.

2. LEGALASPECTSOFREMOTESENSINGINTERNATIONALLAW

There isnotan international treatydirectlygovernsremotesensingbecausetwomajor issues are discussed betweendeveloping countries and developed countries: thepermissibility of sensing other stats' territory and the access of data and information

collected by remote sensing. In1986, 'Principles Relating to the Remote Sensing of theEarthfromOuterSpace'draftedbyCOPUOSwasfinallyadoptedasaUNGeneralAssemblyResolution, declaring international policy on remote sensing. It provides 15 principles,mainlyregulatingthatRSactivitiesshouldbecarriedout:

For the benefit of all countries and give particular consideration on developingcountries;inaccordancewithinternationallaw;

RespectfullandpermanentsovereigntyofallStates;


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Sensed State has access-to-access data on a non-discriminatory basis and onreasonablecostterms.

Protectnaturalenvironmentandconcernnaturaldisasters.3. LEGALASPECTSOFREMOTESENSINGNATIONALLAW

Among those countries, which have, remote sensing systems, the level ofdevelopmentaredifferentwithregardsto theregulationofremotesensingactivitiesandremotesensingdata.MostoftheseStateshavegeneralspacelawsoractsconcerningthelaunch,liability,safetyand sovereignty issues. The legislation specifically regulating remote sensing is scarce,exceptinsomeleadingcountriesinthisfield,likeUSandCanada.

Theremotesensinganddataissuesaremoreoftenaddressedintheformofpolicy,directives or something similar, however, such practice is still rare, moreover, it is notlegislationinthestrictsense.

AlltheseStatesexpresstheiragreementandcompliancewithUNPrinciples,lawsandpolicies,forexamplethenon-discriminatoryaccessandreasonablecostprinciple.Forthose States, which have not adopted national regulations, the Principles and generalinternationalspace,lawservesastheonlyguide.

4. REMOTESENSINGANDNATIONALSOVEREIGNTY

Remote sensing of the Earth surface from outer space is deeply related to thenational sovereignty issue since the sensed objects mostly existwithin the territory ofsovereignstates.After16yearsdebatesoveropenskiesandpriorconsentpolicy,1986Remote sensing Principles tried to balance between two opinions, and reached the

consensus that states have the rights to conduct remote sensing freely without priorconsentfromsensedstatesonthebasisofrespectfortheprincipleof fullandpermanentsovereignty.With thedevelopmentof remote sensing technology, thepractices indicatethatontheonehand,theopenskiesprincipleandthedisclosurerequirementslaiddownin1986 Principles dobringmuch benefits to the states, contribute to strengthen nationalsovereignty over the better control of disasters, environment protection and naturalresourcemanagement;ontheotherhand,themilitaryusesofremotesensinginformation,therisingdangerofterrorism,whicharenotcoveredintheSCOPEOFREMOTESENSINGin1986 Principles render national security problem unregulated internationally and posegreatinvasionintothenationalsovereigntyofstates.Internationaleffortsshouldbepaidforanewlegalregimeinaddressingtheunsolvedproblems,e.g.,creationofbindingtreaty

inremotesensingactivitiesbasedon1986Principles.

5. COMMERCIALIZATIONOFREMOTESENSING

Thecommercializationofremotesensingbeganandgrewlargerandlargerduetotheextensivevarietyofpossibleusesofremotesensingincludingenvironment,weather,agriculturalandmediause,geographyindication...alongwiththefactthatnotallcountries


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intheworldhavesufficienttechnologyandcouldaffordtobuildtheirownremotesensingsystem.Theonlywaytoaccesstoitistocommercializeit.

Onethedarkside,thepurposeofremotesensingisnon-militarybutwhentheybuyandselldata,wedontknowforsureifthebuyerpurchasesdataforcivilormilitarypurpose(whichthreatensnationalsecurityofthesensedstate).

Commercializationalsocreatesanissueofstateresponsibilityandinternationalliability.Asprivateactivityincreases,itbecomesmoredifficultforthegovernmenttomonitorareasofinternationalliabilityandthecomplianceofprivatecompanieswithprinciplesofinternationallaw.

CommercializationofremotesensingactivitiespresentsafundamentaltensionwithprinciplesofequalaccesstothedatabasedontheUNnondiscriminatoryprinciples.Thereshouldbeamorestringentinternationalstandardofnondiscrimination,onethatholdsallentitiesmoredirectlyresponsible,ratherthanrelyingonlyonexistingindividualstatepractices.

