sustainable land use and rural development in mountainous ... · sustainable land use and rural...

International Symposium

Sustainable Land Use and Rural Development

in Mountainous Regions of Southeast Asia

Hanoi, 21-23 July 2010

Program and Abstracts

Organizers:

The Uplands Program (SFB 564)

Hohenheim University

Hanoi University of Agriculture

In cooperation with:

Thai Nguyen University of Agriculture and Forestry

National Institute of Animal Husbandry

Chiang Mai University

Funded by:

- Hosted during the German Year 2010 in Vietnam –

The Uplands Program

Prof. Dr. Karl Stahr (Director SFB)

Dr. Holger Fröhlich

Dr. Gerhard Clemens (Hanoi)

Dr. Pepijn Schreinemachers (Chiang Mai)

University of Hohenheim (796)

SFB 564

D-70593 Stuttgart

Fon.: ++49(0)711 459-23322

Fax: ++49(0)711 459-23430

E-Mail: [email protected]

Internet: www.uni-hohenheim.de/sfb564

Introduction i

Organizers and program committee

The symposium is jointly organized by The Uplands Program (SFB 564), the

University of Hohenheim and the Hanoi University of Agriculture. Members of the

program committee included:

At Hohenheim University:

Prof. Dr. Karl Stahr

Prof. Dr. Georg Cadisch

Prof. Dr. Anne Valle Zárate

Prof. Dr. Franz Heidhues

Prof. Dr. Joachim Müller

At the Uplands Program (Thailand Office):

Dr. Pepijn Schreinemachers

At Hanoi University of Agriculture:

Prof. Dr. Nguyen Van Dinh

Dr. Nguyen Thanh Lam

At Thai Nguyen University of Agriculture and Forestry:

Prof. Dr. Nguyen The Dang

At the National Institute of Animal Husbandry:

Assc. Prof. Hoang Van Tieu

At Chiang Mai University:

Asst. Prof. Dr. Daruni Naphrom

Assc. Prof. Dr. Pittaya Sruamsiri

ii Introduction

About the Uplands Program

The Uplands Program (SFB 564) aims to make a scientific contribution to the

conservation of natural resources and the improvement of living conditions of the

rural population in mountainous regions of Southeast Asia.

The program, which started in 2000, is a collaboration between Hohenheim

University, its initiator, and several universities and research institutes in Thailand

and Vietnam. The program comprises thirty research projects, fourteen of which

are lead by Hohenheim University and funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemein-

schaft (DFG). The other research projects, lead by Thai and Vietnamese institu-

tions, are funded by the National Research Council of Thailand (NRCT) and the

Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST) in Vietnam. The German, Thai and

Vietnamese projects are linked and work on common issues.

In pursuit of its objective, the program builds on three main concepts:

Using an interdisciplinary approach, scientists of various expertises—such

as from animal science, food technology, horticulture , hydrology, crop pro-

duction, soil science, and social science -work together in common research

areas and on common research topics.

Using a systems approach, scientists study the complex relationships

between agro-ecosystems, people, and innovations by integrating the domains

of agronomic and technical, biophysical and ecological and socioeconomic

and institutional knowledge. In this way, research treats ecological, economic,

and social sustainability as inseparable aspects of sustainable development.

Active participation of stakeholders—including farmers, extension

workers, government officers, and the private sector—in all stages of the

research ensures that research addresses relevant issues and that stakeholders

can make use it. Knowledge and innovation partnerships connect researchers

with stakeholders in an iterative communication process.

The scientific contributions of the Uplands Program include: innovations, such as

improved irrigation methods, fruit drying and processing technologies, methods of

soil and water conservation, and improved livestock varieties; systems modeling

to increase our understanding of decision-making and natural resource flows in

mountainous systems and to a priori evaluate through scenarios the possible impact

of developed innovations. Capacity building including the transfer of knowledge

and innovations to stakeholders, the promotion of interdisciplinary research

approaches at partner universities, and the training of young scientists.

For more information visit www.uni-hohenheim.de/sfb564

Introduction iii

About Hohenheim University

The origins of the University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany, go back to the

year 1818, when King William I of Württemberg founded an agricultural

institution for teaching, experimentation and demonstration. Today, the University

of Hohenheim is one of Europe‘s leading universities in the field of agricultural

sciences. The university has a long tradition of development-oriented agricultural

research and maintains contacts and partnerships with more than 50 universities

worldwide and with many renowned national and international research organiza-

tions.

The University of Hohenheim currently offers five international M.Sc. Programs in

agriculture: Agricultural Sciences, Food Security and Natural Resource Manage-

ment in the Tropics and Subtropics; Environmental Protection and Agricultural

Food Production; Agricultural Economics; Organic Food Chain Management; and

the new joint-degree program together with Chiang Mai University Sustainable

Agriculture and Integrated Watershed Management (SAIWAM). Research and

teaching at the University of Hohenheim are characterized by interdisciplinary

cooperation across institutes, such as the Center for Agriculture in the Tropics and

Subtropics. Major emphasis is placed on long-term collaborative research

initiatives, such as the Uplands Program.

For more information visit www.uni-hohenheim.de.

About Hanoi University of Agriculture

Hanoi University of Agriculture is the oldest agricultural university in Vietnam. Its

priority mandate is the Red River delta, the northern midland regions, and the

transition zone between the mountainous regions and the delta region. Research

also increasingly focuses on the northern mountainous region. The university

works under the umbrella of the Ministry of Education and Training and its main

responsibility lays in teaching, though research is increasingly important. HUA

provides laboratories, gives guidance to researcher and students and maintains the

link to Government institutions at the central and provincial level.

For more information visit www.hua.edu.vn.

iv Introduction

Deutsche Forschngsgemeinschaft (German Research

Foundation)

The Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) is the central public funding

organization responsible for promoting research in Germany. Its activities focus on

funding research projects carried out by scientists and academics working at

universities or research institutes and on selecting the best projects in a fair and

transparent competition. The work of the DFG serves all branches of science and

the humanities to reflect its role as the self-governing organization of German

science and research. Its legal status is that of an association under private law.

The DFG encourages international collaboration in science and research through its

funding instruments. Many of the programs have a specific international focus.

Collaborative Research Centers, such as The Uplands Program, are long-term

university research centers in which scientists and academics pursue ambitious

joint interdisciplinary research undertakings. This funding instrument aims to

create core research focuses at universities.

For more information visit www.dfg.de.

v

Concise Program

Wednesday, 21 July 2010

8:00-9:00 Registration

9:00-9:30 Opening

9:30-10:15 Plenary session Keynote 1: Dr. Alan Ziegler

10:45-12:00 Plenary session Keynote 2: Dr. Andreas Neef

Keynote 3: Prof. Dr. Anan Ganjanapan

13:30-15:15 Parallel session 1

1.1 Land use and matter flows

1.2 Approaches to forest conservation

1.3 Animal husbandry systems I


2.1 Water and fate of agrochemicals

2.2 People's access to resources

2.3 Animal husbandry systems II

17:30 Reception

Thursday, 22 July 2010


3.1 Land use change

3.2 Vulnerability of poor households in highland areas

3.3 Animal husbandry systems III


4.1 Land use planning and evaluation

4.2 Participatory processes and demand orientation for

successful innovation development

4.3 Innovations in Horticulture

13:45-15:30 Poster session


5.1 Land use and biodiversity

5.2 Environmental valuation and poverty

5.3 Upland cropping systems

18:30 Conference dinner

Friday, 23 July 2010


6.1 Modeling people's interaction with natural resources

6.2 Integration of highland farmers into markets

6.3 Innovations for sustainable agriculture


7.1 Modeling impact of external change on highland

agriculture

7.2 Factors determining adoption of innovations

7.3 Approaches to sustainable resource management

13:45-15:30 Plenary session

Keynote 4: Prof. Dr. Irb Kheoruenromne

Keynote 5: Joachim Otte

Keynote 6: Prof. Dr. Attachai Jintrawet

16:00-17:00 Panel discussion

17:00-17:30 Conclusion

vi Wednesday, 21 July 2010

Detailed Program

Wednesday, 21 July 2010

8:00-9:00 Registration

9:00-9:30 Opening


Chair: Prof. Dr. Nguyen Van Dinh

Environmental consequences of land use change in mountainous

regions of Southeast Asia ............................................................................... 1

Dr. Alan Ziegler

10:15-10:45 Break


Resource, knowledge and innovation management in montane

mainland Southeast Asia: What have we learned in the past

decade? ............................................................................................................ 2

Dr. habil. Andreas Neef

Multiplicity of agricultural transformation under the

competition for resources on the northern Thai highlands ......................... 4

Prof. Dr. Anan Ganjanapan

12:00-13:30 Lunch

Detailed Program vii



Chair: Prof. Dr. Nguyen The Dang/ Prof. Dr. Thilo Streck

Rice-Stylosanthes guianensis intercropping system: Effect of

Stylosanthes guianensis establishment method on

productivity of upland rice ............................................................................ 9

Somphet Phengchanh, Done Douangdenh, Khamdok

Songyikhangsuthor, Kouang Douangsila, Benjamin K. Samson

Redistribution of carbon and nitrogen across the landscape

through irrigation in intensively cultivated mountainous

regions of northwest Vietnam ..................................................................... 10

Petra Schmitter, Holger Fröhlich, Gerd Dercon, Thomas Hilger,

Tran Thi Le Ha, Nguyen Huu Thanh, Nguyen Lam, Tran Duc

Vien, Georg Cadisch

Tracing nutrient fluxes with turbidity sensors: a time saving

alternative for better understanding fluxes at landscape level ................. 12

Johanna Slaets, Petra Schmitter, Anna Bürger, Thomas Hilger,

Gerd Dercon, Tran Thi Le Ha, Nguyen Lam, Tran Duc Vien,

Georg Cadisch

10 year-development of integrating cultural practices 'IWAM'

for sustainable highland rainfed agriculture in northern

Thailand ........................................................................................................ 14

Mattiga Panomtaranichagul, Karl Stahr, Michael A. Fullen,

Dalop Supawan, Warakun Srivichai


Chair: Asst. Prof. Dr. Chapika Sangkapitux

The smallholders forest carbon development in the Philippines .................... 16

Raquel Lopez, Paul L.G. Vlek, Dennis P. Garrity, Rodel D.

Lasco

Transformation of resource management in Upland East-Java,

Indonesia – From directive power to social and institutional

interaction ..................................................................................................... 18

Mangku Purnomo, Norbert Binternagel, Heiko Faust

Note: In case of multiple authors, the presenting author is underlined

viii Wednesday, 21 July 2010

Conservation, local people and struggle for securing rights over

land and forests resources: Lessons from mountainous

regions in West Java19

Heru Komarudin, Yayan Indriatmoko, Agus Mulyana, Ridwan

Soleh, Agus Prijono

"Tragedy of the non-common" – rethinking of participation in

protected area management in Vietnam, the case of Ngoc

Son – Ngo Luong Nature Reserve – Hoa Binh province ............................ 21

Quang Nguyen Ngoc


Chair: PD Dr. Ulfert Focken / Joachim Otte (FAO)

Reproductive performance of local pig breeds reared under

smallholder conditions in Son La province, northwest of

Vietnam .......................................................................................................... 23

Nguyen Van Hau, Le Thi Thuy, Anne Valle Zárate

Upland aquaculture in Yen Chau district (Son La province,

northern Vietnam): Role of aquaculture in nutrient flows

and livelihoods of local people ..................................................................... 24

Silke Steinbronn, Nguyen Ngog Tuan, Euloge Dongmeza, Ulfert

Focken

Improvements in pond management and application of low-cost

fish feed increase fish production and raise the benefit of

small scale aquaculture systems in Yen Chau ............................................ 25

Johannes Pucher, Richard Mayrhofer, Mansour El-Matbouli,

Ulfert Focken

Beef cattle feeding systems and measuring their sustainability in

Bac Kan province .......................................................................................... 27

Hoang Thi Huong Tra, Philippe Lebailly, Vu Chi Cuong,

Brigitte Duquesne

15:15-15:45 Break

Detailed Program ix



Chair: Dr. Nguyen Thanh Lam / Assc. Prof. Dr. Pittaya Sruamsiri

The environmental fate of pesticides in paddy rice farming

systems in northern Vietnam ....................................................................... 29

Marc Lamers, Maria Anyusheva, La Nguyen, Nguyen Van Vien,

Thilo Streck

Pesticide concentrations in surface waters in an agriculturally

used mountainous watershed in Northern Thailand ................................. 30

Walaya Sangchan, Joachim Ingwersen, Cindy Hugenschimidt,

Prasak Thavornyutikarn, Kanokpan Pansombat, Yongyuth

Sukvanachaikul, Thilo Streck

Identifying pesticide transport pathways from a sloped litchi

orchard to an adjacent stream based on soil hydraulic

conductivity measurements and hydrograph separation .......................... 32

Thilo Streck, Andreas Duffner, Joachim Ingwersen, Cindy

Hugenschmidt

Modeling the fate of pesticides in paddy rice farming systems in

northern Vietnam ......................................................................................... 33

La Nguyen, Maria Anyusheva, Marc Lamers, Nguyen Van Vien,

Thilo Streck


Chair: Dr. Alwin Keil / Prof. Dr. Anan Ganjanapan

Understanding water conflict and cooperation in Con Cuong,

Nghe An province, Vietnam ........................................................................ 34

Le Thi Thanh Phuong, Thomas Skielboe, Pham Thi Mai Huong

Emerging networks for water resource governance in Thailand:

From pilot project to institutionalized participation? ............................... 35

Sukit Kanjina, Andreas Neef

Resettling farm households in northern Vietnam: Livelihood

impacts and adaptation strategies ............................................................... 37

Bui Thi Minh Hang, Pepijn Schreinemachers, Thomas Berger

x Wednesday, 21 July 2010

Integrative planning and processes in the mountain areas of Mae

Hong Son, Thailand ...................................................................................... 38

Tanin Subhasaen, Suranee Phusuwan


Chair: Iven Schad

Competition of cattle production with other livestock within

smallholder mixed farms in northern mountains of Vietnam

depending on household poverty levels ....................................................... 40

Le Thi Thanh Huyen, Dinh Thi Tuyet Van, Pera Herold, Anne

Valle Zárate

The pig sector in North East India: status, constraints and

opportunities ................................................................................................. 42

Iain Wright, Rameswar Deka, William Thorpe, M Lucille Lapar

Breeding and short food supply chain systems for small-scale pig

producers in Son La province, Northwest Vietnam ................................... 44

Regina Roessler, Pera Herold, Le Thi Thuy, Anne Valle Zárate

17:30 Reception

Detailed Program xi

Thursday, 22 July 2010


3.1 Land use change

Chair: Prof. Dr. Karl Stahr / Prof. Dr. Irb Kheoruenromne

Spatial and temporal patterns of land use intensification in

northern Laos ............................................................................................... 47

Benjamin Samson, Alice G. Laborte, Aileen A. Maunahan, Jonas

Rune, Robert J. Hijmans

Causes and effects of the land use change in the Suoi Muoi

catchment, Son La, Vietnam ....................................................................... 48

Vu Kim Chi, Van Rompaey A., Govers G.

Does varying soil fertility determine poverty and richness among

the Black Thai and Hmong ethnic groups? ................................................ 49

Holger Fischer, Rebekka Maier, Moritz Koch, Karl Stahr

Soil organic carbon dynamics in northwestern Vietnam ................................. 50

Volker Häring, Holger Fischer, Karl Stahr


Chair: Dr. Pornsiri Suebpongsang

Vulnerability to poverty of upland farms in Thailand and

Vietnam ......................................................................................................... 51

Marc Voelker, Songporne Tongruksawattana, Hermann Waibel

The impact of non-farm economic activities on risk and

vulnerability in remote mountain regions: The case of

tourism .......................................................................................................... 52

Martina Shakya

Determinants of farmers’ variety choice and area allocation for

maize production in Northern Vietnam ..................................................... 54

Alwin Keil

Development of operational poverty indicators in northern

Vietnam ......................................................................................................... 55

Dinh Thi Tuyet Van, Manfred Zeller

xii Thursday, 22 July 2010


Chair: Prof. Dr. Anne Valle Zaráte / Assc. Prof. Hoang Van Tieu

Development of local, low cost fish feed in mountainous regions

in Vietnam ..................................................................................................... 57

Nguyen Ngoc Tuan, Ulfert Focken

The role of livestock production in the Naban He natural nature

reserve, Xishuangbanna, southern China ................................................... 58

Simon Riedel, Anne Schiborra, Katja Brinkmann, Christian

Huelsebusch, Eva Schlecht

Value chain analysis of beef cattle production in different cattle

feeding systems in Bac Kan province, the Northern

Mountainous Region, Vietnam .................................................................... 60

Hoang Thi Huong Tra, Philippe Lebailly, Vu Chi Cuong,

Brigitte Duquesne

10:00-10:30 Break



Chair: Assc. Prof. Dr. Mattiga Panomtaranichagul / Dr. Alan Ziegler

SOTER database for improved land use planning in Chieng

Khoi sub-cachment, northern Vietnam ...................................................... 61

Nguyen Dinh Cong, Gerhard Clemens, Nguyen Van Dung, Karl

Stahr

Zoning and suitable land use patterns for landscape agroforestry

development................................................................................................... 62

Nathawat Khlangsap, Chongrak Wachrinrat

The potential of radiometric measurements at the soil profile

scale to detect clay illuviation processes ...................................................... 63

Wanida Rangubpit, Ulrich Schuler, Ludger Herrmann, Karl

Stahr

Land use change analysis: A village-household approach to

assess the impact of rubber production in southern China ....................... 64

Tarig Gibreel, Liu Yan Ernst-August Nuppenau

Detailed Program xiii

4.2 Participatory processes and demand orientation for

successful innovation development

Chair: Dr. habil. Andreas Neef

What problem? Assessing local stakeholder perspectives on

environmental conservation and development issues in

northern Thailand ........................................................................................ 65

Rachel Dunn

Participatory action planning for sustainable land management.

A methodology for community-based identification of land-

based problems, causes and potential interventions .................................. 67

Hans van Noord, Tashi Wangdi, Karma Dema Dorji, Tshering

Dorji, Ruth Urben

Local institutional innovation towards demand-driven research

and extension: Can it stand the test in the extension system

in Vietnam? ................................................................................................... 69

Thai Thi Minh, Andreas Neef, Volker Hoffmann

Improved household financial literacy as a way to sutainability –

initial impacts from book-keeping model in My Duc and

potential expansion ....................................................................................... 71

Pham Thi My Dung, Le Nguyet Minh

4.3 Innovations in horticulture

Chair: Prof. Dr. Joachim Müller

Experimental and simulated performance of greenhouse dryer

for drying of litchi flesh ............................................................................... 72

Serm Janjai, Pittaya Sruamsiri, Poolsak Intawee, Chumnong

Thamrongmas, Niroot Lamlert, Yutthasak Boonrod, Busarakorn

Mahayothee, Marcelo Precoppe, Marcus Nagle, Joachim Müller

Small-scale litchi dryer performance at mountainous regions of


Marcelo Precoppe, Marcus Nagle, Serm Janjai, Busarakorn

Mahayothee, Joachim Müller

xiv Thursday, 22 July 2010

The inhibition of mango (Mangfifera indica L.) fruit ripening by

1-Methylcyclopropen .................................................................................... 74

Vu Thanh Hai, Pham Thi Huong, Martin Hegele, Jens Norbert

Wünsche

Effect of girdling on flowering and changes in carbohydrate,

nitrogen and hormonal contents of lychee grown in

mountainous area .......................................................................................... 75

Daruni Naphrom, Sorapet Masud, Kanokwan Sringram

12:15-13:45 Lunch

13:45-15:30 Poster session

P1 Soil, water, and land use change

Chair: Ms. Walaya Sangchan

Probabilistic assessment of the environmental fate of

agrochemicals under varying land use in a watershed in


Matthias Bannwarth, Walaya Sangchan, Joachim Ingwersen,

Prasak Thavornyutikarn, Kanokpan Pansombat, Yongyuth

Sukvanachaikul, Thilo Streck

Quantifying soil erosion rates and effectiveness of SLM

interventions on steep mountain slopes of the Bhutan

Himalayas ...................................................................................................... 78

Hans van Noord, Tshering Dorji

Mapping soil erosion using radio-signatures in a limestone area

in NW-Thailand ............................................................................................ 79

Petra Erbe, Ulrich Schuler, Suwimon Wicharuck, Wanida

Rangubpit, Karl Stahr, Ludger Herrmann

Effect of land use systems on soil resources in northern Thailand.................. 80

Suwimon Wicharuck, Petra Erbe, Ulrich Schuler, Jiraporn

Inthasan, Ludger Herrmann, Karl Stahr, Mattiga

Panomtaranichagul

Detailed Program xv

Chair: Dang Viet Quang

Occurrence of secondary lime in subsoils and its consequences

for crop production in NW-mountainous regions in Vietnam ................. 81

Gerhard Clemens, La Nguyen, Vu Dinh Tuan, Mark Lamers,

Thomas Hilger, Karl Stahr

Constraints to adoption of a second rice cropping seasons in the

Uplands of Northern Vietnam ..................................................................... 82

Quang Dang Dinh, Jennifer Montagne, François Affholder,

Damien Jourdain

CDM and mitigation of land use change: Potential for densely

populated watersheds in northwest Vietnam? ........................................... 83

Nguyen Thanh, Oliver Zemek, Carsten Marohn, Thomas Hilger,

Nguyen Thanh Lam, Tran Duc Vien, Hoang Thi Minh Ha,

Georg Cadisch

P2 Socio-economic aspects of highland development

Chair: Mr. Sukit Kanjina

Water for sustainable upland development and poverty

alleviation ...................................................................................................... 85

Pongsak Suttinon, Seigo Nasu

Opening up knowledge production through participatory

research? Agricultural research for Vietnam’s northern

uplands .......................................................................................................... 86

Rupert Friederichsen

Women's Empowerment through Environmental Health in the

Mountain Areas of Mae Hong Son, Thailand ............................................ 88

Juthamat Jomjai, Suranee Phusuwan

Consumer preferences for longan: Willingness to pay for quality

and safety Longan ........................................................................................ 90

Pornsiri Suebpongsang, Apichart Daloonpate

xvi Thursday, 22 July 2010

Chair: Dr. Tran Huu Cuong

Resilient livelihoods in mountainous communities of central

Vietnam and adaptation to future climate impacts ................................... 92

Andreas Thulstrup

Ex-ante policy analysis for farming systems sustainability in Mae

Sa watershed, northern Thailand ................................................................ 93

Chakrit Potchanasin, Suwanna Praneetvatakul, Aer Sirijinda

Household typologies and socio-ecological determinants of their

land-use choices in Vietnam forest margins ............................................... 95

Le Quang Bao, Soo Jin Park, Paul L. G. Vlek

P3 Sustainable crop and livestock systems

Chair: Kim Van Van

Are vermicompost and the stimulation of endogeic earthworm

activities relevant alternatives to chemical fertilizers? .............................. 96

Doan Thu Thuy, Pascal Jouquet

Comparison of green manure and inorganic fertilizers on upland

paddy rice ...................................................................................................... 97

Thongsavanh Keonakhone, Somphong Sybounheuang, Khamdok

Songyikhansuthor, Kouang Douangsila, Benjamin Samson

Improvement of highland rainfed multiple crop productivity

using mulching - cultivated furrow and drip irrigation in

alley cropping ................................................................................................ 98

Dalop Supawan, Rawin Surbkar, Mattiga Panomtaranichagul

Pigeonpea stem and sticklac growth relationships in an sloping

upland improved fallow system ................................................................. 100

Khamla Phanthaboun, Khamdok Songyikhansuthor, Kouang

Douangsila, Benjamin K. Samson

Detailed Program xvii

Chair: Dr. Le Thi Thanh Huyen

Compound-specific stable-isotope analysis to trace carbon sink-

and-source relationships between areas of critical land

degradation and deposition areas in the Chieng Khoi

catchment .................................................................................................... 101

Christian Brandt, Frank Rasche, Thomas Hilger, Nguyen Thanh

Lam, Tran Duc Vien, Georg Cadisch

Social-economic impacts of freshwater fish production in

mountain areas of Northern Vietnam (Lang Son and Cao

Bang provinces) .......................................................................................... 102

Petra Chaloupkova, Lukáš Kalous, Miloslav Petrýl, Jan Banout,

Bui The Anh, Dana Marešová

Preliminary results on the cause of grass-carp disease outbreak

in Yen Chau, Son La Province, Vietnam .................................................. 103

Richard Mayrhofer, Hatem Soliman, Mona Saleh, Johannes

Pucher, Ulfert Focken, T Trang, Mansour El-Matbouli



Chair: Dr. Thomas Hilger / Dr. Marc Lamers

Assessment of agrobiodiversity with regard to water security in

mountainous regions of China ................................................................... 105

Wilko Schweers, Luis Waldmüller, Sylvia Reinhardt,

Qingsong Li

Object-based forest biomass estimation using Landsat ETM+ in

Kampong Thom Province, Cambodia ...................................................... 106

Tsuyoshi Kajisa, Takuhiko Murakami, Nobuya Mizoue, Neth

Top, Shigejiro Yoshida

The introduction of rubber and its consequences- an assessment

of new risks and changes for upland farmers in the Nabanhe

National Nature Reserve in Xishuangbanna, Southwest-

China ........................................................................................................... 107

Patrick Artur Grötz, Thomas Aenis, Lixia Tang, Uwe-Jens

Nagel, Volker Hoffmann

xviii Thursday, 22 July 2010

Impact-oriented ethnobotany for food and nutrition security,

sustainable land-use and rural livelihood diversification in

Southeast Asian mountains ........................................................................ 109

Pavlos Georgiadis, Chalathon Choocharoen, Annabell Redegeld


Chair: Dr. Oliver Frör

Organic fruit farming in the northern Thai uplands: Are urban

consumers willing to pay the price premium? .......................................... 111

Chapika Sangkapitux, Andreas Neef, Mitsuyasu Yabe,

Worapong Polkongkaew, Nucharee Pimpaud, Jiraporn

Konsurin

Mapping water poverty and its alleviation through multiple-use

water systems in the north-eastern Himalayan hill regions .................... 113

Bharat Sharma, Mohammed Vimal Riaz, Dhruba Pant, B P

Bhatt, H Rahman

Downstream residents’ willingness to pay for water resource

improvement in northern Thailand: A stated choice analysis ................ 115

Varaporn Punyawadee, Chapika Sangkapitux, Nutcharee

Pimpaud, Jiraporn Konsurin, Noppadol Sonwit, Worapong

Polkongkaew

Labour as a utility measure in contingent valuation studies –

How good is it really? ................................................................................. 116

Michael Ahlheim, Oliver Frör, Antonia Heinke, Nguyen Minh

Duc, Pham Van Dinh


Chair: Prof. Dr. Georg Cadisch / Prof. Dr. Attachai Jintrawet

Fostering rural development and environmental sustainability

through integrated soil and water conservation systems in

the uplands of northern Vietnam .............................................................. 117

Vu Dinh Tuan, Nguyen Van Thach, Ha Van Phuong, Thomas

Hilger, Alwin Keil, Gerhard Clemens, Manfred Zeller, Karl

Stahr, Nguyen Thanh Lam, Georg Cadisch

Detailed Program xix

Improving the sustainability of cassava-based cropping systems

for smallholder farmers in the uplands of Lao PDR ............................... 119

Tin Maung Aye, Reinhardt Howeler

The effect of land preparation techniques and fertilizer

application on rice productivity of sloping uplands ................................ 120

Khamdok Songyikhangsuthor, Don Douangdenth, Kouang

Douangsila, Benjamin Samson

Analysis on influencing factors of upland rice farmers’

technology adoption in mountainous southern Yunnan ......................... 122

Shijun Ding, Yuping Chen, Haitao Wu, Dayun Tao, Sushil

Pandey

18:30 Conference dinner

xx Friday, 23 July 2010

Friday, 23 July 2010


6.1 Modeling people's interaction with natural resources

Chair: Dr. Pepijn Schreinemachers

Ex-ante impact assessment of land-use policies in Vietnam forest

margins using a multi-agent system model ............................................... 123

Le Quang Bao, Soo Jin Park, Paul L. G. Vlek

Gaming and simulation to mitigate land use conflict between

herders and foresters in northern Thailand highlands............................ 125

Pongchai Dumrongrojwatthana, Guy Trébuil, Christophe Le

Page, Nantana Gajaseni

The context of calculations: Assessing the influence of

institutional perspectives on integrated natural resource

management modeling in northern Thailand ........................................... 126

Rachel Dunn

Simulating resource dynamics of highland agriculture in

northern Vietnam by coupling biophysical and economic

models .......................................................................................................... 128

Carsten Marohn, Pepijn Schreinemachers, Prakit

Siripalangkanont, Dang Viet Quang, Nguyen Thanh, Thomas

Berger, Georg Cadisch


Chair: Prof. Dr. Franz Heidhues / Dr. Lan (TUAF)

Impact of rising food price on poverty and welfare in Vietnam .................... 130

Phung Duc Tung, Hermann Waibel

Coping and adaptation strategies of rural households in response

to rice and maize price variability in northern Vietnam ......................... 131

Susanne Ufer, Alwin Keil, Manfred Zeller

Consumption patterns for fresh fruits and vegetables from

different retail outlets among urban households in Thailand ................. 132

Rattiya Lippe, Somporn Isvilanonda

Detailed Program xxi

Land use transition in the upland of Vietnam: A case study as

implication for sustainable rural livelihoods in Toung Duong

district, Nghe An province, Vietnam ........................................................ 134

Vo Huu Cong, Rajendra Prasad Shrestha, Ganesh Prasad

Shivakoti, Nitin Kumar Tripathi


Chair: Dr. Gerhard Clemens

Challenges in improving the market orientation of agroforestry

gardens and client-responsiveness of agricultural extension

services ........................................................................................................ 135

Ernesto Guiang, Nguyen Thanh Quang, Phan Van Hau, Nguyen

Dung Nam

Assessing the sustainability of upland agriculture: A case sudy of

Mae Sa watershed, northern Thailand ..................................................... 137

Suwanna Praneetvatakul, Chakrit Potchanasin, Aer Sirijinda,

Chaniga Laitae

Dendrobium chrysotoxum - marketing of an endangered species ................ 138

Wolfgang Pfingst, Oliver Hensel

Participatory and integrative approach to enhance bamboo

production and supply chain ensuring a sustainable

development of Northern mountainous areas of Vietnam ...................... 139

Aurélie Vogel, Patrice Lamballe, Nguyên Thi Huyên, Olivier

Renard

10:00-10:30 Break


7.1 Modeling impact of external changes on upland farms

Chair: Dr. Carsten Marohn

Water for forest: Potential impact of alternative land set-aside

programs at village and farm levels in the mountainous areas

of Vietnam ................................................................................................... 141

Damien Jourdain, Esther Boere, Dang Dinh Quang, Marrit van

den Berg, Cu Phuc Thanh, Do Anh Tai

xxii Friday, 23 July 2010

Integrated assessment of soil conservation: Quantifying trade-

offs between incomes and sustainability in northern Vietnam ............... 143

Dang Viet Quang, Pepijn Schreinemachers, Thomas Berger

DrukDIF, A dynamic information framework for managing the

natural resources of Bhutan ....................................................................... 144

Hans van Noord, Jeffrey Richey, Andrew Gillison, Karma

Dupchu, Tashi Wangdi, Karma Dema Dorji, Tshering Dorji

Direct seeding in mulch cropping systems. Do they fit into farms

of the mountainous area of Vietnam? ....................................................... 146

Dang Dinh Quang, Damien Jourdain, François Affholder,

Aymeric Ricome, Marion Morize, To Phuc Tuong

7.2 Factors determining adoption of innovation

Chair: Dr. Thai Thi Minh

Do group-based extension approaches in Vietnam’s smallholder

pig husbandry enable collaborative learning? ......................................... 147

Iven Schad, Andreas Neef, Volker Hoffmann

Social capital and credit constraints: A case study from Vietnam ................ 148

Dinh Hang Quoc, Thomas Bernhard Dufhues, Gertrud

Buchenrieder

Ethnic diversity, social networks, and access to credit in a rural

district of northern Vietnam ...................................................................... 149

Camille Saint-Macary, Manfred Zeller, Alwin Keil

Economics of upland farmers’ technology adoption in Southern

Yunnan ........................................................................................................ 150

Huaiyu Wang, Sushil Pandey


Chair: Prof. Dr. Volker Hoffmann

Corporate-local community collaboration: An innovative

approach in promoting sustainable natural resources

management in the Philippines .................................................................. 151

Lutgarda L. Tolentino, Leila D. Landicho, Rowena D. Cabahug,

Catherine C. de Luna, Aurora C. Maghirang, Elaine B.

Pagkanlungan

Detailed Program xxiii

Vietnamese/German collaborative research: Making

transnational science-for-sustainability work locally? ............................ 152


Learning to do “Research for development”: Experiences from

the uplands research and capacity development programme ................ 153

Vangthong Phengvichith

Payment for environmental services and conservation efforts in

Gunung Halimun Salak National Park (GHSNP), Indonesia................. 154

Supriyanto Bambang, Ari Fahmiyati, Ruky Umaya, Dedi

Haryadi

12:15-13:45 Break

13:45-15:30 Plenary session 2

Chair: Assc. Prof. Dr. Vien (Rector HUA)

Can any effective management approach be devised to cope with

the nature of tropical highland mountainous soils? .................................... 5

Prof. Dr. Irb Kheoruenromne

The role of livestock in sustainable rural development, poverty

alleviation and food security .......................................................................... 6

Joachim Otte

Impact of climate change on crop production potential and

threats in uplands of Southeast Asia ............................................................. 7

Prof. Dr. Attachai Jintrawet

16:00-17:00 Panel discussion

17:00-17:30 Conclusion

List of Participants ............................................................................................ 155

1


Plenary session

Environmental consequences of land use change in mountainous

regions of Southeast Asia

Alan Ziegler

Geography Department, National University of Singapore

The hydrological and geomorphological impacts of traditional swidden cultivation

in Montane Mainland Southeast Asia are virtually inconsequential, whereas the

impacts associated with intensified replacement agricultural systems are often

much more substantial. Negative perceptions toward swiddening in general by

governments in the region beginning half a decade ago have largely been based on

cases of forest conversion and land degradation associated with (a) intensified

swidden systems, characterized by shortened fallow and extended cropping periods

and/or (b) the widespread cultivation of opium for cash after the Second World

War. Neither of these practices should be viewed as traditional, subsistence-based

swiddening. Other types of intensive agriculture systems are now replacing

swiddening throughout the region, including semi-permanent and permanent cash

cropping, monoculture plantations, and greenhouse complexes. The negative

impacts associated with these systems include changes in streamflow response,

increased surface erosion, a higher probability of landslides, and the declination in

stream water quality. Unlike the case for traditional swiddening, these impacts

result because of several factors: (1) large portions of upland catchments are

cultivated simultaneously; (2) accelerated hydraulic and tillage erosion occurs on

plots that are cultivated repetitively with limited or no fallowing to allow recovery

of key soil properties, including infiltration; (3) concentrated overland flow and

erosion sources are often directly connected with the stream network; (4) root

strength is reduced on permanently converted hillslopes; (5) surface and ground

water extraction is frequently used for irrigation; and (6) and pesticides and

herbicides are used. Furthermore, the commercial success of these systems relies

on the existence of dense networks of roads, which are linear landscape features

renowned for disrupting hydrological and geomorphological systems. A new

conservation focus is needed to reduce the impacts of these intensified upland

agricultural practices.

2 Plenary session

Sustainable Land Use and Rural Development in Mountainous Regions of Southeast Asia

Resource, knowledge and innovation management in montane

mainland Southeast Asia: What have we learned in the past

decade?

Andreas Neef

Knowledge and Innovation Management, Department of Agricultural and Resource

Economics, Faculty of Agriculture, Kyushu University

Due to the multifunctional character of Mainland Southeast Asia‘s mountain

watersheds and the diversity of services they provide for different stakeholders,

resource entitlements remain strongly contested. Upland smallholders continue to

suffer from a high degree of tenure insecurity, as a consequence of expansion of

protected areas (e.g. in Thailand), of frequent land reallocations (e.g. in Vietnam)

and of large-scale resettlements (e.g. in Laos). Although numerous pilot projects

were instigated in the last decade that have experimented with various degrees of

stakeholder involvement in natural resource management, such as co-management

of forest resources in Vietnam, participatory land use planning in Laos and river

basin and watershed committees in Thailand, marginalized ethnic groups remain

largely excluded from major decision-making processes, and power differentials

between state agencies and upland communities with regard to resource gover-

nance tend to be perpetuated rather than diminished.

Climate change has not only poured new fuel into the long-standing upland

‗conservation-or-development‘-debate, but also added to the high level of

knowledge uncertainties under which upland farmers have to make daily decisions

on crop choices, livestock investments and resource allocations. Research of the

Uplands Program (SFB 564) has shown that upland farmers and communities need

to be regarded as managers of diversified asset portfolios and users of knowledge

from various sources. Rather than promoting uniform ‗technological models‘ and

‗boom and bust‘ commodities, the primary role of government extension services

should be to enhance equal access of all ethnic minority groups to a variety of

knowledge domains, thus enabling sustainable innovation and adaptation processes

that are based on informed decision-making. A basic prerequisite in this endeavor

is that ‗rural innovations‘ are seen as multi-dimensional processes that involve

technical, socio-organizational and institutional elements and the interplay of

diverse actors at various scales.

Based on these insights, this keynote address discusses how a more sustainable mix

of agricultural production, ecological services and rural livelihood opportunities

can be achieved through fostering multi-stakeholder knowledge and innovation

partnerships. Theoretically grounded in the concept of ―strategic niche manage-

ment‖, such partnerships advocate the creation of socio-technical experiments in

protected spaces (i.e. niches) where innovation agents are encouraged to cooperate

and exchange information, knowledge and experience, without being subject to

immediate market pressure as long as the innovation is still in an experimental

stage. The internal dynamics of such partnerships and their value for sustainable

Plenary session 3


upland development are exemplified by an ethnic minority fruit processing and

marketing cooperative in Mae Sa watershed, northern Thailand. One of the

conclusions from this action-research initiative is that building successful

knowledge and innovation partnership initiatives in culturally heterogeneous

mountain watersheds require an organizational setup that takes the heterogeneity of

actors into account, flexible and iterative approaches that are resilient against

occasional setbacks, and a dense network of actors and interactions that foster

communication, trust, experiential learning and the gradual convergence of

expectations among all actors involved.

4 Plenary session


Multiplicity of agricultural transformation under the

competition for resources on the northern Thai highlands

Anan Ganjanapan

Faculty of Social Sciences, Chiang Mai University

The presentation will reflect on the various issues of agricultural transformation on

the northern Thai highlands since the 1970s. Without a clear tenure policy on the

part of Thai government, the highlanders have to live with tenure insecurity. This

situation allows for increasing competition for resources such as land, forest and

water between different actors whether they are ethnic groups, outsiders and the

state. The problems become even more intense with the shifting state highland

policies from crop substitution to conservation and to an intensive market-oriented

development. The result can be seen in the multiplicity of directions in agricultural

transformation. But this transformation has also created various forms of conflicts

and contradictions which further marginalize the highlanders.

Plenary session 5


Can any effective management approach be devised to cope with

the nature of tropical highland mountainous soils?

Irb Kheoruenromne

Department of Soil Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Kasetsart University, Bangkok

High elevation areas in the Tropics generally have cooler and moisture conditions

than do to the lower elevation areas adjacent to them. Within these areas, the

terrains essentially have high spatial variability ranging from valley floors to

mountain tops. The slope segments can be any of the rectilinear, convex, concave

or irregular with mostly diversified slope gradients and lengths. Though slope

aspect has not been sufficiently focused on when addressing agricultural

management problems, many evidences indicated its significance in planning land

uses. An equally important factor to be considered for the tropical highland

mountainous soil management is the diversity of native species that reflect soil

development condition and properties.

