Synthesis of Research on StaffDevelopmentfor EffectiveTeaching

GI:O)RGI':A MOHLMAN SPARKS

S taff de clvopment offecrs ollr' of themost promising roads to the illl-pros-lncmnt of inlstruction. I It can

bIx thought of as a "-nested process" thatincludes goals and content, the trainingprocess. and the context I The diagram inFigure I remilnds us that thcsc factorsare interrelated and that staff dceclop-menlt takes place within all organiza-tional context.

While the research 0i11 thCe CItCllnt ofstaff dexclopincnt is examilned first. theemphasis of this rcsiexs is on the proc-css-or dlelysen ss'stclis-Of staff deel-opmnclt and hos, thle! affcct teachcrchangc andl inproemeincnt. The fiinal

sections focus on the process of teacherchange and recommnendations for staffdes-clopilnnt.

The Content of Staff DevelopmentProgramsW'hat should he taught to teachers if thegoal is instructionlal impro niement' Illisis a critical question for those in chargeof staff de-clopmcnt. I"ortunatcls. re-search has incosctd strong links bc-hecen certain teacher actions and dcsir-able student outcomes. Sicec thisliterature has beIxen revics-cd clscvhcrc(Brophy. 1983: Rosenshine. Il198) onl!a fcsw of the mnajor lines of research are

Figure 1. Staff Development: A NestedProcess

Context

Training Process

Goals and Content

nlcntioniedl herc.Studies of teacher ci'cctiscia'ss lus\

identified specific classoom nmanagc-mcnt practices. instructional tech-niqucs. and expectations tdut appear tohelp mans- students raise their readingand math test scores Broph!. 19r2i1Tcachers swho manage their classes to

Georgea lohlman Sparis. l)epartmentof Teacher Education. I;astern .fadu-gan Universitr. Ypsilanti. and \'icPresident. Stallings leaching andLearning Institute. lfountain \'ew.California

'Wlat s d be knso tacbems if Oe gSol

btnpwsremnt? Tis is aar*aal -qume o fr

de enL

NOVEMBER 1983

M

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and mailtenanlcc Wood aild his col-Icaguces train school district persoiinel.who impleimcnt the process in loealschools.

A similar model, impleientcd illover 511 schlools in metropolitan l )ctroit.is called Staff Dcclopimcnt for SchoolImpros-emcnt SI)SII (I liugh anidUrick. 1981: 'Iitssrorth and Bonncr.1983. lihe six stcps are: I I ) aarclcss.readliness. aid coniiiiitiliet allloigstaff; (2) needs assessment. (3) planililig(4) implemenitationi: f r cvaluatioll,; ailld(6) reassessment anid contimlliation.I SrhllI nIaniiinTi t'aiiln retceiXc sttart-lri

The Context of Staff Development monyc andr the assistance of a ulcrsit~sPrograms facilitator for three scars A\ cs\,iluatiionThe context or cnsironmciilt that cn- of 19 schools conductcrl after the secondsures the success of staff dlcclopiclnt scar of the projct (Sparks. 198 3 il dl-efforts has received considerable attcn- catcdl that 82 percent or nllre of thetion in the past ten scars. The imipor- participants noted impro\cmrlcitts intance of the organizational cll cxt of teachers' knoslcdgc. skills. and c( nl-staff dev-lopment efforts s-as highlightcd iim.nicatiori [lie most Ciiuiionil nicIl-in the Rand studs of cducationlal irnuo- tiolned strenlgths of tile progr.lln scrc tilevations ( Bermaa n and \lcLaughil in opportiliith to harc rcsponlsihilits for1978). After cxaminingii the implecricnll- staff dcxclop clent an(l tle in ipriicsltation of hundreds of fcderalls funded(ll schiol climlate Clearl. tilcSc C lli o-programs. the researchers concluded ratixc staff dscd\ iipllellt mIiRlcls sliosthat the major factor affecting succcss (if promisc for ercatiiig a piOstic oiite\t

the programs r-as admirnitrati e sup- for iniscralcc i ti\itiesport-from both principals aind snlpcrill-tendents. The Processes of Staff Development