6. FUTUREDEVELOPMENTOFREMOTESENSING

Civiliansatelliteremotesensingsfuturewilldependonhowwellthesystemsmeettheneeds

ofdatausersfor:

v Monitoringtheglobalenvironment.v Long-termglobalchangeresearchandassessment.v Monitoring and managing renewable and nonrenewable resources; mapping,

charting,andgeodesy;and

v Nationalsecuritypurposes.AndthefuturedevelopsofremotesensingonmilitaryIs"same,butbetter":wide-area

coverage,supportfornationalstrategicwarning,andperhapssubstantiallymorecoverageby

changing the mix of collectors. The other approach is whatJV2010envisions: a fused,integrated,joint,andresponsiveintelligencepicturethatdirectlysupportsthewarfighter

XII. TRANSPORTATIONSYSTEMINOUTERSPACE1. GENERALINTRODUCTIONOFSPACETRANSPORTATION

Space Transportation encompasses space launch and orbit transfer vehicles andrelated propulsion systems for the traditionalspace liftmissionsofdelivering goodsorpeople to and from outer space. Usually the space transportation system has threecomponents:Spacevehicle,Launch vehicle and Crew/Astronaut. However, this is just a

literalapproachtotheconceptofSTSandisverybroad.Inreality,somecountryexplainsthetermSTSasLaunchvehiclesordirectlyreferstoSpaceShuttleSystem.Intheory,alaunchvehicle isthenucleusofanyspacetransportationsystem,but itis not thewholespacetransportationsystem.


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2. OBJECTSOFTRANSPORTATIONSYSTEMINOUTERSPACE

Inshort, space transportationcouldbeunderstoodas the launch and deliveryofpayloads to orbit and on-orbit maneuver thereafter. Hence, objects of transportationsysteminouterspaceareclassifiedintotwomaincategories:spaceobjectandaerospaceobject. Concerning transportation activities in outer space as stated above, objects oftransportation system inouter space includerocket, satellite,mannedspacecraft,probe,spacestation,spaceshuttleandspaceplane.

Spaceobjectcouldbeclassifiedintospacecraft(mannedspacecraftascapsule,spacestation, and unmanned spacecraft as unmanned satellite, probe) and launch vehicle(expendable and reusable). Aerospace object is divided into space-shuttle-type vehicle(spaceshuttleorbiter)andspaceplane.

The legal regimes apply to space object and aerospace object are differentdepending on each object and its mission in space transportation; they are related toseveralaspects:registration,safety,navigationandliability.

Duetothespecialtyofaerospaceobjectanditspotentialapplicationincommercialtransportationactivities in the future, it isnecessary toestablish a unified legal regimeregulatingspacetransportationobjects.

3. LEGALASPECTSOFSPACETRANSPORTATIONSYSTEM

With the age of space transportation activities comes to 30, no specific international

regulations in this field was adopted, only those 5 general outer space treaties set as bases for

STS, for national or commercial use. Moreover, Article VI of the 1967 Outer Space Treaty prescribed space transportation activities carried on by non-governmental entities should be

under national laws, and States shall bear responsibilities for those activities.For future legal regulations, worldwide international cooperation to adopt a specific

international regulation in this field is predictable, in particular, to address unsolved problems inspace transportation activities conducted by non-governmental entities for commercial use, such

as, the vacuum of national laws, licensing and registration issue and the liability issue.

4. NUCLEARUSEOFSPACETRANSPORTATION

Although, nuclear power is a key point for the humans future in spacetransportationsystem,thenuclearpowerisalwayscomingupwithsomethingthatsoundsvery dangerous tohuman being. Moreover, Nuclear power and propulsion technologiesface few legal barriers to their application in outer space missions. Even at the

international level,theUnitedNationshasexplicitlyrecognizedthatnucleartechnologiesareusefulfor,orevenessentialto,certaincivilianspacemissions.Theuseofnuclearpowerand propulsion in space is thus primarily a question of public policy, not of law.Undoubtedly,thehealthandsafetyoftheEarthpopulationmustbeamajorfactorinthedecisiontouseanynuclearspacetechnology.