With diverse biophysical factors controlling soil development processes, nature of

these tropical soils is spatially diverse even in a small area. Many land uses and

conservation measures had been reported but generalization on their management

approaches is always in the making. A question remains on what would be the core

criteria on nature of these soils to be considered in devising their effective

management?

6 Plenary session


The role of livestock in sustainable rural development, poverty

alleviation and food security

Joachim Otte

Pro-Poor Livestock Policy Initiative (PPLPI), FAO

Around 2.6 billion people in the developing world are estimated to have to make a

living on less than $2 a day. In order to achieve rapid advances in poverty

reduction, interventions need to be well targeted so as to spur economic growth, to

which the poor contribute and from which they benefit. Nearly three quarters of the

extremely poor – that is around 1 billion people – live in rural areas. Despite

growing urbanization, the majority of the World‘s poor will continue to live in

rural areas for some decades to come and it has been estimated that more than half

of the ‗extremely‘ poor will reside in rural areas until about 2035. Most rural

households depend on agriculture as part of their livelihood and around ninety

percent of the World‘s extremely poor are small-scale farmers. Given that in most

developing countries agricultural populations are still continuing to grow while

land for sustainable agriculture cannot be made available at the same rate,

agricultural production cannot easily be expanded ‗horizontally‘. As a conse-

quence, productivity gains and / or diversification into high-value agricultural

products leading to increased value of output per area of land (and unit of labour

input), and hence to increased income, are one, essential, means to raise rural

incomes and improve food security. Diversification into livestock and increased

livestock productivity should form part of the strategy for poverty reduction and

agricultural productivity growth in developing countries because nearly three out

of four of the rural and extremely poor keep livestock as part of their livelihoods

and because livestock have a variety of characteristics that make them important

contributors to sustainable rural development. Livestock provide high quality food

and marketable products that can be produced by small-scale farms with limited or

no land resources and are generally of higher value and are less vulnerable to

climatic shocks and critical harvest timing than many crops. Livestock furthermore

increase crop production by the provision of draught power and manure, they

increase total farm productivity by converting organic material not suited for

human nutrition into high value food and non-food products, and they increase

farm labour productivity through temporal and intergenerational smoothing of

labour demand. Finally, livestock, specifically small-stock such as poultry, pigs,

sheep and goats are particularly important assets for rural women, who form the

backbone of the agricultural workforce, to earn some income that remains under

their control. This paper reviews how appropriate livestock sector development

could contribute to raise levels of nutrition, improve agricultural productivity,

better the lives of rural populations, contribute to economic growth, and thereby to

achieving Millennium Development Goal 1 of ‗eradicating extreme poverty and

hunger‘.

Plenary session 7


Impact of climate change on crop production potential and

threats in uplands of Southeast Asia

Attachai Jintrawet

Multiple Cropping Center, Faculty of Agriculture, Chiang Mai University

Climate change presents a new limit to potential crop production and poses new

threats for managers of agricultural systems and natural resources, at various

levels, to maintain the same level of sustainability in highland/upland ecosystems

in Southeast Asia region. This keynote presents integrated tools, includes crop and

watershed models and decision support system, design for users to gain under-

stand, predict, and manage resources in the diverse environments. These tools can

be used to allow impact assessment at various levels and allow various stakehold-

ers participation. Process-oriented models together with spatial database offers

participants to understand the impact climate change on potential crop production

systems, and predict outputs of decision made to adapt or to improve crop

production system emergent properties. The Decision Support Systems (DSS)

allows managers to visualize consequences of their collective actions to deal with

new challenges and threats from climate change spatially and temporally and

subsequently manage their crop production resources effectively and efficiently.

However, with various degrees of uncertainty of various climate models and

complexity of highland production systems, the overall goal of the approach should

be to understand the nature, directions and magnitudes, of changes in relation to

management options and interventions so as to be able to differentiate between

associated outcome sets. Two examples of type of tools are presented to address

impacts on lowland and highland ecosystems. The keynote concludes with the

importance of system approach to understand the impacts and point to some of the

deficiencies to be overcome.

9


Parallel session 1


Rice-Stylosanthes guianensis intercropping system: Effect of

Stylosanthes guianensis establishment method on productivity of

upland rice

Somphet Phengchanh1, Done Douangdenh

1, Khamdok Songyikhangsuthor

1,

Kouang Douangsila2, Benjamin K. Samson

3

1 Northern Agriculture and Forestry Research Center (NAFReC), Lao PDR 2 National Rice Research Program, Vientiane, Lao PDR 3 IRRI-GMS, Luang Prabang, Lao PDR

In northern Laos, reduction on upland rice areas under slash-and burn systems due

to rapid population growth in combination with government policies on allocating

land to upland household have results in increased cropping intensity, which has

increased weed problems, soil deterioration and consequently reduced yields of

upland rice. Upland rice grown with legume crops as Stylosanthes guianensis

(stylo), a promising fodder species, is thought to help in the nitrogen economy of

the rice crop, improve soil organic matter content through litter fall, and contri-

butes to the control of weeds by limiting light penetration to the soil surface.

However, legume cover crops may also compete strongly with rice and adversely

affect grain yield. Therefore, the objective of this study is to optimize establish-

ment, survival of sylo plants and to achieve high stylo biomass accumulation

during fallow period for subsequent rice crop season, while minimizing competi-

tion with rice crop during stylo establishment. Stylo was broadcasted and seeded in

line into rice crops at four weeks after rice sowing at rate of 4gm-2. The effect of

stylo establishment on tiller number, plant height, biomass, panicle length, spikelet

fertility, 1000 seed weight and rice grain yield was evaluated in comparison with

rice monoculture. Number of plants, plant height, canopy width and biomass of

stylo also were measured. No competition effect on rice-stylo intercropping

treatment was observed when compared with rice monoculture treatment. Number

of stylo plants and its biomass was about 3 times greater when stylo was line-sown

than when its seeds were broadcasted into the rice stand. Similarly, stylo plants

were taller and its canopy was wider when line-sown than when broadcasted.

Further it needs to evaluate the effect of relay-seeding staylo residuals either as

short –term or long-term fallow crops in improving rice productivity.

10 1.1 Land use and matter flows


Redistribution of carbon and nitrogen across the landscape

through irrigation in intensively cultivated mountainous regions

of northwest Vietnam

Petra Schmitter1, Holger Fröhlich

2, Gerd Dercon

3, Thomas Hilger

1, Tran Thi

Le Ha4, Nguyen Huu Thanh

1, Nguyen Lam

5, Tran Duc Vien

5, Georg Cadisch

1

1 Institute of Plant Production and Agroecology in the Tropics and Subtropics, Hohenheim

University, Stuttgart, Germany 2 SFB564, Hohenheim University 3 Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, International

Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) 4 Agricultural University of Hanoi, Department of Soil Science, Vietnam 5 The Center for Agricultural Research and Ecological Studies (CARES), Vietnam

In the tropical mountainous regions of South East Asia, soil erosion not only

affects cultivation practices in the uplands, but also simultaneously influences

irrigated paddy systems in the lowlands, by receiving sediments and often nutrient-

rich irrigation water. Worldwide, landscape-based studies linking soil erosion with

nutrient fluxes are getting more and more attention. Monitoring these fluxes at

catchment level, however, still remains complex and is yet not fully understood.

The selected study site is located in the tropical uplands of North West Vietnam.

This study aimed at tracing total organic carbon (Corg) and total nitrogen (TN)

fluxes related to suspended material in irrigation water. The area is characterized

by a reservoir acting as a sink for sediments, which feeds irrigation channels to

irrigate lowland paddy rice systems. Two automatic water samplers, at the inlet and

outlet of the irrigation channel, were installed to take flow proportional composite

samples during precipitation events covering a range of intensities in the rainy

season of 2008. In total 1200 samples were analyzed on Corg and TN by

combustion using a liquitocII C/N analyzer. A hydrograph separation was done on

the discharge data collected throughout the rainy season in 2008, using numerical

digital filters compiled in a conceptual model of runoff components. This model

integrates the contributions of direct rainfall, overland flow, irrigation discharge

and reservoir outflow during rainfall events. Each of the flow components were

linked through correlation and multiple regression analysis to rainfall data, water

level in the reservoir, Corg and TN concentrations. For single events, the lag time

analysis revealed that there is an average lag time of 20 minutes between the

rainfall peak and the discharge peak measured at the outlet. Results showed that the

irrigation water has an average baseline concentration of 4 ppm Corg and 5 ppm

TN. Once soils were rewetted and Hortonian flow was induced, Corg and TN

concentrations changed rapidly due to increasing sediment loads in the irrigation

water. Rainfall events of 75 mm per day resulted in an increase of a factor 35 for

Corg and 10 for TN. Findings showed that C/N ratio is changing during the rainy

season suggesting that the runoff created in the beginning of the rainy season is

enriched by decomposed material from the previous season compared to the end of

1.1 Land use and matter flows 11


the season, pointing towards the contribution of different sediment sources.

However, when estimating Corg and TN loads, the contribution of rainfall events

on total nutrient loads irrigated into paddy fields was relatively limited due to the

short lag time of 20 minutes. Nevertheless due to the overall nutrient and sediment-

rich irrigation water in absence of storm events, a significant amount of nutrients

are reallocated to the lowland throughout the season. The deposition of nutrient

rich material through irrigation can be seen as a natural fertilizer effect in rice

production and have to be taken into account when making site specific fertilizer

recommendations. These results showed the importance of assessing upland-

lowland linkages when addressing environmental services in intensively cultivated

mountainous regions.



Tracing nutrient fluxes with turbidity sensors: a time saving

alternative for better understanding fluxes at landscape level

Johanna Slaets1, Petra Schmitter

1, Anna Bürger

1, Thomas Hilger

1, Gerd

Dercon2, Tran Thi Le Ha

3, Nguyen Lam

4, Tran Duc Vien

4, Georg Cadisch

1

1 Institute of Plant Production and Agroecology in the Tropics and Subtropics, Hohenheim

University, Stuttgart, Germany 2 Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, International

Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) 3 Agricultural University of Hanoi, Department of Soil Science, Vietnam 4 The Center for Agricultural Research and Ecological Studies (CARES), Vietnam

In many regions of South-East Asia, uplands are under continuously increasing

population pressure leading to intensified cultivation and, combined with high

intensity rainfall events, causing severe soil erosion on the steep slopes. Realloca-

tion of carbon and nitrogen through erosion-deposition processes not only affects

the upland but also the lowland area of an ecosystem. In Vietnam, lowlands are

often irrigated to ensure two rice crops a year. As irrigation systems act as a

sediment conveyor during rainfall events, nutrients will be partly reallocated within

the rice fields. Understanding and monitoring these nutrient fluxes at a catchment

level and understanding their impact on crop productivity is complex. Frequently,

expensive and labor-intensive automatic water samplers are used in combination

with discharge measurements. By using this method however, the accuracy of the

estimated nutrient budgets is highly depending on the amount of samples taken

during storm events of different intensities. More cost-effective alternatives are

therefore highly required. The aim of this study was to assess the possibility of

using turbidity sensors to trace fluxes of total organic carbon (TOC) and total

nitrogen (TN) in tropical mountainous regions of North-West Vietnam. Turbidity

sensors can, after a good calibration, continuously monitor the sediment load in

irrigation channels and streams. The sensors were installed at the inlet and outlet of

the concrete irrigation channel and the river, the two main water streams in the

catchment. These data were combined with continuous discharge measurements, so

that the nutrient flows could be coupled with the hydrological features of the

catchment. For the calibration of the turbidity sensors, water samples were taken

manually every five minutes during storm events of different intensities, covering

various parts of the hydrograph. Dissolved and particulate TOC and TN concentra-

tion were determined using the combustion method on the aliquot and solid phase

of the sample. Additionally, sediment quantity was measured and laser diffraction

was used to assess particle size distribution. Turbidity readings were calibrated

using rainfall intensity, discharge, sediment quantity, TOC and TN via multiple

linear regression. A first good combined calibration was achieved for the two

sensors at the end of the river and the end of the irrigation channel, between

turbidity and particulate TOC (R²=0.92) and TN (R²=0.89), allowing the use of

continuously measured turbidity data for the estimation of TOC and TN fluxes



within storm events. Linear regression showed that turbidity can be used to predict

total suspended solids (R²=0.78), however at high concentration ranges, the

accuracy decreases as the sensor limit is reached. Including particle size informa-

tion and discharge within the multiple linear regression indicated an improved

calibration, uncovering the seasonal variability in sedimentation. These additional

data facilitated the correlation of the sediments to their contributing drainage area

in the catchment, thus allowing turbidity sensors to be a potentially powerful and

cost effective tool to monitor and model nutrient sources and sinks in tropical

mountainous catchments.



10 year-development of integrating cultural practices 'IWAM'

for sustainable highland rainfed agriculture in northern

Thailand

Mattiga Panomtaranichagul1, Karl Stahr

2, Michael A. Fullen

1, Dalop

Supawan1, Warakun Srivichai

1

1 Department of Soil Science and Conservation, Faculty of Agriculture, Chiang Mai

University, Thailand 2 Department of Soil Science and Land Evaluation, University of Hohenheim

Four field experiments under the Shasea, Uplands and Borassus Projects were

carried out in Pang Mapa, Mae Honson Province (~19°33'47"N, 98°12'9"E,

altitude 700-980 m, slope gradient 30-80%) and Mae Chaem, Chiang Mai Province

(~18°31'05''N, 98°17'30''E, altitude 1,200 m, slope gradient 50-100%) during 2000-

2009. Each trial aimed to find out the best strategy for building the sustainable

highland rainfed agriculture, regarding to improved soil erosion control and

rainwater harvest to increase multiple rainfed crop productivity. Each experiment

consisted of 12-15 subplots (5-6 x 30-40 m each). It was designed as a completely

randomized design (CRD) with 3 replicates of each combination-treatment of

different contour cultural practices, cultivated ridge (CR), polythene sheet

mulching (CRP), bio-degradable mulch (BM, IM, Bn/Bg/VgM), cultivated furrow

(CF) and alley cropping (AL) respectively. The measured data were soil chemical

and physical properties, surface runoff and soil loss, soil water storage and crop

yields. In the 1st -3rd projects, the alley relay crop rotation were sweet corn-upland

rice –lablab bean, whilst the mix varieties of fruit trees in the hedgerows were

mango, lemon and jujube. In the 4th trial, several alley rotational relay cropping

systems (1st crop - sweet corn flowed by 2nd crops -upland rice, peanut, chilly,

ginger and red kidney bean, and 3rd crops were lablab bean and chick pea) were

studied. Additional fruit tree varieties (mango, lemon, star apple, guava and

sapodilla) grown in the hedgerows were also tested in the 4th experiment. The 1st

trial showed that alley cropping (AL) and contour ridge cultivation with polythene-

straw mulching (CRP) was the best and the second best practice for soil erosion

control and crop yields improvement, compared to either contour ridge (CR) or

conventional (CC) cultivation. CRP gave the highest stored soil water and highest

crop yield during the dry season. However, CRP also caused high runoff under

high rainfall intensity and was not environmental friendly. Therefore, bio-

degradable mulch such as bamboo mat and imperata grass panel were modified and

used in cultivated furrow between the hedgerows of mix fruit trees varieties during

the 2nd and the 3rd projects. The results showed that furrow cultivation mulched

with imperata grass panel (CF-IM-AL) or bamboo mat in alley cropping (CF-BM-

AL) gave the lowest soil loss and runoff, and the highest crop yields when

compared to the other contour cultivations (CP, CP-BM, CP-AL –VG, CF-M and

CF-AL). However, bamboo mat and imperata grass panel would not be practical

due to time consuming and high cost investment. Hence, the 4th experiment used



the fresh cut natural grass or available plant residue to replace bamboo mat and

imperata grass panel for mulching in cultivated furrow. The results of the 4th trial

showed that contour furrow cultivation mulched with either banana leave or

bamboo grass or vetiver grass in alley cropping (CF-Bn/Bg/Vg M-AL) tended to

improve soil physical and chemical properties better than the other practices. It was

the best anti-erosive cultural practice by giving the lowest amount of runoff and

soil loss, whilst conventional contour planting (CP) gave the highest runoff and

soil loss compared to either CF-AL or CP-Bn/Bg/VgM-AL. Furthermore, CF-

Bn/Bg/VgM-AL and CP also had the highest and the lowest water harvest, leading

to the highest and lowest crop yields respectively, when compared to the other

treatments. The successful second crop growing were upland rice, peanut, chilly

and red kidney bean. Ginger and soybean as well as chick pea were not successful-

ly growing due to invasion of pest (mouse and aphid) including in- appropriated

management. However, each crop development and yields were varied with soil

types, locations and rainfall distributions. After the above 10 year experiments, it

was found that the best strategy for building a sustainable highland rainfed

agriculture was the ―Integrated Water harvesting, Anti-erosion, and Multiple

cropping‖ technique called ―IWAM‖. It consisted of 3 techniques, (i) contour

furrow cultivation for breaking the water flow down slope, decreasing surface

runoff and soil erosion, increasing infiltration rate and available soil water for plant

growth, (ii) mulching for decreasing rain drop energy directly impacts on the soil

surface in the wet period and reducing soil water evaporation in the dry period, and

(iii) multiple cropping for increasing a permanent soil cover as well as a permanent

income flow for the farmer.

16



The smallholders forest carbon development in the Philippines

Raquel Lopez1, Paul L.G. Vlek

2, Dennis P. Garrity

3, Rodel D. Lasco

1

1 World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Philippines 2 Center for Development Research, Bonn, Germany 3 World Agroforestry Center, Nairobi, Kenya

This paper presents the attempts of smallholder forestry carbon projects in the

Philippines to be viable in markets for carbon emission reduction (ER) credits as

Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) A/R project activity. It highlights the

potentials and constraints of such project development. It explores in which way

small landholder agroforestation projects participation can be facilitated and

benefit in such markets. It also identifies the institutional and policy reforms

necessary to reduce the barriers associated with small landholder‘s participation in

the carbon market. In the last five years, there has been an increasing interest in

Philippines to participate in the carbon markets to help mitigate climate change

through forest carbon development projects. The interest stems from the fact that

many people are facing the challenge to undertake adaptation measures while

securing food source. Forest carbon development is seen as a potential means for

small landholders to adapt to climate variability while securing food source and at

same time contribute to the mitigation efforts. With millions of hectares of

deforested areas and degraded lands, engaging in forest carbon development and

participating in the carbon market offers opportunities for the Philippines to

finance rehabilitation of its open/denuded forests and degraded land resources.

Forest carbon development by agroforestation is seen as one of the land-based

potentials with synergy for climate mitigation and adaptation. Small land holdings

(owned or claimed with or without land tenure instruments) are common in the

Philippines. To engage in forest carbon development and to gain benefits from

frameworks such as the CDM, REDD, PES and other financing schemes is a

tedious process, especially for the small landholders. Case site study assessments

were conducted to find an appropriate project development operational approach to

institutionalize forest carbon development projects in the Philippines and

determine the potentials and limitations of the project case sites operation. The key

issues and concerns in registration for ER credit under CDM A/R project activity

were elucidated. Results indicate that key stakeholders should be equipped with

proper technical know-how and information of the project development process,

including rules and guidelines. Intermediary entities, such as the proponents of the

project development, are vital to small landholders‘ participation and cooperation

in the project operation. The proponent‘s, be it a government entity, a non-

government organization, a people‘s organization, or a private organization, should

have the capacity and capability to institutionalize the project development

operation at the ground level, particularly the innovative capabilities to mobilize

1.2 Approaches to forest conservation 17


resources. The involvement of the small landholders, who are depending on the

natural resources, is the strongest cohesive factor of the success of forest carbon

development in the Philippines. To instill a sense of ownership, and to ensure small

land holders acceptance of the project strategy and land management scheme, their

involvement at the planning, the technical as well the socio-economic level of the

project operation should be clear from the start.

18 1.2 Approaches to forest conservation


Transformation of resource management in Upland East-Java,

Indonesia – From directive power to social and institutional

interaction

Mangku Purnomo, Norbert Binternagel, Heiko Faust

Department of Human Geography, George-August University, Göttingen, Germany

Until 1998 Indonesia was ruled by an authoritarian regime under which natural

resource had been exploited excessively. Law enforcement at the local level,

especially in upland forests with fertile volcanic soils, was weak. Despite difficult

conditions for agricultural cultivation, state enterprises, for instance the so called

―PERHUTANI‖ concerned with forestry, moved to areas with steep slope ignoring

environmental risks from degradation and deforestation. Throughout the contem-

porary reform process with decentralization of power via local and regional

autonomy, natural resources are no longer dominated by direct state power only,

but by more actors at various levels of society. Law enforcement with regards to

conservation areas has been strengthened in the last five years. In this context the

paper focuses on the question, how regional demographic and cultural patterns in

upland East Java influence the struggle over natural resources and their manage-

ment by different stakeholders (i.e. government institutions, NGOs, village

communities and households). The theoretical approach follows the concept of

political ecology. The struggle over natural resources goes along with political

patterns of social interaction, including cooperation and competition. Three

villages in the highland areas around the Bromo Tengger Semeru National Park

(TNBTS) have been selected for case studies due to their highly differentiated

social-cultural setting. The analyses shows how local stakeholders struggle over

natural resources in an ecologically sensitive environment. Based on qualitative

research (170 semi-structured interviews, 30 in-depth interviews with key

informants, 5 focus group discussions) we found the following preliminary results:

In the early stages of the reform era many actors demanded and gained unlimited

access to forest use. In the mean time this concept has changed to situation in

which access to forest resources is the result of a negotiation process between

stakeholders. An intensified bargaining among parties on the limits of consumption

and selling of forest products can be observed. These conditions have encouraged

the actors led by NGOs, national park officials, and traditional institutions to

discuss on restrictions of and sanctions on land use by households (i.e. limitation

on the exploitation of tree species, efficiency of water consumption). We show that

public dialogue encourages power sharing in the resource use system. Various

local adaptation processes to environmental change are found, as well as varying

sanctions due to the cultural background.



Conservation, local people and struggle for securing rights over

land and forests resources: Lessons from mountainous regions in

West Java

Heru Komarudin1, Yayan Indriatmoko

1, Agus Mulyana

1, Ridwan Soleh

2,

Agus Prijono3

1 Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) 2 YPAL 3 PILI Green Network

This paper presents interesting cases from two conservation areas located on

mountainous areas on Java, Indonesia, Mt. Simpang nature reserve and Mt.

Halimum Salak national park. One fundamental issue is how to make a balance

between the need to achieve conservation goals and to enhance the livelihoods of

communities who either have been living there for hundred years or have

encroached the park areas recently. The two conservation area are the remaining

important conservation areas in the country‘s most highly populated island, Java.

Mt. Simpang nature reserve is surrounded by at least 13 villages where local

communities have gone through different government regimes from the colonial to

the present era. The change has affected their interactions with nearby forests and

other actors, and ways they perceive forests. Initially, with deeply-rooted

traditional wisdom, local communities got heavily involved in conserving nearby

forests and developed strong institutions. However, the emergence of state-led land

use system, rigid implementation of rules governing forest land uses imposed by

the government coupled with increased needs for lands and resources have brought

changes in local institutions and in the ways local actors interact among themselves

and with the nature. Similar case has also occurred in Mt. Halimun Salak national

park. There are around 300 settlements within and around the park. Increased

population and demand for other sector development have caused problems for the

park management. Encroachment of park lands and unsustainable use of resources

have become the common incidents, which continue to threaten the park and

ecosystem. Yayasan Pribumi Alam Lestari (YPAL), Pusat Informasi Lingkungan

Indonesia (PILI-Green Network) and Center for International Forestry Research

(CIFOR) have conducted action research in villages around the Mt. Simpang

reserve. CIFOR and its partners have also conducted research and facilitated the

park management of Mt. Halimun national park to resolve the conflict with local

communities. The objectives of the research were to facilitate local people in

building local institutions for natural resource management; to examine critical

elements that contribute to strengthened social capital; to identify relevant policies

governing local communities‘ access to resources and to examine how they are

supportive of the local initiative and how lessons from the local community can

inform the development of better policies. The methods used for data collection

include facilitation techniques, key informant interviews, focus group discussion

and vegetation analysis. Drawing on the research, this paper describes how the



park management and local communities struggle for resolving the conflicts

through a ‗special zone‖, sustaining the resources and getting (for the latter) access

to resources for livelihoods; how local communities strive for life in the changing

institutions, and attempt to seek for recognition of rights over forests. It also

highlights research findings on various local perceptions on forests, condition of

village forests managed by different groups of communities, and shares lessons on

the critical elements in ensuring the equitable and sustainable management of

resources while achieving the goals of the conservation of forest resources and

biodiversity.



"Tragedy of the non-common" – rethinking of participation in

protected area management in Vietnam, the case of Ngoc Son –

Ngo Luong Nature Reserve – Hoa Binh province

Quang Nguyen Ngoc

Centre for Research on Lifelong Learning and Participation, Faculty of Psychology and

Educational Sciences, KU. Leuven, Belgium

During the last haft century, the number of protected areas increases remarkably

especially in developing countries. More than 10% of the world‘s forests are

gazetted under roughly 100,000 protected areas. Given the rise in designation of

protected areas, the world forests and their biodiversity are being decreased at an

alarming rate. Vietnam is not exceptional from this paradoxical trend. Despite the

contentious debate about the effectiveness of the dominant fashion in which state

singly manages protected area, the past decades marked a growing number of

scholar and practical discussions which promoted engagement of communities in

protected area management. Several models were introduced and implemented

including ―joint forest management‖, ―community forest management‖, ―colla-

borative forest management‖, ―adaptive forest management‖, ―community

conservation area‖, ―co-management‖ and so on. While these models have shown

some advantages in comparison to the dominant one, they are still heavily

criticised that many key aspects including the participation of communities, the

power relations and the power sharing between the state and communities are often

either assumed or implicitly addressed. This paper is developed with the key aim to

adding insights to the current debate on community participation in protected area

management thorough analysing the power relations between the Government and

communities in Ngoc Son – Ngo Luong Nature Reserve. Mainly guided by actor

oriented approach and long term observation, this paper narrates the process of

Ngoc Son – Ngo Luong Nature Reserve gazettment in which it discusses key

factors leading to the catastrophe of illegal forest exploitation or ―the tragedy of the

non-common‖. It also reveals the efforts of the Government in coping with this

problem through implementation of some programmes aiming at engaging

communities in the Nature Reserve management. Further understanding the nature

of the participatory processes implemented by the Government, this paper uses

Lukes‘s three dimensions of power as an analytical lens to map out the power

relations between the Government and communities. It is found out that in

implementation of the participatory approaches the Government often uses the

second power dimension – the agenda settings and the third power dimension – the

thought controlling. In response, local communities use their own power to react

through different strategies such as resistance by not participating or pretended

obedience. These reactions were then converted into illegally chopping down the

forests. ―The tragedy of the nature reserve‖ is therefore still on the high alert given

the efforts of engaging communities in the Nature Reserve management. This

paper comes to the conclusion that before seeking for better participatory



approaches, it is necessary to better understand the participation‘s dimensions and

the dynamics of power in the context of the Nature Reserve. More attention needs

to be paid to the micro-physic of power, or the power relations between individuals

because it is rather neglected in the current participatory approaches. It is

recommended to further research the issues of power relations in Ngoc Son – Ngo

Luong using different viewpoints and methods in which the positive aspects, the

space and place of power are discussed.

23



Reproductive performance of local pig breeds reared under

smallholder conditions in Son La province, northwest of Vietnam

Nguyen Van Hau1, Le Thi Thuy

1, Anne Valle Zárate

2

1 National Institute of Animal Science, Thuyphuong, Tuliem, Hanoi, Vietnam 2 Institute of Animal Production in the Tropics and Subtropics, Hohenheim University,

Stuttgart, Germany

In the mountainous northwestern region of Vietnam indigenous local pig breeds

are still common and they are increasingly used as sow lines for crossing with

exotic boars. The objective of the study is to evaluate the reproductive performance

of the local pig breeds kept under smallholder conditions in the Son La province.

Data on reproductive performance of 119 Mong Cai and 87 Ban sows were

collected and recorded in the frame of an on-farm performance testing scheme

(OPTS). This is a performance testing scheme that combines data recording by

farmers with data recording and cross-checking farmers‘ data through researchers.

Data were collected from 2004 to 2009 in seven villages which belong to three

production systems of different intensity, i.e. a demand-driven system, a system in

transition and a resource-driven system. The reproductive data of sows were

analyzed by using generalized linear models. The analysis of variance revealed that

the reproductive performance of these breeds was influenced by village, breed, and

parity (p<0.001). Number of piglets born (NBT), number of piglets born alive

(NBA), number of piglets at weaning (NW) per litter, and number of litters per sow

and year (NLSY) of Mong Cai were 10.5, 9.7, 8.5, and 2.0, respectively and those

of Ban were 7.5, 6.8, 6.3, and 1.8, respectively. NBT, NBA, and NW of these

breeds increased from the first parity to the fourth parity with those of the first

parity significantly differing from the others. Reproductive performance of Mong

Cai sows in the villages in the demand-driven system was higher than that of Mong

Cai sows in the transition villages, and reproductive performance of Ban sows kept

in the transition villages was higher than that of Ban kept in the resource driven

system. The Mong Cai breed had on average a higher reproductive performance

than the Ban breed and both of them are favourably kept under smallholder

conditions in the northwest of Vietnam. The results of the study are actually used

to design a suitable breeding program for the smallholder farms incorporating both

breeds.

24 1.3 Animal husbandry systems I


Upland aquaculture in Yen Chau district (Son La province,

northern Vietnam): Role of aquaculture in nutrient flows and

livelihoods of local people

Silke Steinbronn1, Nguyen Ngog Tuan

1, Euloge Dongmeza

1, Ulfert Focken

2

1 Department of Aquaculture Systems and Animal Nutrition in the Tropics and Subtropics

(480B), Hohenheim University, Stuttgart, Germany 2 Johann Heinrich von Thünen-Institut, Institute of Fisheries Ecology, Ahrensburg,

Germany

In the valleys of Son La province in mountainous north-western Vietnam, upland

aquaculture is one of the major activities among farmers, second only to paddy rice

production and upland cultivation of corn and cassava. In order to describe the nutrient

flows as well as the importance of fish production for the farmers in this so far little

scientifically investigated pond system, research has been carried out since 2003 in the

framework of the special research program (SFB 564). Data was collected in three

communes located in Yen Chau district, Son La province, by interviews with 155 fish

farmers, 22 village headmen and other stakeholders as well as by an in-depth

investigation of six individually selected case study farms including quantitative

monitoring of the flows to and from the pond system. Proximate analysis has been

carried out for all feed items commonly used by the case-study farmers, and feeding

trials in laboratory have been carried out with the most important ones. In the study

area, the majority of farmers, mainly belonging to the Black Thai ethnicity, are

involved in aquaculture. The typical aquaculture system is a polyculture comprising

mainly herbivorous and omnivorous cyprinid species and is integrated into the overall

farming system with manifold on-farm linkages. Weeds from the paddy fields, leaves

from the upland fields, crop residues such as cassava peelings and rice bran as well as

manure from large ruminants and pigs serve as inputs for the ponds; water from the

pond is sometimes used for irrigating home gardens. Not all of the feeds currently

applied are suitable as fish feed, some like bamboo leaves or certain grasses turned out

to affect fish growth negatively and should rather be given to ruminants. Large fish are

mainly sold and contribute to cash income, while small fish, crabs and mollusks

contribute valuable animal protein for the household. Although the aquaculture system

exhibits elements associated with intensive systems, such as being feed-based and

having frequent water exchange, the actual fish yields are relatively low, typically 1-1.5

t*ha-1 a-1. The current system concentrates predominantly on the production of the

herbivorous grass carp, but in the last decade, grass carp production has become a risky

venture due to the occurrence of a so far unclassified grass carp disease that causes high

mortalities. Besides the grass carp mortalities, also the lack of feed for the other fish

species contributes to the low yields in the current system. Although the productivity is

relatively low, aquaculture is a lucrative business for local farmers as very little cash

inputs are required compared to other farming activities. This baseline study on the

current aquaculture system was the focal point for ongoing research on the grass carp

disease and on modified pond management in order to enhance the production of other

species presented in separate contributions.

1.3 Animal husbandry systems I 25


Improvements in pond management and application of low-cost

fish feed increase fish production and raise the benefit of small

scale aquaculture systems in Yen Chau

Johannes Pucher1, Richard Mayrhofer

2, Mansour El-Matbouli

2, Ulfert

Focken3

1 Department of Aquaculture Systems and Animal Nutrition in the Tropics and Subtropics

(480B), Hohenheim University, Stuttgart, Germany 2 Fish Medicine and Livestock Management, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna,

Austria 3 Johann Heinrich von Thünen-Institut, Institute of Fisheries Ecology, Ahrensburg,

Germany

Pond aquaculture of fish significantly contributes to the protein supply and cash

income of Black Thai farmers in Yen Chau, Son La province, Northern Vietnam.

The current aquaculture system is a polyculture of the macroherbivorous grass carp

as main species together with 3-5 other non-herbivorous fish species like common

carp, silver carp, bighead carp, mud carp, silver barb and Nile tilapia. The

productivity amounts to about 1.5 t fish ha-1 a-1, what must be considered as low

for a tropical, feed-based aquaculture system. The application of low quality feeds

for both herbivorous and non-herbivorous fish, high turbidity through steady water

inflow of field runoffs, very low primary production in ponds and the occurrence

of an unknown disease of grass carp are considered as reasons for this low

productivity of fish ponds. It was hypothesised that several changes in pond

management and the application of supplemental feed increases the productivity of

a polyculture with common carp as predominant species and raise the farmers'

income. Three watersheds with different water sources were identified; driven by

rainwater, reservoir/channel water and a mixture of rainwater and reservoir water.

In each of these watersheds two neighbouring ponds were chosen to compare the

commonly practiced pond management with a modified pond management

designed to overcome the limitations mentioned above. In each watershed, one of

the ponds was managed by the owner under the commonly applied traditional pond

management, characterised as: grass carp as the main species of the polyculture

system, uncontrolled water in- and outflow, application of common feed items like

green leaves (banana, bamboo, cassava, maize and grass) and crop residues (rice

bran, rice husk, cassava root peel, distillery residue …) and casually fertilizing

with buffalo or cow manure. The neighbouring ponds were managed by the owners

farmers following a pond management recommended by researchers: common carp

was the main species of the polyculture system, management of water flow by

digging by-pass channels, application of supplemental low cost feed based on

mainly locally available ingredients for non-herbivorous fish and green leaves for

grass carp, weekly fertilizing with inorganic fertilizer and cow or buffalo manure

and the use of lime. In April 2009 all ponds were stocked with fingerlings by the

density of 1.5 fish m-2 and harvested completely in November 2009, while



monthly catches of fish in each pond were used to monitor general growth of each

species and to calculate the feeding rations of supplemental feed for the treatment

ponds. In all ponds limnological parameters were monitored frequently. Further

each farmer had to record all activities related to the pond (water inflow, kind and

masses of feed inputs and fertilizer, working time) in a record book. It was shown,

that reduction of water inflow leads to a reduction of turbidity and in combination

with fertilization to an increase of pond productivity, higher oxygen supply by

photosynthesis and higher growth of several non-herbivorous fish species;

especially, typical filter feeder of phytoplankton and zooplankton showed

significantly higher growth under treatment pond management. After seven

months, changes of pond management and application of supplemental low-cost

feed more than doubled the total fish mass and net profit compared to the control

ponds.

1.3 Animal husbandry systems I 27


Beef cattle feeding systems and measuring their sustainability in

Bac Kan province

Hoang Thi Huong Tra1, Philippe Lebailly

2, Vu Chi Cuong

1, Brigitte

Duquesne2

1 National Insitute of Animal Husbandry, Hanoi, Vietnam 2 Department of Economics and Rural Development, University of Liege, Belgium

Indigenous cattle in Vietnam Northern uplands are often kept in free ranging, part-

time grazing and cut & carry systems. In Bac Kan, Local Yellow beef cattle breeds

are predominantly raised by small farmers in free ranging or part-time grazing

systems. Local H‘Mong cattle are often kept in cut & carry feeding system. Cattle

production is accounted for an important proportion in the total gross output of the

provincial livestock sub-sector (30%), while it is accounted for only around 4% on

average in Vietnam. To help local people to escape from poverty, initiated projects

in favour of the development of beef cattle production have been implemented.

Modalities for a sustainable cattle production in the uplands have been promoted as

a perspective solution to enhance economic growth and livelihood for farmers,

especially poor farmers. However, the cattle production sector still remains under-

developed, hence the generally high poverty faced by farmers. The study is carried

out to determine the impact of selected beef cattle feeding systems on different

dimensions of sustainable development of agriculture: economic, environmental

and social. A formal survey using structured questionnaire is conducted in 97

households including 30 households in free ranging, 37 households in part-time

grazing and 30 households in cut & carry system. To measure sustainable cattle

feeding systems, different indicators are selected including social dimension

(employment opportunity, proportion of time used in cattle production, role of

women), environment (stoking rate and manure utility, manure storage, farmers‘

awareness in term of manure use and protection) and economics (gross margin).

Keeping cattle in cut & carry system creates better employment opportunities

(using 375.8 days/year and 72.6%), highly importance in the system because

having availability of labour resource due to having less land area and low

production intensity, higher economic efficiency (8.1 mil VND), however larger

risk on environment from manure emissions (67.8% manure running out and 50%

households using manure preservation). In fact, manure utility from cattle

production is evaluated less important in H‘Mong households compared to Tay

households in Free ranging and Part-time grazing systems. Low proportion of

H'Mong women participate in cattle production activities and decision making,

while Tay women play a better role than H'Mong ones. Ranking second in

efficiency of employment opportunities is part-time grazing system (275.5 days

and 68.7%). This system indicates a highly percentage in manure preservation

(89.2%) and used, and less amount of manure leaching out (37.3%). Nevertheless,

lowest benefit from cattle production is indicated in this systems with 4.9 million

VND. Meanwhile, the lowest employment opportunities are presented in Free



ranging system (102.5 days and 33.1%), while medium impact of manure source is

analyzed. In general, very high proportions of manure running out to environment

is recorded among systems, which are indicated by lack of favourable preservation

methods in households and low level of cattle manure using resulting in high

pollution for households living in study sites.

29


Parallel session 2


The environmental fate of pesticides in paddy rice farming

systems in northern Vietnam

Marc Lamers1, Maria Anyusheva

1, La Nguyen

1, Nguyen Van Vien

2, Thilo

Streck1

1 Institute of Soil Science and Land Evaluation, Biogeophysics section, Hohenheim

University, Stuttgart, Germany 2 Department of Plant Pathology, Hanoi University of Agriculture, Hanoi, Vietnam

During the last decades, high population growth and export-oriented economics

have led to a tremendous intensification of rice production in Vietnam, which in

turn has significantly increased the amount of agrochemicals applied. However, it

has long been known for almost all crop situations that agrochemicals may be

transported to adjacent environmental compartments where they may effect non-

target organisms, pollute surface and ground water, and enter the human food

chain. In Northern Vietnam, rice production systems were identified to be the

major non-point source of pollution to surface and ground water, which are often

directly used for domestic purposes. However, only few studies are available

focusing on the environmental occurrence of pesticides applied to integrated rice

farming systems in Vietnam. The aim of the present study was to measure the

water regime and transport of agrochemicals in integrated paddy field – fish pond

farming systems in northern Vietnam and to evaluate the potential risk of water

pollution across the landscape. During two consecutive rice cropping seasons

(2008) we intensively measured the water regime (inflow, outflow, water level, soil

moisture) and the concentrations of applied pesticides (dimethoate, fenitrothion) in

various system components (paddy water, soil water, pond water, soil sediment,

inflow and outflow water) of a representative paddy rice-fishpond farming system.