Lieberman and Miller ( 19l ) cemplia- What kinds of traiiiiing proccsses helpsized the importance of the principal as teachers grosx inl their skills' \Vhli.tan instructioiial leader il hringing about should bc the scliedule of traillinig' I losximpro-emcnts in teaching. Stallilgs large should w"orkshop groups ic'and NMohlman ( 1981 ) found that tcach- Which Icarning activ-ities cnahle tcacll-ers improved rmost in sclhools sx here tle ers to ris Icr . techniques ill their cla.ss-principal sas supportixc of teachers and cs? What, if anything. should pirtic-clear and consistent in comunillnicatinlg ipants do hoethccii orkshops? I ortu-school policies. nately. recent research offers .llss crs to

Little's (1981) studs of the cffccts of these qucstiornsstaff development concentratcd on the Scheduling of Staff Development Ac-prexailing climate and t-pes of intcrac- tivities. Most research on instructionaltion in the school context. She fiould impro-cment has indicatcd that inscr-that staff dcevlopmcnt efforts xrcrc most rice programs consisting of a singlelikely to be successful wrhere a "norm of session arc largelR incffectisce (lai-collegiality and experimentation" exist- rence. 197 . Most staff dcxclopnlclted. Simply put. in schools whcrc staff programs that harc an impact on teach-development had the greatest influence ing hehai(olr are spaced oxcr time I1cr-on teaching, teachers shared their ideas mall and Mclaughlin. 1978 1 'hecreabout instruction and tried out nec\ seem to he at least two cxplanlatioll fortechniques in their classrooms. this.

But hov is a supportixc school con- 'he Rand researchers (Bcrmanl aindtext created' Reccently. arious ap- McLaughlin, 1976i)introduced the col-proaches to school-based staff dceclop- cept of "mutual adaptation." As tceach-ment have been developed. lan! of ers tried out nesc practices. tihe adaptedthem share a common clement: the and modified them to fit their ulliqucemajor responsibilith for planning and situations Both the ncsr teclhliqucs andIimplementation is gixen to the local the setting into rhich thes scrc hirouglhtschool staff. ()utside assistance is pro-id- were graduallv changcdl. 'I hsee re-ed only when needed. ()ne such model, searchers found that where such imultlalRPTIM (Woodd. Thompson. aind Rus- adaptation occurred over time. the like-sell. 1981 includes five steps: readiness. lihood of successful implementationtraining. planning. implementation. was greater

"Teachers' levels ofinterpersonalcommunicationrelate positively tostudent attitudesand learning."

.\iotlheir ratio iale fir tie cffccti\ cllcssof long-tcrlll chll.ange efforts is pros\ idcll) the Colicerils-1a.sed ,\(loptiii \lodel(CBA\ I Il all land I oiicks. 19I , pCB,\IM talkc inito collNidlcrltiol t cao Ii-ers conccrilS ai \arious stages in thechalnge process lund lesigns training .i-tiritics tlhat address tllosc conccrris I orcxamplc. tcachlers' car cl onccrns ilabouthors the programll \iill affcet them pcr-soalls mina l.t lter (Iccs lp into conecrc s

about 1hu% theI progrilil sill aiffct stIl-dlent. \An cffecti\c lolg-terll staiff d(\ cl-opmcnlt effort \rill imost likcls deal \ itlsuch ch.nginlg conecrus ill .An l.,lptix\.,SCllsiti\C IlanlllCr

()Onc staff cxc\cllpiicnit schcdulc thit)seems to be cffccti\ c is a scrics of folr tosix thurec-lhoulr \\srkslops spacc(l nci orti(,o ccks apart. I bis schedule. used ila st(lud of tcaclher cffccti-clless IStall-ings, Nccdcls. an(d St.irook. 1 978. re-suilted in teacihers inipro iig thlcir lc-ihavior on1 23 out of 31 classroomimiana.gclic't and( instriuctio.nal pria-ticcs ()tlhcr teic l ig cffccti cness c\-perimentcllts (cg .g. llcrsn. I:\certson.andl Brophls 1979( haec also (cniol-

stratedl inprcssi\e teachecr clhaliges rc-sulting froniil tso or Inorc traiiiiig scs-sions separatedl Ib! at lcast once \ cck.