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5. FUTUREDEVELOPMENTOFSPACETRANSPORTATION

Along with the retirement of space shuttle, it symbolizes the traditional Spacetransportationsystemischangingsubstantially.Spaceshuttle,asasupercombinationoflaunching vehicle and spacecraft, exactly demonstrates that government dominated thedevelopmentofSpacetransportationsysteminthelastdecades.However,itsretirementimpliescommercialspacetransportationhasbecomethenecessarypartofSTS.Duetotheinherent advantages of commercial space transportation, low cost and sufficientcompetition, the next new era of Space transportation system will derive from thecommercialspacetransportationXIII. SPACESTATIONINGENERALANDINTERNATIONALSPACESTATION

1. GENERALINTRODUCTIONABOUTINTERNATIONALSPACEACTIVITIES

ISSisaspacestationownedby16countriesincludingU.S.,Russia,Canada,Japan,Braziland11statesmembersofEuropeanSpaceAgency(ESA).TheideaofestablishmentofISSoriginatedfromthecombinationofthetwo(02)bigSpaceStationProjectswhichmetthebudgetarydifficultiestocompleteseparately.ISSisoperatedandmanagedby05SpaceAgencies,i.e.NASA,RKA,CSA,JAXA,ESA.U.Stakesaleadroleforoverallmanagementandcoordination of ISS. On-orbit construction of ISS began in 1998 and is scheduled forcompletionbymid-2012.Thestationisexpectedtoremaininoperationuntilat2020.Theideaofestablishmentof ISS originated from the combinationof the two (02) big SpaceStationProjectswhichmetthebudgetarydifficultiestocompleteseparately

2. ACTIVITIESININTERNATIONALSPACESTATION TheInternationalSpaceStationactivitiesisanunprecedentedachievementinglobalhumanendeavorstoconceive,plan,build,operate,andutilizearesearchplatforminspace.Withtheassemblyofthespacestationatitscompletionandthesupportofafull-timecrewofsix,aneweraofutilizationforresearchisbeginning.Duringthespacestationassemblyphase, the potential benefits of space-based research and development weredemonstrated; includingtheadvancementof scientific knowledge basedonexperimentsconductedinspace,developmentandtestingofnewtechnologies,andderivationofEarthapplicationsfromnewunderstanding.

3. LEGALASPECTOFINTERNATIONALSPACESTATION

TheInternationalSpaceStation(ISS)asthecurrentlyonlyspacestationintheorbit,thelegalaspectsofISSwillbegovernedbyfourcrucialInternationaltreaties:1967OuterSpace Treaty; 1968 Rescue and Return Agreement; 1972 Liability Convention; 1975RegistrationConvention. Besides, there are special agreements which regulate the activities of ISS. Thespecific regulations include those States Agreements which are established by threedifferentlevels(Three-layerLegalFramework):


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v IntergovernmentalAgreementofISS(IGA),whichisthemostimportantagreementwhichregulatetheactivitiesofISS.

v Bilateral Agreements between NASA and each co-operating Agency. Four newMemorandaofUnderstanding(MOUs),theyare:

o NASA-CanadianSpaceAgencyMOU(January1998)o NASA-EuropeanSpaceAgencyMOU(January1998)o NASA-RussianSpaceAgencyMOU(January1998)o NASA-GovernmentofJapanMOU(January1998)

v VariousbilateralImplementingArrangementsbetweenthespacestationagencies.

4. GENERALINTRODUCTIONABOUTSPACESTATION

Thewidelyaccepteddefinitionofspacestationisthataspacestationisamannedcomplexphysicalstructuredesignedtoremaininspace(ormostcommonlylowEarthorbit)foralongperiodoftime,andwhichhastheabilityforotherspacecrafttodocktoit.Aspacestationisdistinguishedfromothermannedspacecraftbyitslackofmajorpropulsionorlandingfacilitiesinstead,othervehiclesareusedtotransportpeopleandsuppliestoandfromthestation.

TheonlyspacestationcurrentlyinorbitistheInternationalSpaceStation.PreviousstationsincludetheAlmazandSalyutseries,SkylabandmostrecentlyMirSpacestationsareusedtostudytheeffectsoflong-termspaceflightonthehumanbodyaswellastoprovideplatformsforgreaternumberandlengthofscientificstudiesthanavailableonotherspacevehicles.Whatmakesdifferentbetweenspacestationandinternationalspacestationisthestatesinvolvewithinortheownership.Spacestationisownedbyonestatealone,whileinternationalspacestation,fitstoitsname,isownedbymorethanonestate.