On the watershed scale, we additionally monitored the pesticide pollution of

surface (receiving stream) and ground water (wells) by four widely applied

pesticides (Imidacloprid, Fenitrothion, Dimethoate, Dichlorvos). In our presenta-

tion we will focus on measurement results indicating that under the current

management and pesticide application practices a considerable amount of

pesticides is lost from the paddy field to the adjacent surface water bodies or is

leached to the ground water.

30 2.1 Water and fate of agrochemicals


Pesticide concentrations in surface waters in an agriculturally

used mountainous watershed in Northern Thailand

Walaya Sangchan1, Joachim Ingwersen

1, Cindy Hugenschimidt

1, Prasak

Thavornyutikarn2, Kanokpan Pansombat

3, Yongyuth Sukvanachaikul

4, Thilo

Streck1


University, Stuttgart, Germany 2 Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Thailand 3 Department of Soil and Conservation Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Chiang Mai

University, Thailand 4 Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Chiang Mai University,

Thailand

The high application of pesticides in the uplands of Northern Thailand poses an

increasing contamination risk for stream water and aquatic ecosystems. The aim of

our study was to quantify the temporal variation of pesticide concentrations in the

stream water of an agriculturally used mountainous tropical watershed and to

perform a pesticide risk analysis. In the Mae Sa watershed (77 km2) in Northern

Thailand, we monitored seven frequently applied pesticides [two organochlorines

(α, β-endosulfan, chlorothalonil), four organophosphates (dichlorvos, chloropyri-

fos, dimethoate, atrazine), one pyrethroid (cypermethrin)] in stream waters over a

period of two years (2007-2008). Two gauging stations were installed along the

mainstream, one at a headwater position and one at the outlet. A third station was

set up in the tributary Mae Sa Noi. Water samples were collected using automatic

samplers (ISCO 6712) coupled with ultrasonic sensors for discharge measurement.

In the period from July to August 2007, time-proportional sampling was per-

formed. After determining the stage-discharge curve, water samples were taken

volume-proportionally. In total, 383 samples were collected during the two years

period. Pesticides were extracted by solid phase extraction (SPE) and analyzed by

gas chromatography coupled with µ-electron capture detector or nitrogen

phosphorus detector. Based on the observed pesticide concentrations, an aquatic

risk assessment was performed using the risk quotient (RQ). The RQ is defined as

the ratio between Predicted Environmental Concentration (PEC), for which we

take here either the measured mean or extreme values of pesticide concentrations,

and the Predicted No Effect Concentration (PNEC). All seven pesticides were

detected in the river. At the headwater gauge and at the outlet of the watershed,

chlorpyrifos is the pesticide that was detected most frequently (>60% detection).

At the outlet of the Mae Sa Noi subwatershed, atrazine was detected most

frequently. In general, the highest pesticide concentrations were observed during

the rainy season. Extreme pesticide concentrations typically showed up when

surface runoff started and several hours after storm events. From July to December

2007, the highest daily pesticide concentration was 0.7 µg/L chlorothalonil at the

headwater station. From January to November 2008, the highest daily pesticide

2.1 Water and fate of agrochemicals 31


concentration was 1.3 µg/L chlorpyrifos at the headwater station. The risk

assessment showed that adverse effects (RQ>1) are to be expected for dichlorvos

and chlorpyrifos when mean pesticide concentrations were used as PEC and for

dichlorvos, chlorothalonil, chlorpyrifos, endosulfan and cypermethrin when

extreme concentrations were used as PEC. Our study shows that in the Mae Sa

watershed pesticide contamination of surface waters is a relevant issue and that

measures should be taken to reduce the loss of pesticides from soil.

32 2.1 Water and fate of agrochemicals


Identifying pesticide transport pathways from a sloped litchi

orchard to an adjacent stream based on soil hydraulic

conductivity measurements and hydrograph separation

Thilo Streck, Andreas Duffner, Joachim Ingwersen, Cindy Hugenschmidt

Institute of Soil Science and Land Evaluation, Biogeophysics section, Hohenheim

University, Stuttgart, Germany

In the mountainous areas of northern Thailand, agricultural practice has shifted

from subsistence farming to market-driven agricultural production. Intensive

cropping has caused pesticide contamination of surface waters. To identify the

transport pathways of pesticides we mapped the saturated hydraulic conductivity

and the depth of the A horizon of a sloped litchi orchard and performed a three-

component (baseflow, interflow, surface runoff) hydrograph separation of the

discharge of an adjacent stream (Mae Sa Noi). Electrical conductivity and the

dissolved silica concentration were chosen as representative tracers. The baseflow

(80%-96%) was the dominant flow component followed by interflow (3%-18%)

and surface runoff (1%-7%). Surface runoff was the dominant atrazine transport

pathway in the first ten days after application. It was detected within the first two

hours after the rainfall. Thereafter interflow was the dominant atrazine transport

pathway. It was mainly detected during hydrograph decline between 4 and 23

hours after rainfall. Stormflow generation and atrazine transport depended on

antecedent rainfall and soil moisture. The fast transport of atrazine with interflow

water was preferential. Recovery of atrazine and chlorpyrifos in the stream was

0.4% and 0.01% of the applied mass, respectively. Saturated soil hydraulic

conductivity and the A-horizon depth were positively correlated. A simple method

was developed to predict the contribution of the surface run-off (in %) to total

discharge from the amount of rainfall. Because the regional distribution depth of

the depth of the A horizon is known, this relationship may be used for upscaling

the contribution of surface runoff in the watershed.

2.1 Water and fate of agrochemicals 33


Modeling the fate of pesticides in paddy rice farming systems in

northern Vietnam

La Nguyen1, Maria Anyusheva

1, Marc Lamers

1, Nguyen Van Vien

2, Thilo

Streck1


University, Stuttgart, Germany 2 Department of Plant Pathology, Hanoi University of Agriculture, Hanoi, Vietnam

During the last decades, high population growth and export-oriented economics

have led to a tremendous intensification of rice production in Vietnam, which in

turn has significantly increased the amount of agrochemicals applied in rice

cropping systems. At present, the average amount of pesticides applied on paddy

rice in Vietnam is estimated to be in the range of 1.15-2.66 kg ha-1 y-1 and 0.23 kg

ha-1 y-1 in lowland and upland areas, respectively. Since pesticides are toxic by

design, there is a natural concern over the possible impact of their presence in the

environment on human health and environmental quality. In North Vietnam,

lowland and upland rice production systems were identified to be the major non-

point source of agrochemical pollution to surface and ground water, which is often

directly used for domestic purposes. In this context, the quantification and forecast

of pesticide losses to surface and ground water from paddy rice fields is indispens-

able and a prerequisite for assessing the risk of water pollution across vulnerable

landscapes in Northern Vietnam. Since field measurements are time-consuming

and costly a precise quantification and forecast is hampered by the limited amount

of field data. A way to cope with this shortcoming is the use of process-based

models. We developed a model for simulating the fate of pesticides in integrated

paddy rice farming systems. State-of-the-art approaches and algorithms to describe

the basic processes, such as pesticide transport, degradation and sorption were

combined and numerically solved using the ordinary differential equation (ODE)

solver Berkeley Madonna (Version 8). After having been coupled with external

optimization software the model will be calibrated by means of the Levenberg-

Marquardt algorithm and validated against measured data for the two pesticides

dimethoate and fenitrothion of the spring and summer rice crop season 2008. In our

presentation, we will focus on first simulation results, which indicate that the

model is a useful tool for simulating the environmental fate of pesticides in

integrated paddy-fishpond farming systems.

34



Understanding water conflict and cooperation in Con Cuong,

Nghe An province, Vietnam

Le Thi Thanh Phuong1, Thomas Skielboe

2, Pham Thi Mai Huong

1

1 Center for Agricultural Research and Ecological Studies (CARES), Hanoi University of

Agriculture, Vietnam 2 Nordic Agency for Development and Ecology, Denmark

Water plays a central role for local livelihood and local development. In many

parts of the developing world the competition for water has increased over the last

years due to the appearance of new types and structures of water uses and water

users, growing population rates, increased pressure on land as well as rapid climate

change. In these ongoing structural changes there is a need for further understand-

ing of the local level water management, processes of cooperation and conflict in

different types of water use, and to view this in relation to social dynamics, access

to water and customary law in water governance. This paper presents some of the

findings of a study carried out under the collaborative and comparative Competing

for Water research program supported by the Danish Research Council. In seeking

to explore local conflict and cooperation events, the study has developed a

database of a quantitative inventory of water conflict and cooperation events in

Con Cuong district, Nghe An province, Vietnam. The inventory has mapped all

formally reported events in the district during the period 1995-2007, as well as

unreported events from ten villages sampled randomly from a total of 128

communities in the district. Events were identified through archival research in the

records and notes of public authorities, as well as through interviews with sample

informants in villages and authorities. The recording of events used standardized

formats describing a range of characteristics of each event, which were then

entered into a database for analysis. It was found that the local water competition

situations involve both conflictive and cooperative events, which often evolve in

succession of each other. Of the identified events in Con Cuong the majority turned

out to be cooperative and many events were often related to the development of

water works like the many gravity fed pipe water system projects carried out in the

area. Furthermore the study found that the recorded events mainly take place at

local scale within a single community and often between water users within the

same user group rather than between water users with different water use.

Moreover most events were found to remain at the local scene or among the

immediate involved parties. As far as possible, conflicts and cooperation are tried

to be resolved by the involved themselves, and without any involvement of third

parties; if denounced to a third part, it is often to community leaders or organisa-

tions within the community. The article concludes by discussing the implications

of these findings for local water governance and particularly the need to include

such findings in the further development of integrated water resource management.

2.2 People's access to resources 35


Emerging networks for water resource governance in Thailand:

From pilot project to institutionalized participation?

Sukit Kanjina1, Andreas Neef

2

1 The Uplands Program-SFB564 2 Faculty of Agriculture, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan

For nearly a decade, Thailand has attempted to reform its water sector. As part of a

wider governance reform taking place after the enactment of the so-called People‘s

Constitution in 1997, it has been envisioned that public participation would play a

key role in water resource governance with the river basin as a managerial unit. To

this end, the Department of Water Resources (DWR) was established in 2002 with

its Bureau of Mass Promotion and Coordination (BMPC) being a responsible

agency for implementing the river basin project in 25 river basins across the

country. The River Basin Committee (RBC) was selected as a governing form for

each river basin with a mandate to manage water and other related natural

resources. Drawing on the concept of governance and network, this paper aims to

explore the water resource governance network – the RBC - initiated and

implemented by DWR and to discuss its challenges in becoming an effective and

meaningful mechanism for water resource governance in the country. The RBC

and related governing bodies of the Ping River Basin, which is one of the four

major river basins in northern Thailand, were selected as examples. Data were

collected by means of semi-structured interviews with key informants and

participant observation in the river basin committee‘s and related governing

bodies‘ activities in the fiscal year 2009/10. Informal research conversations were

also conducted with the officials involved, supplemented by related documents.

We found that the RBC and the river basin project remains largely at the

experimental stage although the effort has been implemented for a number of

years. This could be seen from a continuous change of policy directives for the

endeavor which resulted in changes in the structure of the RBC and its related

governing bodies and delayed their proper functioning and subsequent activities.

From the network perspective, the RBC has encountered several challenges. The

RBC is mandated by the regulation upon which DWR operate; however,

participating members – particularly government agencies – are not legally bound

by this regulation. Not only does the RBC lack a comprehensive legal backup, but

also the resources such as budget, information and expertise, which are the initial

condition – the interdependency of the partners on these resources that induces

them to form or join certain networks. The way the RBC is governed also hinders

its development. It can be seen that a lead organization form of network manage-

ment is applied; in this case, the DWR‘s water resource regional offices (WROs)

are assigned as a secretary of the RBC and also as its secretariat. Having also their

own mandates to fulfill, the WROs manage the RBC strictly based on the BMPC‘s

policy directives. As such, the RBC becomes merely a tool for the WROs to

achieve a certain target, namely the drafting of the river basin development plan.

36 2.2 People's access to resources


The domination of the WROs in the RBC effort thus leaves a slim chance for

crucial elements of network development, such as trust, communication and joint

decision-making, to be fostered. Viewing this situation from the governance

perspective, where there is a shift from the domination of the state and its

apparatus toward an increasing role of the non-state actors in dealing with public

issues, the RBC setup, and in essence water resource governance, still remain

under a firm state control. Involvement of the local stakeholders in the RBC is

considerably limited and restricted only to relatively passive participation in

formalized meetings, which contradicts the vision that public participation is to be

a key feature of this effort. The RBC as a network for water resource governance is

apparently an important development step in Thailand‘s water sector. However, the

strict control and top-down approach used by DWR and BMPC in implementing

this project significantly impedes the RBC development and to a large extent

reduces it into a mere functional tool to achieve predefined targets. If the RBC is

still to be promoted as a water resource governance mechanism under a participato-

ry paradigm, DWR and BMPC need to promote polycentric decision-making

mechanisms in the RBC while waiting for a more comprehensive legal backing and

the provision of sufficient human and financial resources by policy-makers.



Resettling farm households in northern Vietnam: Livelihood

impacts and adaptation strategies

Bui Thi Minh Hang, Pepijn Schreinemachers, Thomas Berger

Institute of Agricultural Economics and Social Sciences in the Tropics and Subtropics

(490d), Hohenheim University, Stuttgart, Germany

There have been an increasing number of hydropower projects in Vietnam to meet the

spiraling demand for electricity in the country. Apart from power generation, these

projects help to control floods and manage the irrigation water supply. Involuntary

resettlement, however, exposes the affected people to risks such as impoverishment,

landlessness, joblessness, marginalization, and food insecurity. Affected people include

the resettled people but also the host people whose communities are to absorb the

resettled people. Previous studies have focused on the resettled people but have often

ignored the effect on the host population; as a result, little is known about how

resettlement programs affect this group and this study contributes to filling this

knowledge gap. The study focuses on the economic, social, and health impacts of the

resettlement program. A second contribution of the study is its examination of how

people have adapted themselves to the new situation. The quantitative data were

collected through a random survey of 108 households in Muong Lum commune, a

relatively remote community in the mountains of Son La province. The sample

included 52 host households and 56 resettled households who had to relocate to this

commune as a consequence of the Son La dam project, the largest dam construction in

Southeast Asia. For each household we collected data before and after the resettlement

using recall methods. The study used descriptive statistics and t-tests to compare the

situation before and after the resettlement as well as between host and resettled

households. The analysis showed that the adaptive capacity of host and resettled

households is multidimensional with the level of adaptation depending on many factors

such as household composition, level of knowledge and education, compensation

amounts, asset endowments, social capital, and personality. We find that the changes in

income composition and distribution in the host population relate to changes in the

access to resources, mainly land. After resettling, the income of resettled households

decreased significantly and was considerably below that of the host households.

However, the percentage of households who is food insecure was not significantly

different between the resettled and host households because the former group received

food support from the government. When this support ends then the share of food

insecure people would increase. The fear of having to share resources and the fear of

disorder and the shattering of long time stability affected the mental health status of the

host people. The study finds that the share of households with mental health problems

is greater in the host than in the resettled population. The study provides new insights

about the effects of resettlement, how the affected people adapt and the factors

determining their success in adaptation. These results can help policy makers, project

managers as well as national and local government in designing and implementing

resettlement plans to ensure that the affected population‘s living standard will be

restored and their livelihood will be sustainable.

38 2.2 People's access to resources


Integrative planning and processes in the mountain areas of Mae

Hong Son, Thailand

Tanin Subhasaen1, Suranee Phusuwan

2

1 Vice Governor, Mae Hong Son Province, Royal Thai Government, Thailand 2 Integrated Community Development for Livelihoods and Social Cohesion in Mae Hong

Son, UNDP Thailand

This paper will outline innovative integrative approaches for poverty alleviation

based on integrating planning and processes; crossing disciplines and sectors;

combining community perception with spatial technology; and creating alliances

between community and state agencies. The authors will outline the strategies used

to introduce these innovations amongst ethnic highland tribes practicing remnants

of rotational farming in heavily forested upland areas, the challenge of working

with government institutions in the mountain areas of Thailand, and lessons which

would be provide useful insights to other upland regions of Southeast Asia. Mae

Hong Son Province located in remote Northwestern Thailand is the poorest

province in the country and the one with the lowest Human Development Index

amongst 75 provinces. The province is completely mountainous and has a forest

cover upwards of 90%. Mae Hong Son is home to a diverse ethnic hill-tribe

population of about 252,692 and a large number of displaced people from

Myanmar. Due to scarce resources, economic opportunities are few, and basic

services including housing, transportation, communication, education and health

are often inadequate. The Integrated Community Development for Livelihoods and

Social Cohesion project focuses on provincial-specific solutions to promote fair

and equal treatment and access to resources and services among the different ethnic

14 communities residing in the four refugee camps, as well as promoting the

sustainable of existing resources – with special attention given to women and

children. Specifically, the project has targeted 2% of the total population in Mae

Hong Son province. The project is now in its second year and has established a

planning model to demonstrate a diversity of integrated development and

conservation activities in the local communities. The planning model was launched

with a Participatory Rural Appraisal process which evolved a simple community

map. This map allowed for the community‘s constraints and potential and related

issues to be identified and analyzed by different groups. This initiative was

followed by a Participatory 3D Mapping Model programme, which involved the

building of a topographic map. Community‘s resources and landmarks, and other

meaningful landmarks and data, were added as required. These processes allowed

an opportunity for creating a historical timeline, assessing the present and mapping

the future of community resources. The planning model also serves as a meeting

point to initiate a diversity of integrated development and conservation activities

and support and enhance decentralized governance by providing centrality to the

needs and decisions of local communities. This has been seen through the adoption

of natural resources conservation campaigns by local communities, which include



the participation of women, displaced people, grassroots organizations and

government agencies. The project has also adopted a community development

approach, placing emphasis on capacity building among local staff, volunteers, and

key community members. Integrating Participatory Rural Appraisal and 3D

Mapping Model programmes for development and conservation activities has

brought together community members and displaced people in a cooperative

learning environment. This has helped ensure enhanced sustainable natural

resource management; increased community awareness and conservation; and

improved the quality of life and self-reliance for the women and men of Mae Hong

Son province.

40



Competition of cattle production with other livestock within

smallholder mixed farms in northern mountains of Vietnam

depending on household poverty levels

Le Thi Thanh Huyen1, Dinh Thi Tuyet Van

2, Pera Herold

3, Anne Valle

Zárate3

1 National Institute of Animal Sciences, Hanoi, Vietnam 2 Institute for Agricultural Economics and Social Sciences in the Tropics and Subtropics,

Hohenheim University, Stuttgart, Germany 3 Institute of Animal Production in the Tropics and Subtropics (480a), Hohenheim

University, Stuttgart, Germany

In Vietnam, a majority of the cattle population is raised by smallholder mixed

farms. Although the potential for beef production is assumed high in the uplands,

beef supply from northern mountains play a minor role in the market one of the

reasons being the large share of draught animals. In mixed farming systems,

different livestock species yield benefits, but they also compete for resources. The

northern uplands have the highest poverty incidence, particularly in remote areas.

Ethnic minorities live there in less productive areas with poor infrastructure and

low accessibility to market and off-farm work. This study aims to investigate the

competition of cattle production with other livestock species within smallholder

mixed farms at different household poverty levels in northern mountains of

Vietnam. This study was conducted in 20 villages, both lowlands and highlands, in

the mountainous Yen Chau district, Son La province. Data on livestock production

of 299 randomly selected households of different ethnic groups were collected by

using standardized questionnaires. The relative poverty status of the household was

assessed using terciles based on per-capita daily expenditure as a measure of

monetary poverty or wealth. Analysis of variance with SAS software version 9.2,

PROC GENMOD, was used to process quantitative data. Results show that cattle

were mainly kept by better-off farmers, with more than half of the farmers in the

richer terciles and only 29% of farmers in the poorest tercile keeping cattle. Cattle

keeping farms had bigger family and farm sizes compared with non-cattle keeping

farms. Number of cattle raised was closely related to the poverty level of the

household. The poorest farmers kept fewer cattle than the better-off farmers (1.7

cattle/ farm compared with 2.3-3.5 cattle/ farm, respectively). The poorest owned

more pigs, poultry and similar numbers of buffaloes. The poorest may need to keep

a male draft animal but do not engage in raising offspring. Only better-off farmers

could keep cattle with other ruminants. Particularly, a number of richer cattle

keepers in the highlands, were identified for having still fodder available and

owning more buffaloes and pigs than the other groups. Richer farmers adopted

more frequently innovations to livestock than the poorer farmers. With 65%, cattle

keepers applied new feeding strategies more often than non-cattle keepers to

2.3 Animal husbandry systems II 41


reduce feed competition. In conclusion, smallholder mixed farms only kept cattle

when forage, labour and capital were available. Cattle compete with other livestock

in the use of limited farm resources. Better-off farmers with still available forage

resources had more advantages than the poorer in keeping larger number of cattle

together with other livestock. For the poorest, small animal were more suitable

than beef cattle.

42 2.3 Animal husbandry systems II


The pig sector in North East India: status, constraints and

opportunities

Iain Wright, Rameswar Deka, William Thorpe, M. Lucille Lapar

International Livestock Research Institute

Introduction The eight states in NE India are ethnically and culturally akin to SE

Asia and are amongst the poorest in India with a much higher proportion of the

population below the poverty line (35%) than the national average (26%). The

economy is mainly rural and agrarian, with livestock accounting for 18% of the

value of output from the agriculture sector. For the majority tribal population,

livestock keeping - and pig keeping in particular - is integral to their way of life,

with 3.8 million pigs (over one quarter of the pigs in India) in the NE Region.

There is a growing demand for pork and much of this demand is being met from

imports from other states in India and from Myanmar. Despite the huge potential

for pigs to contribute to the improvement of livelihoods there have been few

systematic studies of the pig sector that can aid the design of effective development

programs. Objectives The objective of the reported studies were to undertake rapid

appraisals of the pig sector in Assam and Nagaland to: a) build a comprehensive

understanding of pig systems, and b) identify entry points for effective public and

private sector interventions for developing the pig sector within a pro-poor market-

oriented strategy to improve livelihoods. Methods Two complementary approaches

were used. Firstly, a review of secondary information was conducted and secondly,

primary data were collected by semi-structured interviews from actors along the

pig value chain in five districts in Assam (Dhemaji, Golaghat, Karump, Karbi

Anglong and Kokrajhar; September to December 2006) and three districts in

Nagaland (Dimapur. Mon and Pkek; May to June 2007). Interviewees included

consumers, market agents, producers, service providers (private and public) and

key informants at village and district levels. Results and Conclusions Most families

keep 1-3 pigs. A number of key technical, institutional and policy constraints were

identified. Traditional management practices continue to dominate pig keeping,

except that scavenging systems have given way to tethering or penning. In some

districts nearer to markets there is a higher proportion of cross-bred pigs, but in

remote areas indigenous pig breeds predominate. However, management practices

vary by location and ethnic group and any development interventions need to be

sensitive to these differences. Key production constraints include lack of good

quality piglets, little or no supply of concentrate feed (feeding systems are mainly

based on locally available feed resources) and limited or no animal health care,

especially in remote districts. Except near the large towns no concentrates are fed.

The market for pigs and for pork was good: over the previous five years in Assam

the price of pork had increased in real terms by 20% and in different districts of

Nagaland by 8-46%. The study resulted in a number of key recommendations for

pro-poor, market oriented development of pig production and marketing. These

included development of location-specific participatory action research programs,



that especially include women, to improve pig feeding through cultivation of food-

feed crops, improved management, development of innovative community-based

systems of animal health care and breeding of replacement stock through

introduction of improved and pigs, and application of participatory risk assess-

ments along the meat value chain to identify critical intervention points to improve

meat hygiene and food safety to guide implementation of specific training of key

actors on meat hygiene and quality assurance programs. There is a strong need to

support capacity building of key stakeholders including government and NGOs on

participatory processes of project implementation, market agent and producers.

The establishment of a planning and coordination group as a platform to catalyze

the process of mind-set change and to prepare a policy on pig sector development

could lead to significant development of the pig sector with substantial benefits to

rural livelihoods. Some of the outputs from the study have informed the design of

new pig development projects in the region.

44 2.3 Animal husbandry systems II


Breeding and short food supply chain systems for small-scale pig

producers in Son La province, Northwest Vietnam

Regina Roessler1, Pera Herold

1, Le Thi Thuy

2, Anne Valle Zárate

1

1 Institute of Animal Production in the Tropics and Subtropics (480a), Hohenheim

University, Stuttgart, Germany 2 National Institute of Animal Husbandry

In Vietnam, development incentives focus on the intensification and commerciali-

sation of pig production. Yet the majority of the national pig herd is used on small-

scale household farms. Small-scale pig producers, particularly in remote areas in

Northwest Vietnam, face numerous problems to improve their pig breeding and to

market their products. Thus, possibilities are needed to organise pig breeding and

marketing in remote areas in Northwest Vietnam. The present study evaluated

different crossbreeding schemes for lean meat production. It identified a possible

design for an appropriate organisational setting for pig breeding and marketing

systems in that area. Data collection was realised in the frame of sub-project D2 of

the Uplands Program. This long-term collaborative research project aims at the

development of village breeding programs incorporating local pig breeds. As a first

step, an on-farm performance testing scheme for pigs (OPTS) has been imple-

mented in nine villages in Mai Son district and Son La town, Son La province. A

survey was conducted in eight project villages (6 villages with market-oriented

production and 2 villages with resource-driven pig production) involving in total

188 small-scale pig producers with 262 sows. Smallholders‘ breed and trait

preferences for local pig breeds and smallholders‘ breeding management were

evaluated. These data were then analysed with SAS 9.1. Together with basic data

of the OPTS, results were used for modelling different breeding programs. Models

of breeding programs were developed and evaluated with the PC program ZPLAN.

Evaluation criteria used were the genetic and economic success of the modelled

breeding programs. Finally, a desk study on the organisational requirements for

different breeding and corresponding supply chain systems was performed to find

appropriate organisational structures for the modelled breeding programs. Survey

results indicate that small-scale pig producers with market-oriented pig production

preferred the improved local Mong Cai breed and exotic genotypes. Future

breeding programs should improve the reproductive and growth performance as

well as the carcass quality. Next to the Mong Cai, Ban pigs were the second most

predominant breed, mainly used in villages with resource-driven production or

farer away from towns. They were valued by smallholders for their feed intake

spectrum and capacity, disease tolerance, health (strength) and carcass quality. For

the latter trait Ban meat is also preferred by consumers. All modelled crossbreed-

ing schemes yielded low genetic gains and negative profit calling for improve-

ments in the population size and reduction of costs for performance testing. The

traditional production and fattening of F1 crosses between exotic and local breeds

would not require particular organisational set-ups. Advantage of an organised



scheme would be the controlled maintenance of the local breed. For the latter, a

stratified pig breeding scheme seems promising, requiring innovative organisation-

al set-ups. A short food supply chain is proposed. This system builds links between

remote and close-to-market villages and pig populations, overcoming critical

organisational aspects like poorly developed infrastructure, poor access to input

and output markets and information. The successful creation of short food supply

chains and implementation of village breeding programs will however require the

support by the government or other institutions, including more rigorous

enforcement of political measures, clear assignment of responsibilities and

financial support.

47


Parallel session 3

3.1 Land use change

Spatial and temporal patterns of land use intensification in

northern Laos

Benjamin Samson, Alice G. Laborte, Aileen A. Maunahan, Jonas Rune,

Robert J. Hijmans

International Rice Research Institute

We used multi-sensor and multi-temporal satellite images to analyze land use

change in northern Laos from 1967 to 2007. Prior to the 1990s, the average annual

rate of deforestation was 6% but this trend reversed in the last two decades with

growth in forest area at 4% per year at present. The directions of change in the

trend are consistent with that of agricultural statistics but the magnitude of change

is different. Although half of agricultural land still had a fallow period of more

than five years, 27% which used to be mostly under shifting cultivation, now have

only one to two years of fallow. Topographic complexity and accessibility were the

main factors that explained spatial variation in land use in northern Laos.

48 3.1 Land use change


Causes and effects of the land use change in the Suoi Muoi

catchment, Son La, Vietnam

Vu Kim Chi, Van Rompaey A., Govers G.

Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, K.U.Leuven, Belgium

The research has examined the mechanisms, the causes and the effects of land use

change in the Suoi Muoi catchment, Son La province, in NW mountain of

Vietnam, where is characterised by a remarkable ethnic diversity, mainly living

from farming activities. Land use and land cover changes were mapped from

different data sources including aerial photos and satellite images, taken from

1950s up to present. The results showed that increasing land demand led to a

significant decrease of the forest and shrub land in favour of upland fields before

1995 and the success of forest policies results the expansion of forest area over the

last 15 years. Logistic regression techniques were used to detect which variables

are correlated with the observed land use change patterns. This analysis revealed

that both from biophysical parameters such as topography, lithology and cultural

factors were significantly correlated with the observed land use change. Cultural

background in different ethnic groups played a role in the change of land use. The

results from household interviews at different ethnic communities made clear that

ethnic groups with a market-oriented strategy were able to increase the productivi-

ty of their agricultural practices by adopting new technologies such as sowing new

crop varieties, breeding new animal species and using fertilisers, resulting in a

decrease of the land pressure. Beside, ethnic groups with a subsidence economy are

rather slow in the adoption of new technologies, which results in an increasing land

pressure and ongoing shrub-upland field conversions. At catchment level, soil

erosion on the slope was simulated and sediment depositions at flood plain were

measured to confirm the effects of land use change on local environment.

3.1 Land use change 49


Does varying soil fertility determine poverty and richness among

the Black Thai and Hmong ethnic groups?

Holger Fischer, Rebekka Maier, Moritz Koch, Karl Stahr

Institute of Soil Science and Land Evaluation, Hohenheim University, Stuttgart, Germany

The study was performed in six villages (three inhabited by the Black Thai ethnic

group and three by the Hmong) in the Yen Chau district, Son La province in

northern Viet Nam. In each village, subproject F2 has selected two households; one

of the wealthiest third the other of the poorest third, randomly. Representative soil

samples were taken from each participating household. Parameters for soil fertility

(pH, CEC, contents of N, Corg, plant-available P, K, etc.) were determined.

Additional information, as e. g. yield, slope, fertilizer application, and distance to

the next street were collected. Soil fertility was assessed either according to the

systems proposed by Pagel, 1982 an Jahn, 2006 (Black Thai) or the Land

Suitability Classification of the FAO (Hmong) For the Black Thai only Corg and

Nt showed a correlation between soil fertility and wealth, but not the other

parameters or the complete soil fertility assessed by the mentioned methods. Input

of different hybrid species and more applied fertilizer as much as more corn seeds

(Black Thai) seem to be far more important for yields than natural soil fertility. For

the Hmong households preliminary results hint on physical parameters as

determining factor for yield and thus for wealth. However, according to the Land

Suitability Classification no difference in soil fertility could be observed for any

Hmong household.

50 3.1 Land use change


Soil organic carbon dynamics in northwestern Vietnam

Volker Häring, Holger Fischer, Karl Stahr

Institute of Soil Science and Land Evaluation, Hohenheim University, Stuttgart, Germany

The majority of people in the northwest of Vietnam live in poor conditions and

depend on slash-and-burn agriculture. Reduced yields as a consequence of soil

degradation are a serious threat. Soil organic carbon (SOC) dynamics in the

cultivated steep slope lands of northwestern Vietnam are essential for quantifica-

tion of soil fertility decline and potential carbon sequestration. Therefore, we

investigated SOC dynamics using natural 13C abundance of chronosequence sites

with varying ages of maize cultivation since deforestation of primary forest. Our

aims were to quantify (1) the carbon loss due to cultivation, (2) the amount of

newly established SOC as well as (3) carbon turnover rates of both bulk SOC and

functional pools. Due to the different photosynthetic pathways of maize (C4 plant)

and primary forest (mainly C3 vegetation), the stocks of newly established maize

derived SOC can be quantified. Three chronosequences have been established in

slopes on limestone, clayey shale and sandstone and contain one reference site

under primary forest. The sites have been identified using participatory tools in

order to integrate the farmer‘s knowledge about land use history, management

practices and soil fertility. Soils have been sampled in 0-10, 10-20 and 20-30 cm

depth, as well as horizon wise in soil pits. Soils were described and classified

according to the world reference base for soil resources. Total organic C and the

13C:12C ratio of soils and respective vegetation (maize, weed, and forest

vegetation) were measured. Additionally total carbon and nitrogen, potential cation

exchange capacity, exchangeable cations (Ca++, Mg++, K+, N+), texture, pH and

clay mineralogy have been determined for the effective rooting space of characte-

ristic sites within the chronosequences. Three functional pools (labile, intermediary

and passive), representing characteristic turnover times as well as stability against

decomposition, were analysed using physical SOC fractionation methods. First

results suggest that the SOC derived from maize in one year is low (<2% of total

SOC), while total SOC is declining with increasing duration of maize cultivation.

Soil depth functions show that the bulk SOC is declining whereas, the proportion

of 13C is increasing with increasing soil depth. All functional pools are expected to

be enriched in 13C due to maize cultivation, with the labile pool showing the

highest enrichment. The presented study is still ongoing and further investigation

(e. g. determination of soil loss due to erosion) will elucidate how severe the actual

land management affects SOC resources.

51



Vulnerability to poverty of upland farms in Thailand and

Vietnam

Marc Voelker, Songporne Tongruksawattana, Hermann Waibel

Institute of Development and Agricultural Economics, Department of Economics and

Business Administration, Leibniz University Hannover, Germany

Agriculture in poor countries is prone to numerous risks which can make farmers

become trapped in poverty or throw them back to poverty when idiosyncratic and

covariate shocks strike. This is a major reason why even in emerging market economies

like Thailand and Vietnam poverty remains a problem especially in peripheral rural

areas. In order to be able to develop effective strategies for pathways out of poverty the

concept of vulnerability to poverty has gained importance in the development

economics literature. In this paper vulnerability is calculated by means of farm level

models using linear and quadratic programming models. The models represent typical

farm households in selected areas in Thailand and Vietnam, incorporating the

households‘ income generating portfolios, resource endowments, consumption patterns

and their degrees of risk aversion. Constraints regarding the availability of production

factors, seasonality aspects in income generating activity options as well as the

households‘ subsistence requirements are accounted for in the model. External shocks

are incorporated by means of a Monte Carlo based simulation of random events. The

model allows assessing the efficiency of households‘ coping actions and the effective-

ness of externally introduced economic and social protection measures. In the empirical

part the model is tested against positive shock as well as negative shock events. The

former is the 2007 hikes in food prices of major agricultural commodities accompanied

by the increase in prices for agricultural inputs in both Thailand and Vietnam. Negative

shocks are reflected by adverse weather conditions especially storms in Vietnam. In the

study two different production settings, i.e. the upland farming areas of North-Eastern

Thailand and the agro-forest based mountainous areas of Vietnam‘s North Central

Coast region are compared. The study areas are similar in their remoteness from

national economic centers and their proximity to national borders, but differ with

regards to the prevailing structure of farm households and the local institutional,

environmental and demographic setting. The data that form the basis of this study were

collected in a large-scale household panel survey undertaken in Ubon Ratchathani

(Thailand) and Thua Thien Hue (Vietnam) in 2007-2008 within the context of the DFG

research project ―Impact of Shocks on the Vulnerability to poverty: Consequences for

Development of Emerging Southeast Asian Economies‖. Results show that adjustments

are influenced by resource endowments and the household‘s objective function.

Households with larger land availability and more residential household members tend

to react more elastic than resource-constrained households. Adjustment to shocks is

strongly affected by behavioural factors such as subsistence consumption and food

security objectives emphasizing the importance of risk preferences.

52 3.2 Vulnerability of poor households in highland areas


The impact of non-farm economic activities on risk and

vulnerability in remote mountain regions: The case of tourism

Martina Shakya

Institute of Development Research and Development Policy, Ruhr-Universität Bochum,

Germany

Life in remote mountain regions is inherently risky. People in the mountains are

more vulnerable to food insecurity, ill-health and natural hazards than the

population of less remote rural and urban areas. ―Remoteness‖ implies distance

from markets and low endowments of physical, financial, social and human capital.

Livelihood diversification is particularly important in remote, rural areas to spread

risk and to reduce households‘ dependence on farming. However, the scope for

exploiting non-farm income sources in remote mountain regions is limited, leading

to a ―vicious circle‖ of poverty and vulnerability. The proposed paper presents a

methodology to assess risk and vulnerability in remote mountain regions. Taking

the example of tourism, it also examines the economic, social and ecological

impact of non-farm economic activities on rural livelihoods, with a special focus

on risk and vulnerability. In the context of this paper, vulnerability refers to the

threat of poverty, i.e. the susceptibility of individuals or households to fall into or

to remain at a standard of welfare that is below a socially-accepted minimum level.

Risk is an essential element of vulnerability and the main variable that distinguish-

es poverty and vulnerability. Vulnerability is disaggregated into three analytical

dimensions: Risk exposure, risk management capacity and coping capacity. As

vulnerability and risk are socially constructed, context-dependant concepts, they

cannot be measured in absolute terms. In addition, indicators for risk exposure, risk

management capacity and coping capacity must reflect the socio-economic and

geographical environment of the area under examination. A comparative, multi-

level and multi-method research design was therefore chosen to determine the

relative vulnerability of rural households and to assess the impact of non-farm

income sources on this vulnerability. The paper presents results from an empirical

study conducted in four rural communities in Nepal. The research combines the

rigor of quantitative analysis (regression and correlation analysis, statistical tests of

household survey data) with the explanatory power of qualitative research (village

case studies, information gathered from participatory appraisals). The study

confirms the significantly higher vulnerability of remote mountain communities as

compared to less remote rural communities in the Nepalese lowlands. The most

vulnerable households in the survey sample are typically those residing in the

mountains, with a low degree of livelihood diversity, a low level of education, a

small household size, a small proportion of non-farm income, a low level of

absolute cash income and with small landholdings. The research results also reveal

the vulnerability-reducing impact of non-farm activities, which are exemplified

here by households‘ economic involvement in tourism. Tourism has a clear,

positive effect on risk management and coping capacity, and this impact is

3.2 Vulnerability of poor households in highland areas 53


particularly pronounced among households living in remote mountain communi-

ties. The study also suggests that tourism increases the risk exposure of rural

households. However, in the context of remote mountain regions, which offer little

scope for economic diversification, this ―disadvantage‖ is overcompensated by the

increased risk management and coping capacity of the households involved in

tourism.



Determinants of farmers’ variety choice and area allocation for

maize production in Northern Vietnam

Alwin Keil

Department of Agricultural Economics and Social Sciences in the Tropics and Subtropics

(490a), Hohenheim University, Stuttgart, Germany

In Vietnam, maize has become the second most important crop after rice due to its

importance as feed for the country‘s rapidly growing livestock and poultry industry. In

the mountainous district of Yen Chau in north-western Vietnam, 97% of households

grew maize in 2007 which covered 84% of the upland areas and generated 65% of

households‘ total cash income, on the average. Given the fluctuating input and output

prices and adverse ecological effects observed, such as massive soil erosion on steep

slopes, this high degree of specialization on maize production has to be viewed as a

relatively risky livelihood strategy. Hereby, the level of risk may vary depending on the

maize varieties used if these differ in terms of yield potential, input requirements, and

susceptibility to pests and diseases, for instance. Knowledge of farmers‘ decision

making with respect to the intensity and scale of maize production is a crucial

prerequisite to the formulation of policies to enhance both its economic and ecological

sustainability. Hence, based on empirical data on the growing season 2007 collected in

a random sample of 300 households in Yen Chau district, the objectives of this study

are to investigate (1) the maize varieties used and their characteristics, (2) determinants

of farmers‘ choice between riskier and less risky varieties, and (3) determinants of the

area share allocated to maize. A probit regression model identifies determinants of

variety choice, and a subsequent OLS regression identifies factors influencing area

allocation, accounting for possible differences between farmers who grow riskier or

less risky maize varieties. The dominant five varieties can be classified into two groups,

LVN10 and CP888/CP999 on the one hand (named LVN hereafter), and

NK54/NK4300 (NK) on the other. In 2007, LVN was used by 78% of maize growers

and is characterized by relatively cheap seed, a medium yield potential, and good

storage quality. NK was chosen by 20% and is characterized by relatively expensive

seed, a high yield potential, higher input requirements, and poorer storage quality,

implying that growing NK involves a higher level of risk than growing LVN. The

probit model correctly classifies 78% of NK growers and 91% of LVN growers,

indicating a relatively high level of predictive power. Amongst others, the maize price

received in 2006, literacy of the household head, access to credit, and residence in a

relatively wealthy village positively influence the choice of NK. The price ratio of NK

relative to LVN seed, food insecurity, and the distance to the next paved road are major

determinants of opting for the less risky LVN varieties. The area share allocated to

maize is positively influenced mainly by per-capita land availability and the share of

upland area, and negatively by the price of urea; farmers who grow the riskier NK

varieties tend to allocate a slightly larger area share to the crop. Hence, while maize

production is obviously highly attractive to all farmers in Yen Chau, the poorer, less

food secure, and more remote farmers do try to reduce the level of risk involved.