The implicationi hcre is tllhat tacllcrsriced to be gi\xci tlhe conlltellt of in ser itceducation ill small ll"chunks spacedlover tinme so thlat chlaligilig coiIecrins cranbhe addressed andl ounl a fcs' changcs at atime arc bicig attempted. The "one-shot" prcsciitationl (c\cii If thIc "''hot"lasts htxo or tllrce (lasl does not iallo forthe gradual clialge inhlerent ill the con-ccrns-based approach alld ill the notionof mutuial adaptation. FI rther. in such

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maintain a smooth. business-like ensi-ronment; wsho teach actisely sAith fullstudent participation: and svho hold thleexpectation that students call and willlearn tend to haec students " ho achlic cmore in reading and math. Group orteam learning approaches ha-e alsobeen found to enhance student learnling(Slavin. 1980X. And teachers' le Iels ofinterpersonal communication skillshave been found to relate positiv-el tostudent attitudes and learning (.-\sps andRoebuck. 1982).

111111110111

'nuI)CATI()NAL LF:A)FRSHIP

settillgs, tllhere is 11o opportlllunih for onl-going tldiscussio of probtcnls and con-cerrls related to implll entaltio oll. hichis critical

T vpes of Tlraniing Acti ities 'Ithc staffdcvclopnelt iilodel propose(d bs Stall-ings (1982) is lasel oll Itle notion ofmastcry learililng. \hicil includes thefollosilig stcps: pretcst tdiagnosis). in-form aild discuss. guided practice andfeedback. and post-testI. The xxork ofJosce anlld Sllhoers (1 980l 1981. 1982)has lroughllt to light tile imlportalllnce ofcarcfull- sceleing th t raining actixiticsused duoriig staff tlcdcxclopilitl pro-gralis. InitialIx tlhe suggcstcd thlat fourtrainillig co pipoiclltitS-lprcectllationl ofmateriall. dctillolistratioll of skills. prac-ticc. alld fccdliack-\xcrc noccCssarx forilmost teachllcs to acqulirc filcilitx iI aIlc\ miodel of teachllilg \Iost rcccultl,tlhe autliors lihaxc aldded tiha x%\itlourt tileadditi/oi of a fiftih (oiil)onict--itoach-ing--transfcT of tlte c\\xx skills to cscrt-dlax prIatore ci.ollt bc gialrailtccd.Coachaing in lile correct use of tile nicxxskihill (ould Ie 1 p iroi(cd bll aoltllhtrteaherr. art adliillistraltor or a trainer.

B1 co(llllillnig tlirTt IC tiCx ts uggestedbI Jo cc .anni Slhoxcrs 1 (S1 alndStallilugs I fl21, the foillos ing list ofpotcltiall staff lxcclopmcnit ac' iitics rc-sults: diagnosilg aidl pres rihbing, gix ingi1iforiYatitou anld (Idcnilitratiig. dis-cussing applicatioll. practicring adll gi\-ing feedclhark and coaciing isee I"igiirc

2) I he research on tllhe cffcctix\culcss ofcach iof tlhese actix tics is caiiieidic-i ill

the foilldshsig sc(tioills* I)iagnslloig ailld l'rcscrilblng TI he

Stallinlgs I:ffcctix c-lit of-'l'illc PIro-granl (Stalliings an(d otlCrs, 1() S) is o)ieof tiec fcxn staff de(lclopllinclt i(xlodels tlhalincludels tis actitxi. 'leaclcicrs receivedetailednl profilcs ascud oil thrre olne-Iihour classrooll obscrxaltiols f their

teaching chla\ ior. 'I he profiles icluderccoinuiicildatiuis for Ixhaxi(ir cl hangbasedl tll prcixions crUrrelatiouial and cx-

pcrililclital sturlics of teacher effects.Tcaclhers arc encolluraged to sclect o0nly! a

fce areas for changc After trainilig.thile reccixe further obscerations aind afinal profile. Ilccller inmproxcnlcltt hlasbeen imprcssi\-e itih this trainlilug for-Illat