5.ACTIVITIESINSPACESTATION

Aspacestationisamannedsatellitedesignedtoremaininspaceforalongperiodoftime, and which has the ability for other spacecraft to dock to it for the purpose ofexploratory expeditions, conducting research, repairing satellites, and performing otherspace-relatedactivities.Thetwospaceleadingcountriesorbitedspacestations.Asof2001,there have been 9 space stations placed in a low earth orbit and occupied for varyinglengthsoftime.RussiaorbitedtheworldsfirstspacestationcalledSalyut1in1971forscientificstudiesandfollowedbyother7spacestations.In1973,TheUnitedStatesorbiteditsfirststationcalledSkylab.Itwasequippedasasolarobservatoryandotherscientificlaboratory.Spacestationnowhasbeenreplacedbyinternationalspacestation.

6. LEGALASPECTOFSPACESTATION

Spacestationisonetypeofspacecraftthatisregardedasonekindofspaceorbit.

Thus, the application of legalaspect on thismatterwill bebased on the legalaspect ofspaceorbitthatisgovernedbyfivecrucialInternationaltreaties:Outerspacetreaties(OST1967,1968Rescue andreturn agreement; 1972Liability Convention; 1975RegistrationConvention;1979MoonAgreement).


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The legal issues relate to space station, generally turning around jurisdictionconcept(ArticleVIofOST),registration(ArtVIIIofOST),liability(ArtVII,OST)andsomeparticularissuessuchasIntellectualpropertyinspace,commercialuse...Because space station can be conducted by both governmental and non-governmentalentities,thenationallawisalsoreferred.

According to purpose of space station, the specific agreements in this field areestablishedbetweenStateswhojointhespacestationsactivities.However,therearenomanyspecificagreementsregardingtothat.Infact,aftersomespacestationasSalyut,AlmaandSkylab;Mirde-orbited;untilnowthereisonlyonespacestationnamedInternationalSpacestation(ISS)keepingworking.ISSisconsideredasaglobalcooperativeprogramofthecountries.NASAandtheother statememberssignedtheInternationalSpace StationIntergovernmental Agreement (IGA) on January 29, 1998 to regulate the legal issuecoveringISSactivities.XIV. PRINCIPLEOFPEACEFULUSEOFOUTERSPACEANDMILITARYUSEOFOUTER

SPACE.

1. GENERALINTRODUCTIONOFMILITARYUSEINOUTERSPACE

Sincethedawnofthespaceage,outerspacehasbeenregardedastheultimatehighgroundfromwhichtheearthbelowcouldbecontrolled.Reflectingthisview,thecoldwarspaceracebetweenthesuperpowerswasanaturalcorollaryofthearmsrace.Attheendof2001,theonedominantpower,theUnitedStates,hadnearly110operationalmilitaryspacecraftswell over of all the military spacecrafts orbiting in the earth. Russia was adistantsecond.Therestoftheworldhadonlyabout20satellitesinorbit. Military use of outer space is the placement and development of weaponry and

military technology inouter space, with direct militarypurpose orproviding indirectservicetosomemilitariesandcivilianspurposeaswell.

2. REGULATIONONMILITARYUSEINOUTERSPACE

Along with the development of the exploration and use of outer space for civil

purposeswhich can significantly serve human beings daily lives, the military use also

comes to play in space activities which reflect the present and potential technologies

availableforspacecombatbetweentheSpacePowers.Inresponse,lawgoverningouter

space still exists todayowing to the international community attempted to prevent the

UnitedStatesandtheformerSovietUnionfromenteringintoanarmraceinouterspace.Fromthebeginningofthelawsregulatingonthespace,theinternationalcommunityraises

withinthelegalframeworkoftheUnitedNationsthedemandthattheexplorationanduse

ofouterspacebeorientedexclusivelytowardspeacefulpurposesintheinterest,andfor

thebenefitofmankindasawhole.ThelawsregulatingmilitaryuseinOuterSpaceinclude:

v 1945U.NCharter


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v U.N SpaceTreaties include the 1967 Outer SpaceTreaty, the 1975 RegistrationConvention,andthe1979MoonAgreement.

v OtherOuterSpace-RelatedTreatiessuchasthe1963LimitedTestBanTreaty,the1972ABM(Anti-BallisticMissileSystem)Treatyandalsootherouterspace-related

treaties.v Beside these, there are also the U.N-nonbinding resolutions including RemoteSensingResolutionandNuclearPowerSourcesResolution.