3.2 Vulnerability of poor households in highland areas 55


Development of operational poverty indicators in northern

Vietnam

Dinh Thi Tuyet Van, Manfred Zeller

Institute of Agricultural Economics and Social Sciences in the Tropics and Subtropics,

Department of Rural Development Theory and Policy, Hohenheim University, Stuttgart,

Germany

The Vietnamese Government uses the Ministry of Labour, Invalids and Social

Affairs (MOLISA) tool in its annual assessment of poor households to determine

how to best allocate available resources at local levels. This tool suffers from a

number of shortcomings. A constant and outdated income poverty line has been

applied for a period 2006-2010. To update the poverty status of households, local

authorities define poverty status of households based on how knowledgeable

neighbours are about each others, neglecting the income benchmarks developed by

the MOLISA. This method, thus, is subject to manipulation which can be affected

by political, administrative, and budgetary reasons. Therefore, more precise and

practicable tools for identifying the poor are needed. The purpose of this paper is to

compare and discuss the accuracy and practicability of three alternative tools,

compared to the MOLISA tool. Two alternative tools are the IRIS and the

Schreiner tools, using nationally representative samples in Vietnam. The other

alternative tool has been developed by the authors, using household expenditure

data of 300 households of Yen Chau district in Northern Vietnam. We investigate

two research objectives: identifying alternative poverty indicators, then testing

predictive accuracies of the newly developed tool together with the MOLISA, and

the other two tools. Our hypothesis is that tools calibrated for the nation will

perform worse than tools specifically calibrated for certain smaller regions within a

country. A questionnaire contained many potential poverty indicators related to

demography factors, education, housing characteristics, assets, and other facets of

poverty. To capture the seasonality of agriculture production and incomes in the

area, two expenditure survey rounds were implemented. A new rural poverty line is

estimated, taking into account timing of the two expenditure survey rounds, and

inflation rates. Four models were used, namely Ordinary Least Square, Quantile,

Linear Probability Model and Probit, applying the MAXR procedure to yield best

10 variables which accurately predict the ―true‖ poverty status of each household.

For the calibration of the various models, a random 200-household subsample has

been chosen. The remaining 100 households constitute the validation sample,

where the prediction accuracy for the Molisa tool, our tool and the two national

tools are being compared. Results show that when using all poverty variables,

quantile regression yields highest accurate performance among other regressions

with an optimal point of estimation set at the 42nd percentile. While specifying

only with non-monetary variables, Quantile tool exhibits higher accuracy in

correctly predicting the poverty status of households at an optimal point of 36th

percentile as a compared to the MOLISA tool. Best derived poverty indicators are



reliable and cost-effective to measure poverty, allowing for higher accuracy

performances. Provided, this is, that the new tools do not take into account the

mentioned manipulation. During the fourth phase of the project, we plan to test the

developed tools across time and space in a newly selected sample of 200

households together with the MOLISA and the other two tools to seek for a best

local-specific tool in defining the poor in Northern Vietnam.

57



Development of local, low cost fish feed in mountainous regions

in Vietnam

Nguyen Ngoc Tuan1,2

, Ulfert Focken3

1 Institute for Animal Production in the Tropics and Subtropics (480B), University

Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany 2 Department of Aquaculture, Faculty of Animal Science and Aquaculture, Hanoi University

of Agriculture, Vietnam 3 Johann Heinrich von Thuenen Institut, Institute of Fisheries Ecology, Ahrensburg,

Germany

Aquaculture is very important in Vietnam. In the lowlands, especially in the delta

regions, most aquaculture is intensive and fish are produced mainly for export. In

remote mountainous areas like Son La province on the other hand, small scale

farmers use relatively simple aquaculture systems to supplement their household

income and to provide an important source of animal protein for their families and

local markets. Although demand for aquatic products in the uplands is increasing,

the productivity of the current system is very low because of an unknown disease

of grass carp (the main species grown in ponds) and a lack of appropriate feed for

other cultured species. We therefore investigated the nutritional value of a number

of local crops and by products such as soybean, maize, cassava from Yen Chau in

Son La province. Chemical composition and amino acids levels were determined

according to the methods of AOAC 1995 standard, EU standard 98/64/EG, and

2000/45/EG. The results revealed that many locally available products are suitable

as ingredients of fish feed since they have good proximate composition, well

balanced amino acid profiles and low anti-nutrient content. Using these data we

formulated, compound feeds with approximately 30% crude protein and 10% crude

lipids and fed them to common carp in both laboratory and pond trials. In the

laboratory trials, fish fed diets made from local ingredients had lower growth rates

(2.0%.day-1) and higher feed conversion ratios (1.7 g/g), than those fed a

conventional control diet (2.8%.day-1 and 1.1 g/g respectively), but both the cost

per unit of feed as well as the cost per unit of fish produced was much lower (from

43 to 45% less than those of control feed). These findings were confirmed in a

pond trial in which the different feeds were offered to carp reared in hapa nets all

located in the same pond at the aquaculture facilities of Hanoi University of

Agriculture. The fish grew well on the cheaper feeds (2.1%.day-1) and had a lower

feed conversion ratio than in the laboratory trial (1.4 ± 0.1). Therefore, aquaculture

of carp using feeds made mainly from locally available resources seems to be a

promising option for farmers in the upland regions.

58 3.3 Animal husbandry systems III


The role of livestock production in the Naban He natural nature

reserve, Xishuangbanna, southern China

Simon Riedel1, Anne Schiborra

1, Katja Brinkmann

1, Christian Huelsebusch

2,

Eva Schlecht1

1 University of Kassel 2 DITSL, German Institute for Tropical and Subtropical Agriculture

Although China‘s tremendous economic raise has alleviated poverty of millions of

people, especially rural dwellers still suffer from low incomes. In 2009, China‘s

agriculture only contributed 10.9% to the GDP, although 69% of the population

earns a living in this sector. Tropical Xishuangbanna, located in the South of

China, is mainly inhabited by poor small-scale farmers. Of its 1.1 million

inhabitants, nearly 600,000 spread over 19,700 km2 rural area around the

prefecture‘s capital Jinghong, primarily earning their income through farming. This

study assessed the contribution of livestock production to farmers‘ livelihoods in

the Naban He National Nature Reserve, 20 to 50 km north-west of Jinghong. A

structured interview was applied to 204 small-scale farmers, living under a variety

of geographical and environmental conditions. Besides data on livestock numbers

and management practices, farmers‘ socio-economic status and their agricultural

practices were recorded. A cluster analysis was performed to assign individuals

from the diverse base population to meaningful groups. Three major production

systems were identified: Lowland (L) farms are located at around 694 m a.s.l. and

reach Jinghong within 0.67 to 1.2 hours by motorbike. They cultivate cash crops

(2.02 ±1.49 ha), annual crops (0.44 ±0.55 ha), and keep a few animals (2.2 ±1.57

TLU^1 ), mainly exotic pigs (2.5 ±1.92 head) for self-consumption at special

occasions. Midland farms (M) are situated at 1032 m a.s.l. about 2 hours drive

from town and cultivate 2.83 ±6.32 ha cash crops, 0.77 ±0.53 ha annual crops and

keep 4.1 ±2.64 TLU including 4.8 ±3.48 pigs for self-consumption and occasional

farm gate sales. Highland farmers (H) live around 1685 m altitude and need 4

hours to reach Jinghong. They have smallest area of cash crops (1.31 ±3.01 ha) but

largest annual crop fields (1.84 ±1.78 ha). Although their livestock numbers (3.4

±10.77 TLU) are not highest, these farms keep the most pigs (5.0 ±3.46), which

only here significantly contribute to income. L farms are more mechanized and

employ modern technologies such as improved plant and animal genetics, and

mineral fertilizers. Piglets are bought by traders and raised with improved fodder.

Due to high income prospects from cash crops, animal production dwarfed down to

a self supply level and farmers show little interest in reactivating this sector. H

farmers still run the traditional mixed systems where crop and livestock husbandry

foster each other. Crop-animal interactions, such as utilization of manure, buffalo

draft power and crop residue feeding are regularly exploited. Families keep one or

two local mothering pigs with offspring using forest-collected fodder. Group M

farmers range in-between the two other groups; they still use buffaloes as draft

power and rear local pigs under traditional conditions, but prefer inorganic

3.3 Animal husbandry systems III 59


fertilizer over manure use. If announced road construction materializes in the near

future, good chances exist, especially for group H, to overcome poverty by

fostering the local livestock production. They could benefit from an intensified

market-oriented pig production through slight modifications to the current feeding

practices, without putting at risk the present ecological sustainability of the farming

system. Footnote: ^1 TLU = Tropical Livestock Unit: Cattle=1 Buffalo=1.2 Pig=0.4 Chicken= 0.1

60 3.3 Animal husbandry systems III


Value chain analysis of beef cattle production in different cattle

feeding systems in Bac Kan province, the Northern Mountainous

Region, Vietnam

Hoang Thi Huong Tra1,2

, Philippe Lebailly1, Vu Chi Cuong

2, Brigitte

Duquesne1

1 University of Liege, Department of Economics and Rural Development, Belgium 2 National Insitute of Animal Husbandry, Hanoi, Vietnam

Prevalence of cattle markets with high demand in uplands of Northern Vietnam

leads to ease of marketing of cattle, giving a positive condition for cattle

development. This has not been as vigorous as expected despite existence of

supporting policies. Market for cattle in uplands is still underdeveloped although

marketing of cattle is considered as essential factor influencing their development.

Herd sizes have not increased, in some cases, farmers have decreased size or

ceased production altogether. This paper uses a value chain analysis approach to

examine cattle subsector in Bac Kan and will attempt to identify potential entry

points for improving value chain to assist cattle production. A significant

proportion of marketed cattle come from neighbouring provinces and China and

amount of cattle traded in local markets depends on seasons and outbreaks. Live

cattle prices have fluctuated significantly due to economic crisis and cattle lean

meat capacity. Tay minority farmers producing cattle in free-ranging and part-time

grazing systems often sell cattle at local markets but have poor negotiation

capacity. H‘Mong minority farmers producing in Cut & carry systems bring their

cattle to markets to achieve best price, as having a better capacity for valuation,

many H‘Mong also work as cattle traders. Middlemen working in groups with tight

relation with each other play a key role in price determination, but need for high

capital investment to undertake this business and gaining high risk. Middlemen and

slaughterhouse owners have strong relationships to ensure cattle supply. Most

farmers lack information on correct pricing for cattle, deciding value of cattle

based on middlemen. Farmers who are not grouped or working in collaboration

together get less benefit than others. The value chain analysis suggests that

formation of community farmer groups for collective marketing and capacity

building with formal regulation is a critical option to improve bargaining powder,

position and linkages of farmers with other actors, and there should be more

government intervention in control of cattle smuggling, control of quality of

products, defining procedures for cross-border trading and paperwork. Specific

policies related to slaughterhouse conditions, location should be implemented in

the Northern provinces in order to improve development of beef cattle.

61


Parallel session 4


SOTER database for improved land use planning in Chieng Khoi

sub-cachment, northern Vietnam

Nguyen Dinh Cong1, Gerhard Clemens

1, Nguyen Van Dung

2, Karl Stahr

1

1 Institute of Soil Science and Land Evaluation, Hohenheim University, Stuttgart, Germany 2 Hanoi University of Agriculture, Vietnam

Northern Vietnam has stable increasing population with intensive agriculture

farming systems. This puts pressure on soil resources causing degradation and

reducing productive capacity. Land use planning is a method to match site quality

and adjusted land use and to reduce the risk of unwanted effects of land use. The

existing plans can not consider the biophysical circumstances sufficiently because

of the lack of necessary information. The increasing pressure on land and soil

resources calls for a system that can store detail information on natural resources of

all kinds in such a way that these data can be used to the analysis of land

suitability, potential food production, environmental impact of land use and the

identification of conservation measures. On the basis of such a system, land use

planning at all levels can be carried out, using both internal and external resources

efficiently. Objective of this study is to develop a database using an adopted

SOTER methodology, comprising general and detailed terrain description, geology

and soil information for mountainous landscapes in Chieng Khoi sub-catchment.

The main differentiating criteria were landscape morphology and geology. In the

first level, 5 terrain units could be distinguished. The terrain units are subdivided at

a second level into 6 terrain components according to the soil parent material and

landform. In the last level of database, the result shows 16 soil profiles within 10

soil components. Based on the database, the FAO/ITC land suitability procedure

was used to identify constraints to specific land use. Suitability map for maize is

established as a result of a case study of use of SOTER database.

62 4.1 Land use planning and evaluation


Zoning and suitable land use patterns for landscape agroforestry

development

Nathawat Khlangsap1, Chongrak Wachrinrat

2

1 Trat Agroforestry Research and Training Station, Research and Development Institute,

Kasetsart University, Thailand 2 Department of Silviculture, Facultry of Forestry, Kasetsart University, Thailand

Agroforestry is a sustainable land use approach to alleviate the conflict between

forestation and agricultural lands demand. This research aims to develop an

approach for agroforestry landscape planning in Khlongphu-Khlongpook

Watershed, Trat province, eastern of Thailand. 5 Classes of zoning (zone 1-5) was

formulated by using classes of watershed, slope, elevation and distance from main

stream and the zones were mapped by using GIS program. Agroforestry index

(AFI) was set to evaluate sustainable level (SL) of 7 land uses by using 8 indicators

namely soil loss, organic matter, plant diversity, net profit, time dispersion of

income, input self sufficiency, risk and uncertainties, and food security. Weighing

and scoring technique were used for zoning and AFI steps. The SL of land uses

was determined with AFI value at; lowest (1.0-1.8), low (1.8-2.6), moderate (2.6-

3.4), high (3.4-4.2) and highest (4.2-5). The land uses in each zone were planned

by using AFI. The results showed that AFI value of complex agroforest, forest,

rubber plantation, mixed fruit orchard, mixed tree plantation, fruit orchard, and

pineapple were 4.39, 3.84, 2.64, 2.64, 2.19 and 1.58 respectively. For land use

patterns in each zone, complex agroforest and forest can be practiced into all

zones. In addition, rubber plantation, mixed fruit orchard, and mixed plantation can

be applied into Z3, Z4 and Z5. Fruit orchard can be practiced into Z4 and Z5.

Meanwhile, pineapple can be only practiced into Z5. It is then recommended that

agroforestry patterns in Z1 and Z2 should be designed for main forest functionali-

ty. At least simple agroforestry system or woody plantation should be designed in

Z3 and Z4 and all land uses can be practiced in Z5. In conclusion, zoning and land

use evaluation are important approach to sustainable landscape agroforestry

development.

4.1 Land use planning and evaluation 63


The potential of radiometric measurements at the soil profile

scale to detect clay illuviation processes

Wanida Rangubpit1, Ulrich Schuler

2, Ludger Herrmann

3, Karl Stahr

3

1 Department of Mineral Resources, Thailand 2 BGR, Hannover, Germany 3 Institute of Soil Science and Land Evaluation, Hohenheim University, Germany

Pedogenesis can enhance or reduce radioelement concentration in comparison to

the original state in the parent material. According to Dickson and Scott (1997) the

radioelement concentration is decreasing during the weathering of felsic volcanics

rocks. In contrast U and Th is enriched during soil genesis of mafic volcanic rocks.

Dickson and Scott (1997) also state that clay illuvation can alter the radioelement

concentration with depth in a soil profile. This study uses ground radiometric

measurements applied to soil profiles in order to identify the magnitude of clay

illuvation. Measurements have been conducted at 3 different sites. The first is

located in Bor Krai area, Pang Ma Pha district, Mae Hong Son province. This area

mainly consists of limestone and mudstone that emit low radiometric background

radiation. The second site is Huai Bong, Mae Cham District, Chiang Mai province.

Major parent rocks are clastic sediments including siltstone and sandstone also

resulting in low radiometric background radiation. The last site is located in the

Mae Sa Watershed, Mae Rim district. This area in contrast is built up from gneiss

and granite exhibiting a high radiometric background. Radiometric measurements

were executed using a GRM-260 gamma-ray spectrometer directly applied too the

soil profile wall. The closest measuring interval was every 10 cm for 3 minutes and

repeated 3 times. Radiometric field data were then compared with soil analytical

data (texture). According to the World reference base for soil resources (FAO

2006), clay illuviation type soil groups are subdivided by using clay activity as

expressed by the cation exchange capacity. The results of radiometric measure-

ments at the soil profile scale show that with high activity clay profiles (Luvisol)

that K-radiation is increasing with depth, while the low activity clay soil profiles

(Acrisols) did not show any significant change of the K-value with depth. Dickson,

B. L. and K. M. Scott (1997). "Interpretation of aerial gamma-ray surveys-adding

the geochemical factors." AGSO Journal of Australian Geology and Geophysics

17(2): 187-200.

64 4.1 Land use planning and evaluation


Land use change analysis: A village-household approach to

assess the impact of rubber production in southern China

Tarig Gibreel, Liu Yan Ernst-August Nuppenau

Institute of Agricultural Policy and Market Research, Justus-Liebig-Universität Giessen,

Germany

Deforestation greatly challenges ecological environment human rely on, and results

in serious loss every year. Nevertheless, conventional ways of improving rural

livelihoods such as augmented investments in agricultural intensification measures

can have negative impacts on natural habitats such as forests by extensively

increasing motivations for clearing. Over the past two decades, rapid land use

change in Yunnan province south of China has been characterized by increasing

mono-culture rubber plantations in the Nature Reserve, which heavily affects the

floral and fauna diversity and further deteriorates fragile mountainous ecology.

Rubber has become the main cash crop for many farm households and changed the

landscape as well as land culture rapidly. Meanwhile, over-dependent on one

income source puts farm households in greater risk. The study focuses on

construction of a linear programming model and simulation of policy scenarios

compliant with local conditions to analyze local economy and suggest rational

policy options. A village-household linear programming model was developed to

identify factors driving landscape and land-use change for three different farming

systems in the Southern China and to provide policy makers with potential

strategic intervention options for land use. The main assumption is that farmers

maximize expected income subject to annual subsistence requirements in adverse

conditions. The effect of net returns of alternative land uses by village farm

households was quantified. The analysis provides evidence to the relative

importance of markets and provincial agricultural or rural development policies on

land-use changes nationally. Simulations from different policy scenarios indicate

that demographic pressure, higher natural rubber price were found to intensify

agricultural production processes; whereas introduction of increased rural wages,

and reduced food crops prices were found to impede the process of forest

degradation. In conclusion, some feasible managing measures such as incentive-

based compensation policies were suggested.

65


4.2 Participatory processes and demand orientation for successful innovation development

What problem? Assessing local stakeholder perspectives on

environmental conservation and development issues in northern

Thailand

Rachel Dunn

Cornell University and the Thai Royal Project Foundation through King Mongkut's

University of Technology Thonburi, Thailand

It can be very difficult to elicit stakeholder perspectives in landscapes of uneven

power distributions, such as those in Northern Thailand where ethnic minorities

have been struggling to secure citizenship, development and land tenure rights in

national conservation areas. However, these perspectives are important to assess

before embarking on any environmental conservation or development project as

these perspectives play a critical role in determining what actions and technologies

local stakeholders will be willing and able to adopt. Several methods have been

attempted to elicit stakeholder perspective on current environmental management

and development concerns, such as role playing games and interviews on opinions

with respect to specific environmental issues. However, these approaches

presuppose the importance of different environmental conservation and develop-

ment concerns. This makes it difficult for stakeholders to propose different

problems and solutions and exacerbates the unequal power differential between the

researchers and their subjects. The objective of this research was to test the

hypothesis that, in areas that have undergone a significant number of research and

development initiatives, it is possible to determine local perspectives on environ-

mental conservation and development concerns by asking community members to

evaluate the success of previous projects. In order to test this hypothesis a series of

interviews were conducted in a Hmong and Karen (Bakinyaw) village in Doi

Inthanon National Park, Thailand. During the interviews, community members

were asked to identify and assess development projects that had been carried out in

their village according to several indicators including: the overall assessment of the

project and its sponsorship; benefits to and investments of the sponsor, the

individuals, and the community; the water and land use required by the project; the

labor requirements of the project; and the resulting use of chemicals. This research

found using individual development project assessment interviews to be a very

productive way by which to elicit local stakeholder perspectives with respect to

environmental conservation and development concerns. Specifically, community

members indicated concern with respect to the growing use of agricultural

chemicals and the effects that non-native commercial cultivation species are having

on traditional agricultural practices and the local environment. These results are

significant because development and conservation projects in Northern Thailand

66 4.2 Participatory processes and innovation development


typically focus on maintaining or increasing forest cover by intensifying agricul-

tural practices and introducing high value plant and animal species for cultivation.

Furthermore, during the interview process several of the villagers interviewed in

both communities suggested another interview approach: asking how easily

villagers can change aspects of their routines and practices. This second set of

interviews indicated the two communities perceived very different development

constraints, and villagers spoke about how these perceptions are shifting as new

generations start making resource use decisions. These results are significant

because tools such as mathematical models developed to inform policy making

decisions regularly assume that stakeholders have consistent decision making

patterns across ethnicities, communities and generations. Thus, development

project assessment interviews provide an expedient means by which to elicit local

perspectives and knowledge on environmental conservation and development

concerns, thereby providing invaluable understanding for future projects and

resource extension initiatives.

4.2 Participatory processes and innovation development 67


Participatory action planning for sustainable land management.

A methodology for community-based identification of land-based

problems, causes and potential interventions

Hans van Noord, Tashi Wangdi, Karma Dema Dorji, Tshering Dorji, Ruth

Urben

National Soil Services Centre, Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, Royal Government of

Bhutan

Almost 70% of the Bhutanese population is dependent on land for their livelihoods

and subsistence agriculture is still prevalent. The challenging environment of the

Bhutanese landscape poses serious constraints for the rural communities in terms

of accessibility, steep and limited land holdings, lack of quality planting materials,

land degradation and irrigation water availability. Sustainable management of the

scarce natural resources (less than 8% of Bhutan is arable) is a key policy target of

the Royal Government of Bhutan and sustainable land management (SLM)

interventions and community-based approaches have been piloted over the past

years. The objective of this paper is to present a participatory SLM action planning

methodology that has been developed over the past years as a community-centered

approach to SLM planning and practices at village and municipality level. The

methodology has been developed through learning and doing and successes and

failures in 43 pilot villages (chiogs) in Bhutan as an example of decentralized area-

based planning. Participatory SLM action planning consists of a continuous

engagement with the local communities through municipality (geog) SLM

planning teams or GSPTs made up of municipality extension agents of the RNR

sectors (livestock, forestry and agriculture), locally recruited geog SLM planners

(GSPs), representing villages and district (Dzongkhag) Field Coordinators (FCs).

These multi-sectoral teams start to sensitize the communities to SLM issues and to

identify the sustainability of their land-based livelihoods and livelihood resources.

Participatory natural resource mapping of land-based problems and use of natural

resources is combined with a community area–based problem ranking and

identification of causes and ultimately the listing of potential SLM interventions.

The action planning process culminates in a chiog SLM action plan (AP) that is

compiled into a geog SLM AP for discussion and endorsement by the municipality

council (consisting of elected village representatives and the elected municipality

head and government administration officials). The SLM AP is implemented by

the communities with technical guidance by the GSPT. Each year a new SLM AP

is compiled through an iterative participatory process. The methodology has been

developed in 43 villages initially and has now been rolled out to another 83

villages. Feedback from the communities is very positive as they feel empowered

in terms of voicing their primary land-based problems. Their awareness on SLM

has also been increased considerably. They also report improvement of their

livelihoods because of a combination of short-term and long-term SLM interven-

tions (seeds and seedlings and cash crop inputs versus orchard development,



terracing, stone walling and FYM/Dairy shed construction). The participatory SLM

action planning approach is documented in a manual and tool kit containing a step-

wise presentation of the planning process and detailed description of the action

planning tools (transect walks, participatory mapping, livelihood and expenditure,

prioritisation criteria, well-being ranking etc.) and related formats, including

games, participatory monitoring and evaluation, and social and environmental

screening). The challenge now lies into mainstreaming this decentralized area-

based action planning approach to district and national levels.



Local institutional innovation towards demand-driven research

and extension: Can it stand the test in the extension system in

Vietnam?

Thai Thi Minh1, Andreas Neef

2, Volker Hoffmann

1

1 Institute of Social Sciences in Agriculture, Department of Agricultural Communication and

Extension, Hohenheim University, Stuttgart, Germany 2 Knowledge and Innovation Management, Faculty of Agriculture, Kyushu University, Japan

Vietnam‘s agricultural extension system has been criticised for its classic top-down

approaches, which are often non-responsive to farmers‘ needs. Despite the great

effort of non-governmental actors in promoting demand-driven approaches during

the last fifteen years, the extension system is still dominated by the supply-driven

approach, limiting its possibility to reach a substantial number of households,

especially the millions of poor small–scale farmers living in remote and mountain-

ous areas. An institutionalization of the demand-driven extension approaches is

prevented by a number of unfavourable factors like the differences in system

structure, management mechanisms, political agenda and development philosophy

between the government and other promoting actors – mainly donor agencies.

These issues are pinpointing to the challenge of institutionalizing more demand-

driven extension approaches. Drawing on the case of the Ethnic Farmer Research

and Extension Group (EFREG) concept, this paper aims to analyse the institutional

innovation process towards demand-driven approaches and its potential of

replacing the predominantly supply-driven, hierarchical Vietnamese extension

system based on the existing conditions of the grassroots level. Our findings are

mainly based on primary data collected and synthesised from group meetings and

open interviews with 30 extension workers at the grassroots level in Son La and

Quang Binh Provinces and on the first author‘s action research on development of

the EFREG concept in Muong Lum Commune, Yen Chau District, Son La

Province with the participation of 50 farmers and the communal extension worker

since 2007. We found that EFREG can be seen (1) as ―communication hubs‖

where the knowledge demand from farmers can be articulated and integrated into

local agricultural research activities and (2) as ―local knowledge centres‖ where

innovations can be effectively and rapidly diffused among the local communities.

From the village-based knowledge demand, extension plans are developed by

farmers with facilitation by members of the EFREG and put forward to the

communal extension worker. The EFREG can also be an environment where

farmers‘ capacity and partnership in the knowledge generation and transfer process

can be developed through their active participation. At the village level, the sub-

EFREG is reputedly ―a social catalyst‖ creating common room for manoeuvre and

new opportunities for all farmers, especially for ethnic minority women, to

participate in collective activities and make joint decisions in agricultural

production and in natural resource management. Additionally, the EFREG

represents a new form of farmer association that can increase farmers‘ knowledge



about the farming system and the market, strengthen market accessibility and

enhance farmers‘ ability to negotiate with other market actors. Based on the

principle of voluntary participation, the sub-EFREG‘s operation can connect

farmers with different knowledge domains. The sub-EFREG organises and

manages farmers‘ research and extension activities. The EFREG, therefore, can

deeply change farmers‘ ownerships in demanding for and selecting the right

knowledge for their own farming purposes. This essentially depends on the

creation and function of sub-EFREGs, which has been seen as a critical point

determining the sustainability of the institutional changes at the local community

level. The active and committed farmer members joining sub-EFREGs, the

involvement of representatives from the village management board as members of

the sub-EFREGs, the close collaboration between sub-EFREGs and village mass

organizations/ management, and the good team work strategy have been observed

as promising for the success of the reform process through EFREGs and for a

gradual scaling out of the approach. The philosophy of demand-oriented extension

changes the role of extension workers from ―knowledge deliverer‖ to ―knowledge

facilitator‖, which helps both to improve their working environment and reputation

and to increase the degree of acceptance and the adoption rates of introduced

innovations in the local communities. This approach of decentralized grassroots

extension creates conditions that can change the functional practices of the

extension workers at the grassroots level toward addressing farmers‘ knowledge

demands without questioning their formal mandates and function. This change

process, however, is contingent upon the extension workers‘ attitude to address

farmers‘ needs, their capacity to adopt the new approach and their facilitation and

coordination skills in the EFREG‘s operation. This action research on the EFREG

concept using the ―adaptive approach‖ created a unique environment to analyse the

driving and inhibiting factors in the process of a local institutional innovation on

demand-driven extension changing the grassroots institutions. At the individual

level, the possibility of changing the grassroots extension institutions in the

transition period from a traditionally top-down oriented to a more-demand-driven

extension system is highly dependent on the ability and attitude of extension

workers, farmers and local communities – the main implementation actors. Their

training, coaching and support as well as their positive experience with the success

of this approach is also decisive in convincing other locals to undergo a similar

reform exercise. At the organizational level, the biggest challenge in scaling out

and up demand-driven approaches for extension and development will be

maintaining the necessary quality of intervention reached in the pilot project, even

when new and other actors are involved.



Improved household financial literacy as a way to sutainability –

initial impacts from book-keeping model in My Duc and

potential expansion

Pham Thi My Dung1, Le Nguyet Minh

2

1 Hanoi University of Agriculture, Vietnam 2 Oxfam America, East Asia Regional Office

In developing countries around the world smallholders frequently represent both a

majority of the farming community and a majority of the poor. They face

challenges - competition for land and water use, escalating input costs, dubious

access to finance, limited market information, little opportunity to add value, and

exacerbating stresses of climate change - which make improvements in their

livelihoods extremely difficult. There is a plethora of technologies and technologi-

cal innovations already available to rice growers worldwide, many requiring little

capital investment and many incurring little recurrent costs. Nonetheless farmers

(particularly poorer farmers) often fail to gain access to these. Drawing on results

of household book-keeping model in My Duc, Vietnam as an emerging example of

an innovative approach suitable to small-scale farmers; this paper argues that

improved financial literacy at the household level is critical to sustainable

development. The book-keeping model was developed through partnership of

Hanoi University of Agriculture and Oxfam America. The initial focus is to raise

awareness and capacity of small farmers to apply book-keeping principle and

method, demonstrate the advantages to local farmers and relevant government

bodies and subsequently to begin developing an appropriate, replicable program

model to ultimately bring book-keeping to scale country-wide. With simplified

accounting forms the farmers keep records of their production and living

expenditures as the basis for analysing their household financial situation and for

making decisions about how to invest their resources. In late 2007 the first set of

books was tried in My Duc district, former Ha Tay province with participation of

40 farmer households. By end of 2009, 120 farmer households have practiced

book-keeping for several crop seasons. Accounting forms are continuously refined

upon feedback from participating farmers, academics and development practition-

ers. First 32 farmer trainers have played important role in quality monitoring and

expansion of the model. An extensive assessment carried out during October 2009

and January 2010 confirmed that this model is relevant and replicable at a large

scale to contribute to sustainable rural development. The paper concludes that

quality extension of this model must take on several dimensions: it requires long-

term investment; it must be learning centered; it must be coordinated; it must

incorporate monitoring and technical support mechanisms; it must inform research

agendas and above all it must foster on-going adaptations and interactive

communications with farmers to sustain and strengthen their new capability.

72


4.3 Innovations in horticulture

Experimental and simulated performance of greenhouse dryer

for drying of litchi flesh

Serm Janjai1, Pittaya Sruamsiri

2, Poolsak Intawee

1, Chumnong

Thamrongmas1, Niroot Lamlert

1, Yutthasak Boonrod

1, Busarakorn

Mahayothee3, Marcelo Precoppe

4, Marcus Nagle

4, Joachim Müller

4

1 Solar Energy Research Laboratory, Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, Silpakorn

University, Nakhon Pathom, Thailand 2 (Department of Plant Science and Natural Resource, Faculty of Agriculture, Chiang Mai

University, Thailand) 3 Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Engineering and Industrial Technology,

Silpakorn University, Thailand 4 Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Hohenheim University, Germany

In this study, experimental and simulated performance of solar greenhouse dryer

for drying of litchi flesh was investigated. The dryer consists of a parabolic roof

structure covered with polycarbonate sheets on a concrete floor. This dryer has the

base area of 5.5x8.0 m2 and the height of 3.5 m. Three fans powered by a 50-W

PV module ventilate the dryer. To investigate the experimental performances of the

solar greenhouse dryer for drying of litchi flesh, 10 experimental runs were carried

out. One hundred kilograms of litchi flesh were used for each experimental run.

The drying air temperature varied from 39°C to 66°C during drying of litchi flesh

on a clear day. The drying time of litchi flesh in the solar greenhouse dryer was 3

days, whereas 5-6 days were required for natural sun drying under similar

conditions. High quality dried products in terms of colour and taste were obtained.

A system of partial differential equations describing heat and moisture transfer

during drying of litchi flesh in the solar greenhouse dryer was developed and this

system of non-linear partial differential equations was solved numerically using the

finite difference method. The simulated results reasonably agreed with the

experimental data for solar drying of litchi flesh. This model can be used to

provide the design data and is also essential for optimal design of the dryer.

4.3 Innovations in horticulture 73


Small-scale litchi dryer performance at mountainous regions of

northern Thailand

Marcelo Precoppe1, Marcus Nagle

1, Serm Janjai

2, Busarakorn Mahayothee

3,

Joachim Müller1

1 Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Hohenheim University, Germany 2 Department of Physics, Silpakorn University, Thailand 3 Department of Food Technology, Silpakorn University

In Thailand litchi has significant economical importance. It is produced primarily

by smallholders in the northern mountainous regions of the country. However, due

to unstable farmgate prices and insufficient access to markets litchi orchards are

being substituted by seasonal field crops, a process that increases erosion, pesticide

use and water demand. Local production of dried litchis by farmer cooperatives

allows to decouple producer from the unstable fresh market and to eliminate the

middle man from the value chain. However, small-scale drying technology in

northern Thailand is still in the early stages of development. Producers face

difficulties in achieving uniform batches with the desired product properties.

Aiming to improve a locally-available dryer for producing high-quality dried fruits

at affordable cost, the performance of a batch dryer used for litchi on a farmers'

cooperative at the mountainous region was studied. Performance indices were

calculated and plotted against time. The analysis of those time-based indices were

used to devise possible modifications to the dryer design and operation. Each batch

yielded approximately 15 kg of dried litchi and required about 15 kg of liquefied

petroleum gas. To evaporate 1 kg of water 10 MJ was required. To produce 1 kg of

dried fruit 47 MJ were consumed. Main heat losses identified was through exhaust

air. At the drying chamber non-uniform vertical and horizontal temperature

distribution was observed. Batch color, moisture content and water activity were,

consequently, heterogeneous. Energy performance of the dryer could be improved

by adjusting the relative humidity of the exhaust air close to saturation. This could

be done by reducing air flow rate or increasing the proportion of air recirculation.

Quality performance could be improved by re-designing the chamber's air inlet to

obtain a better air flow distribution. Overall, it is believed that those simple

modifications can improve significantly dryer performance without impacting

equipment price.

74 4.3 Innovations in horticulture


The inhibition of mango (Mangfifera indica L.) fruit ripening by

1-Methylcyclopropen

Vu Thanh Hai1, Pham Thi Huong

2, Martin Hegele

1, Jens Norbert Wünsche

1

1 Department of Special Crop Cultivation and Crop Physiology, Hohenheim University,

Stuttgart, Germany 2 Department of Horticulture, Hanoi University of Agriculture, Vietnam

Climatic fruits such as mango (Mangifera indica L.) ripen rapidly at higher

temperature. In the tropical climate of Son La province in Northern Vietnam

mango fruits may soften and deteriorate quickly at ambient condition after harvest.

The market attractiveness and financial returns of two major local mango varieties

‗Tron‘ and ‗Hoi‘ may considerably improve if fruit firmness losses during storage

and shelf-life could be minimized. Many research reports on the ethylene inhibitor

1-Methylcyclopropen (1-MCP) has shown a positive effect on fruit firmness and

shelf-life. 1-MCP can be effectively applied at postharvest stage to many tropical,

subtropical and temperate fruit crops. Subsequently the objective of this study was

to investigate the effect of 1-MCP on various fruit ripening parameters of 'Tron'

and ‗Hoi' mango fruit. Fruit were collected from five ‗Tron‘ and ‗Hoi‘ trees from

each of four orchards, respectively, at 10 days prior and at commercial harvest in

2008. Fruit were treated with 250, 500 and 1000 nl/l 1-MCP for 12 hours in gas-

tight glass chambers at ambient condition. Fruit was then placed in sealed plastic

containers and stored at 12°C and a relative humidity of approximately 70%.

Following 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25 days of storage duration, fruit samples were

removed and kept for 24 h at 20°C prior to fruit quality evaluation. Generally, fruit

of both cultivars treated with 1-MCP had greater post-storage flesh firmness and

lower total soluble solids concentration than non-treated control fruit. Fruit treated

with 1000 nl/l 1-MCP had an extended shelf-life of 20 days for ―Hoi‖ and 10 days

for ‗Tron‘. Moreover, skin and flesh colour changes were much delayed in both

cultivars when compared to control fruit. The effect of 1-MCP was greater on 1st

pick fruit than 2nd pick fruit.

4.3 Innovations in horticulture 75


Effect of girdling on flowering and changes in carbohydrate,

nitrogen and hormonal contents of lychee grown in mountainous

area

Daruni Naphrom, Sorapet Masud, Kanokwan Sringram

Department of Plant Science and Natural Resources, Faculty of Agriculture, Chiang Mai

University, Thailand

The experiment was conducted at lychee orchard located in Mae Sa Mai Village,

Pongyang District, Amphur Mae Rim, Chiang Mai Province. Two trials were

designed at different elevations; 750 metres above mean sea level (msl) and 1,200

msl. Each trial consisted of 2 treatments; non-girdling and girdling with 4

replications. At the elevation 750 msl, flowering percentages were not different in

girdling and non-girdling trees, 19 and 23 %, respectively. Leaves flushing

occurred in both treatments. In addition, the nitrogen contents in leaves were not

different in both treatments and tended to decrease gradually prior to flowering and

increased afterward. The changes in carbohydrate were not different between

treatments, and the contents tended to increase before flowering and decreased

afterward. Changes in cytokinins were not different in leaves and shoots between

treatments, the contents tended to increase before flowering. Furthermore, the IAA

content in shoots tended to increase in the girdling trees prior to flowering.

However, the IAA content in leaves was steady throughout the experimental period

in both treatments. At the elevation 1,200 msl, it was found that the girdling could

not only inhibit leaves flushing but also promote flowering as 89.7 %. Meanwhile,

there were flushing and no flowering in non-girdling trees. Furthermore, the

nitrogen content in leaves of the girdling trees was lower than in non-girdling trees,

while the contents of carbohydrate were higher. The cytokinins almost were not

different in leaves and shoots between treatments. High amounts were observed in

some times. The IAA content in shoot seemed to decrease prior to flowering in

both treatments, while could not be observed in leaves because of the lower

detection limit (< 10ng), however it was enhanced at the flowering date.