M1ans tealcIlcrs hlo ha-e participaltedin tihe Stallings progralil haxc nmctl-tioned that their asarcilcss of Imii tlht\used class tittle uas raised bh the tcach-ing behlaxior profiles. h'lc research oilbhhav-io rclhalgc ill coulslislilig sitila-tiols has long stresscd the ipmplxrtalicc ofbuilding an assarcicess for the need tochanige before attciptiling chaige tSall-ford. 1966) I)iagnosis and assarc-css-raising arc thso aspects of staff dcsclop-Ilnenlt progranlls that mcrit furthcr

attentiolnl0 (,ixing Inforiatioa l and Ik)ilol-

straillg. Ihis is tllh "ncat-and-pota-

tocs" of 111ost staff d ewlopillent or inscr-sice prograils \While ec kiio that"telling is not teaching." it is importanitthat the "tclling" part of staff dc\clop-mcilt lc done Cell. Jo-cc and Shoxcrs(1981 ) stress tile imliplrtanc of pnr\id-ing clicar demollnstrationls of rccotl-m ended priactices aid argue tilat littlcchanlge is likcl\ to OcKcu r xithoutt thelmnIThe term "demonlstration" has a broadnimalilig that includes lix-e nmldcli ig.\idcotapcs. ectailed narratis\c descrip-tions. ailn c\en ix \\idl descriibed andlabeled examples L Iin short. \\ heI tn rilgto lcarnl a incx skill or conccpt. it helpsto see it (or visuializc itl in practicc.

It appears that proNiding infonilatiolland dremonstrations canl Ih a quite pr\\-crful training actiih- shc ien used alolilwithlout other actisitics ()nc tcaclicreffectivencss stiudy (Cras-ford and oth-ers. 1978) found that teachers sslhosconly- traininlg elxpricncce sas reading atraining malnllal that containced detailed

explanations and specific narrahists ofclassroom cpiuodes used thc reconm-mcnlded teaching practicxs significantldmore than did a colitrol group of teach-crs. lllc uS. of onie or hNo usmrlstrps.along uitlh rnanmrals tlat prnk'de s- iIdscrhal illustrationxs of rcoxxmitrlucdtcachillg practices. ha hbeen cffcetisc iniproducilg tcachlcr changc in ofth.t'teacher training studics I(otxd andGrouws. 19-9: ndderson and otcrs.1978) In sxulmmar. clear. detailed prc-se.ntatiolns of inifonluattoll xWithl mtdx'lilngor dcrnllstratiolxs secl t o he Ilecc:%ar.but not ncecssarilx sufficient. for tflsuccess of staff dee-clopnlent cfforts.

* Discussinlg \pplication. ltflottghlneither lo-c and Shoners i19hl 1 norStallings 192) listh this as a separatceacti- iht it is included secparatcl, becauscit secills to be a cniciallh importantaspect of staff dcxelopmcnt and tachergrotilh \W'hen teachers arc asked whatthie- like best alxout insenicc wS'orkshops.thes often mention the sharing of ideas-itlh other teachers IHollx. 19h'2.

I)iscussion canl be useful w'hcn r[econcepts or techniqucs arc presentd.Ilor c.xampic. whell prsenhting dtc re-search on time-on-task in the CaliforniaL)epartment of 1-ducation EL--tisrClassrooms Training \lohlman. KiTr-stead. and G(undlach. 192,. tcachxrsw-crc aslkcd to brainstonnrm die techniquesthec used to increase the amnount ofacademic time and decrease tdf anmoultof "doswsl (or lionacadclnic timcl.

Inl the Effctixc-Ulse-f-Tlimnc worfk-shops (Stallings and others. 1978!.teachers arc cncouraged to cxpenmcn twith one or tso ntcs techniques at atimn (for cxample. using grouping ordesigning an incentive sstcni ). t thtc

No)vx MBiR It9R 67

Figure 2. Types of Training Activities

· Diagnosing and Prescribing* Giving Information and DemonstratingI Discussing Application· Coaching

end of each session they write down thenew ideas thev will try. The first activityat the next workshop (one or two weekslater) is a discussion of w hat each persontried and how it worked.