Although,therearecertain lawsregulatingonthemilitaryuse,theambiguitiesof certain

terms in the relevant international agreements still remain, which lead to the

ineffectivenessoftheimplementationofthoselawsintherealpractice,forexample,itis

not clearly defined whether the term peaceful use refers to the nonmilitary use or

nonaggressiveuse,orwhatkindsofweaponswouldbeincludedinthetermweaponof

massdestruction.Therefore,inordertomaintaintheuseofouterspaceforinterestofall

mankindwithin thepeaceful use,astrong legal frameworkwithclearandcertainterms

andbroadbindingeffectshouldbeadoptedwithinthestrongproceduretomakesurethat

suchlawsarewellandeffectivelyimplemented.

3. STARWARANDMND

TheStarWarsorsocalledStrategicDefenseInitiativethatnowisknownasNationalMissileDefenseSystemis a fixed,land-based,non-nuclearmissiledefensesystemwithaspace-baseddetectionsystem.ThemissionofNationalMissileDefenseSystemsare:v Field an NMD system that meets the ballistic missile threat at the time of adeploymentdecision.

v Detectthelaunchofenemyballisticmissile(s)andtrack.v Continuetrackingofballisticmissile(s)usinggroundbasedradars.v Engageanddestroytheballisticmissilewarheadabovetheearthsatmospherebyforceofimpact.TolimittheproductionofnuclearweaponstheUSandRussiahavetodayagreedto

allownuclearweaponsinspectionsbetweenthe twotopnuclearpowerstocontinue.ThenewStrategicArmsReductionTreatyorsocalledSTARTwassignedbytheleadersofthetwosuperpowerStatesonApril8,2010tolimitsthenumberofdeployedwarheadsbytheUSandRussiatonomorethan6000each,andallowsweaponsinspections,asagoodsignforthemaintenanceoftheworldpeaceandsecurity.

As a preventive action to avoid an arms race in outer space, the internationalcooperationontheapplicationandthereinforcementofexistinginternationaltreaties(lexlata) is important. To fill in the gap in regulating and controlling the weaponization ofspaceorouterspace,thedevelopmentofmulti-laterallynegotiatedcontrolonweaponsinspacethroughanewspacetreaty(lexferenda)isdefinitelynecessary.


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4. WEAPONSINMILITARYUSEOFOUTERSPACE

Definition

Spaceweaponsareweaponsusedinspacewar.Theyincludeweaponsthatcanattackspacesystemsinorbit,attacktargetsontheearthfromspaceordisablemissilestravellingthroughspace.Foryourbetterunderstanding,youalsocanregardaspaceweaponas:v aweapon(ground-basedorspace-based)thatcanattackthecapabilityofspacesystemsonorbit;

v aweaponbasedinspacethatcanattacktargetsontheearth;v aweaponusedforspace-basedmissiledefensesystems.

Category

Accordingtothelocationoftheweaponanditsattackingtargets,spaceweaponscanbecategorizedinto:SpacetoSpaceweapons,EarthtoSpaceweapons,SpacetoEarthweapons.

5. DISTINGUISHBETWEENMILITARYUSEANDPEACEFULUSE

Thenon-aggressiveinterpretationaboutmeaningofpeacefulpurposesisbasedonthe provisions of Outer Space Treaty, Charter of UN and other related agreements.Comparedwiththenon-militarytheory,itismuchmorereasonableandpracticableundertherealityofthemilitarizationoftheouterspace.Thatdefinitionofnon-aggressivedoesnotruleoutthemilitaryuseofouterspaceormilitaryuseofcommercialcommunicationssatellites or other objects. It does not prohibit the use of commercial satellitecommunicationsintacticalmilitaryoperationsinwhicharmedforceisused.

In the end, the resolution of whether or not a military use of commercialcommunicationssatellitesorotherobjectisfora 'peacefulpurpose'resideswiththeU.N.,the Parties to the Outer Space Treaty, and the Parties to the related agreements. Thistheoryisusefultojudgethepeacefulpurposesthroughtheactsofthestates,notthewordssaidby them: thecharacteristicsof 'peaceful uses,' identifiableunder treatyobligations,appeartobe:opennessofinformation;'transparency'inuse(everyonecanseehowitisbeingused);and'internationalcooperation'(allcountrieswishingtoparticipatemay).

summarry of all os topics-20110527

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