77


Poster session

P1. Soil, water, and land use change

Probabilistic assessment of the environmental fate of

agrochemicals under varying land use in a watershed in northern

Thailand

Matthias Bannwarth1, Walaya Sangchan

1, Joachim Ingwersen

1, Prasak

Thavornyutikarn2, Kanokpan Pansombat

3, Yongyuth Sukvanachaikul

4, Thilo

Streck1


University, Stuttgart, Germany 2 Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Thailand 3 Department of Soil and Conservation Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Chiang Mai

University, Thailand 4 Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Chiang Mai University,

Thailand

The agriculture of the northern Thai uplands is nowadays dominated by market-

driven crop production. This type of production tends to be unsustainable. The

application of agrochemicals increases, which may lead to contamination of

ground and surface waters. Furthermore, the pesticides are often applied in the

poorly developed upland regions and transported by the rivers to the lowlands.

There, the contaminants may have an adverse impact on human health. The aim of

the present study is to assess the impact of different land use options on the loss of

agrochemicals from a mountainous tropical watershed. For modeling the fate of

pesticides, the SWAT model will be applied. The model will be set up, calibrated

and validated based on a three-year data set of discharge and pesticide measure-

ments. Before calibration, we will carry out a global sensitivity analysis to identify

high-leverage parameters. In a next step, the GLUE-method (Generalized

Likelihood Uncertainty Estimation) will be used to assess the uncertainty of

selected output variables (e.g. discharge, pesticide concentrations etc.). Here, we

will not only account for the uncertainty of parameters, but also for the spatial and

temporal variability of model input variables. The assessment of the relative

effectiveness of different management options, again together with the respective

uncertainties, will serve as important input for deriving possible compensation

schemes between upstream and downstream populations. In our poster, we will

present the concept of our ongoing work, together with some key results on

agrochemical transport from the last phase.

78 P1 Soil, water, and land use change


Quantifying soil erosion rates and effectiveness of SLM

interventions on steep mountain slopes of the Bhutan Himalayas

Hans van Noord, Tshering Dorji

National Soil Services Centre, Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, Royal Government of

Bhutan

Soil erosion on the steep agricultural land of Bhutan is perceived as a serious challenge

for the Bhutanese farmers as it reduces productivity by continuous truncation of the soil

profile, diminishes the workability and ultimately degrades the land to such an extent

that agriculture is not longer sustainable. Additional off-site effects as siltation of

hydropower reservoirs, damage to turbines and water quality effects for downstream

communities are reported. The objective of this study to quantify soil erosion rates

under different agro-ecological conditions in Bhutan and to measure the effectiveness

of sustainable land management (SLM) interventions in reducing erosion rates.

Secondly the research aims at demonstrating the impact of soil erosion to the local

farming communities and to illustrate the positive effect of selected SLM techniques.

Soil erosion plots (20) at 5 different sites in Bhutan have been established, with

different agro-ecological conditions ranging from sub-tropical to temperate, precipita-

tion ranging between 1000mm to 4000mm and slope gradients from 9 to 30 degrees.

The plots measure 4m by 10m and have a catch pit at the bottom. At each site 4

different treatments are practiced: a reference or bare plot, a plot with traditional

agricultural practice, a SLM plot with 2 hedgerows and a SLM+ plot with hedgerows

and additional legume intercropping. Soil is collected from the catch pits at the end of

each year together with additional information on yields, biomass production, daily

precipitation records and a management history of the plots, as recorded in a site log

book. The plots were established in 2008 and two years of measurements have now

been collected and analyzed. Composite soil samples of top- and subsoil are taken from

every plot annually to study the change in soil nutrients. The results of the first years of

measurements show a wide range of soil erosion rates with very severe erosion

(>80t/ha/yr) in the southern foothills on steep slopes (30 degrees) with phyllitic soils on

the reference plot and with only slight erosion rates (0-5 t/ha/yr) for the temperate

reference plots with slope angles less than 20 degrees on soils with metamorphic rock

types. The grass hedgerows on the SLM plots reduce erosion rates compared with the

traditional practice plot (mainly maize, potato and millet). The erosion rate on the SLM

plots is reduced on average by 41% compared to the traditional treatment plots (3.82

t/ha for the SLM plots compared to 6.42 t/ha for the traditional plots). The grass

hedgerows on the SLM plots have not only reduced considerably the erosion rates, but

altered the homogenous slope profile to a development towards partial terraces, with

steps up to 60cm developed within two years and a reduced slope angle above the

hedges. This dramatic visual effect helps to convince visiting farmers of the beneficial

impact of hedgerow development. The study has for the first time quantified existing

soil erosion rates under different agro-ecological conditions in Bhutan and recorded the

erosion reduction through establishment of grass hedgerows on steep Himalayan

slopes.

P1 Soil, water, and land use change 79


Mapping soil erosion using radio-signatures in a limestone area

in NW-Thailand

Petra Erbe1, Ulrich Schuler

2, Suwimon Wicharuck

1, Wanida Rangubpit

1,

Karl Stahr3, Ludger Herrmann

3

1 The Uplands Program (SFB 564), Faculty of Agriculture, Chiang Mai University,

Thailand 2 BGR, Hannover, Germany 3 Institute of Soil Science and Land Evaluation, Hohenheim University, Germany

Land use change from forest to crop rotation (slash and burn) and intensive mono-

cropping systems in sloping lands in recent decades are the main factors for soil

erosion and land degradation in northern Thailand. This common problem leads to

deteriorating soil properties, decreasing soil productivity and ultimately crop

yields. Particularly, soil erosion causes the reduction of soil fertility and soil water

storage capacity. The objectives of this paper are to investigate the effects of

several land use types on chemical and physical soil properties and to present the

details of soil translocation (soil deposition and soil loss) at various slope positions.

Among the conventional agricultural systems in Northern Thailand, five types

were selected in eight small catchments around the villages Bor Krai and Luk Kao

Lam, Mae Hong Son Province, northern Thailand, namely secondary forest (SF),

mixed orchard (MO), maize field (MF) upland rice field (RF) and fallow land (FL).

Soil translocation was measured with modified Gerlach troughs. Soil samples

(composite and undisturbed) at 0 – 200 cm soil depth were taken from each site for

soil physical and chemical analyses and total stored water within 1 m soil depth

was measured to evaluate soil water availability.

The results showed that different types of land use have an essential influence on

soil translocation rates. The measurement of soil translocation revealed lowest

rates for SF, MO and FL, while agricultural fields (MF, RF) yielded high

translocation rates, particular for RF.

The results will be used in future studies to calibrate/validate and predict soil

erosion using the EPIC (Erosion Productivity Impact Calculator) and WEPP

(Water Erosion Prediction Project) model. The overall goal of the ongoing project

is to assist decisionmakers and stakeholders to select an appropriate cropping

system for their soils in order to avoid land degradation and to enable sustainable

land management planning.



Effect of land use systems on soil resources in northern Thailand

Suwimon Wicharuck1, Petra Erbe

1, Ulrich Schuler

2, Jiraporn Inthasan

3,

Ludger Herrmann4, Karl Stahr

4, Mattiga Panomtaranichagul

5

1 The Uplands Program (SFB 564), Faculty of Agriculture, Chiang Mai University,

Thailand 2 BGR, Hannover, Germany

3 Department of Soil resources and Environment, Faculty of Agricultural and Plant

Production, Maejo University, Thailand 4 Institute of Soil Science and Land Evaluation, Hohenheim University, Germany 5 Department of Soil Science and Soil Conservation, Faculty of Agriculture, Chiang Mai


Land use change from forest to crop rotation (slash and burn) and intensive mono-

cropping systems in sloping lands in recent decades is the main factor for soil

erosion and land degradation in northern Thailand. This common problem leads to

deteriorating soil properties, decreasing soil productivity and ultimately crop

yields. Particularly, soil erosion causes the reduction of soil quality and soil water

storage capacity. The objectives of this paper are to investigate the effects of

several land use types on chemical and physical soil properties and to present the

details of soil translocation (soil deposition and soil loss) at various slope positions

under different land use systems. Among the conventional-agricultural systems,

five types of land use systems were selected in eight small catchments around the

villages Bor Krai and Luk Kao Lam, Mae Hong Son Province, northern Thailand,

namely secondary forest (SF), mixed orchard (MO), maize (MF-A, MF-B and MF-

C) upland rice (RF-A and RF-B) and fallow (FL). Soil translocation was measured

with modified Gerlach troughs. Soil samples (composite and undisturbed) at 0 –

200 cm soil depth were taken from each site for soil physical and chemical

analyses. Furthermore, total stored water within 1 m soil depth was measured to

evaluate soil water availability. The results showed that different types of land use

have an essential influence on soil translocation rates. The measurement of soil

translocation revealed lowest rates for SF-A, MO and FL, while agricultural fields

(MF-A, MF-B, MF-C, RF-A and RF-B) yielded high translocation rates, particular

in RF-A and RF-B. The results will be used in future studies to calibrate/validate

and predict soil erosion using the EPIC (Erosion Productivity Impact Calculator)

and WEPP (Water Erosion Prediction Project) models in order to test the model

reliability. The overall goal of the ongoing project is to assist decision makers and

stakeholders to select an appropriate cropping system for their soils in order to

avoid land degradation and to enable sustainable land management planning.



Occurrence of secondary lime in subsoils and its consequences

for crop production in NW-mountainous regions in Vietnam

Gerhard Clemens1, La Nguyen

1, Vu Dinh Tuan

1, Mark Lamers

2, Thomas

Hilger3, Karl Stahr

4

1 The Uplands Program, Vietnamese-German Center, Polytechnical University of Hanoi,

Vietnam 2 Institute of Soil Science and Land Evaluation, Biogeophysics section, Hohenheim

University, Stuttgart, Germany 3 Institute of Plant Production and Agroecology in the Tropics and Subtropics, Hohenheim

University, Stuttgart, Germany 4 Institute of Soil Science and Land Evaluation, Hohenheim University, Stuttgart, Germany

It can be hypothesized that the recent intensification of land use on upland fields in

the mountainous areas of North-West Vietnam associated with reduced fallow

periods or even permanent cropping (often with hybrid varieties) augment the

susceptibility of sloping land to degradation by erosion, leaching and depletion.

One key factor in the frame of soil degradation is increased soil erosion due to

increasing erosive slope length, decreasing soil cover and soil organic matter

leading to compaction, deterioration of soil structure and reduced infiltration

capacity. The present study is carried out in the Chieng Khoi catchment, Yen Chau

district, Son La province, which is characterized by a tropical monsoon climate

with an annual precipitation of 1,100 mm. Different facies, such as sandstone,

claystone, chocolate siltstone and inter-bedding of calcareous conglomerate, as

dominant bedrocks reveals Alisols and Luvisols as the predominant reference soil

groups. More recently, soils characterized by accumulation of secondary lime in

the subsoil were mapped mainly on an upper slope position of a steep slope (24-48

.. However, these findings were in some way unexpected since the accumulation of

secondary lime in the subsoil indicate incomplete leaching, a process which iis

typically reported for soils under dry climatic conditions but not for soils under the

given climate in North-West Vietnam. Therefore, we hypothesized that significant-

ly high surface runoff and lateral subsurface flow result in a moderately dry soil

moisture regime in subsoil layers yielding in the accumulation of carbonates in

those soil layers. The aim of the present study is to gain knowledge on the

processes and key factors entailing the accumulation of secondary lime in subsoil

of steeply sloped areas in the Chieng Khoi catchment. The results are expected to

shed more light on the importance of hydrological processes on the productivity of

soils and its consequences for crop production. In our presentation we will focus on

first measurement results with regard to soil properties and related hydrological

processes such as evapotranspiration, infiltration, and surface runoff.



Constraints to adoption of a second rice cropping seasons in the

Uplands of Northern Vietnam

Quang Dang Dinh1, Jennifer Montagne

1, François Affholder

2, Damien

Jourdain2,3

1 Northern Mountainous Agriculture and Forestry Science Instituten (NOMAFSI), Vietnam 2 Agricultural research for development (CIRAD) 3 International rice research institute (IRRI)

Mountainous areas of Northern Vietnam have undergone major changes over the

past decades with several important policy shifts such as the redistribution of the

land, liberalization of the markets and a rapid population growth. Policy-makers

now face new challenges for implementing land use policies that continue to

alleviate poverty, increase food production, and do not affect the natural resources.

Among the possible innovations to reach those goals, the Vietnamese government

promoted rice double cropping in irrigated areas. Although authorities are

distributing non light-sensitive, short duration cultivars to farmers, rice double

cropping has not been adopted uniformly in Northern Vietnam. For areas with low

adoption rates, one hypothesis is that low temperatures lengthen the duration of the

rice cropping season. Long growth duration during the spring season is likely have

an impact on yields of that season, but will also delay the summer season planting

dates. This study aimed to identify how the duration of the cropping season, with

the available cultivars and the cropping systems practiced by farmers, might limit

the opportunities to shift to double cropping depending on temperatures. Phenolog-

ical, and growth data of spring rice on plots contrasted by their altitudes, and initial

planting dates. Both factors are giving a high range of temperature effect on growth

of rice crops. Cultivars commonly used by farmers of the region were tested. We

also conducted farmers‘ interviews to obtain information on the main cropping

systems, and to get farmers‘ point of view on the constraints to adoption. Finally,

we developed a model to simulate the cropping season duration and rice yields

under different climatic scenarios representative of Northern Vietnam areas. The

results indicated that temperature had an important influence on cropping season

durations depending on locations and elevations. It was also shown that farmers

were constrained by the available cultivars and their current cropping systems

(sowing date, cultivation strategies) since the double cropping was not achievable

for all simulations. To increase the probability of success of double cropping two

alternative solutions should be pursued: (a) shorter duration cultivars or cold-

resistant cultivars with higher tolerance to cold spells than the available ones, or (b)

to reduce the duration of activities between the two seasons.



CDM and mitigation of land use change: Potential for densely

populated watersheds in northwest Vietnam?

Nguyen Thanh1,2

, Oliver Zemek1, Carsten Marohn

1, Thomas Hilger

1, Nguyen

Thanh Lam1, Tran Duc Vien

2, Hoang Thi Minh Ha

3, Georg Cadisch

1

1 Department of Agroecology and Plant Production, Hohenheim University, Stuttgart,

Germany 2 Centre for Agricultural Research and Environmental Studies (CARES), Hanoi University

of Agriculture, Vietna) 3 ICRAF-CIFOR Vietnam Regional Office, Hanoi, Vietnam

In Northwest Vietnam, increasing population density and economic development

have forced people to expand agricultural production into upland areas. This

resulted in decreasing natural forest area with a conjoint increase of tree-based

plantations and a replacement of upland rice-based swidden farming systems with

continuous maize cropping systems. In context with climate change, the aims of

our study were to reconstruct past land cover by classifying land cover changes

based on remote sensing imagery, combining this information with primary

quantitative biomass and C-stocks data of perennial vegetation to quantify and

evaluate communal CO2 sequestration potential. This research was conducted

within the framework of the Uplands Program SFB 564, subproject C4, in

cooperation with GTZ and ICRAF Vietnam. To map the change of land cover in

Chieng Khoi commune, remote sensing and interview historical local knowledge

data, in combination with the development of hybrid classification method, using

ENVI 4.3 and ArcGIS 9.3, was used. A decision-tree based on land suitability and

cropping season for different annual crops, participatory soil maps and local

stakeholder interviews, LANDSAT 1993, 1999 and LISS III 2007 were used to

classify five land cover types. To quantify C-stocks, 10 perennial land-use systems

were surveyed using a nested sampling plot design. Aboveground biomass

parameters of overstorey trees were measured non-destructively, parameters of

mid-, understorey vegetation and coarse litter were sampled destructively.

Additionally, allometric equations for Melastoma sanguineum Sims, Chromolaena

odorata (L.) and local bamboo species were developed. Thus land cover maps for

years 1993, 1999 and 2007 were generated, with the hybrid classification method

rendering land cover maps with overall accuracies of 81.1% (1993), 98.5% (1999)

and 82.5% (2007). Even though there was a decrease in forested area of ‗only‘

36%, based on the generated map of 2007 our study results showed a reduction of

61% in total communal carbon stocks during last 50 years. This shows the different

carbon storing capacities of natural forest vegetation and tree based plantation

systems and the limited usefulness of C stock estimates based on rough land cover

categories without proper ground measurements. Looking at above-ground C-

stocks of timber and fruit tree plantations, stand ages of 12 and 20 years showed

significant differences. Two scenarios showed that Clean Development Mechanism

(CDM) projects may provide new income opportunities for local farmers. In



summary, our results provide land cover maps that allow a spatial and temporal

extrapolation of the quantified biomass and carbon stocks of different terrestrial

vegetation in Chieng Khoi commune; additionally they provide crop management

options that may lead to both ecological and economic benefits for local farmers

and international stakeholders. Moreover, the generated data can be used as input

data for the spatially explicit and dynamic LUCIA (Land use Change Impact

Assessment) tool. The results generated from LUCIA model will be applied to

assist local land use planning authorities seeking for possibilities to mitigate

climate change and hereby may improve the management of natural resources for a

more sustainable development.

85


P2. Socio-economic aspects of highland development

Water for sustainable upland development and poverty

alleviation

Pongsak Suttinon, Seigo Nasu

Research Center for Social Management, Kochi University of Technology, Japan

In last decades, people located in remote upland area are gradually developing by

transformed agriculture to reduce rural poverty. However, development of quality

of life without destruction of natural resources such as forest and other parts is the

main topic. From this reason, sustainable improving life for mountain communities

becomes a priority for policy makers to make this remote area more productive. It

seems to be that one of the main obstacles is limited natural resources especially

water. Water is one of the most precious natural resources and the lifeblood for

sustained economic development in any sector especially agriculture and

household use in mountain areas. By this reason, mountainous regions should be

carefully developed under suitable water resources management. The paper

presents the main issue in development upland areas by using both water supply

and demand schemes in mountain areas. These measures are applied based on the

basis of limitation of water with sustainable socio-economic development. This

paper concludes with comments on future trends and a summary of the contents of

the study.

86 P2 Socio-economic aspects of highland development


Opening up knowledge production through participatory

research? Agricultural research for Vietnam’s northern uplands


Manchester Metropolitan University, UK

This poster presents key findings of my PhD dissertation, which was completed as

part of the uplands Program‘s second phase (2003-2006), and which looked at

participatory agricultural research in northern Vietnam, with special emphasis on

the Uplands Program (SFB 564). The objectives are to: 1) Pinpoint typically

encountered meanings of ‗participation‘ within the actor constellation ‗agricultural

research about and for Vietnam‘s northern uplands‘. 2) Analyze the conditions

under which these meanings emerge. 3) Explore the role of participation in

research practice, with a particular focus on the contribution that participatory

methods can make to methodologically sound and ethical research. Methods:

Empirical research was conducted in Vietnam (and to a lesser extent in Germany)

between 2002 and 2006. It applied an interpretive, qualitative methodology seeking

to combine fine-grained analyses of communicative events and social interaction

with the bigger picture of institutional structures and long-term historical trends.

To this end, an extensive review was conducted of existing academic literatures

and Vietnamese official documents, such as the national master plan for agricultur-

al research. The main empirical methods used were semi-structured interviews

with a range of stakeholders (Vietnamese and German researchers, ethnic minority

farmers, local government officials), and participant observation of field research

conducted under the Uplands Program (in particular focusing on farmer/researcher

interaction and the application of participatory or interactive methods). Results: 1)

A typology of discourses of participation typically found among Vietnamese and

German (tropical) agricultural scientists, marking out the breadth of views among

the group studied and typical rationalities of action. The five types identified are

Enthusiast, Skeptic, Participation-indifferent, Populist, and Cadre. 2) Contempo-

rary as well as historical international influences on the Vietnamese research

system, and local socio-cultural specifics of Vietnam‘s northern uplands are key

contexts in which concepts of participatory research circulate and by which they

are shaped. 3) Participatory methods emphasize the processes of communication

and negotiation among and between local stakeholders and researchers. Methodo-

logically, participation entails an opening up of agricultural research towards

qualitative social research methods. This promises to enrich agricultural research

by adding a new dimension to the dominant quantitative and natural sciences based

methodologies, and can open up new spaces for participation. Within these ‗invited

spaces for participation‘, interactive methods can be applied in a scientific context,

and significantly improve intercultural communication during fieldwork.

Interactive methods thereby contribute to the validity and reliability of studies of

e.g. local knowledge and innovation processes. Conclusion: The possibilities to

implement participatory research, understood as a multi-layered opening up of the

P2 Socio-economic aspects of highland development 87


research process, are narrowly circumscribed in academic agricultural research in

developing countries. Participation in the practice of agricultural research is

bounded by scientific and practical demands, and local political circumstances. The

multicultural and transnational actor constellation ‗development-oriented

agricultural research‘ creates multiple meanings of participation as the concept

circulates in the international scientific and development communities, in the often

culturally diverse settings of marginal areas, and in multiple institutional contexts.

The meaning of participation therefore is continuously transformed in various ways

and its effects are highly context-dependent.



Women's Empowerment through Environmental Health in the

Mountain Areas of Mae Hong Son, Thailand

Juthamat Jomjai1, Suranee Phusuwan

2

1 Public Health Station - Le Kho Village, Sob Moei District, Mae Hong Son, Thailand 2 Integrated Community Development for Livelihoods and Social Cohesion in Mae Hong

Son, UNDP Thailand

This poster session will share how a pilot environmental health initiative with

women can contribute to women‘s empowerment in the highland areas of

Thailand. The authors will outline the strategy used to introduce action research

and participatory development amongst an ethnic highland tribe with its traditional

lifestyles and belief system, the challenge of working with public health volun-

teers, and lessons which would be of interest to those working on empowering

mountain women in the upland regions of Southeast Asia. Mae Hong Son Province

located in remote Northwestern Thailand is the poorest province in the country and

the one with the lowest Human Development Index amongst 75 provinces. The

province is completely mountainous and has a forest cover upwards of 90%. Mae

Hong Son is home to a diverse ethnic hill-tribe population of about 252,692 and a

large number of displaced people from Myanmar. Due to scarce resources,

economic opportunities are few, and basic services including housing, transporta-

tion, communication, education and health are often inadequate. The Integrated

Community Development for Livelihoods and Social Cohesion project focuses on

provincial-specific solutions to promote fair and equal treatment and access to

resources and services among the different ethnic 14 communities residing in the

four refugee camps, as well as promoting the sustainable of existing resources –

with special attention given to women and children. Specifically, the project has

targeted 2% of the total population in Mae Hong Son province. The project with

close collaboration with the Governor‘s office and Provincial Public Health office

is now in its second year and has piloted an environmental health and sanitation

initiative with Karen women. This pilot is largely based on education and

awareness by putting into place a village health volunteer and developing simple

indicators for assessing the environmental and health status with grading criteria as

―good; fair; and poor‖ depicted by ―green; yellow; and red‖ flags in front of each

house in the community. The action included continuing technical support and

monitoring by the village health volunteer. Every quarter an in-kind incentive is

provided to the most active household. The data being collected will be used by the

Public Health Station to monitor the health status of households and take

appropriate action. This initiative has already had a positive impact and the

community‘s awareness of household hygiene and sanitation has improved. This

awareness has also lead to other health related initiatives such as latrine improve-

ment, improved water filter systems and water tank, a campaign for a Cleaning

Day for public areas in the community, material recycled bank and animal dung

bank through the school students, and an organic vegetable production for



household consumption. The public health officers, teachers, and agricultural

extension workers are now more engaged and responsive to the community needs.

This pilot has also strengthened linkages with women in the community and has

initiated other activities related to women‘s empowerment and livelihoods. The

contact with the women has helped to create an enabling environment for women

to participate in development planning and management and to transcend their

traditional roles of household management. Some of the future focus areas will

include reproductive health and rights, economic empowerment, and, women‘s

leadership development.



Consumer preferences for longan: Willingness to pay for quality

and safety Longan

Pornsiri Suebpongsang1, Apichart Daloonpate

2

1 Faculty of Agriculture, Chiang Mai University, Thailand 2 Faculty of Economics, Kasetsart University, Thailand

While qualitative surveys regarding consumers‘ attitudes about safety and quality

and their application to longan production are plentiful, quantitative studies are less

so. In this paper we compare consumer attitudes and willingness-to-pay (WTP) for

different longan safety and quality, while taking into consideration the potential

trade-offs between attributes which play a key role in consumer preferences. This

paper chooses six important longan attributes which are the size, the skin color, the

skin beauty, the longan production system, the safety assurance label, and the

price. Thus, the main objectives of this paper are: a) to analyze and to compare the

relative importance of consumer WTP for all of the attributes indicated above; and

b) to test the role played by consumer socio-demographics on preference of the

attributes. In order to elicit consumers‘ preferences we use a choice modeling

framework, which allows individuals to select between many alternative options

that contain a number of attributes at different levels. Utility functions are

estimated using conditional logit models. However, in the conditional logit the

coefficients cannot be directly interpreted as the direct effects of the respective

explanatory variables on the probability of choosing each particular longan type.

Rather, they represent the direct effects associated with each of the explanatory

variables on the (unobservable) utility function, which can be used to calculate the

mean willingness-to-pay estimates for each of the attributes. Therefore each of the

estimates is calculated as the ratio of the coefficient associated with the attribute of

interest over the Price coefficient. Each of these ratios is understood as a price

change associated with a unit increase in a given attribute. Our results obtained

from a household survey of 500 households in Chiang Mai and 500 households in

Bangkok. The results of the choice modeling analysis suggest that the highest

utility increment occurs due to the presence of safety longan production system,

food safety certification labeling, followed by the bigger size of longan. When

looking at the role of the socio-demographic variables, the interaction between

household location (Bangkok or Chiang Mai) and longan quality and safety is

statistically significant. Bangkok respondents have a higher preference on longan

quality and safety issues. Further, the education of the respondent has a positive

and statistically significant effect on the preference of longan quality and safety.

The consumers are willing to pay more for the longan from the the chemical safety

orchard, the safety inspection labels and the bigger longan size. The consumers‘

WTP for the longan from the chemical safety orchard is fairly high, being 1.12

dollars per kg. While having a label denoting the product is safety carries a

premium of 0.66 per kg. The consumers‘ WTP for the longan bigger size is 0.42

per kg. The results indicate that the perceived quality and safety of longan by



consumers may play a crucial role when assessing the benefits versus the costs

associated with quality and safety production program. These higher consumers‘

WTP estimates for quality and safety of longan extend the information available

for the debate on a promotion and control policy on quality and safety of longan

production which both longan producers and consumers will have net benefits.



Resilient livelihoods in mountainous communities of central

Vietnam and adaptation to future climate impacts

Andreas Thulstrup

Roskilde University, Roskilde, Denmark

The current focus within climate change adaptation (CCA) has mainly been on impacts

rather than the underlying processes that contribute to the resilience of social-ecological

systems. A resilient ecological system can withstand shocks and rebuild itself, while

social resilience emphasizes self-organization and the ability to learn and adapt

Examining social-ecological resilience in the context of resource-poor communities in

developing countries can make important, new contributions to research in climate

change adaptation since the poor are particularly adversely affected by an uncertain

climate. These groups include members of Vietnam‘s many ethnic minorities who are

the predominant inhabitants of Vietnam‘s mountains and sloping land area. In addition

to the effects of an uncertain physical environment people in Vietnam‘s these areas -

both ethnic minorities and Kinh settlers - have experienced rapid changes in livelihoods

through government resettlement programs, land laws, and physical infrastructure

projects. This PhD project examines the scope for CCA by examining the social-

ecological resilience of livelihoods in two villages in Tam Tra commune in Nui Thanh

district in Quang Nam province. One village (Thon 4) is a predominantly Co village

and the poorest in the commune. The other is a Kinh village which was strongly

affected by the Ketsana storm in 2009. Data collection has at time of writing only been

conducted in Thon 4. The research focuses on the following key issues: key social

transformations, changes in forest cover and land use, soil erosion, social vulnerability,

and coping with natural hazards. The methodology employs the fusing of the

Sustainable Livelihoods Approach and a Resilience Framework. Data collection is

carried out by using a mixed methods approach where initial qualitative data is

collected through life histories, semi-structured interviews, and Participatory Rural

Appraisal (PRA) sessions. A questionnaire with both open-ended and closed-ended

questions will be elaborated following the initial analysis of qualitative data. Analysis

of land cover will involve the collection of in-situ data which complement the

classification of satellite imagery in a time-series analysis while soil erosion data will

be used in the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation 2 (RUSLE-2). Initial results

indicate that household incomes in Tam Tra commune are largely dependent on Acacia

trees managed on household plots and sold to a paper mill in the lowlands. The trees

are highly vulnerable to storms, exemplified by the effects of Ketsana which destroyed

over 50% of them in Thon 4. Local rice production is insufficient and some households

in Thon 4 lack rice for 3-6 months a year. This situation is exacerbated by recurring

droughts in May and June. Households in Thon 4 have benefitted from infrastructure

development and poverty alleviation programs implemented by the government and are

completely reliant on local government for guidelines on land use as well as for support

during natural hazards. However, local government departments are ill-equipped to

respond to natural hazards and rely on the external support of NGOs and private

companies in the wake of these events.



Ex-ante policy analysis for farming systems sustainability in Mae

Sa watershed, northern Thailand

Chakrit Potchanasin, Suwanna Praneetvatakul, Aer Sirijinda

Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics, Kasetsart University, Thailand

Land utilization for agriculture in watershed area of northern Thailand has long

been in society dilemma either conservation or resource management. As the area

is enriched by ecological systems and natural resources, unsuitable agricultural

practices can produce great disturbance and impacts to agricultural systems which

induce unsustainable development of the area. In many cases, government

intervention is necessary to compromise and adjust development and resource

utilization to direction which bring better-off situation under current policy

makers‘ perspective. However, consideration of policy makers to elaborate

development policies needs to take consideration of the questions which are what

are the area‘s consequences needed to be improved? and how are the impacts and

situation improvement due to policy contributions? Therefore, many efforts

attempt to think about ex-ante analysis whereby prospective policies can be

assessed and the change in long run can be projected. This study is also among

scientist endeavor to fill this gap and try to contribute information to assist and

guide the area‘s policy elaboration. The study focus in the case of Mae Sa

watershed where it is a part of the Ping tributary, one of five major tributary of

Thailand main river, known as Chao Praya river. The area is located in 40 km

northwest of the main urban of Chiang Mai province and covers 140.19 km2. The

area consists of 23 Hmong and northern-Thai villages founded in the Suthep-Pui

National park. Farming systems in the area are transforming from subsistence to

commercial agriculture and, of course, agricultural practices are changing. Ex-ante

analysis of this study is performed through simulation via integrated watershed

model, Mathematical and Multi-Agent Systems model (MP-MAS model), which is

fully looking for individual farm optimization between opportunity costs of

resource constraints and alternative farm activities. The model is formed by

bottom-up integration of the area‘s socioeconomic and biophysical part. In

addition, consideration of heterogeneity and interaction of watershed area‘s

component enhances model capacity to capture and evaluate impacts of interven-

tion to the area‘s farming systems. Therefore, the MP-MAS model supports and

advances for projection long run policy impacts and area‘s situation change. The

results of the study can be drawn the current and 10 years trend (2006-2015) of

area farming systems situation whereby area characteristics of land resource usage,

socioeconomic situation, and resource and environmental change are captured and

projected. Results show that agricultural land resource is intensively used with

changing land use pattern in higher annual crop area proportion. Consequently, this

responds to the change of increasing of erosion and chemical usage which induces

rising of toxicity to farmers, consumers, and ecological systems. These lead to the

study conclusion which erosion and chemical usage in the area should be primarily



improved. Under scenario analysis, the policies to improve the situation are set as

extension of Vetiver grass cultivation to control erosion and introduction of Good

Agricultural Practice (GAP) to farmers to reduce pesticide use. Simulation results

under each policy condition express the change in better-off situation either erosion

or chemical use and toxicity while the policies produce only little change in

economic circumstance. Recommendation can be expressed that the policies under

scenario analysis have potential to improve agriculture in the area towards

sustainable situation. However, elaboration policies to improve sustainable

situation should take into account stakeholder participation and also the policies

should suit to crop specifics which are needed and have different practices.



Household typologies and socio-ecological determinants of their

land-use choices in Vietnam forest margins

Le Quang Bao1, Soo Jin Park

2, Paul L. G. Vlek

3

1 Institute for Environmental Decisions (IED), Natural and Social Science Interface (NSSI),

ETH Zürich, Switzerland 2 Department of Geography, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea 3 Center for Development Research (ZEF), University of Bonn, Germany

Efforts in formulating sustainable land-use policies in diverse mountain landscapes

require adequate understandings of socio-ecological determinants of farmer‘s

decisions on land use. This paper presents sequential methods to analyze land-use

choices by households in a complex socio-ecological environment in a mountain-

ous region of Central Vietnam. Spatially explicit household surveys together with

Geographic Information System (GIS) analyses of environmental data produced an

integrated household-landscape dataset. We used factor analysis to discover

underlying factors of household differentiation, and used subsequent cluster

analyses to identify household typologies with distinct livelihood structures and

strategies. Multi-nominal logistic regressions then identified socio-ecological

factors that influence land-use choices of each household typology and measured

their weights of influence. The results showed that determinants of land-use

choices are specific for every household typology and covering a wide range of

social and environmental factors, providing a comprehensive cross-sectional

explanation for land-use adoption. On the one hand, the measured heterogeneity in

land-use choices has implications for effective land-use policies in the diverse

mountain environment. On the other hand, the analysis procedure and results can

be used for empirical calibration of household-based processes encoded in multi-

agent system models of land-use changes.

96


P3. Sustainable crop and livestock systems

Are vermicompost and the stimulation of endogeic earthworm

activities relevant alternatives to chemical fertilizers?

Doan Thu Thuy1, Pascal Jouquet

2

1 Soils and Fertiliser Research Institute (SFRI) 2 IRD- IWMI - SFRI, France

Soil degradation and water pollution are widespread land degradation problems in

Vietnam. There is therefore an urgent need for sustainable agricultural practices.

Presently, farmers and researchers are investigating different strategies to maintain

soil fertility and avoid off-site effects. Within this context, direct (i.e., the

drilosphere) and indirect (vermicompost) earthworm activities could be considered

as interesting ecosystem services suppliers. The aim of the present study was to

examine the interactions between an endogeic earthworm species, Metaphire

khami, compost, and vermicompost produced by Eisenia andrei, an epigeic

earthworm species, in a degraded tropical soil. A year-long experiment was carried

out in greenhouse with a corn-tomato-corn cycle. Following organic fertilizer

inputs earthworms survived and soil properties were improved; the soil‘s carbon

and nutrient contents were higher. For the first corn crop, the same yields were

obtained with vermicompost inputs as with chemical fertilizer. However, this

positive effect did not continue with time and no difference was observed between

vermicompost and compost for the second corn crop, one year later. The effect of

M. khami on corn growth was unexpected. While we observed a positive

interaction between M. khami and vermicompost, the earthworms had a negative

impact on plant growth in combination with compost. In conclusion, this

experiment demonstrated that organic matter amendments do show interesting

potential for the rehabilitation of tropical soils. However, negative interactions can

occur between local endogeic earthworms and compost.

P3 Sustainable crop and livestock systems 97


Comparison of green manure and inorganic fertilizers on upland

paddy rice

Thongsavanh Keonakhone1, Somphong Sybounheuang

1, Khamdok

Songyikhansuthor1, Kouang Douangsila

2, Benjamin Samson

3


Rice production from upland paddy fields have consistently been reported to

decrease over time. Decreasing productivity may be attributed to declining soil

fertility die to crop removal and losses due to water and sediment flow. It is

essential to stabilize and improve soil fertility in order to maintain rice productivi-

ty. The trials are laid out in Split Plot Design (SPD) with each trial in a farmer‘s

field as a replication which fertilizer treatments are 1) Control (No fertilizer or

green manure applied), 2) Inorganic fertilizer (60-30-30 kg/ha), 3) Green manure

(Chromolaena odorata, 3,000 kg/ha) and 4) Green manure (Chromolaena odorata,

6,000 kg/ha). Seven farmers from Fai and Houayleuang villages, Pak Ou district,

Luang Phrabang province are participated in these trials. Plots are 40 m2 (5m x

8m), with a total area of 1600 m2 allocated to the trial per farmer. Hills are

transplanted at 20cm x 20cm spacing, with two seedlings per hill. The grain yield,

plant height, aboveground biomass, weed biomass at weeding are measured and

recorded. Grain yield and yield components are determined at harvest. This is a 1.1

t/ha yield increment over fields which are not fertilized. Weed biomass was low at

first weeding, peaked during the second weeding and declined at third weeding.

Weed free plots had 21 to 37 percent more grain yield than surrounding plots. The

lowest yield gap due to weeds is observed in plots where no chemical fertilizer or

green manure have been added. Chemical fertilizer, green manuring (3,000 kg/ha),

green manuring (6,000 kg/ha) had a yield gap due to weeds of 31, 37 and 33

percent respectively. Four of the seven fields in the trials had varying degrees of

gall midge damage, while the rice crop in two of the fields had serious rodent

damage. The Chromolaena odorata green manure raised rice grain yield 0.4-0.5

t/ha in Fai, Houayleuang and Houaykhot villages during a year when gall midge

and rodents are major field problems that affected rice productivity. Yield gap due

to weeds was lowest in control plots and higher where either chemical fertilizer or

Chromolaena odorata green manure have been added to enhance soil fertility.

98 P3 Sustainable crop and livestock systems


Improvement of highland rainfed multiple crop productivity

using mulching - cultivated furrow and drip irrigation in alley

cropping

Dalop Supawan, Rawin Surbkar, Mattiga Panomtaranichagul

Department of Plant Science and Natural Resources, Faculty of Agriculture, Chiang Mai


The two studied plots were established in Banthuan Village, Mae-Chaem District,

Chiang Mai Province, Northern Thailand. The 1st trial was modified from the

BORASSUS experimental plot which was funded by the EU during 2005-2008.

The 2nd studied plot was located in the farmer‘s field nearby the 1st plot. The

experiment aimed to increase the highland rainfed multiple crop production using

(i) mulching-cultivated furrow to increase the alley crop yields, (ii) rain harvest for

supplementary drip irrigation to improve the hedgerow mixed fruit yields. The

experiments were designed as a completely randomized design (CRD) with three

replications of 4 contour cultural practices, (i) contour planting (CP), (ii) cultivated

furrow mulched with fresh cut bamboo grass (Thysannolaena maxima Kuntze, CF-

BgM), (iii) cultivated furrow mulched with fresh cut forking fern (Dicranopteris

lineris) in alley cropping (CF-FM-AL) and (iv) contour furrow planting mulched

with bamboo (Arundinaria gigantean) mat in alley cropping (CF-BM-AL). The

measured data were steady infiltration rate (IR) and stable aggregate (SAT), total

stored soil water (TSW) within 1 m soil dept and crop yields. Hill tribe farmers

were trained in the 2nd plot to compare the effects of CF-BgM with the traditional

contour planting (CP) on their own agricultural sloping land on soil water storages

and crop yields. The results of the 1st trial showed that CF-BM-AL tended to be

the best while CF-BgM and CF-FM-AL were the second best for improving the

accession of water into the soil surface (average IR = 35, 32 and 30 cm hr-1,

respectively) and stable aggregate (average SAT = 34, 28 and 29 g 100-1g-1,

respectively) when compared to CP (average IR = 13 cm hr-1 and average SAT =

27 g 100-1g-1). CF-BM-AL and CP tended to give the highest TSW during the wet

and the dry season respectively when compared to either CF-BgM or CF-FM-AL.