Many programs that have been effec-tive in helping teachers adopt new prac-tices include time for discussion (Evert-son and others, 1982). Teachers areencouraged to talk about how the newtechniques are working for them, theirproblems and successes, and their con-cerns. The discussion is most productivewhen guided by a facilitator or workshopleader who keeps the group focused onfinding solutions and sharing ideas rath-er than allowing the group to get side-tracked into talk about school policies orindividual students. 'The leader alsocontributes effective techniques notmentioned by other teachers.

Including opportunities for discussionand reflection in small "support groups"appears to be a productive training activ-its. The idea of creating instructionalsupport groups is not new. Bentzen's(1974) I/D/I/A study of school chaingehighlighted the "peer group strategy" asa powerful force for change. When staffmembers formed small groups and en-gaged in group problem-solving actixi-ties, changes occurred and persisted inthe school.

It is important that the discussionactivits occur in a relativcly small groupof eight or fewer teachers. Participationtends to be more equal in small groups;shy people are more likely to speak sipand those who tend to dominate aremore considerate of other group inem-bers' desire to contribute their ideas(Menlo and Gill, 19c82. Also, it cantake several minutes for participants toexplain how a particular lesson or gameworks in enough detail to allow theother teachers to try out the new idea ontheir own. Additionally, with smallergroups, each member has sufficienttime to contribute and explain his or herfavorite technique.

Finally, there is a special kind ofcamaraderie that develops among asmall group of teachers who meet regu-larlv to improve their professional skills.In the Stallings' Effective Use of TimeProgram, six or seven teachers meet fivetimes every one or two weeks. 'To under-stand the process of teacher growth, 17teachers who had just completed thetraining were interviewed (Sparks,1983b). Ninety percent of the teachersinterviewed mentioned how much theyappreciated the "personal nature" of theworkshops; most of them said that their

prcvious inservice programs had been inlarge groups where an "expert talkeddown to them." The five teachers slhomade the greatest improvemrents in oh-served teaching behavior said that hear-ing about their colleagues' instructionialproblems and solutions made them feelless isolated and more confident abouttheir abilith to make changes in theirclassrooms

The cost of conducting workshopswith small groups is lowered whenteachers become trainers of other teach-ers. Stallings and others (I 978) foundthat Effective-Use-of-T'ime workshopshad the same effects on teaching beha--ior and student learning when teacher-trainers led the workshops as whenl Stall-ings' trainers conducted them.

If logistics make it necessary to con-duct the inservice sessions with largernumbers of teachers, small-group activi-ties can still be included. Large groupscould gather for presentations and dem-onstrations; small subgroups could be

formed for discussions. If no facilitatorsare available to guidle the discussioiis.specific tasks can be assigned to thegroups along with guidelines for equalparticipation. In aini case. there is groi-ing evidence that small-group discus-sion of the application of and concernsabout new techiniquics enhances theeventual adoption of tnew teaching prac-tices.

· Practicing and Giiving IFeedlhbckHaving opportunities to practice a nlecskill and receive feedback on perfornl-ance is helpful for behaitor changeIndeed, Brophy and Good (1974) foundthat just providing feedback to teachersabout their differential treatment of stu-dents resulted in significant chlanges iiteacher-student interaction. There arcseveral ways of providing practice andfeedback in staff development programs.

The simplest form of practice occursin the classroom. where the teacher triesout a new practice and receives "fced-back" by observing the effect on students

EDUCATIONAL LFADERSHIP68

of the ncw% technique. The desirableresults are often immiediatcly apparent.

For some teachers. for instance. theomniniores" referred to b! lo!cc and

McKibbil. 1982) and sonic practices(certain simple classroom managcmenttechniqucs or question-askilig strate-gics). this laisscz-faire forim of practiceand feedback may he adequate. Ioosv-c-er. for most teachers and most skillsbeing taught ill staff developmenit wsork-shops, purposeful, strnctured practiceand feedback activ-itics sccm to ws ork best(Joyce and Showers. 1980).

Microtcaching. rolc-pla illg, andpeer obscrv-ation are commllolln practiceand feedback actisitics In-classrooimcoaching (vh Inch is dliscusscl scparatcl)is another approach to proxiding feed-back. It diffcrs from simplc feedhack inthat the "coach" critiques hcha ior.makes sulggcstiions for illpro mcnint.and, perhaps. cV cn demonlstrlates thedesirable bclla lior.

Microteaclhii(g has been a successfilformat for proxiding practice and feed-back. The teacher prepares .ia - to 20-minllte Iesson that is taugllt to ai groupof five to tenl students. tsuall- thelesson is audio- or (idleotape(l to pro\ ideimnmedliate feedback oil the necs skillsbeing practiced in the lesson. Studies ofinsers-ice trainilng tha.t inclltude nlicro-teachilig activities indicate that this ac-tivitv enables teachlers to make specificchanges in tleir teaclclilng behasior(Borg, 1977).

Role-playing dulring the workshop isanother saluable practice actisith. Thetrainer monitors and provides feedbackto the participants as tlie! practice thenew skill (such as Usinlg see-contact toquell mnisbeliavior) -ith their peers.

Peer obserxation is also a lpos\erfulmechanislll for promoting construlctiv-einteraction anlolig teachers. In all often-cited stud! Ib Roper. I)eal. and lorn-busch ( 196), elemientars school tcach-ers swho visited each other's classroomsfor the purpose of peer evaliltioin im-proved their teaching significaltl. Ber-main and Mcl.aughli (1976) listed peerobservation as one of the activities il-eluded in the effectise change progranmsthev revieswed

Reccntl. Sparks ( 1983h) eximinedthe effects of three combhilnations oftraining activities on classroom teachinigbeha ior. Three groups of six juniorhigh school teachers participated infive E:ffective-ssc-of-limic wsorkshops.Teachers in one group conducted hvopeer obsernations Ixhctccun w-orkshops,teachers in the second group vsere"coached" individually by the trainer.

and teachers in the third group receivedonl! tihe workshops vwith no extra feed-back or coaching. The teachers in theworkshops-plus-peer-obsenrations groupimproved more than did the teachers inthe workshops-onll group. It also ap-peared that peer observation ma- havebeen more pou-crful than coachlling illproducing improscnilctlls in teachingbehavior.

There arc scc ral reasons that ma-explain the effecti-eness of peer obserna-tion acti-ities. First the peer obsernerss erc ins ols ed in the anal-sis and codingof teacher and shldent Ixeha-ior. Tlhisexperience mav hase made thenl lmoreawvare of their own Ixhas-ior and thusmore ahle to analze and make changesin their oini teaching. Second. justobstrc ing another teacher call be a po\ -erful Icamrnig experience. After obscer-ing a colleague. teachers often %sa ho"helpful it is to see another classroom:they often then are able to share thegood ideas and necs techniques the! sasin action. Sadl\. it is rare for teachers tosee their peers teaching Y(arger. tlosseand Joscc. 198)).

Finalls. peer obser-ation mas helpbreak dosin the "pssychological \walls"bethccll classrooms. thus dissipating theloneliness of teachers vividis describedb- Lortic ( 1975) The peer-obscn-ationlgroup in the Sparks (1983h) stud! s-ascxceptionally enthusiastic and cohesive.Being observed ma- have seemed slight-l! threatening at first. but once teachersrealized their peers would not judgethtem, a team spirit began to develop.

I ssould like to add here a fc's cau-tions about peer obsen-ation. First, itshould not be seen as a process wshereone teacher judges another: one teachermercls collects information for anotherteacher. Although Roper and others(1976) found desirable results with peerc\aluation in the imid-70s. jobs arcmuch mllore tcnuous and competition isgreater in the 80s. To ensnire high leselsof trust and collaboxratioi(. peer obsr n-a-tion activities should be kept -ohluitanand completel separate fromi e\alua-tioil.