However, CF-BM-AL, CF-BgM and CF-FM-AL tended to give similar crop yields

(sweet corn, maize and lablab bean) which were significantly higher than CP

which gave the lowest of all crop yields. The 2nd experiment in the farmer‘s plots

also showed that mulching cultivated furrow (CF-BgM) gave better soil and water

conservation and crop yield than contour planting (CP). The above results

indicated that cultivated furrow mulched with either bamboo mat or fresh cut weed

(bamboo grass or forking fern) was able to increase the rainfed alley crop yields in

both wet and dry seasons significantly. The 3rd experiment has been carried out

since the dry period in 2010 by giving water as supplementary drip irrigation to the

hedgerows of mixed fruit tree varieties in the 1st trial. Rainwater harvested during

the wet season has been collected in a container (the concrete cylinder of 0.95 m3

capacity, 1x1.2 m), set at the highest point of the selected sub-plots. The amount of



water harvested and water used by each fruit tree were calculated based on

potential evapotranspiration of mango (Mangifera indica L.), lemon (Citrus

aurantifolia), star apple (Averrhoa carambola L.), guava (Psidium guajava L.) and

sapodilla (Manilkara achras Fosberg) grown in the hedgerows during the dry

season (January - April). The rate of drip irrigation for each fruit tree was

calculated based on the actual crop water consumption for 1 m2 growing area,

which was 3 mm d-1 or 3.0 L d-1. Hence, expected actual water use by each tree

during the dry period is equal to 480 liter approximately. Some soil properties

(organic matter, bulk density, aeration porosity, soil temperature), soil water

storage and plant development were measured to evaluate the effects on the

improvement of hedgerow fruit production. This experiment has been carried out

as a preliminary study since the early January 2010. All study activities are being

conducted and progressed.



Pigeonpea stem and sticklac growth relationships in an sloping

upland improved fallow system

Khamla Phanthaboun1, Khamdok Songyikhansuthor

1, Kouang Douangsila

2,

Benjamin K. Samson3


Renewal of soil fertility in the sloping uplands can partly be achieved by

incorporating legumes in the cropping system. A number of legume species have

been tested in the uplands for this purpose, but farmer adoption has been hampered

by the need of farmers to gain tangible returns for their efforts. Pigeonpea culture,

in combination with sticklac production, is an economically attractive option for

farmers to renew soil fertility since it generates a product that can be readily sold at

a good price. The objective of this study was to determine the relationship of the

size of the pigeonpea shrubs to the production of sticklac resin. Seeds of a local

cultivar of pigeon pea were distributed to five farmers and sown on fields that were

designated for fallow in 2007 in Silalek (three farmers, about 1.5 ha land) and Fay

(two farmers, about 1.0 ha land) villages in Xieng Ngeun and Pak Ou districts,

respectively. Pigeonpea seeds were direct seeded into the soil at a spacing of 2 x 2

m, two weeks after the rice crop was sown. Sticklac insect inoculant was applied to

the pigeonpea shrubs six months after sowing. Five months after inoculation,

sticklac length and width, together with pigeonpea stem diameter were collected.

Pigeonpea branches have to be at least 0.5 cm to be able to support the growth of

the sticklac insect and produce harvestable sticklac resin. Data showed a weak

positive linear relationship between sticklac resin length. Pigeonpea stem diameter

between 0.5 and 3.0 cm pigeonpea stem diameter. A similar relationship was

observed between sticklac resin diameter and pigeonpea stem diameter. Total

weight of harvested sticklac resin was higher in Ban Fai than in Banh Silalek. The

difference in resin yield might be due to less insect damage on the sticklac insect

inoculum, better management of the field (fewer weeds around the pigeonpea

plants) in the Ban Fai fields compared to those in Banh Silalek.



Compound-specific stable-isotope analysis to trace carbon sink-

and-source relationships between areas of critical land

degradation and deposition areas in the Chieng Khoi catchment

Christian Brandt1, Frank Rasche

1, Thomas Hilger

1, Nguyen Thanh Lam

2,

Tran Duc Vien2, Georg Cadisch

1

1 Dept. of Plant Production and Agroecology in the Tropics and Subtropics, Hohenheim

University, Stuttgart, Germany 2 Center for Agricultural Research and Ecological Studies (CARES), Vietnam

Innovative technical and progressive approaches are strongly required to

adequately trace soil organic carbon (SOC) sink-and-source relationships between

areas of critical land degradation and deposition areas. This is in particular crucial

for many fragile mountainous landscapes of South East in which cropping systems

have encountered a radical change in the recent past due to enhanced agricultural

commercialization as well as a growing population and migration processes.

Consequently, this agricultural intensification in upland areas is leading to rampant

water erosion promoting severe losses of SOC which has been acknowledged as

central determinant of soil productivity. It is therefore of central importance to

study such sink-and-source relationships between areas of critical land degradation

and also deposition areas in the lowlands. The application of stable isotopes (i.e.

stable 13C) has been proved to be very useful in investigating SOC dynamics in

cultivated soil ecosystems. In the present study, we introduce a compound-specific

stable-isotope (CSSI) approach which is currently under development at the

Department of Plant Production and Agroecology in the Tropics and Subtropics of

the Hohenheim University to investigate source-and-sink relationships of SOC in

the Chieng Khoi catchment, Son La Province, Vietnam. By applying the CSSI

approach, we use natural abundance signatures of plant-specific organic com-

pounds (e.g., δ13C values in fatty acids and lignins) originating in upland soils in

the studied tropical catchment including a range of different crops (e.g. maize,

cassava), as well as natural and secondary forests. These CSSI-biomarkers will be

then traced in the lowland soils (i.e. paddy rice soils) to estimate the dynamics of

landscape SOC stocks at catchment level and to assess how land use intensification

has changed the spatial and temporal distribution of the respective C from uplands

to lowlands.



Social-economic impacts of freshwater fish production in

mountain areas of Northern Vietnam (Lang Son and Cao Bang

provinces)

Petra Chaloupkova1, Lukáš Kalous

2, Miloslav Petrýl

2, Jan Banout

1, Bui The

Anh3, Dana Marešová

1

1 Institute of Tropics and Subtropics, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Czech

Republic 2 Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences,

Prague 3 Research Institute for Aquaculture

Aquaculture production in Vietnam is one of the main economic activities of the

country and demand and consumption of fish products in local market is increasing

yearly. The presented study is based on experience with development project

running in mountain areas of Northern Vietnam in Lang Son and Cao Bang

provinces. The project ―Support of freshwater fish production in Northern

Vietnam‖ financed by the Ministry of Agriculture of the Czech Republic is

coordinated by the Czech University of Life Sciences Prague and on the Vietnam-

ese side by the Research Institute for Aquaculture No. 1. The main objective of the

project is to introduce sustainable approach of freshwater fish production in the

reservoirs with area from 12 to 18 ha that were constructed for irrigation purposes.

The suggested methods are selected with respect to application of environment risk

assessment. The implementation of new technologies should lead to increasing

production and create more stable socioeconomic environment in respective area.

Target group represents five cooperatives which totally include more than 177

members – local families with the origin of ethnic minorities Nung and Tay that

carry on their own habits and traditions. The project activities are oriented to

capacity building and technical support of these cooperatives. Two types of

aquaculture were chosen: culture-based fisheries and cage culture. Following fish

species were selected for introducing into these systems: Tilapia nilotica,

Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, Labeo rohita, Cyprinus carpio and Ctenopharyngo-

don idella. For cage culture fisheries was identified and is testing local fish species

Hemibagrus guttatus which has high economic value and its production could

improve income of cooperatives members. Fish feeding system is combined also

by earth worm culture system. The main objective of the study is to find out the

immediate real impact on social-economic development of the project implementa-

tion on cooperative members. The research is oriented to compare values of socio-

economic indicators from the time before the project implementation and current

situation. Methodology is based on semi-structured interviews, participant

observation and descriptive data collection. Participatory survey was running in

2009 and 2010 across 117 households (cooperative members). Data were collected

on demographic issues, on human capital, natural capital, physical capital, financial

capital and on social capital.



Preliminary results on the cause of grass-carp disease outbreak

in Yen Chau, Son La Province, Vietnam

Richard Mayrhofer1, Hatem Soliman

1, Mona Saleh

1, Johannes Pucher

2, Ulfert

Focken3, T. Trang

4, Mansour El-Matbouli

1

1 Fish Medicine and Livestock Management, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna,

Austria 2 Department of Aquaculture Systems and Animal Nutrition in the Tropics and Subtropics

(480B), Hohenheim University, Stuttgart, Germany 3 Johann Heinrich von Thuenen Institut, Institute of Fisheries Ecology, Ahrensburg,

Germany 4 Dept. of Aquacultural Development, Faculty of Animal Sciences and Aquaculture,

University of Agriculture, Hanoi, Vietnam

In the Yen Chau region of Son La province, Vietnam, fish farming is commonly

practiced as a source of dietary protein and for cash income. The typical pond

system in Vietnam is an integrated semi-intensive polyculture. The primary fish

species in the semi-intensive polyculture is the grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon

idella). Grass carp plays an important role in small scale aquaculture in Vietnam

because of its comparably high price and plant-eating feed property, which allows

production with minimum cash input. An emerging disease has affected the grass

carp populations causing a major economic impact on fish farm earnings in Yen

Chau region. The Objectives of this study were: 1. Monitoring the incidence and

clinical appearance of the grass carp diseases in the Yen Chau, Son La Province in

Northern Vietnam in different periods during the year especially during the peak of

the disease. 2. Identification and characterization of the causative agent(s) of the

unknown grass carp disease in the research area. In the period from September

2008 to November 2009, the research area was visited three times for epidemiolog-

ical study and samples collection. 74 fish were sampled which include: 50 grass

carp with clinical signs, 15 control grass carp fish and 9 control fish from other

species (1 common carp, 4 mrigal, 2 silver carp and 2 tilapia). The fish length was

6 – 46 cm and weight 0.005-1.05 kg. Conventional parasitological techniques were

employed during the dissection of all fish and standard post-mortem examination

was carried out. Subsequently, specific-samples were collected for histopathologi-

cal, bacteriological, virological and molecular biology investigations. Diseased fish

demonstrated clinical disease signs which included haemorrhagic epidermis and

ulceration, haemorrhagic intestine, black discolouration of the skin, loss of scales

and occasional exophthalmia and exophthalmia. Conventional parasitological

examinations revealed moderate gills infestation with Dactylogyrus, Gyrodactylus

and Trichodina. Light microscopy of the histological samples revealed degenera-

tive changes and necrotic lesions in the liver, kidney, spleen and presence of

bacterial aggregates in the epidermis, especially in the haemorrhagic parts. No

pathological changes were observed in the control fish. Different bacterial species

were isolated from the collected samples. These isolates were identified morpho-



logically, biochemically and by Gram-stain as: Aeromonas sobria, Aeromonas

hydrophila, Flavobacterium columnare and Clostridium sp. Molecular investiga-

tions of the DNA extracted from the collected samples revealed amplification of

16S ribosomal RNA gene of different bacterial species by PCR. Nucleotide

sequences analysis of the PCR products revealed a high percentage of homology

with the same bacterial species isolated bacteriologically. Isolated bacterial species

will be used for laboratory controlled experimental infection of SPF grass carp

either individually or in combination to verify if these bacterial species are the real

cause of the grass carp disease in Vietnam or not. Virological investigations, RNA

extraction and RT-PCR are in progress. After identification of the causative agent

of the disease, preventive as well as therapy methods will be developed.

105


Parallel session 5


Assessment of agrobiodiversity with regard to water security in

mountainous regions of China

Wilko Schweers1, Luis Waldmüller

2, Sylvia Reinhardt

2, Qingsong Li

2

1 Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, China 2 Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ)

With increasing importance of water resources for sustainable development, the

topic of water and biodiversity has become a focal point of international research

and development activities. UN programmes acknowledge the interactions between

terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems and recognize the importance of freshwater

for biodiversity. The need to produce more food does usually compromise the need

to protect natural ecosystems and biodiversity. While productivity-oriented

concepts and technologies need to be fostered to maintain food security, a deeper

understanding of biological diversity could optimize the use of scarce resources,

attend to other, non-provisioning ecosystem services, and also be supportive of

sustained production. For instance natural ecosystems, which are more diverse, are

generally more resource efficient and have a higher net primary productivity than

agricultural ecosystems. The objective of this investigation is to identify linkages

between agrobiodiversity and water security: How could biologically more diverse

agroecosystems contribute to achieving water security and conversely, how could

planning and technologies for water quantity and quality conservation take

biodiversity better into account? Answering these questions requires having a look

at the ways that agricultural practices or landscaping measures affect hydrological

processes. This was done by consulting literature sources and referring to examples

from projects, one of them targeting biodiversity management in mountainous

areas of South China. Agrobiodiversity, i.e. greater diversity in genes, crops,

cropping systems and landscape elements can in fact support the establishment of

water security. Examples are windbreaks and buffer strips, drought resilient

varieties and crops, agroforestry, intercropping and more diverse rotation systems.

One problem to be further addressed in the future is that some of the water security

benefits of agrobiodiversity, especially those derived from landscape elements,

require policy support to make up for loss in farm revenue. In order to get such

support, more systematic description, categorization and valuation of agricultural

practices and landscaping measures is required. Some elements of a generic

valuation approach that includes agrobiodiversity are shared for discussion.

106 5.1 Land use and biodiversity


Object-based forest biomass estimation using Landsat ETM+ in

Kampong Thom Province, Cambodia

Tsuyoshi Kajisa1, Takuhiko Murakami

2, Nobuya Mizoue

1, Neth Top

3,

Shigejiro Yoshida1

1 Faculty of Agriculture, Kyushu University, Japan 2 Niigata University 3 Cambodia Development Resource Institute

Information about forest biomass distribution is important for sustainable forest

management and monitoring fuelwood supply. The objective of this study is to

develop an accurate forest biomass map for Kampong Thom Province, Cambodia.

We used a new technique (object-based approach) and a conventional technique

(pixel-based approach) for the estimation of forest biomass using Landsat

Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+). The object-based approach created

segments of images, and calculated statistical and textural attributes. Our results

showed that estimation accuracy of the object-based approach, with the use of band

1 and an exponential fit, was the best (R 2 = 0.76), and this accuracy was

comparable to that of the pixel-based approach (R 2 = 0.67). Although several

textural variables were related to forest biomass, they did not contribute signifi-

cantly to improvement of estimation accuracy. However, the object-based method

can be used for image segmentation so that the image objects are spectrally more

homogeneous within individual regions than with their neighbors. Hence, they can

be regarded as management units for policy-related spatial decisions. Therefore, it

is possible to select either of the two methods depending upon what the situation

demands.

5.1 Land use and biodiversity 107


The introduction of rubber and its consequences- an assessment

of new risks and changes for upland farmers in the Nabanhe

National Nature Reserve in Xishuangbanna, Southwest-China

Patrick Artur Grötz1, Thomas Aenis

1, Lixia Tang

2, Uwe-Jens Nagel

1, Volker

Hoffmann3

1 Department of Agricultural Economics and Social Sciences, Agricultural Extension and

Communication, Humboldt-University Berlin, Germany 2 China Agriculture University, College of Humanities and Development, Beijing, China 3 Department of Agricultural Communication and Extension, Hohenheim University,

Stuttgart, Germany

Village life in Xishuangbanna, Southwest-China has changed tremendously in the

last decades, mainly caused by the introduction of a non-native plant: rubber. In the

meantime, the commodity is the driving engine for economic progress in the

region. Furthermore, Xishuangbanna is one of the world‘s ―biodiversity hotspots‖

and home for a number of upland minority people with very different languages,

cultural traditions and land-use systems. As a result, a rapid rubber-driven

economic and infrastructural development goes along with a rigorous drop in

biodiversity and loss of tropical rain forest. Being part of the Sino-German

research cooperation ―LILAC- Living Landscapes China‖, the authors study the

case of the Nabanhe National Nature Reserve (NNNR). As all over China, land

tenure systems in the research site are currently in alteration. Farmers‘ decisions on

land use are also complex. However, it is important to understand the land users‘

perspective in order to identify the significant factors in their decision-making

process on land usage. The main driving and inhibiting forces are to be identified

which have either supported or hampered the adoption and diffusion of innovations

in the past. Based on the analysis of these results, an assessment can be drawn for

the likelihood of the adoption and diffusion of innovations in the future which may

improve the current monoculture systems. After an initial baseline study in 2008,

an in-depth analysis on the adoption and diffusion process of four selected

innovations has been carried out combining narrative interviews, participant

observation, expert interviews, and stratified, semi-standardized household

surveys. In the scope of the ongoing ―Chinese Land Tenure Reform‖ and the strong

promotion by the formal Governmental Agricultural Extension, rubber has been

introduced during the 1980s to private small-scale farmers in Xishuangbanna.

Nowadays, the region faces great disparities in the level of development since

rubber can only be grown up to an altitude of 1000 m above sea level: farmers

below the ―rubber boundary line‖ operate almost exclusively rubber monocultures

and experience fast economic growth. In contrast, farmers in higher altitudes still

search for alternative livelihoods. However, a precondition for the introduction of

rubber was the improvement of the infrastructure in the region, most notably the

construction of roads to connect farming households with the rubber-processing

factories. These roads in turn have been an important requirement for the



introduction of other innovations such as ―tractors‖, ―hybrid paddy rice‖ and most

recently ―hemp‖. The analysis of the histories of these innovations has clearly

indicated that they are not disconnected scenarios, but rather highly interlinked

processes which mutually influence each other. The capacity lies now in potential

innovations, which ameliorate the existing monoculture systems and help to strike

a balance between economic development and environmental protection. New

opportunities have to be identified on how farmers above the rubber production

zone can directly or indirectly also benefit from the booming rubber business.

Further, the case study on rubber plantations in the NNNR may serve as an

example for other areas in Xishuangbanna and can give important indications on

how to improve further monoculture systems such as sugar cane, banana or tea.

5.1 Land use and biodiversity 109


Impact-oriented ethnobotany for food and nutrition security,

sustainable land-use and rural livelihood diversification in

Southeast Asian mountains

Pavlos Georgiadis, Chalathon Choocharoen, Annabell Redegeld

Department for Rural Communication & Extension, Institute of Social Sciences in

Agriculture (430a), Hohenheim University, Stuttgart, Germany

Agricultural productivity and the availability of wild foods are strongly connected

to the well-being of the world‘s poorest people. There is an increasing need for

innovative agricultural approaches for poverty reduction. Those seek to enable the

rural poor to expand their economic opportunities while sustaining and enhancing

their forests and other biological as well as cultural resources. The combination of

indigenous knowledge and contemporary science is promising to build a shared

understanding of the value of biocultural diversity for the improvement of local

livelihoods, with a view to influencing strategies that can reduce poverty and

conserve nature. Impact-oriented ethnobotanical research investigates the driving

and inhibiting factors for the creation of synergies between indigenous people,

scientific expertise and environmental enterprises, all vital for the viability of a

knowledge-based system of biodiversity productivity. Current research investigates

the socio-cultural and economic aspects of human-plant interactions in remote

mountainous areas of Xishuangbanna, Yunnan, China and Northern Thailand. Both

regions are centers of rich biological and cultural diversity which are largely

threatened by increasing pressures related to persistent poverty and resource

depletion. This necessitates the application of near-to-nature approaches for the

ecological and economic rehabilitation of these degenerated former highly diverse

forest areas. Production concepts involving the utilization of indigenous trees as

combination of timber- and fruit trees and shade-tolerant annual and perennial

crops are considered for optimum diversification. Highly diverse land-use systems

for the humid tropics, like the Rainforestation Farming technology currently

applied in Xishuangbanna, combine biodiversity protection with production and

offer additional benefits like carbon sequestration, water retention, erosion control

and habitat to a maximum of locally useful flora and fauna. Apart from diversify-

ing production, they have the potential for expanding income generation by

capturing the benefits of several environmental markets and sustainable tourism

enterprises. If local communities can be helped to benefit from these, they may

prove to be an innovative and highly effective way to harness global finance in

tackling the environmental and social challenges of the mountainous regions of

Southeast Asia. Ethnobotanical data generated from this participatory research with

different ethnic communities in the two mountainous regions initially provide

important information about indigenous plant species utilization. This can further

be processed for actions ranging from conservation of plant genetic resources,

ecosystem rehabilitation and knowledge rejuvenation, to knowledge- and

biodiversity-based productive systems for endogenous, self-directed development



and income generation. Application of participatory rural appraisal tools such as

semi-structured interviews for free-listing and cultural domain analysis, matrix

ranking, seasonal calendars and land-use mapping are combined with extensive

ethnobotanical field and market surveys. This presentation communicates initial

research findings and practical implementation examples in key ecosystems of the

region.

111



Organic fruit farming in the northern Thai uplands: Are urban

consumers willing to pay the price premium?

Chapika Sangkapitux1, Andreas Neef

1, Mitsuyasu Yabe

1, Worapong

Polkongkaew2, Nucharee Pimpaud

3, Jiraporn Konsurin

3

1 Faculty of Agriculture, Kyushu University, Japan 2 Humboldt University, Germany 3 Faculty of Agriculture, Chiang Mai University

From a global perspective, organic and safe food markets have developed

dynamically in recent years. Against the background of its ambitions to become the

‗Kitchen of the World‘, Thailand has also stepped up its efforts to enhance the

share of Thai organic and safe food products in both local and international

markets. This trend may also offer new opportunities for high-value agriculture in

mountainous regions by enhancing household incomes among previously

marginalized ethnic minority group and by reducing harmful effects of agrochemi-

cals on human health and the environment. Yet, the success of the development of

these new markets depends strongly on consumers‘ willingness to pay a price

premium for environment-friendly and safe products. This paper addresses the

potential of organic, environment-friendly and safe products from upland

agriculture taking litchi, a typical upland fruit crop in northern Thailand, as an

example. The Choice Experiments (CE) method was employed to determine

consumers‘ preferences for safety and quality attributes of litchi fruits. Attributes

of fresh litchi used in this study included color, taste, size, production certification

under Good Agriculture Practice (GAP), product labeling as safe and organic, and

price. Data were collected from 100 urban consumers in Chiang Mai in 2009/2010.

Each respondent would face six choice sets with three alternatives. Econometric

analysis was conducted using a conditional logit model that links choice attributes

with the social, economic, and demographic characteristics of the consumers. The

results show that urban consumers are willing to pay a price premium for fruits that

are safe and of good quality. Labeling as ―safe food‖ produced under the GAP

certification scheme was highly significant. ―Size‖ and ―taste‖ of fruit were also

found to be significant, while the attribute ―color‖ was not significant. With regard

to socio-economic factors, age and income played an important role in determining

consumers‘ preferences for safe and good quality attributes. Respondents‘ attitude

toward environmental conservation significantly and positively affected the

preference for safe and good quality of litchi. The most interesting finding of this

study is that being labeled as ―organic product‖ was found to be insignificant in

determining consumers‘ willingness to pay. The results of this study suggest that

organic fruit farming for domestic markets still may have a long way to go in

Thailand. For the time being, fruit growers in the Thai northern uplands – possibly

in cooperation with government agencies in the food sector and by Thai exporters

112 5.2 Environmental valuation and poverty


– would need to target consumers in international markets, if they plan to switch to

organic fruit production. In order to promote organic fruit products in the domestic

market, Thai food agencies may focus, first, on raising consumers‘ awareness of

the positive contribution of organic agriculture to human health and the environ-

ment and, second, on enhancing trust in organic products by guaranteeing a high

standard of the domestic certification and control system for organic farming.

5.2 Environmental valuation and poverty 113


Mapping water poverty and its alleviation through multiple-use

water systems in the north-eastern Himalayan hill regions

Bharat Sharma1, Mohammed Vimal Riaz

2, Dhruba Pant

3, B P Bhatt

4,

H Rahman5

1 International Water Management Institute, New Delhi, India 2 Institute of Rural Management, Anand 3 International Water Management Institute, Kathmandu, Nepal 4 ICAR Research Complex for North-East Hill Region, Nagaland Centre 5 ICAR Research Complex for North-East Hill Region, Sikkim Centre

In the water abundant north-eastern hill region of India, the societal water use is

less than 5 per cent of the existing potential and vast water resources of the region

remain unutilised for economic activities. The unutilised and excessive water

supplies create vast devastation and miseries during the rainy season and the

households face acute water shortages for both consumptive (domestic, livestock,

enterprise) and productive purposes during post-rainy season periods. Though

majority of the population is still dependent on agriculture, the region generally

practices very low yielding rainfed monocropping or the more destructive shifting

(Jhum) cultivation. The ratio of percent irrigated area to net sown area for the NE

region as a whole is abysmally low at 10.6%. This leads to poor crop yields, low

cropping intensity and little incentive for diversified or high value agriculture.

Among other things, assured water supply, though for a limited area (homestead

gardens, bari) is a pre-requisite for moving up the value chain and sustainable

livelihoods. Water poverty mapping based on household surveys in a typical

village in Mon district (Nagaland) showed that all the households fared very poorly

in terms of the most components of Water Poverty Index (WPI): Water Use (0.15),

Water Resource (0.38), Water Access (0.40) and Capacity (0.40) with an overall

value of 0.44. ‗Access‘ and ‗Capacity‘ are the two major factors contributing to

water poverty in the study village and applicable to similar other villages in

Nagaland and the NEH region. This was also reflected through low levels of

income and high prevalence (44% of households) of malaria, tuberculosis and

other water-borne diseases. The villages still practice traditional Jhum cultivation

with very low yields of rice and millets and ever-shortening period of Jhum-cycle.

Analysis showed that the community immediately needed simple, small, low-cost

and relatively high-value agriculture models which can provide for the basic water

needs and also improve their incomes. Improving the accessibility to water

resources and per capita income would significantly reduce the water poverty and

thus improve the livelihoods. Multiple-Use Water Systems developed and

implemented successfully in the similar agro-ecological hill regions of Nepal are

cost-effective, flexible, provide water supply both for house-hold needs and micro-

irrigation for small high-value agriculture plots (homestead gardens), has low pay-

back period with low household investments. More importantly, these systems

reduce drudgery for women, improve sanitation and hygiene, provide significant



financial incentives and ensure high-levels of community participation. The most

innovative part of the technology was to facilitate productive utilisation of locally

available small water sources in the hills- the springs and rivulets through a water

storage system (low-cost water tanks), water conveyance and optimally placed

distribution system and a simple and small precision water application system.

Each system is normally designed to meet water needs of 10 to 40 households with

an all inclusive cost of about US$ 200 per household. With additional annual

income of about US$ 190 through sale of surplus produce the system has a

payback period of only 1 year and is very attractive. The market linkage along with

collection centres for the surplus produce was important in the development of the

technology. The only constraining factors were the availability of an adequate and

reliable water source in the village neighbourhood and certain technological

problems in the initial period which can be resolved through proper capacity

building of the farmers and scheme functionaries. The suggested Multiple-Use

Water Systems is quite appropriate to the high rainfall hilly states of the northeast

hill region and similar agro-ecologies elsewhere. The present and new drinking

water supply schemes in these regions need to be designed more innovatively on

the suggested pattern by integration of public health, irrigation and agriculture

development schemes. The success of the schemes shall greatly depend upon the

motivation and participation of the village communities for which the local NGOs,

government functionaries, village chiefs and village level institutions shall play an

important role. The suggested model has a great potential in reducing the water

poverty, saving time and reducing drudgery, increase household income, improve

hygiene and sanitation, empower women, ensure community participation and thus

improve the livelihoods of poor households in the north-eastern and other hill

region states of India and elsewhere through improved use of the water and land

resources of the region.

5.2 Environmental valuation and poverty 115


Downstream residents’ willingness to pay for water resource

improvement in northern Thailand: A stated choice analysis

Varaporn Punyawadee1, Chapika Sangkapitux

2, Nutcharee Pimpaud

3,

Jiraporn Konsurin3, Noppadol Sonwit

1, Worapong Polkongkaew

4

1 Faculty of Economics, Maejo University, Chiang Mai, Thailand 2 Faculty of Agriculture, Kyushu University, Japan 3 Faculty of Agriculture, Chiang Mai University 4 Humboldt University, Germany

Quality and quantity of water supply in mountainous areas vary due to a number of

reasons. In the area of the Mae Rim Water Works in Chiang Mai province,

northern Thailand, water resources used for producing tap-water are derived

mainly from the Mae Sa watershed. Steep slope cultivation, excessive use of

agrochemicals, and dry season irrigation in the upstream areas of Mae Sa River

have negatively affected the quantity and quality of water resources used for tap-

water production. Choice Experiments (CE) are used to elicit downstream water

users‘ willingness to pay for improvement of certain water attributes of the Mae

Rim Water Works, Chiang Mai Province. Attributes of water determined through

focus group discussions and expert interviews reflected both quality and quantity

aspects. Respondents‘ concerns about water quality due to erosion and chemical

contamination were translated into attributes to be used for the study. Water

shortage and water pressure are attributes representing water quantity improve-

ment. 100 households using water supplied by Mae Rim Water Work system were

randomly selected, with each respondent facing eight choice sets with three options

including two options for water improvement and one for maintaining the status

quo. A face-to-face survey was employed for data collection. The results from the

conditional logit model show that the downstream water users are willing to pay an

amount that exceeds by more than 100% their usual payment to obtain drinkable

water quality. The model incorporates socio-economic factors, such as income,

education and attitudes towards environmental issues that help explaining

respondents‘ choices regarding the types of water resource improvement. The

study suggests that involved agencies, such as the Mae Rim Water Works, should

better understand and meet prevailing needs of water users in terms of the quality

and quantity of water supplied to their customers. The results also provide a signal

of demand for improving upstream agricultural practices from conventional

chemical-based to more environmentally friendly ones. This study implies that

there is an opportunity of improving upstream water users‘ practices through

introducing a ―Payment for Environmental Service‖ scheme.



Labour as a utility measure in contingent valuation studies –

How good is it really?

Michael Ahlheim1, Oliver Frör

1, Antonia Heinke

1, Nguyen Minh Duc

2, Pham

Van Dinh2

1 Institute of Economics (520f), University Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany 2 Hanoi University of Agriculture

The Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) aims at the assessment of people's

willingness to pay (WTP) for a public project. The sum of the individual WTPs is

interpreted as the social benefits of the project under consideration and compared

to the project costs. If the benefits exceed the costs the project is recommended for

realization. In very poor societies budgets are so tight that households cannot give

up any part of their income, i.e. of their market consumption, in favour of a public

project, so that their WTP for that project stated in a CVM interview has to be zero

or close to zero. This leads to a severe discrimination against poor regions in the

decision process on the allocation of public funds. Therefore, several authors

suggest to use labour contributions to the realization of a public project instead of

monetary contributions as a measure of people's WTP for that project. In this paper

we show theoretically and empirically, based on a CVM study conducted in

Vietnam, that labour is severely flawed as a measuring rod for individual utility so

that CVM based on labour contributions does not provide a reliable and meaning-

ful decision rule for the allocation of public projects.

117



Fostering rural development and environmental sustainability

through integrated soil and water conservation systems in the

uplands of northern Vietnam

Vu Dinh Tuan1, Nguyen Van Thach

2, Ha Van Phuong

3, Thomas Hilger

1,

Alwin Keil4, Gerhard Clemens

5, Manfred Zeller

4, Karl Stahr

5, Nguyen Thanh

Lam6, Georg Cadisch

1

1 Department of Plant Production and Agroecology in the Tropics and Subtropics,

Hohenheim University, Stuttgart, Germany 2 Hanoi University of Agriculture 3 Extension Service Station, Yen Chau, Son La Province, Vietnam 4 Department of Agricultural Economics and Social Sciences in the Tropics and Subtropics,

Hohenheim University 5 Department of Soil Science and Land Evaluation, Hohenheim University 6 Center for Agricultural Research and Ecological Studies, Hanoi University of Agriculture

In Vietnam, overexploitation of resources has led to productivity reduction,

increasing rural poverty and food insecurity during the past decades, and hence

accelerates the migration to less densely populated, marginal forested regions.

Almost half of Vietnam‘s land area is now considered barren lands in which

agricultural activities on slopping land has caused erosion with on- and off- site

effects. Based on promising results from field experiments in Northeast Thailand

and funded by the EnBW Rainforest Foundation, the University of Hohenheim

initiated together with the Hanoi University of Agriculture a participatory research

project in the Yen Chau district of Northwest Vietnam under the umbrella of ‗The

Uplands Program‘. The overall goal of this project is to foster sustained and

enhanced livelihoods and environmental quality in the uplands of NW Vietnam.

The project aims at (i) identifying integrated soil and water conservation

techniques in a participatory way, (ii) establishing in collaboration with local

stakeholders pilot sites to further develop and demonstrate identified technologies

and assess their impact on crop yields and farmers‘ livelihoods, (iii) training

agricultural extension staff in the Son La province in the use of Participatory

Technology Development (PTD) to design and implement soil and water

conservation techniques, (iv) disseminating the knowledge gained on successful

soil and water conservation technologies and PTD in close collaboration with the

agricultural extension service to other parts of Yen Chau district. In two workshops

with local stakeholders the following treatments were identified: (i) maize

/farmers‘ practice (control); (ii) maize with Panicum maximum as grass barrier;

(iii) maize under minimum tillage with Arachis pintoi as cover crop (iv) maize

under minimum tillage and relay cropped with Phaseolus calcaratus. Farmers‘

reason to opt for these treatments was that they provide fodder for ruminants which

is scarce in the region under current land use. Two trials were established in

118 5.3 Upland cropping systems


2008/2009 on representative site, one in Chieng Hac farmer managed and one in

Chieng Khoi researcher managed to monitor erosion and yield performance of

maize and associated crops and assess the feasibility of applying soil conservation

technologies and the impact on livelihood of smallholders. First results indicated a

very critical phase at the onset of the rainy season until canopy is closed by maize;

50% soil cover (harvest residues, weed) in March vs. 80% (mainly maize) in July

and 90% in September. In 2009, almost 90% of the annual soil loss occurred

during the first rains in March and the first six weeks after maize planting mid of

May, reaching 16 t ha-1 a-1. This leads to depletion of soil nutrients so that farmers

have to apply more fertilizers to maintain productivity. Soil P levels increased with

time but still remained below critical levels for maize, although high amounts were

applied. Soil cover was low in Zero-N-plots compared to fertilized plots. Shear

strength measurements across the rainy season indicated that soils are highly

susceptible to erosion at the onset of the rainy season. It is hypothesized that soil

conservation measure used will mitigate the erosion impact with time.

5.3 Upland cropping systems 119


Improving the sustainability of cassava-based cropping systems

for smallholder farmers in the uplands of Lao PDR

Tin Maung Aye, Reinhardt Howeler

CIAT in Thailand, c/o FCRI, Dept. of Agriculture, Chatuchak, Bangkok, Thailand

Cassava production in Laos is developing rapidly due to the increasing demand for

its multiple end-uses in the region. As a result, cassava is changing from a

traditional food crop to a cash crop, even for smallholders living in remote upland

areas. For farmers growing cassava on sloping lands, one of the main challenges is

the high rate of soil erosion, as well as nutrient depletion due to continuous

cropping without fertilizers. However, poor farmers are generally not interested in

erosion control or sustainability as the effect of these is not readily visible, and

most farmers are only interested in maximizing their net income. It is therefore

necessary to identify cost-effective fertilization practices as well as farmer-friendly

methods of soil erosion control. Objective To determine the most economic

fertilizer practices to obtain and maintain high cassava yields in a particular

location, and simple but effective options for soil erosion control in smallholder

cassava-based cropping systems. Materials and Methods The two experiments

were conducted at the Extension and Improvement of Livestock Systems Center in

Xieng Khouang province, Laos, located at an altitude of 1,100 masl, and at 19º 29‘

12‖ N; 103º 08‘ 49‖ E. The area receives an average annual rainfall of 1,200 mm

and has an extremely acid (pH 4.9) and infertile soil (2 ppm of available P). The

fertilizer experiment had various combinations of different rates of N, P and K

fertilizers (twelve treatments) and two cassava varieties (i.e. Local and KU50). The

soil erosion control experiment had ten treatments with 2 replications. All plots

were laid out on the contour and had a plastic-covered channel along the lower side

to catch the eroded sediments. The amount of eroded soil in each channel was

weighed and a sample of the wet soil was dried to determine the dry soil loss for

each treatment. Results There was a very significant response of both varieties to P

and K, while there was almost no response to the application of N, even a small

negative response in case of KU 50. This experiment also clearly indicated that KU

50 has a much better tolerance to low-P conditions compared to the local variety.

In the erosion control experiment, the Tephrosia candida and Paspalum atratum

contour hedgerows resulted in significantly less soil loss than with vetiver grass or

Gliricidia sepium hedgerows. The latter two species seem to be not as well adapted

to the poor soil and cool climate of this site. Conclusion These and many other

experiments indicate that more sustainable crop management practices should

emphasize increasing yields by the use of higher-yielding varieties, proper

fertilization, good weed control, use of good quality planting material, closer plant

spacing; and possibly the use of contour hedgerows of grass or leguminous species,

well-adapted to the soil and climatic conditions, not-competing with nearby

cassava plants, and preferably useful for feeding animals in a cut-and-carry feeding

system.



The effect of land preparation techniques and fertilizer

application on rice productivity of sloping uplands

Khamdok Songyikhangsuthor1, Don Douangdenth

1, Phasith Chanethala

2,

Benjamin. K. Samson3


Farmers report that rice productivity decreases as fallow periods shorten. This is

well known in literature concerning upland agriculture. This long-term experiment

is aimed at understanding soil fertility loss and designing interventions that address

this issue. The objectives of the experiment were to: 1) compare rice productivity

of slashed/burned and slashed/mulch methods of land preparation over time, 2)

compare response of improved and traditional rice cultivars to application

fertilizer. The experiment factors were land preparation technique (slashed and

burned, slashed and mulched), fertilizer management (zero fertilizer, fertilizer

added) and rice variety (B6144F-MR-6 and Laboun). The experiment was laid out

as a split-split plot in randomized complete block design with three replications.

Each plot measured 24 m2. The experiment site was conducted at Northern

Agriculture and Forestry Research Center, Xieng Ngeun district, Luang Prabang

and is intended to continue for three years. Seeds were sown by dibbling. Fertilizer

treated plots were applied 60-30-30 kg/ha (N-P2O5-K2O); 30-30-30 kg/ha by

broadcast at sowing; 15-0-0 broadcast after first and second weeding. Soil

sampling was conducted at the beginning and end of the experiment for later

chemical analysis to determine changes in chemical composition of the soil. Grain

yield was measured, recorded and statistically analyzed. Weeds were sampled at

every time that weeding was conducted. About 30-40 percent of the field was

damaged by birds and rodents during booting to maturity stages in 2008. Soil

analysis data is not yet available. Rice in slashed-burned fields yielded twice as

much (426 kg/ha) as rice grown in slashed-mulched fields (250 kg/ha) in 2008. The

following year (2009), slashed-burned plots (935 kg/ha) had slightly higher grain

production than slashed-mulched fields (838 kg/ha). The trend of grain yield is

consistent with the rapid release of essential nutrients that takes place with burning.

In contrast, essential nutrients trapped in plant biomass are released much more

slowly in slashed-mulched plots. Mean grain production of B6144F-MR-6 was the

same as Laboun in 2008. In contrast, in 2009, B6144F-MR-6 mean grain

production (1039 kg/ha) was 297 kg higher than Laboun (738 kg/ha). Heavy rodent

and bird damage in 2008 may have masked differences in grain production

between varieties. Weed biomass was not statistically different among treatments.

Differences in mean grain yield between fertilized and unfertilized plots were not

significant in both years. However, in 2008, unfertilized plots had slightly higher

grain production than fertilized plots. The following year, mean grain yields were

slightly higher in fertilized plots. Total weed biomass in slash and burned plots

5.3 Upland cropping systems 121


showed an increasing trend from 2008 to 2009 (+315 kg/ha between years), while

total weed biomass of slash and mulched plots decreased between years (-27

kg/ha). Difference in weed biomass in between years in fertilized plots was higher

(134 kg/ha) than in unfertilized plots (55 kg/ha). Weed biomass in the B6144F-

MR-6 plots was higher compared to Laboun in both years, but were not statistically

different. Burned plots generally had higher weed biomass than mulched plots,

however addition of fertilizer to mulched plots encouraged weed growth.



Analysis on influencing factors of upland rice farmers’

technology adoption in mountainous southern Yunnan

Shijun Ding1, Yuping Chen

1, Haitao Wu

1, Dayun Tao

2, Sushil Pandey

3

1 Zhongnan University of Economics and Law, Wuhan, China 2 Yunnan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Kunming China 3 International Rice Research Institute, The Philippines

Upland rice production is the staple measurement to farmers‘ food self-sufficiency

in places with high altitude and far away from market of southern Yunnan.