Another kcy factor in their process isto make the obsenration studcnt-focusedrather than tcacher-focused. For exam-pie. simple seating charts canl be used tomark the target beha ior (off-task activ ihor interactions with the teacher) oil eachstudent's "seat." (For nmore detail seeStallings. 1982 .) Thlse data prosidcample opportunith for discussing theeffects of various teaching practices onstudent behasior. In the beginnlilg. atleast, this helps the observed teacher feel

less "on the spot" and self-conscious.After higher trust is dedeloped. teachingbehavior may become the predominantfocus of the obsen-ation.

The purpose of the peer oben-ationprocess is not just to provide fcedback.Its most important function is to stimu-late anahlsis and discussion of the ieectsof teaching behavior on students. Thisprocess occurs as the pair of teachersexamine the completed obsen-ationforms under the guidance of the Assrk-shop leader or in post-obsecration dis-cussions. As teachers practice ner tech-niques in their classrooms. the- reccizCobiective feedback from the obsenratiolforms. They then bring this informationto the w'orkshop to discuss in light ofwhat the! have beln Ieaming abouteffoetive teaching practices.

In summanr peer obsen-ation-'equals" obsen-ring each other--se'msto be a promising activits for staffdevxl-oplmcnt. To be most effective. hoursrr.it should occur in an atmosphere of trustand collaboration.

* Coaching. The final fraining act%-ith exanmited here is coaching. definedb!- Jo!ce and Showters (1981 t as -hands-on. in-classroom assistance Aith thetransfer of skills and strategies to theclassroom' (ip 380). In a more recentdescriphon of coaching. IJove andShowers (1982) descnribed the proess ofcoaching as the provision of compan-ionship. giving of technical feedbact.anal-sis of when to apply a model andthe effects of its application. adaptationof the model to the needs of students.and interpersonal facilitation (supportlduring the practice period Such coach-ing could be pros ided bs- administrators.cumrriculum supcrisors. college profcs-sors, or teachers.

lo!cc and Showers (1982) suggestedthat peer coaching is especially he4pfulfor the transfer of learned skills to theclassrooil. Showers 19831 tested thecffeehtieness of peer coaching in anexperimental shids. Sc-enteen teacherswere trained dunrig seven usvks (21hours) in three models of teaching(Joyce and WVcil. 19-4). After training.nine teachers participated in an extend-ed obsen-ation-feedbak cycrle (peercoaching). wshile the remaining teacherstaught as usual. lTh teachers in thecoaching group received on the aseragehigher transfer-of-training scores thandid the teachers not receiving the coach-ing. Thus, in this study. the provision ofpeer coaching appeared to assist in theimplementation of the recommendedmodels of teaching

The efficac! of coaching provided b.

NOVEMBER 1983 69 I

an expert (rather than a peer) has re-ceived little investigation (Joyce andShowers, 1981). The studx by Sparks(1983b) contrasted (1i) orkshops plustrainer-provided coaching xxithi (2) xwork-shops plus peer-obsersation with 13)workshops alone. The teachers in thepeer-observation group improxed morethan the teachers in either of the othertwo groups. In this study at least, work-shops plus trainer-provided coachingdid not appear to bhe superior to xwork-shops alone or to workshops plus peerobservation. fThis is good ncxS. F'ollox\-up visits by an expert are cxpensixe. andmax be unnecessary for teachers tomake real changes in their teaching.

Selecting Training Activities. Whichtraining acti-ities should bhe included instaff development programs? Are somemore critical than others? Do character-istics of the training content influencethe selection of training activities?

Joyce and Showers Il1980) attemptedto answer these questions in their revx icof training studies. They made an im-portant distinction betwcen two tipcs oftraining content-the fine-tunimig of ex-isting skills and the learning of a newCrepertoire of unfamiliar skills or strate-gies. Briefly. the' concluded that. forfine-tuning of skills, presentatioln andmodeling were adequate for some teach-ers to use the skills routincly in class. Asthe recommended methods become lessfamiliar and more complex, hoxc-cr.consistent practice with feedback xxasnecessary for the majority of teachersAnd some teachers needed direct coach-ing before transfer of such skills wasattained.