Improved upland rice varieties (IUR) have been developed there, and proven to

have considerably higher yield as compared to traditional upland rice (TUR).

Together with government supporting policy of terrace land construction in

mountainous southern Yunnan, IUR helps protection soil erosion and environment.

The paper aims to investigate factors influencing rice farmers‘ decision on whether

or not to adopt IUR (extensity of adoption) and decision on the extent (area) to

which IUR are adopted (intensity of adoption) in the study areas. This will provide

evidence for policy interventions on the extensity and intensity of agricultural

technology diffusing. Data for this paper is derived from household survey

conducted in 2004 over mountainous southern Yunnan. 7 counties from southeast,

south and southwest Yunnan near Vietnam, Lao PDR and Myanmar are selected as

sample counties, and 2 villages are selected from each county. A cluster of 30

households in each village are randomly selected for structured questionnaire

survey. A total of 473 households in 14 villages (located among 845-1810 meters

altitude) are interviewed for collecting information on household demographic,

resources, income and crops production activities with improved upland rice

production as the central issue. Rice farmers‘ decisions on whether or not to adopt

a technology and how much (area) to adopt are said to be made separately or

subsequently, namely, they firstly decide whether or not to adopt the technology. If

they decide to adopt, then secondly they decide how much to adopt. A double-

hurdle model, originally due to Cragg (1971), is employed to analyze the

influencing factors, in which two stochastic processes determining the decision of

whether or not to adopt and how much adoption were separate treated. In southern

Yunnan, rice farmers‘ decisions on IUR adoption are separately made in two

subsequent stages. There exits great differences between factors that influence

decision on whether or not to adopt and factors that influence decision on the

extent of adoption. Farm‘s resources endowment, including farm size, area of

lowland rice, distance to market, terrace land area, altitude and whether there are

available government technology extension programs, have different ways in

influencing rice farmers‘ IUR adoption decision. These suggest that policy

attentions should be given in differentiating factors that determine extensity of

adoption and factors that determine intensity of adoption.

123


Parallel session 6

6.1 Modeling people's interaction with natural

resources

Ex-ante impact assessment of land-use policies in Vietnam forest

margins using a multi-agent system model

Le Quang Bao1, Soo Jin Park

2, Paul L. G. Vlek

3

1 Natural and Social Science Interface (NSSI), Institute for Environmental Decisions (IED),

ETH Zürich, Switzerland) 2 Department of Geography, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea 3 Center for Development Research (ZEF), University of Bonn, Germany

Assessment of future socio-ecological consequences of land-use policies is useful

for supporting decisions about what and where to invest for the best overall

environmental and developmental outcomes. However, the task poses a great

challenge due to the inherent complexity of coupled human-landscape systems and

the long-term perspective required for sustainability assessment. Multi-agent

system models have been recognised to be well suited to express the co-evolutions

of the human and landscape systems in response to policy interventions. This paper

applies a multi-agent system model to a mountain watershed in central Vietnam for

supporting the design of land-use policies that enhance environmental and socio-

economical benefits in the long term. The modelling strategy for complex

integrated systems, aims to assess the relative impacts of policy interventions by

measuring the long-term landscape and community divergences (compared with a

baseline) driven from the widest plausible range of options for a given policy.

Model tests included empirical verification and validation of sub-models, rational

evaluation of the coupled model‘s structure, and behaviour tests using sensitivi-

ty/uncertainty analyses. We designed experiments of replicated simulations for

relevant policy factors in the study region including (i) forest protection zoning, (ii)

agricultural extension and (iii) agrochemical subsidies. The stronger the human-

environment interactions of the performance indicators, the more uncertain the

indicators turned out to be. Time lags between the implementation of land-use

policies and the appearance of socio-ecological consequences were observed.

Long-term legacies were found in the responses of the total cropping area, farm

size and income distribution to changes in forest protection zoning, implying that

impact assessment of nature conservation policies on rural livelihoods must be

considered over decades. Our comparative assessment of alternative future socio-

ecological scenarios shows that it is challenging to attain better household income

or forest conservation by straightforward expansion of the current agricultural

extension and subsidy schemes without improving the qualities of the services. The

results also suggest that the policy intervention that strengthens the enforcement of

124 6.1 Modeling people's interaction with natural resources


forest protection in the critical areas of the watershed and simultaneously create

incentives and opportunities for agricultural production in the less critical areas

will likely promote forest restoration and community income in the long run. We

also discuss limitations of the simulation model and recommend future directions

for model development.

6.1 Modeling people's interaction with natural resources 125


Gaming and simulation to mitigate land use conflict between

herders and foresters in northern Thailand highlands

Pongchai Dumrongrojwatthana1, Guy Trébuil

2, Christophe Le Page

2,

Nantana Gajaseni3

1 Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Thailand 2 CIRAD, UPR GREEN, Montpellier, France 3 Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Thailand

In the remote highland forest-farmland ecosystem of Doi Tiew, a Hmong village in

Tha Wang Pha District of Nan province, Northern Thailand a land use conflict is

taking place between the local herders and two government agencies (Nanthaburi

National Park and the Nam Khang headwater research and development unit)

having different interests, objectives and perceptions on land use and land

management. In this research we are using the integrative companion modeling

approach (http://www.commod.org) to co-construct a simulation tool representing

the dynamic interactions between vegetation dynamics, reforestation efforts, and

livestock grazing at the study site. This paper will focus on the participatory

modeling process implemented with concerned stakeholders. Three main

investigation tools were used to gather knowledge on the relevant ecological and

human decision making processes: field surveys (history of land use and analysis

of vegetation dynamics at landscape level), farmers‘ interviews (analysis of

decision making and determining factors across different types of farms),

institutional analysis (changes in land use policy and related state interventions).

This knowledge was first assembled in simple gaming exercises used with local

herders and foresters to validate the researchers‘ understanding of key interactions

regulating vegetation and land use dynamics. The outputs of these collaborative

modeling activities were used to design the suitable features and rules of a role-

playing game representing the complex human and ecological interactions at the

landscape level. This game allowed stakeholders to criticize and improve this

comprehensive formalization of the landscape dynamics. It was also used to

introduce gaming and simulation exercises and to stimulate stakeholders to identify

possible future land management scenarios mitigating the current conflict. The

results from two gaming and simulation field workshop allowed local stakeholders

to set up of co-management action plan collectively. Moreover, it proved that the

gaming and simulation could facilitate the communication and shared learning

among conflicting parties. Regarding the next steps, an agent-based model under

the CORMAS simulation platform to facilitate the exploration of future scenarios

in a time efficient way.



The context of calculations: Assessing the influence of

institutional perspectives on integrated natural resource

management modeling in northern Thailand

Rachel Dunn

Cornell University and the Thai Royal Project Foundation through King Mongkut's

University of Technology Thonburi

Ecologically sensitive areas with indigenous populations in Southeast Asia and

Northern Thailand have become focal points of conflict over standards of

sustainable development and environmental conservation. Integrated natural

resource management (NRM) models are being used to develop and assess policy

schemes to address these issues. Current evidence suggests that NRM models must

link the environmental problems being addressed to the social realities of culture

and politics, but that there has been limited success in this integration of discipli-

nary understanding. The research objective of this study was to demonstrate the

link between institutional and political perspectives and the structure of NRM

models developed for Northern Thailand, thereby showing that model developer

perspective, or modeling context, strongly influences the model formulation and

development process and, therefore, the extent to which social and cultural

understanding can be successfully integrated into the NRM model. In order to

achieve this, government and institutional perspectives were first identified

according to policy development studies on conservation and development

practices in Northern Thailand. These perspectives were then compared to the

priorities and perspectives driving NRM modeling efforts in Northern Thailand.

These perspectives were evaluated according to two inter-related model compo-

nents: the indicators used to determine sustainability and the logic structure of the

model. The results of this study found that the priorities of model development in

NRM models constructed for Northern Thailand are strongly tied to Thai political

perspectives on environmental conservation and sustainable development.

Specifically, NRM models developed for this area have used model logic structures

that determine whether or not conservation goals are being met by evaluating the

effects of changes in land cover type as driven by small farmer cropping decisions

and policy changes. The sustainability of these scenarios are assessed using

indicators such as forest cover loss, erosion rates, peak flow rates, and water loss to

ascertain the possible extent of environmental degradation associated with any

given scenario. Indicators of societal well-being, if used in these models, generally

include ascertaining some form of economic stability and possibly the level of self-

sustenance maintained. Several authors have demonstrated that the emphasis of

conservation efforts and economic strength linked to these types of indicators and

logic structures are strongly tied to the politics of development, deforestation,

water shortages and flooding in Southeast Asia in general, and Northern Thailand

in particular, and that these priorities do not necessarily reflect local need and may

actually result in decreasing sustainability. This is significant in that it indicates



that NRM model development is context dependent according to the perspectives

and priorities that are driving the model formulation processes. This indicates that

further integration of local understanding might be achieved by using the

perspectives of local community concerns and priorities to drive model formulation

and development processes.



Simulating resource dynamics of highland agriculture in

northern Vietnam by coupling biophysical and economic models

Carsten Marohn1, Pepijn Schreinemachers

2, Prakit Siripalangkanont

2, Dang

Viet Quang2, Nguyen Thanh

1, Thomas Berger

2, Georg Cadisch

1

1 Institute for Agroecology and Plant Production in the Tropics and Subtropics, Hohenheim

University, Stuttgart, Germany 2 Department of Agricultural Economics and Social Sciences in the Tropics and Subtropics,

Hohenheim University, Stuttgart, Germany

Agriculture in northern Vietnam has much intensified in the past two decades.

Fallow periods have shortened and farmers grow maize on sloping lands year after

year. Because soil conservation methods are little used, large amounts of soil are

eroded from sloping lands annually. Farmers have been able to compensate for the

loss in soil nutrients by using mineral fertilizers and planting higher yielding

varieties, but these practices are unsustainable if not combined with methods to

conserve the topsoil. Farmers are well aware of the danger that erosion poses for

their future farm revenues. Yet farmers need cash to support their household and to

buy farm inputs every year. By depleting the soil, farmers tend to trade future crop

revenues for higher current crop revenues. Exploring strategies to promote

sustainable resource use therefore requires knowledge about the biophysical as

well as the economic system and its dynamics. By coupling two models, one

representing the biophysical dynamics and the other representing the economic

decision-making, this study seeks to get a better understanding of the resource use

of farmers. It aims at quantifying the impact of unsustainable land use and at

identifying under which conditions soil conservation methods would be economi-

cally attractive for farmers to use. The Land Use Change Impact Assessment

(LUCIA) model is a spatially explicit dynamic model which simulates watershed

functions, soil fertility and plant growth. The hydrological part combines elements

of SPAW, KINEROS 2, and algorithms from PCRaster. Plant growth is simulated

based on CGMS-WOFOST and was amended for perennial crops and natural

vegetation. Residue and soil organic matter decomposition are carbon-driven and

follow the Century model. Mathematical Programming-based Multi Agent Systems

(MP-MAS) is an agent-based model simulating the land use decisions of large

numbers of farm households using whole farm mathematical programming. Agents

make decisions about what crops to grow and the amount of inputs to apply based

on their expectations about prices and crop yields. By adjusting these expectations,

trade-offs between future and current income can be analyzed and quantified. The

models are dynamically linked using the Typed Data Transfer library. MP-MAS

simulates the crop choice and input use for each pixel in the catchment on a yearly

basis and transfers these data to LUCIA, which computes crop yields and resource

dynamics on a daily time step. Crop yields are then returned to MP-MAS and

agents evaluate their farm revenues and update their crop yield expectations. The

coupled model was calibrated to one catchment in northern Vietnam comprising



five villages and 471 farm households. Farmers grow paddy rice in the valleys and

mostly maize and cassava on the slopes while keeping small numbers of livestock.

Using scenario analyses, the study analyzed how crop yields change over time in

response to changes in input use and changes in soil fertility. By imposing a

sustainability constraint on the agent decision-making in the coupled model, it

quantifies the current cost of sustainable land use. The implications for promoting

soil conservation methods are discussed.

130



Impact of rising food price on poverty and welfare in Vietnam

Phung Duc Tung, Hermann Waibel

Institute of Development and Agricultural Economics, School of Economics and

Management, Leibniz University Hannover, Germany

In 2008, the international prices of food commodities increased to an unprecedent-

ed level since the end of the 1970s. From April 2006 to June 2008 the real food

price index had more than doubled. Several factors are assumed to be responsible

for this price increase, including increased production of biofuels from food grains

and oilseeds due to the soaring petroleum prices, a weak US dollar compared to

other major currencies, the increase in food production costs due to higher energy

prices, the shortfall of agricultural production due to weather shocks, export bans

and speculative activities in food markets. Most of the current papers have looked

at the impact of the food crisis on poverty in net importing countries. This paper

analyses the effects of the food price increase in Vietnam a net exporter of rice and

other agricultural commodities. A methodology is presented that allows to measure

the impact of the food crisis on income, welfare and poverty status of various types

of rural households in different regions of Vietnam. The study uses two sources of

data. First, panel data of the Vietnam Household Living Standard Survey between

2006 and 2008 with a sample size of 4500 households in all 63 provinces of

Vietnam are used. Second, panel data from a large-scale household survey

conducted within the framework of the DFG-funded research project ―Impact of

shocks on the vulnerability to poverty: consequences for development of emerging

Southeast Asian economies‖ conducted in 2007 and 2008 with a sample size of

2200 households in three Vietnamese provinces. In a first step decomposition

approach is used that allows identifying the relative importance of the factors that

affect income growth including changes in yield, cultivation area and prices as well

as diversification into alternative crops and non-farm labor activities. In addition, a

difference in difference model was developed that is used to estimate the impact of

a change in the staple food price on household welfare measured by consumption.

Results show that the effect of the increase in food prices on the real incomes of

households who are net sellers of food products is relatively stronger (more than

10%) than the reduction in real income of net buyers (less than 5%). On average

higher food prices increased the welfare of Vietnamese households; however there

is a large variation among different household types and regions. Similar results

could be shown for welfare effects of the food price hike. The rising of food price

increased the poverty in Vietnam as the share of net buyers exceeds those of net

sellers.

6.2 Integration of highland farmers into markets 131


Coping and adaptation strategies of rural households in response

to rice and maize price variability in northern Vietnam

Susanne Ufer, Alwin Keil, Manfred Zeller


(490a), Hohenheim University, Stuttgart, Germany

World food prices were characterized by massive fluctuations during the past three

years. Rapidly increasing food crop price levels in 2007 and in the beginning of 2008

were followed by a sharp decline later on in the same year. Rural households in low

income countries are affected by price volatility of agricultural commodities both

through its impact on consumption expenditures and income. Food price hikes in 2008

also caused major public concern about food security in low income countries, but also

created hopes of higher agricultural incomes for rural households. Therefore, the

objective of this study is to investigate both the extent of net income shocks related to

volatile food crop prices as well as households‘ response to income and consumption

risk through a household level study covering the period from 2006 to 2008. The

research was conducted in the mountainous Yen Chau district in North-western

Vietnam, which is among the poorest districts in the country. Agricultural production is

dominated by two major crops, paddy cultivation for subsistence needs in the lowlands

and intensive production of maize as the primary cash crop in the uplands, which

constitute, on the average, approximately 8.5% of total consumption expenditures and

65% of total household cash income, respectively. In a first step the static impact of

rising rice and maize prices on household net income was analyzed using the Net

Benefit Ratio, a method widely applied in literature. Rising rice prices had a moderate

impact on net income, but the effect was widespread since 50% of the households are

rice net buyers. Households‘ maize income fluctuated significantly between 2006 and

2008, whereby the massive decline in maize income in 2008 of 29% relative to 2007

was mainly attributable to considerably higher input costs rather than to the decrease of

output prices. In a second step households‘ resilience to the maize income decline in

2008 was analyzed using an OLS regression model which employs an asset based

approach linking households‘ capital endowment with the stability of their consumption

expenditures. The regression results show that the maize income decline of 2008 did

not translate into decreased consumption expenditures compared to the year before.

Only few households applied specific measures to cope with the income depression, the

most widespread one being the postponement of the purchase of valuable consumption

durables. Nevertheless, farmers did respond to differences in maize and input prices by

adjusting the timing of maize sales as well as the quantity of fertilizer used. Although

households were found to be resilient to the maize income depression in this instance,

the high degree of specialization on maize production has to be viewed as a relatively

risky strategy, given the high levels of input requirements and severe soil erosion

observed, coupled with fluctuating input and output prices. Therefore, policies should

focus on improving the economic and ecological sustainability of maize cultivation in

the short run, but also foster income diversification in the longer run.

132 6.2 Integration of highland farmers into markets


Consumption patterns for fresh fruits and vegetables from

different retail outlets among urban households in Thailand

Rattiya Lippe, Somporn Isvilanonda

Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics, Faculty of Economics, Kasetsart


The food retail sector in developing countries has started to undergo a restructuring

process in recent years because of changes in purchasing habits of consumers,

especially those in urban areas. Modern retail outlets have been growing and

expanding. This has had an effect on the competitiveness of traditional markets and

the production patterns of, particularly, high-value food commodities. This

phenomenon is being driven by economic growth, urbanization, increasing

consumer attention to and concern with food safety, quality and health attributes of

food, and the liberalization of foreign investment regulations. In Thailand, the fresh

markets are traditional places for food items and continue to be a major outlet for

fresh fruits and vegetables. Their continuing importance is related to the nature of

the supply chain for these perishable produce. However, many consumers have

begun to patronize modern retail outlets because of convenience, the wide variety

of products on offer and implementing strategies to control the process of setting

safety and quality standards. The growth of supermarkets, hypermarkets and

specialty shops is linked with consumption patterns and households‘ purchasing

decision. Understanding the factors that influence consumption and purchasing

behaviors would thus provide better information for the formulation of agricultural

policies that foster development of market demand through local food producers

and traders. In this regard, we analyzed the consumption patterns for fresh fruits

and vegetables and the determinants of purchasing decisions of urban households

as differentiated by the choice of retail outlets. We estimated the demand

parameters by employing the Linear Almost Ideal Demand System (LAIDS).

LAIDS was constructed in a two-stage demand system by incorporating a

demographic translating function and explicitly accounting for censored data. The

binary choice model was used to identify determinants in the purchase fresh fruits

and vegetables from modern retail outlets. The analysis was made based on a

consumer survey of 500 households in urban areas of Bangkok, the capital, and

Chiang Mai, the largest city in the Northern region of Thailand. The demand for

fruits and vegetables from modern retail outlets increased more with increasing

income than the demand for produce from traditional retail outlets. Urban

households are more price-responsive to fresh produce from modern retail outlets.

Decision to purchase fresh produce from modern retail outlets is driven by

household income and educational level of household head. Consumer confidence

in quality products solely obtained in supermarkets and specialty stores was a

positive and significant factor in purchasing fresh produce from modern retail

outlets; this was linked to the health attributes of safe and quality food. Our

findings show that economic development and policies that foster income growth

6.2 Integration of highland farmers into markets 133


and improve the education of the population would continue to drive the

restructuring of the food retail sector. The implication of our findings for

traditional retailers is to raise their competiveness by improving costumer

convenience, offering a wider variety of produce and adopting safety and quality

standards for fresh produce. Modern retailers could enhance their reputation by

contributing to improvements in the production of premium standards to reach

high-class consumers. Local producers can better access high-value supply chains

by providing them technical assistance on improved crop production for higher

yields, better management practices that focus on product quality and safety, and

farm business management and marketing that enable higher margins.

134 6.2 Integration of highland farmers into markets


Land use transition in the upland of Vietnam: A case study as

implication for sustainable rural livelihoods in Toung Duong

district, Nghe An province, Vietnam

Vo Huu Cong1, Rajendra Prasad Shrestha

1, Ganesh Prasad Shivakoti

1, Nitin

Kumar Tripathi2

1 Center for Agricultural Research and Ecological Studies, Hanoi University of Agriculture 2 Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand

This study of land use transition and its implications on local livelihoods was

conducted in Tam Dinh commune located in the Ca River Basin, the central of

Vietnam. Land use classification for three years 1989, 1998 and 2005 was done

using landsat TM, and ETM+ images in integration with GIS tools. Factors of land

use changes were identified and examined by applying linear regression model at

p<0.05 which showed the relationship between each land use type and its

influenced factors, the correlation among factors affects on the land use types.

Local livelihoods assessment was analyzed employing Sustainable Livelihood

Assessment framework combined with weighting index method to assess the level

of accessibility to the assets of local people and their livelihood strategies.

Household survey was carried out with 68 households in two villages focused on

the spatial location of each village compared to road systems. The results showed

that land use mapping achieved high accuracy as 94.7% of land use map 2005, and

88.5% and 88.42% were achieved for 1989 and 1998, respectively. There was a big

change in swidden agriculture in both periods with 72.3% of rice swidden being

degraded forest (767.5 ha) and 10.9% of that being secondary forest in period

1989-1998 and there were 44.1% rice swidden area converted to degraded forest

and 27.0% of it was converted to secondary forest in the period of 1998-2005.

Forest land changes give a good signal of reforestation with the transition of

degraded forest to secondary forest and secondary forest being natural forest. The

transition of degraded forest to secondary forest experienced huge amount of forest

area 1,406 ha (28.8%) and 1,852 ha (37%) in the periods of 1989-1998 and 1998-

2005, respectively. The area of secondary forest generated to natural forest was

508 hectares in the period of 1989-1998 but it got highest growth rate in the period

of 1998-2005 with a huge area of 1,357 hectares equivalent 32.2 % of total natural

forest area. Factors of land use change, especially agricultural land use, has been

addressed as the number of household members, education and land holding size

played the highest roles. Local livelihood components were presented by labor

forces, rate of educated household member, agricultural occupation, forest land

holding size, income from livestock. Since the area of irrigated paddy was not

increased due to limitation of suitable land, livelihood of people in Tam Dinh being

more depended on the swidden cultivation, collection of firewood. Recently,

household member has to earn their job from big cities, or urban area for labor

wage. Furthermore, land use change need to model for future planning with the

more involvement of socio-economic data.

135



Challenges in improving the market orientation of agroforestry

gardens and client-responsiveness of agricultural extension

services

Ernesto Guiang1, Nguyen Thanh Quang

2, Phan Van Hau

2, Nguyen Dung

Nam1

1 FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (FAORAP) 2 Quang Nam’s Department of Agriculture and Rural Development - DARD

In 2008, the Italian Government provided a grant for the second phase of the

―Project on Market-Oriented Agro-forestry Development to Reduce Poverty in

Quang Nam Province‖. Phase 2 continued to address poverty by improving the

quality, productivity and market orientation of home and forest gardens and by

strengthening the ―client-orientation‖ of agricultural extension services in six

communes and two districts. In the six communes, the annual per capita income of

23-70% of households ranges from VND 1.4 million to VND 2.0 million VND.

The areas of home and forest gardens average from 2,500-4,500 square meters and

half to one hectare, respectively. At least 60% of the gardens need to improve

productivity and market orientation. The existing short-, medium-, and long-term

crops in most gardens have not been able to meet the households‘ needs for food

and cash. Initial benefit and cost analysis showed that improved gardens would

have higher NPVs and IRRs. There are limited opportunities to save and access

micro-finance services in the six communes. There are untapped potentials for

agri- and forestry-based micro enterprises. To improve market orientation, the

project has promoted five types of household and/or group enterprises. These are

home and forest gardens for the households, village nurseries for supplying high

quality planting materials, relending services for village savings groups, and

competitive microenterprises. Under a commune-led and decentralized implemen-

tation arrangement, the project supported training activities, cross visits, technical

experts, and start-up support for enterprises, meetings to improve coordination and

collaboration, and some logistics to strengthen the extension-related capacities of

local officials and technicians for home garden owners. Interventions in home

gardens include technologies for minimizing below- and above-ground competi-

tion, crop-livestock integration, thinning and reducing the number of densely-

planted low-value species from as high as 15 species of perennials, fruit trees,

spices, vegetables, and cereals into 3-4 high value, easy to manage, and market-

oriented species. In forest gardens, the project has supported thinning, pruning, and

enrichment planting using high value long-term forest trees. All assistance

activities in home and forest gardens were designed to promote savings that is

linked with micro-credit, enterprises, and capacity building activities. Initial results

indicate that a commune-led and decentralized approach for implementing agro-

136 6.3 Innovations for sustainable agriculture


forestry development plans has encouraged local officials, village leaders, and

technicians to be more responsive to garden owners. The mixes and choices of high

value fruit and forest seedlings for improving gardens reflected a higher degree of

market orientation. More financial resources were shifted towards supporting

short- and medium-term species for home gardens with less support for improv-

ing/developing forest gardens especially after the typhoon in September 2009. The

communes‘ work and financial planning for 2010 activities affirmed increasing

interest for high value fruit trees, savings and relending services, local nurseries for

raising high value planting materials , and starting rural enterprises that would

improve value chains.

6.3 Innovations for sustainable agriculture 137


Assessing the sustainability of upland agriculture: A case sudy of

Mae Sa watershed, northern Thailand

Suwanna Praneetvatakul, Chakrit Potchanasin, Aer Sirijinda, Chaniga Laitae

Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics, Faculty of Economics, Kasetsart

University

Agricultural development has continuously been introduced to many watershed

areas of Thailand by both Thai government and international agencies. Mae Sa

watershed is one among them. Whether the recent upland agriculture in the

watershed area is going to the direction of sustainability or not is a challenging

research question. This paper is aimed at assessing the sustainability of upland

agriculture in Mae Sa watershed. Panel data are gathered from two farm-household

surveys in Mae Sa Mai village during cropping year 2000/01 and 2008/09. Forty

samples per year or in total 80 samples were utilized for the assessing of the

sustainability of agriculture in the watershed. Sustainability is categorized using

sustainability indicators into economic, social, and ecological aspects. Sustainabili-

ty of agriculture in the context of development efforts has to meet production

efficiency, resilience of ecosystems, appropriate technology, maintenance of the

environment, cultural diversity, and satisfaction of the basic needs. When

sustainability for development is an ultimate goal, this requires the balancing of

environmental, social, and economic systems. In the agricultural sector, goals for

sustainability generally include the maintenance or enhancement of the natural

environment, provision of human food needs, economic viability, and social

welfare. Inevitably, the ability of a community to maintain sustainable agricultural

activities over time depends on the practices at the present time. More specifically,

for agricultural activities to be sustained, they should be technically feasible,

economically viable, socially acceptable, and environmentally sound at any point

in time. In assessing sustainability of the upland agriculture in Mae Sa watershed,

the authors applied the sustainability indicator analysis developed by FAO. The

results of the study show that when comparing the sustainability of the upland

agriculture in Mae Sa watershed, the biodiversity and chemical pesticide use index

is slightly increasing within the past decade. However, the lower sustainable facets

of upland agriculture in Mae Sa watershed are the economic indicators i.e. land

holding size, net farm income and net household income. While expansion of

agricultural land in the watershed area is not legally permitted, enhancing

productivity with sustainable agricultural systems e.g. soil conservation practices

and integrated pest management is recommended.



Dendrobium chrysotoxum - marketing of an endangered species

Wolfgang Pfingst, Oliver Hensel

Department of Agricultural Engineering, University of Kassel, Germany

In the rural area of Southern China a fundamental transformation of traditional

agriculture systems took place in the last years. The prefecture of Xishuangbanna in the

Yunnan Province, occupying a mere 0.2 percent of China's total area, is the home to

one fourth of the country's wild animals and one fifth of its wild plants. At the same

time Xishuangbanna is the only area in China except Hainan Province where rubber

trees can be grown. Therefore the primary rainforests decreased from 70 percent in

1976 to below 50 percent in 2003. 400,000 hectares of rain forest disappeared, mostly

replaced by rubber plantations. According to the Xishuangbanna statistics bureau every

year another 150,000 hectares of rainforest disappear. Objectives: Within the

framework of the collaborative project Living Landscapes China (LILAC) small-scale

farmers should be enabled to get an additional or even an alternative income to rubber

or tea with high priced Non Timber Forest Products (NTFP). A sustainable use of

neglected plants encourages farmers to protect the hot spot of biodiversity in the

Yunnan Province and might brake the loss of natural resources. Optimized processing

and stocking can balance the weak linkages to the markets during the rainy season.

Higher quality cause higher prices, agricultural added value remains at the farmer.

Methods: Since March 2008, field research has been done in the project area to

investigate neglected regional plants. To work out their optimal market quality various

ways of processing under controlled conditions have been compared in both field and

laboratory trials. The Solar Tunnel Dryer Type Hohenheim, electrical laboratory dryers,

traditional methods like on-floor solar drying or traditional ovens came into operation.

Quality parameters were defined according to the European marketing conditions,

chemical and physical analyses of the products were made. Results: With Dendrobium

chrysotoxum, Musa xishuangbannanensis and Paris polyphylla some neglected plant

species have been identified. The preservation of these NFTP through optimized

processing can afford a supplementary income to the farmers whereas the Dendrobium

is presented within this symposium. Dendrobium chrysotoxum (Lindl.1847) is an

orchid species which flowers are used as infusion in the Chinese Traditional Medicine

(TCM). The flowering season is short: only three weeks within March and April the

flowers can be harvested, the best time is (dark) early morning. The transport to the

dryer should be short and possibly dark and gentle. Best temperature for drying is about

50°C to avoid a loss of taste or colour. The price of Dendrobium chrysotoxum is very

high: according to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species

(CITES) the collection of wild flowers is not longer possible, the species is highly

endangered due to the loss of intact primary rainforest areas and older trees. But it is

possible to cultivate orchids in forest areas. Within five years a profitable orchid garden

of 200 square metres could be installed by a family. So the marketing of this

endangered species is not a contradictory to its protection.

6.3 Innovations for sustainable agriculture 139


Participatory and integrative approach to enhance bamboo

production and supply chain ensuring a sustainable development

of Northern mountainous areas of Vietnam

Aurélie Vogel, Patrice Lamballe, Nguyên Thi Huyên, Olivier Renard

GRET

Development of bamboo production and supply chain promises solution to address

both poverty and upland soil degradation faced by a major part of the population of

several districts of Northern mountainous areas of Vietnam. In western districts of

Thanh Hoa Province, the poorest districts also concentrate the biggest surfaces of

planted bamboo in Vietnam (69 000ha). In these areas, agriculture surfaces are

limited, as for market linkage and off-farm activities. Smallholders‘ livelihoods

rely on a large extent on their Luong (Dendrocalamus barbatus) plantations, often

regarded as their ―living bank‖. In 2005, a project led by an international NGO

launched a project in this province. A participatory and integrative approach was

progressively settled through three main components. The first component focused

on resources management through identification, testing and dissemination of

techniques for a more productive and sustainable management of bamboo

plantations. Other activities were related to the support to bamboo supply chain

down stream, to increase and secure the added-value created locally, from bamboo

producers to processors. Some complementary activities were related to sector

enabling environment (discussion with local government, multi-actors discussions

and seminars, capacity building of local actors, organization of meetings and visits,

exchanges with external actors on bamboo). Surveys and measurements pointed

out that management of bamboo plantations is mainly driven by farmers‘ lack of

capacity to generate other sources of income. Poorest households with limited

income source out of bamboo are led to overharvest to cover their daily expenses,

leading to the depletion of part of the plantations. Others tend to more sustainable

harvest, except in case of unexpected financial needs. On-farm trials and large-

scale demonstration plots on bamboo forests rehabilitation outlined the efficiency

of low-intensity harvest and fertilization. However, without financial support,

adoption of these practices remains limited due to the low investment capacity of

most farmers and lack of market incentives. To tackle these issues, project started

to support the creation of new sources of income. These new activities, mainly

linked to bamboo plantations, were selected through a participatory process

(farmers group meetings and exchange visits). In a comprehensive approach, the

project also supports the development of a more responsible supply-chain,

reducing local poverty while giving incentives for a sustainable management of

bamboo resources. Current limited number of leading firms is impacting negatively

on practices along the supply chain. Local actors are more inclined to ensure

sustainability of local resources and establish long standing links with producers.

To support them, the project is leading several initiatives, such as mutli-actors

discussions on bamboo supply chain, the creation of an association of entrepre-



neurs or the support to identify, test, develop and market new products which

enhance the rate of use of poles, decrease the quantity of wastes and increase

bamboo added-value. Gret also supported farmers groups to settle demonstration

plots on culms marking and registration, as a first step towards certification or

other forms of market vertical integration. Researches and tests on the potential of

luong to enter into carbon market also show promising results.

141


Parallel session 7

7.1 Modeling impact of external changes on upland

farms

Water for forest: Potential impact of alternative land set-aside

programs at village and farm levels in the mountainous areas of

Vietnam

Damien Jourdain1, Esther Boere

2, Dang Dinh Quang

3, Marrit van den Berg

2,

Cu Phuc Thanh4, Do Anh Tai

4

1 Agricultural research for development (CIRAD), International rice research institute

(IRRI) 2 Wageningen University 3 Northern Mountainous Agriculture and Forestry Science Instituten (NOMAFSI), Vietnam 4 Thai Nguyen University of Economics and Business Administration (TUEBA)

The uplands of Northern Vietnam, often having low agricultural productivity, are

home to the poorest of the rural poor. However, these areas provide important

ecosystem services: food production for marginalized populations, biodiversity

reservoirs, and watershed regulating functions. These ecosystem services have

undergone some major changes over the past decades in the light the redistribution

of the land, liberalization of the markets and a rapid population growth. These

changes pose real challenges for implementing land use policies that alleviate

poverty, increase food production, and maintain other ecosystem functions. To

protect or restore forest resources, some programs are proposing farmers to set-

aside some of their cultivated land in sloping areas to re-establish natural or

productive forests. Farmers are unlikely to reduce their agricultural production in

favor of the ecosystem services, unless compensation is given to sustain their

livelihoods. Our main objective was to analyze the impact of alternative schemes

on farm revenues that would set-aside cultivated land for forest natural re-growth.

However, instead of farmers receiving individual financial rewards, we explored

the impact of improving collective infrastructures so that more water is made

available for irrigation. These various types of set-aside schemes are compared in

terms of efficiency and equity. Based on an existing typology which focuses on the

relative amounts of different types of land and labor available, 45 households of 4

communes of the Van Chan district (Yen Bai province) were interviewed. This

resulted in an in-depth analysis of their structure, strategies, land use, livestock,

agricultural and non-agricultural practices, and associated technical coefficients

(assets, labor & draft needs, inputs used, yields). Typical cropping calendars were

elicited from extension officers and randomly selected farmers. Using mathemati-

cal programming a farm model was developed. Base-models were calibrated and

validated against representative farmers of each group. With the help of these

142 7.1 Modeling impact of external changes on upland farms


models, we investigated scenarios where some land in the sloping area of the

catchment is set aside for forest natural re-growth, while additional land is irrigated

in the lowland compartment. The scenarios varied with the way set-aside and

irrigable lands were divided among the farmers of the modeled village (catchment).

The impacts on land use, individual farm revenues, per head revenues and village

revenues were analyzed.

7.1 Modeling impact of external changes on upland farms 143


Integrated assessment of soil conservation: Quantifying trade-

offs between incomes and sustainability in northern Vietnam

Dang Viet Quang, Pepijn Schreinemachers, Thomas Berger


(490d), Hohenheim University, Stuttgart, Germany

Reducing soil erosion from sloping lands is the main challenge to sustainable

agricultural development in the northern highlands of Vietnam. Dramatic levels of

erosion have a negative effect on household incomes and also compromise the

ability of future generations to earn an income from agriculture. Although farmers

are aware of the problem, the adoption of soil conservation methods remains low,

as most methods are not profitable enough in the short run. The objective of this

study is to assess the effect of an environmental tax on the unsustainable use of

sloping lands and to quantify the financial impacts of erosion reduction at the farm

level. We develop a dynamic simulation model that integrates an agent-based

model of farm household decision-making with a deterministic model of soil

fertility dynamics. We find that an environmental tax could stimulate the adoption

of soil conservation measures and thereby reduce erosion, but that reductions in

current household incomes are rather high, which makes this policy difficult to

implement considering the high levels of poverty in the study area. In case that

households reduced erosion rate by 70 percent, their incomes would decline by 20

percent on average.



DrukDIF, A dynamic information framework for managing the

natural resources of Bhutan

Hans van Noord1, Jeffrey Richey

2, Andrew Gillison

3, Karma Dupchu

4, Tashi

Wangdi1, Karma Dema Dorji

1, Tshering Dorji

1

1 National Soil Services Centre, Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, Royal Government of

Bhutan 2 University of Washington, School of Oceanography, Seattle, USA 3 Center for Biodiversity Management, Queensland, Australia 4 Hydromet Service Division, Department of Energy, Ministry of Economic Affairs, Royal

Government of Bhutan

As with many other developing nations Bhutan, faces a series of important

questions, in managing its natural resources. What would be the impacts of

changes in agriculture and forestry practices on local and regional water balances?

How does biodiversity respond to altitude, soil, and climate gradients? In

particular, what might happen to resources into the future? To address these

questions, Bhutan faces the challenge of integrating cross-sectoral, land-based

information and data. Even as a relatively small nation, universal access to

landscape relevant information is still complex and hampered by departmental and

sectoral mandates and ownerships claims. To begin to address these challenges, the

Ministry of Agriculture of the Royal Government of Bhutan has initiated the

development of a Dynamic Information Framework (DrukDIF), with support from

the World Bank and GEF. A DIF is an instrument for analysis of complex

interdependent problems, based on the integration of data and information from

multiple sources, of interest to multiple parties. It is ―Dynamic,‖ as the landscape it

captures is evolving, and information, use and needs are not static. More than just

data, it makes use of ―Information‖ generated from data sets of national and global

origin. It represents a ―Framework,‖ as it is more than a set of information layers,

and offers flexible communication interfaces. A key aspect is that a DIF is

geospatially-explicit, fully distributed, and includes process-based models. This

paper describes the key elements and theoretical basis of the DrukDIF and presents

the current state of development and initial application opportunities. Again, the

DrukDIF provides a means of organizing and processing the information needs for

a watershed or basin, as typical landscape unit for Bhutan, providing an overall

capability of integrating across sectors. It is being developed to provide data sets

and state of the art models that can be utilized by staff in National Agencies to

address the cross-sector resource problems facing Bhutan. To develop DrukDIF, a

two-tier approach is followed through which simultaneously national information

layers are compiled and combined with global, public domain, information. It

brings together information related to topography, land cover and use, biodiversity,

water and scenarios. It contains an internet map server as an interactive GIS tool to

select and query geospatial information layers. DrukDIF focuses on an open-access

framework, where information is available, but where data remain the responsibili-

7.1 Modeling impact of external changes on upland farms 145


ty of the mandated institution. Two primary scales are addressed. At the national

level, global data sets are used to develop an 8-km resolution hydrology model,

including climatology from the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM). A

district scale watershed of the Wangchhu river is used a pilot area to collect more

detailed landscape information along an altitudinal gradient making use of rapid

biodiversity assessments and first iterations of a hydrological model calibrated with

ground-based runoff and meteorological data. DrukDIF is unique development for

the region, including its process-based hydrological model, at landscape and basin

scales. DrukDIF Version 1.0 is currently accessible as a web-based framework at

http://www.drukdif.ocean.washington.edu.



Direct seeding in mulch cropping systems. Do they fit into farms

of the mountainous area of Vietnam?

Dang Dinh Quang, Damien Jourdain, François Affholder, Aymeric Ricome,

Marion Morize, To Phuc Tuong

Northern Mountainous Agriculture and Forestry Science Institute, Vietnam

Direct seeding mulch-based cropping systems (DMC) are often proposed as a

promising way to reduce soil erosion and improve crop nutrient and water balances in

the developing world. The present paper focuses on identifying farm-level constraints

to adoption of DMC by smallholders in the mountainous area of Vietnam, in place of

conventionally managed maize and upland rice. The method involved simulation of

rational households maximizing their income subject to food security constraints and

availability of resources. The data required by the model were obtained (i) at farm level

through farm surveys in two areas with contrasting environments, after identifying farm

types relevant for the question addressed and (ii) at crop level through agronomic trials.

We assumed that a necessary (but not sufficient) condition for adoption is that DMC

are economically sound at farm level on a short term perspective. The study generated

insight into why farmers of the Cho Don district, Bak Kan province, were reluctant to

adopt DMC due to the extra labor and input required to implement these techniques

during the first years, which hampers their economic performance. In another region,

under different biophysical and economic environmental conditions, the study showed

that DMC were more likely to be adopted provided that possible constraints at the

community level are overcome. The method also allowed us to discuss the types of

technical improvements that would make DMC more attractive to farmers. For most

farm types, labor required by mulch establishment would have to be reduced by more

than 30%. This would mean spreading much less biomass than the 7t ha-1, compromis-

ing the weed-control function of mulch. This would be technically feasible only by

using herbicides but this would not be economically sound since it would increase cash

requirements. The study showed that subsidies of 50 to more than 200 USD ha-1 were

necessary to enable the conversion of all conventionally managed sloping land into

DMC in the simulations. These amounts are high relatively to gross margins (250-750

USD ha-1) under conventional management. By focusing on the attractiveness of DMC

at farm level, our quantitative analysis provided a set of necessary conditions for

adoption of the technique. However it did not provide all sufficient conditions, such as

risks related to the learning period necessary to master the technique, risks related to

pest and disease incidence, and issues at community level. Further research is needed to

better integrate these risks and the scale dependence of the adoption of innovations of

this kind. A critical aspect would be to enhance biophysical models at field level to

provide data about the agronomic and environmental performances of DMC, with their

spatial and temporal variations. Particularly, these models should also account for long

term dynamics of cropping systems interacting with the environment, in order to better

address the trade-off between the urgency of satisfying elementary needs of smallhold-

ers and the promise of a better productivity in the future.

147


7.2 Factors determining adoption of innovation

Do group-based extension approaches in Vietnam’s smallholder

pig husbandry enable collaborative learning?

Iven Schad1, Regina Roessler

2, Andreas Neef

3, Volker Hoffmann

1

1 Department of Agricultural Communication and Extension, Hohenheim University,

Stuttgart, Germany 2 Chair of Animal Breeding and Husbandry in the Tropics and Subtropics, Hohenheim

University 3 Knowledge and Innovation Management, Department of Agricultural and Resource

Economics, Faculty of Agriculture, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan

This study aims to analyze potentials and constraints of group-based extension

approaches as an institutional innovation to support collaborative learning in the

Vietnamese agricultural extension system. Group-based learning approaches in

agriculture – if performed properly – can be an effective means of building farmer

competencies and networking through gathering people to engage in processes of

experimentation and development and therefore underscore the importance of

farmer participation. Yet, in East and Southeast Asian countries with a recent

history of socialism, agricultural extension shows a common pattern: technical

prescriptions are derived from controlled and uniform conditions, and then widely

disseminated by applying hierarchical top-down extension approaches with little or

no regard for diverse local needs and conditions, often making the content

unworkable. This holds particularly true for Vietnam, where a relatively recently

(1993) established agricultural extension service is struggling to shift to more

integrated, client-oriented approaches that emphasize the importance of interactive,

mutual learning between formal and informal knowledge systems. In the

marginalized mountainous areas of Northwest Vietnam, this process is further

impeded by ethnic and cultural diversity, with largely disparate farming and

husbandry systems. Our research unfolds around the questions of how to foster

group-based learning under these given conditions and how to effectively shape

and enable learning groups. The analysis draws on qualitative data from five

recently established extension groups in Son La province, collected between 2007

and 2008. We find that the group extension concept in its pure form, as presented

in the theory section of this work, does not apply in Vietnam. The basic ideas of

collaborative learning approaches are still far from developing their full potential,

mainly hampered by a suboptimal institutional environment and a strictly

hierarchical societal order. Moreover, extension groups need clear separation

between social processes and technical procedures. Finding an appropriate balance

between enhancing leadership and supporting collective responsibility are key to

enabling groups.

148 7.2 Factors determining adoption of innovation


Social capital and credit constraints: A case study from Vietnam

Dinh Hang Quoc, Thomas Bernhard Dufhues, Gertrud Buchenrieder

Leibniz Institute of Agricultural Development in Central and Eastern Europe (IAMO),

Halle-Saale, Germany

This study analyzes the effects of network based social capital on the credit

constraints of rural households to formal financial institutions, using zero-inflated

negative binominal regression analysis (ZINB). In the context of agricultural

economics an innovative data collection approach is used, which originates from

the field of sociology. A personal network survey is carried out to measure the

individual social capital of rural households. We define three different social

capital variables along the dimensions: tie strength (bonding/bridging) and social

distance (linking) between the respondent and its network member. While bonding

and bridging social capital have no effect on being credit constrained, linking

social capital can reduce credit constrains.

7.2 Factors determining adoption of innovation 149


Ethnic diversity, social networks, and access to credit in a rural

district of northern Vietnam

Camille Saint-Macary, Manfred Zeller, Alwin Keil

Department of Rural Development Policy and Theory (490a), Hohenheim University,

Stuttgart, Germany

This paper investigates the role of social interaction and networks on households‘

welfare and access to formal and informal credit in a rural district in the northern

mountains of Vietnam. The poverty incidence in this region remains significantly

higher than in the rest of the country, despite important efforts by the government to

reduce poverty through the provision of safety nets, formal credit and land titles. The

literature on social capital emphasizes the important role of social networks on

households‘ access to credit and welfare in areas in which markets are missing or

incomplete, and in which information is costly. Social networks are assimilated to a

form of capital that farmers can use to access information, obtain help or credit. On the

other hand, a growing number of studies underline the role of ethnicity and kinship in

explaining the formation of social networks, suggesting the importance of exogenous

characteristics in explaining access to network, access to credit and as determinants of

welfare. I We use data collected from a random sample of twenty villages and three

hundred households in Yen Chau district to study the role of ethnic diversity, social

identity and participation on access to credit and welfare. Social identity is measured as

the social distance between the household and its neighbors according to ethnicity and

family name. The study area is located in a region traditionally inhabited by homogen-

ous ethnic minority communities. Nowadays however, due to resettlement and

administrative zoning policies in the 1970s and up to now, some villages have been

mixed and new villages have been created. About half of our sample villages are

ethnically homogenous, and the rest are composed of at least two ethnic groups, the

observed degree of heterogeneity across those villages varies widely. We do not

observe systematic correlations between the degree of ethnic heterogeneity of a village

and its distance to infrastructures, the quality of soils or the availability of land. Using

econometric regressions, we investigate the role of social distance and heterogeneity in

explaining membership in association, and then the role of heterogeneity, social

distance and membership on access to formal and informal credit, and welfare. We find

that the effect of social distance on membership differs according to the degree of

heterogeneity, but that individuals living in heterogeneous communities are more likely

to participate in non-political associations. Secondly, access to credit is positively

influenced by membership, but the effect of social distance is negative in the

homogenous communities. The same results are observed in the welfare model. We

conclude that social networks play an important economic role in the study area;

however the formation and nature of these networks differ according to the composition

of the communities. This implies a higher social rigidity in homogenous communities

in which social relations are mostly determined by kinship and ethnicity. In addition of

enhancing our understanding of credit and resource allocation, these results may also

provide insights for other areas of research, studying for instance the adoption and

diffusion of new technologies.

150 7.2 Factors determining adoption of innovation


Economics of upland farmers’ technology adoption in Southern

Yunnan

Huaiyu Wang, Sushil Pandey

International Rice Research Institute, Philippines

Adoption of improved technology has been argued to be effective way for poverty

reduction. The uplands in Southern Yunnan are in transition under permanent

agriculture and cash cropping development background and the traditional swidden

agriculture is being changed and abandoned. It is urgent to forge a new forge a new

sustainable links. There was successful example in upland areas of southern Yunnan

taking the improved upland rice technology as entry point, but few studies have been

conducted to assess the economics of improved technology adoption and to identify

factors affecting farmers‘ adoption. This study is to do these based on farm-level data.

The improved technologies of upland rice in the study include improved upland rice

variety and terrace. Farmers are grouped into improved variety adoption (IV), improved

variety on terrace (IVT) and improved variety on slope (IVS). It is to compare the

economics of improved technology adoption at plot level and the Cobb-Douglas

production function was used to model the productivity effects. Probit model was used

as the dichotomous model to analyze the technology adoption decision and Tobit model

was to identify the factors affecting the intensity of technology adoption. It is shown

that upland rice technology was developed and extended in 1990s under the support

from government. Although the input of IVT is highest, its yield potential and net

return are both higher than those of IV and IVS. Improved variety and terrace

construction both significantly contribute to the high yield. Farmers‘ demographic

characteristics did not show the strong influence. Different from the previous research,

education is not significant for upland farmers‘ adoption and its extent. It is shown that

farmers with large farms are more likely to adopt a new. Farmers with good location

may not depend on the external factors much and the technology extension program

does not influence IVT adoption significantly, but can increase its intensity. Farmers

with IVS mostly have bad access to outside and the external interventions should be

paid more attention. The results from this study indicate that the strategy for improving

adoption of improved varieties and its intensity depends mainly on outside interven-

tions including technology extension program and terrace construction. They are both

supported and funded by government and it to some extent shows the strong influence

of government policy and program on upland farmers. Besides, the technology program

should focus on farmers with improved variety on slope because of their bad access and

marginal situation as well as the significant impact. Farmers‘ adoption history, as the

factor to indicate the importance of continuous support, is also needed to be concerned.

The areas with high altitude especially over 1400 meters need variety adapting to the

local environment. Although upland Yunnan is known as the center for various species,

the technology extension program usually focuses on some specific varieties and is lack

of diversity in terms of various climate and environment in uplands area.

151



Corporate-local community collaboration: An innovative

approach in promoting sustainable natural resources

management in the Philippines

Lutgarda L. Tolentino1, Leila D. Landicho

1, Rowena D. Cabahug

1, Catherine

C. de Luna1, Aurora C. Maghirang

2, Elaine B. Pagkanlungan

3

1 Institute of Agroforestry, University of the Philippines, Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines 2 Development Bank of the Philippines 3 Forest Program - Development Bank of the Philippines)

This paper argues that the continued depletion of the natural resources in the

Philippines brought about by the human activities (e.g. deforestation, mining,

illegal logging) and natural phenomena (e.g. landslides, soil erosion, typhoons, El

Nino, climate change) has prompted not only the agriculture, forestry and

environment sectors that are mandated to conserve and protect the natural

resources, but also the economic sector, particularly the corporates, which are one

of the primary consumers of these natural resources, to rehabilitate the degraded

environment. This paper highlights the findings of the participatory assessment of

the Development Bank of the Philippines (DBP) –Forest Program being imple-

mented in the 23 project sites in the Philippines that was conducted by the

Philippine Agroforestry Education and Research Network (PAFERN) in 2008-

2009. The DBP-Forest Program is an environmental advocacy program of a

corporate bank which aims to reduce poverty and improve the environmental

services through the reforestation of open and denuded upland and coastal areas in

the Philippines. This program harnesses the collaboration of local government

units (LGUs), people‘s organizations (POs), non-government organizations

(NGOs) and academic institutions. The DBP-Forest Projects have employed

practical and innovative strategies such as promoting synergy and partnership

between and among the local organizations; harnessing the active participation of

the upland dwellers; encouraging the planting of high value fruit trees which could

be a long-term livelihood activity of the farming communities. This paper

concludes that partnership and shared responsibilities between the economic sector

and the agriculture/forestry/environmental sectors is an important mechanism in

promoting sustainable natural resources management. These would lead to

improving rural livelihoods of the people/farmers; addressing the needs of the

economic sector; and ensuring environmental stability.

152 7.3 Approaches to sustainable resource management


Vietnamese/German collaborative research: Making

transnational science-for-sustainability work locally?


Manchester Metropolitan University, UK

International research collaboration in environment-related disciplines and topic areas

is high on the international policy agenda. Global environmental assessments and

monitoring are crucial for establishing and implementing international environmental

agreements, and scientific communities in developing countries are recognised as

important stakeholders – both as contributors of knowledge as well as recipients of

capacity building efforts. At the same time, how best to harness science for local

impact, including the attenuation of future environmental risk, has been a matter of

much debate and various pathways of science-for-impact have been identified. Against

this background, this paper‘s objective is to compare three ongoing cases of scientific

cooperation between Vietnamese and German organisations: Water-Information

System for the Mekong-Delta (WISDOM), Integrated Water Resources Management

(IWRM), and the Uplands Program. The three research programmes share a concern for

contributing to environmental sustainability and can be located in the Vietnam-

ese/German transnational space, i.e. they are shaped by the two countries‘ national

institutions and cultures but as projects they inhabit an in-between transnational space.

The compared cases also differ with regard to important aspects such as key stakehold-

ers (funding agencies, the role of private businesses), focal topic areas (water

management, agriculture), and research sites in Vietnam (lowland delta areas, uplands).

The comparison is organised around three questions: Which complementarities and

conflicts between German and Vietnamese project members do the transnational

collaborations reveal? What models for involving non-academic stakeholders do the

projects pursue and with what success? How attentive are the projects to questions of

environmental risk? Methodologically, the paper uses first-hand experience of working

for and studying one of the three projects (Uplands Program), and published material

and key informant interviews with members of WISDOM and IWRM. The framework

for comparison results from the author‘s previous analysis of experiences with

‗participatory research‘ in the Uplands Program. Comparison proceeds along the three

dimensions of 1) National research institutions in their function to delineated

researchers‘ room for manoeuvre; 2) Appropriateness of fora for communication

between researchers and other stakeholders; 3) Local socio-political specifics such as

local authorities‘ attitudes towards marginal groups of citizens and their capacity to

process and act upon scientific advice. The result of the comparison is the identification

of bottlenecks and promising practice for transnational research-for-impact collabora-

tion in specific transnational institutional (Germany/Vietnam) and local political-

geographical (uplands/lowlands) spaces. The paper concludes by relating back the

experiences of transnational collaboration to 1) national research institutions

(institutional structures conducive to v. hindering transnational collaboration) and 2)

science-for-impact under Vietnamese conditions (models for communicating research

locally, differences between uplands and lowlands).

7.3 Approaches to sustainable resource management 153


Learning to do “Research for development”: Experiences from

the uplands research and capacity development programme

Vangthong Phengvichith

National Agriculture and Forestry Research Institute (NAFRI), Lao PDR

Laos is going through unprecedented changes. This is being spurred by interest

from foreign investors to take advantage of Lao PDR‘s rich natural resource base,

low population and favourable government policies. Lao farmers are having to

quickly make the transition from a subsistence livelihood and farming system to a

market oriented one: some are doing this successfully, others are struggling. This

has a number of consequences for research and development efforts. First, research

and development interventions need to be based on farmer‘s issues and problems

and responsive to the market economy. Second interventions cannot be developed

in isolation but rather have to be linked to other initiatives and partners in order to

ensure widespread use. Finally, there is no magic bullet and interventions need to

be tailored to specific areas and this is particularly in the northern uplands. This

paper focuses on the work of the Upland Research and Capacity Development

Programme (URDP) to develop successful models for improving how technologies

can be adapted by upland farmers and scaled up using a partnership based

approach through various mechanisms at the sub-district and district level. The

paper presents the overall approach for how URDP works and focuses on two case

studies (vegetable production and livestock raising) in Phonexay District, Luang

Prabang Province. The case studies demonstrate a unique approach to participatory

technology development whereby different actors beyond farmers, research and

extension are involved. This includes working with and through production groups,

linking to traders and input and service providers (banks, input provision, storage

groups, etc). The main lesson is that for new techniques to be applied and adapted

by farmers a range of institutional mechanisms need to be put into place so that

farmers have access to appropriate support and market structures.

154 7.3 Approaches to sustainable resource management


Payment for environmental services and conservation efforts in

Gunung Halimun Salak National Park (GHSNP), Indonesia

Supriyanto Bambang1, Ari Fahmiyati

1, Ruky Umaya

2, Dedi Haryadi

3

1 Directorate of Environmental Services and Nature Tourism, Bogor, Indonesia 2 Gunung Halimun Salak National Park 3 GTZ FORCLIM

This paper summarizes the result of the research activities conducted by Gunung

Halimun Salak National Park (Indonesia) related to payment for environmental

services and conservation efforts. The specific objectives of this study are (1)

facilitating the community empowerment through conservation education, conflict

resolution and community access to non timber forest product (resin), self

restoration and creating public support for community alternative income

generation, (2) participatory mapping, (3) facilitating the use of non timber forest

product/NTFP (resin production, marketing) and allocated the obtained NTFP for

conservation fund to restore the areas, and (4) to prepare a proposal on Carbon

trading for the pilot project under voluntary REDD scheme and a tree adoption

program. The result shows that community agreement has been achieved between

GHSNP and Forest Farmer Group through intensive communication. Its agreement

include a spatial agreement in term of national park zoning and buffer zones and

defining their right and duty. The respective people protect biodiversity zones

while the GHSNP give a special access to the community through ―community

special use zone‖ for non timber forest product of resin. Two times a week

community forest patrol have been reduced 80% of illegal logging. Community

access to non timber forest product of resin yielded significant income for them,

and 20% of their revenue are used for self restoration in the critical areas of

GHSNP zone. The additional incentive have been given to the community through

payment for environmental services through voluntary carbon trading mechanism

or by downstream people through a tree adoption program. By having these

agreements and downstream people supports ensure the increasing of forested area

and reducing the illegal activity in GHSNP. Using allometric method and a

prediction model it is calculated the carbon stock of GHSNP will be increased

from 0.5 to 0.53 million ton in 2008 and 2014 respectively.

155


List of Participants

In alphabetical order of the surname

Prof. Dr. Michael Ahlheim Institute of Economics, esp. Environmental Economics and

Regulatory Policy (520F), Hohenheim University, Germany;

[email protected]

Dr. Mohamad Amin Department of Malang State of University, Indonesia;

[email protected]

Fahmiyati Arie Directorate Environmental Services and Nature Tourism

Development, Ministry of Forestry of Indonesia, Indonesia;

[email protected]

Dr. Arinafril Pesticide Toxicology Laboratory (Head), Department of Plant

Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, Sriwijaya University,

Indonesia; [email protected]

Dr. Tin Maung Aye International Center for Tropical Agriculture, Thailand;

[email protected]

Aisyah Ayu Kurnia Directorate Environmental Services and Nature Tourism

Development, Ministry of Forestry, Government of Indonesia,


Dr. Supriyanto Bambang Directorate Environmental Services and Nature Tourism

Development, Ministry of Forestry of Indonesia, Indonesia;

[email protected]

Matthias Bannwarth Department of Soil Science and Land Evaluation, Hohenheim

University, Germany; [email protected]

Cheryl C. Batistel Institute for Strategic Research and Development Studies,

Visayas State University, Philippines; [email protected]

Prof. Emilia Boadilla-

Abalos

College of Agriculture and Forestry, North La Union Campus,

Don Mariano Marcos Memorial State University

(DMMMSU), Philippines; [email protected]

Esther Boere Wageningen University, the Netherlands; [email protected]

Christian Brandt Dept. of Plant production and Agroecology in the Tropics and

Subtropics, Hohenheim University, Germany;

[email protected]

Sina Bremer German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD), Germany;

[email protected]

Bui Le Vinh Faculty of Natural Resources and Environment - Hanoi

University of Agriculture, Vietnam; [email protected]

Bui Thi Minh Hang Institute of Agricultural Economics and Social Sciences in the

Tropics and Subtropics (490d), Hohenheim University,

Germany; [email protected]

Prof. Dr. Georg Cadisch University of Hohenheim (380a), Germany;

[email protected]

156 List of Participants


Chay Chetha Institute of Forest-Wildlife Research and Development,

Phnom Penh, Cambodia; [email protected]

Narongchai Chindaphan Mae Hong Son Provincial Government (UNDP's Social

Cohesion Project), Thailand

Juthamat Chomjai Public Health Office, Sob Moei District, Thailand (UNDP's

Social Cohesion Project); [email protected]

Chalathon Choocharoen Institute for Social Sciences of the Agricultural Sector,

Department of Agricultural Communication and Extension

(430a), Hohenheim University, Germany;

[email protected]

Wachira Chotitosseranee Mae Hong Son province, Thailand (UNDP's Social Cohesion

Project)

Dr. Gerhard Clemens The Uplands Program, Vietnamese German Center, Technical

University Hanoi, Vietnam; [email protected]

Dam Viet Bac Helvetas Cao Bang, Vietnam; [email protected]

Dang Dinh Quang NOMAFSI, Vietnam; [email protected]

Dang Viet Quang Institute of Agricultural Economics and Social Sciences in the

Tropics and Subtropics (490d), Hohenheim University,


Dang Tu Kien Social Policy Ecology Research Institute, Vietnam;

[email protected]

Dr. Ma. Teresa de Guzman Department of Behavioral Sciences, De La Salle University

Manila, Philippines; [email protected]

Dr. Rameswar Deka International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Nairobi,

India; [email protected]

Karma Dema Dorji National Soil Services Center (NSSC), Department of

Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, Royal

Government of Bhutan, Bhutan; [email protected]

Dr. Shijun Ding Zhongnan University of Economics and Law, China;

[email protected]

Dr. Dinh Ngoc Lan Rural Development Department, Thai Nguyen University of

Agriculture and Forestry, Vietnam;

[email protected]

Dinh Thi Tuyet Van Institute of Agricultural Economics and Social Sciences in the

Tropics and Subtropics, Hohenheim University, Germany;

[email protected]

Do Duy Khoi Social Policy Ecology Research Institute, Vietnam;

[email protected]

Doan Thu Thuy Soil and Fertilizer Research Institute (SFRI), Vietnam;

[email protected]

List of Participants 157


Tshering Dorji National Soil Services Center (NSSC), Department of

Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, Royal

Government of Bhutan, Bhutan; [email protected]

Dr. Linkham Douangsavanh Agriculture and Forestry Policy Research Center, National

Agriculture and Forestry Research Institute, Lao PDR;

[email protected]

Pongchai

Dumrongrojwatthana

Agricultural Technology Program, Faculty of Science,

Chulalongkorn University, Thailand; [email protected]

Kumnueng Dumudom Mae Hong Son Provincial Government, Thailand (UNDP's

Social Cohesion Project)

Rachel Dunn Cornell University, Thailand; [email protected]

Petra Erbe The Uplands Program, Hohenheim University, Thailand;

[email protected]

Dirk Euler Deutscher Entwicklungsdienst, Vietnam; d.euler@ded-

vietnam.org

Dr. Frauke Fastenau Private (IRRI-) Rice Project in Sumba Island/Indonesia,


Holger Fischer Institute of Soil Science and Land Evaluation, Hohenheim


Prof. Dr. Ulfert Focken 1) von Thuenen-Institut - Institute for Fisheries Ecology,

Ahrensburg Branch; 2) Hohenheim University (480B),


Dr. Rupert Friederichsen Manchester Metropolitan University, United Kingdom;

[email protected]

Dr. Holger Fröhlich SFB 564 - The Uplands Program, Hohenheim University,


Dr. Oliver Frör Institute of Economics, esp. Environmental Economics and

Regulatory Policy (520F), Hohenheim University, Germany;

[email protected]

Prof. Dr. Anan Ganjanapan Dept. of Sociology-Anthropology, Faculty of Social Sciences,

Chiang Mai University, Thailand; [email protected]

Pavlos Georgiadis Institute for Social Sciences of the Agricultural Sector,


(430a), Hohenheim University, Germany; pgeo@uni-

hohenheim.de

Dr. Tarig Gibreel Institut für Agrarpolitik und Marktforschung, Giessen


or [email protected]

Patrick Artur Grötz Department of Agricultural Economics and Social Sciences,

Agricultural Extension and Communication, Humboldt-

Universität, Berlin, Germany; [email protected]

Dr. Guiang Ernesto FAO, Vietnam; [email protected]



Thomas Gut Institute for Soil Science and Land Evaluation, Biogeophysics

Sektion (310d), Hohenheim University, Germany; t.gut@uni-

hohenheim.de

Dr. Ha Thuc Vien Center for International Education (CIE-NLU), Nong Lam

University, Vietnam; [email protected]

Volker Häring Institute for Soil Science and Land Evaluation, Hohenheim


Dedi Haryadi GTZ Forest and Climate Change Program (Forclime),


Prof. Dr. Franz Heidhues Hohenheim University, Germany; heidhues@uni-

hohenheim.de

Dr. Thomas Hilger Dept. of Plant production and Agroecology in the Tropics and

Subtropics, Hohenheim University, Germany;

[email protected]

Dinh Hang Quoc Leibniz Institute of Agricultural Development in Central and

Eastern Europe (IAMO), Halle, Germany;

[email protected]

Assc. Prof. Dr. Hoang Van

Tieu

National Institute of Animal Husbandry, Vietnam;

[email protected]

Hoang Thi Huong Tra National Institute of Animal Husbandry, Vietnam;

[email protected]

Prof. Dr. Volker Hoffmann Institute for Social Sciences of the Agricultural Sector,


(430a), Hohenheim University, Germany; vohoff@uni-

hohenheim.de

Dr. Huynh Van Chuong Faculty of Land Resources and Agricultural Environment, Hue

University of Agriculture and Forestry, Vietnam;

[email protected]

Yayan Indriatmoko CIFOR (Center for International Forestry Research),


Poolsak Intawee Silpakorn University, Thailand; [email protected]

Dr. SE Istiqomah Faculty of Economics Soedirman University Purwokerto ,


Barbora Jandova Czech University of Life Sciences Prague - Institute of

Tropics and Subtropics, Czech Republic;

[email protected]

Dr. Serm Janjai Silpakorn University, Thailand; [email protected]

Veronika Jelinkova Czech University of Life Sciences Prague The Institute of

Tropics and Subtropics, Czech Republic;

[email protected]

Prof. Dr. Attachai Jintrawet Multiple Cropping Center, Faculty of Agriculture, Chiang Mai

University, Thailand; [email protected]



Tsuyoshi Kajisa Kyushu University, Japan; [email protected]

Sukit Kanjina The Uplands Program-SFB564, Faculty of Agriculture,


Dr. Agung Karuniawan Laboratory of Plant Breeding, Department of Agronomy,

Faculty of Agriculture, Padjadjaran University Bandung,


Dr. Alwin Keil Department of Agricultural Economics and Social Sciences in

the Tropics and Subtropics (490a), Hohenheim University,


Thongsavanh Keonakhone Northern Agriculture and Forestry Research Centre

(NAFReC), Lao PDR; [email protected];

[email protected]

Prof. Dr. Irb

Kheoruenromne

Department of Soil Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Kasetsart

University, Thailand; [email protected]

Yo Khirirueangwit UNDP's Social Cohesion Project, Thailand;

[email protected]

Nathawat Khlangsap Trat Agroforestry Research and Training Station, Kasetsart

University Research and Development Institute, Thailand;

[email protected]

Suwat Kittidilokkul Public Health Office, Mae Hong Son Provincial Government,

Thailand (UNDP's Social Cohesion Project)

Dr. Thanaporn

Krasuaythong

Department of Agricultural Economics, Faculty of

Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Thailand;

[email protected]

Anne Kress DED, German Development Service, Vietnam; a.kress@ded-

vietnam.org

La Nguyen Institute of Soil Science and Land Evaluation, Biogeophysics

section, Hohenheim University, Germany; languyen@uni-

hohenheim.de

Suphasith Lakong Sob Moei District, Mae Hong Son, Thailand (UNDP's Social

Cohesion Project)

Dr. Marc Lamers Institute of Soil Science and Land Evaluation, Biogeophysics

Section, Hohenheim University, Germany;

[email protected]

Leila Landicho Institute of Agroforestry, College of Forestry and Natural

Resources, University of the Philippines Los Banos,

Philippines; [email protected]

Le Nguyet Minh Oxfam America, Cambodia; [email protected]

Dr. Quang Bao Le Natural and Social Interface (NSSI), Institute for

Environmental Decisions (IED), ETH Zurich, Switzerland;

[email protected]



Dr. Le Thi Hoa Sen Faculty of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development,

Hue University of Agriculture and Forestry (HUAF), Vietnam;

[email protected]

Le Thi Thanh Phuong Centre for Agricultural Research and Ecological Studies -

Hanoi University of Agriculture, Vietnam;

[email protected]

Dr. Le Thi Thanh Huyen National Institute of Animal Sciences, Vietnam;

[email protected]

Assc. Prof. Dr. Le Thi Thuy National Institute of Animal Husbandry, Vietnam;

[email protected]

Dr. Reni Lestari Center for Plant Conservation - Bogor Botanical Garden,

Indonesian Institute of Science, Indonesia;

[email protected]

Tubtim Limsoontorn Office of Climate Change Coordination, Office of Natural

Resources and Environmental Policy and Planning, Ministry

of Natural Resources and Environment, Bangkok, Thailand;

[email protected]

Dr. Rattiya Lippe Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics,

Kasetsart University, Thailand, Thailand; [email protected]

Dr. Raquel Lopez World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF-Philippines), Philippines;

[email protected]

Betha Lusiana Institute for Plant Production in the Tropics and SubTropics

(380a), Hohenheim University, Germany; [email protected]

Luu Duc Khai Central Institute for Economic Management, Vietnam;

[email protected]

Dr. Wati Marhawati Socio Economic Department , Faculty of Agriculture,

Tadulako University , Indonesia; [email protected]

André Markemann Animal Breeding and Husbandry in the Tropics and

Subtropics (480a), Hohenheim University, Germany;

[email protected]

Dr. Carsten Marohn Dept. of Plant production and Agroecology in the Tropics and

Subtropics, Hohenheim University, Germany; marohn@uni-

hohenheim.de

Richard Mayrhofer Clinic for Fish Medicine and Stock Care, University of

Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Austria;

[email protected]

Jean-Michel Medoc CIRAD - NIAS, Vietnam; [email protected]

Dr. Andy Russel Immit

Mojiol

School of International Tropical Forestry, University of

Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia;

[email protected]

Jana Léonie Müller ETH Zürich, Switzerland; [email protected]



Prof. Dr. Joachim Müller Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Hohenheim University,


Asst. Prof. Dr. Daruni

Naphrom

Department of Plant Science and Natural Resources, Chiang

Mai University, Thailand; [email protected]

Dr. Andreas Neef Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics, Faculty

of Agriculture, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan;

[email protected]

Prof. Dr. Nguyen The Dang Thai Nguyen University of Agriculture and Forestry, Vietnam;

[email protected]

Nguyen Dinh Cong Soil science and land evaluation, Hohenheim University.,


Dr. Nguyen Van Hau National Institute of Animal Husbandry, Vietnam;

[email protected]

Nguyen Thi Lan Huong Office of Scientific Planning, Vietnam Institute of Agricultural

Engineering & Post-harvest Technology (VIAEP), Vietnam;

[email protected]

Assc. Prof. Dr. Nguyen Van

Vien

Department of Plant Pathology, Hanoi University of

Agriculture, Vietnam; [email protected]

Nguyen Thi Huyen GRET, Vietnam; [email protected]

Dr. Nguyen Thanh Lam Center for Agricultural Research and Ecological Studies,


[email protected]

Nguyen Thi Dieu Phuong Research Institute for Aquaculture No 1, Vietnam;

[email protected]

Nguyen Ngoc Tuan Department of Aquaculture, Hanoi University of Agriculture,

Vietnam; [email protected]

Nguyen Minh Duc Hanoi University of Agriculture, Vietnam;

[email protected]

Nguyen Ngoc Quang Centre for Research on Lifelong Learning and Participation,

Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Katholic

University of Leuven, Vietnam; [email protected]

Nguyen Thi Hanh Tien Research Institute for Aquaculture No1, Vietnam;

[email protected]

Prof. Dr. Nguyen Van Dinh Hanoi University of Agriculture, Vietnam;

[email protected]

Dr. Dodik Ridho

Nurrochmat

Bogor Agricultural University, Institute of Forest Policy and

Economics, Indonesia; [email protected]

Dr. Antonio Ogbinar Don Mariano Marcos Memorial State University, Philippines;

[email protected]

Bukola Ayobami Ogundele Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute (NSPRI), Nigeria;

[email protected]



Joachim Otte Pro-Poor Livestock Policy Initiative (PPLPI), FAO, Italy;

[email protected]

Assc. Prof. Dr. Mattiga

Panomtaranichagul

Department of Plant Science and Natural Resources, Faculty

of Agriculture, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand,

Thailand; [email protected]

Dr. David Parsons University of Tasmania, Australia; [email protected]

Pindi Patana Forestry Department, Faculty of Agriculture, North Sumatera

University, Indonesia; [email protected]

Dr. Miloslav Petrtyl Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Czech Republic;

[email protected]

Wolfgang Pfingst Department of Agricultural Engineering, University of Kassel,


Dr. Vanthong Pgenvichit National Agriculture and Forestry Research Institute (NAFRI),

Lao PDR; [email protected]

Prof. Pham Van Dinh Hanoi University of Agriculture, Vietnam;

[email protected]

Dr. Pham Quoc Hung Forest Resources and Environment Centre (FREC), Forest

Inventory and Planning Institute (FIPI), Vietnam;

[email protected]

Prof. Dr. Pham Thi My

Dung


[email protected]

Khamla Phanthaboun Northern Agriculture and Forestry Research Centre

(NAFReC), Lao PDR; [email protected]

Dr. Sompheth Phengchanh Northern Agriculture and Forestry Research Centre


Suranee Phusuwan UNDP's Social Cohesion Project, Thailand;

[email protected]

Dr. Chakrit Potchanasin Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics, Faculty

of Economics, Kasetsart University, Thailand;

[email protected]

Dr. Suwanna Praneetvatakul Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics, Faculty


[email protected]

Marcelo Precoppe Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Hohenheim University,


Johannes Pucher Dept. Aquaculture Systems and Animal Nutrition in the

Tropics and Subtropics. Hohenheim University, Germany;

[email protected]

Kanyaphim Punya Mae Hong Son Provincial Government, Governor‘s office,

Thailand (UNDP's Social Cohesion Project)

Dr. Varaporn Punyawadee Maejo University, Thailand; [email protected]



Mangku Purnomo Department of Human Geography, George August University,

Göttingen, Germany;

[email protected]

Bandith Ramangkoun National Agriculture and Forestry Research Institute (NAFRI),


Wanida Rangubpit The Upland Program-Thailand office, Faculty of Agriculture,


Dr. Chainarong

Rattanakreetakul

Department of Plant Pathology, Faculty of Agriculture,

Kasetsart University, Thailand; [email protected]

Simon Riedel Research Group Animal Husbandry in the Tropics, University

of Kassel, Germany; [email protected]

Dr. Benjamin Samson International Rice Research Institute, Lao PDR;

[email protected]

Walaya Sangchan Institute of Soil Science and Land Evaluation, Biogeophysics

Section, Hohenheim University, Thailand;

[email protected]

Dr. Chapika Sangkapitux Faculty of Agriculture, Kyushu University, Japan;

[email protected]

Iven Schad Institute 430a, Hohenheim University, Germany; schad@uni-

hohenheim.de

Petra Schmitter Africa Rice Center, Benin; [email protected]

Dr. Pepijn Schreinemachers Hohenheim University, Thailand; p.schreinemachers@uni-

hohenheim.de

Sebastian Schuster Institute of Economics (520F), Hohenheim University,


Dr. Wilko Schweers Institute of Agricultural Resources and Regional Planning

(CAAS), China; [email protected]

Dr. Martina Shakya Institute of Development Research and Development Policy,

Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Germany; [email protected]

Dr. Bharat Sharma International Water Management Institute, India;

[email protected]

Aer Sirijinda Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics, Faculty


[email protected]

Johanna Slaets Institute for Agroecology and Plant Production in the Tropics

and Subtropics (380a), Hohenheim University, Germany;

[email protected]

Houmchitsavath Sodarack National Agriculture and Forestry Research Institute (NAFRI),




Arie Soetjiadi Badan Lingkungan Hidup Kota Balikpapan (Municipal

Environmental Agency of Balikpapan), East Borneo,


Khamdok

Songyikhangsuthor

Northern Agriculture and Forestry Research Centre


Phouthone Sophathilath National Agriculture and Forestry Research Institute (NAFRI),


Dr. Wolfram Spreer Institute of Agricultural Engineering (440e), Hohenheim


Prof. Dr. Karl Stahr Institute of Soil Science and Land Evaluation, Hohenheim


Prof. Dr. Thilo Streck Institute of Soil Science and Land Evaluation, Biogeophysics

section, Hohenheim University, Germany;

[email protected]

Subeno Subeno Gadjah Mada University, Indonesia; [email protected]

Tanin Subhasaen Vice governor, Mae Hong Son Province, Thailand; (UNDP's

Social Cohesion Project); [email protected]

Dr. Pornsiri Suebpongsang Department of Agricultural Economics, Faculty of

Agriculture, Chiangmai University, Thailand;

[email protected]

Dr. Leti Sundawati Faculty of Forestry, Bogor Agricultural University, Indonesia;

[email protected]

Natapong Supasang Mae Hong Son Provincial Government, Thailand (UNDP's

Social Cohesion Project)

Dalop Supawan Faculty of Agriculture, Chiang Mai University, Thailand;

[email protected]

Rawin Surbkar Chiang Mai University, Thailand; [email protected]

Asst. Prof. Dr. Pongsak

Suttinon

Research Center for Social Management, Kochi University of

Technology, Japan; [email protected]

Dr. Thai Thi Minh Department of Agricultural Communication and Extension,

Hohenheim University, Germany;

[email protected]

Chumnong Thamrongmas Silpakorn University, Thailand; [email protected]

Gumtorn Thavornstit Governor, Mae Hong Son Province, Thailand (UNDP's Social

Cohesion Project)

Andreas Thulstrup International Development Studies, Department of Society and

Globalisation, Roskilde University, Denmark; [email protected]

Dr. Prasnee Tipraqsa Thailand; [email protected]

Nitisak Toniti UNDP's Social Cohesion Project, Thailand;

[email protected]

Prof. Dr. Tran Duc Vien Hanoi University of Agriculture, Vietnam; [email protected]



Dr. Tran Huu Cuong Hanoi University of Agriculture (HUA), Vietnam;

[email protected]

Valenghi Daniel Helvetas, Vietnam; [email protected]

Prof. Dr. Anne Valle Zárate Animal Breeding and Husbandry in the Tropics and


[email protected]

Tassana Vichaithanapat Foreign Affairs Division, Ministry of Interior, Thailand

(UNDP's Social Cohesion Project)

Vo Huu Cong Center For Agricultural Research and Ecological Studies,


[email protected]

Sisavang Vonghachack National Agriculture and Forestry Research Institute (NAFRI),


Dr. Vu Kim Chi Vietnam National University, Hanoi University of Science,

Faculty of Geography, Vietnam; [email protected]

Vu Dinh Tuan Institute of Plant Production and Agroecology in Tropics &


[email protected]

Vu Thanh Hai Institute of Crop Physiology of Specialty Crops (340f),

Hohenheim University, Vietnam; [email protected]

Dr. Vu Chi Cuong National Institute of Animal Husbandry, Vietnam;

[email protected]

Prof. Dr. Hermann Waibel Institute of Development and Agricultural Economics,

Facultuiy of Economics, Leibniz University Hannover,


Dr. Huaiyu Wang International Rice Research Institute, Philippines;

[email protected]

Dr. Adhitya Wardhono Department of Economics, Faculty of Economics, University

of Jember, Indonesia; [email protected]

Suwimon Wicharuck The Uplands Program - SFB564, Faculty of Agriculture,


Dr. Iain Wright Intrnational Livestock Research Institute, India;

[email protected]

Prof. Dr. Manfred Zeller Rural Development Theory and Policy, Hohenheim


Dr. Alan Ziegler Geography Department, National University of Singapore,

Singapore; [email protected]

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