An analysis of the training actixitiesused in 20 studies of the implementa-tion of inservice training (Sparks.1983b) provided some support for theseconclusions. In six of the studies ofsuccessful inservice training programs.only the presentation and modeling ac-tivities were used. The content of thesesix programs was derived from obserxa-tional studies of evervday teaching be-havior. Thus. the recommended prac-tices were familiar to many teachers--clearly not "new repertoire." The twostudies including coaching activitieswere providing training in Joyce andWeil's (1974) "models of teaching"These models-not derived from obser-vational research on teacher effctixc-ness-were less familiar ("new reper-toire") for the teachers.

Based on these analvses, familiaritywith the recommended teaching prac-tices (how foreign they arc to the teach-ers' existing repertoire) may be an im-

portant factor influcncing the choice oftraining actixities: Teachers who are lessfamiliar with the metjlods learned inworkshops will tcnd to need additionaltraining actixities after presentation andidemonstration

Teacher Characteristics and AttitudesToward ChangeAlthough contenlt context. and processare important to consider whcll design-ing staff decelopment programs, weha-e not vet touched oni a fourth ele-ment that can influcincc the effecti\c-ness of inservice educatiol--tie tcach-ers thcmsclvce. Just as sonic mcthodswork best -itl some students and lotothers, staff dc elopmcllt programs nmiaxneed to he adapted to fit xarious teachercharacteristics and attitudes.

Teacher Characteristics. Intellectualtraits and dcvclopmiental maturit- arctwo teacher characteristics that laxebeen found to relate to teacher hchliax iorchange InI a teacher cffCctixcness cx-periment by Cra- ford and othersI19 81. the measure of teachers' crlalahiliht correlated significantlx anlld posi-tivel x with teachers' obscr cld use of therecommenldedl practices. In Sho -crs'studv of coaching ( 1983), teachers' con-ceptual levels (CL) ere ixes-ctigatedCL refers to modes of thinking and istheorized to range from concrete, rigidthought and behavior to ahstract, nTlreflexible thought and behaio(r (ihiut.197/). Showers (1983) found that CLwas positiveli related to transfer of traill-ing among the coached teachers. morcflexible thinkers were more capable ofusing the recommendeid cd models ofteaching as intended. No relationll asfound among the ulcoached teachers.however. F'inalls. in a study bh McKih-bin and Joyce (1980()) a psxchologist'sratings of teachers' "states" along Mas-low's hierarchy of needs (that is. safetyto self-actualization needs) were posi-tively related to teachers' self-reports oftransfer of training to their classrooms.

In an excellent rcviecw of the literatureon adult development. ()ja ( 1980)) madea strong case that staff developmentshould strive to help teachers developmaturity on both the personal Iccl (forinstance, on Maslow's hierarchy) andlthe cognitive level (for instance, reason-ing and CL). She suggested that staffdevelopment xwill have little impact onteaching styles without explicitly ad-dressing personal and cognitive develop-mental levels of teachers. With the ac-cumulating evidence that such teachercharacteristics may influence teachers'ability to profit from inservice trainilg.

more atteltion ialla be needed ill thisarea.

Teacher Attitudes. Teaclcers ha\emany attitudes tow-ard their staff dcxcl-oprneit experiences. I he niax like ordislike the tililing of the w( orkshops. thetrainer, or other orgaiiizationial aspectsof the traililg. I lie attitudes discissedhere are the teachers' perceptions of therecomnlllcldecl changes ill teachillg be-ha-ior. lcacchers make a conscioIs dec-cisiolln hietlier thex xill or will nit trxout or adopt a exC\ practicc \\hlatinilucnces this dlec-isiiio

l)ovlc andc Pondcer 1977) haxe sug-gested that three criteria iniflecceteachers' dceisionls rcgardiilg implelicn-tation of rcoulimclcided practices. 'IThefirst. inlstrulnicltalit i t refcrs to tihe extelltto Mihichl a rccoililMlcndlati oln is statedclcarlx andl spcCifically 'I lie seconld r'ri-terionl is congruilclce-ho x \cll thie lxe\practice fits iin ith the teacher's philm-ophs of teaching. 'I lie third is cost.teacliers appear to xcigh the effmort re-quircdl agaillst thc pxioff of the nIIcxtechniiique.

ilohllmalo. (Coladiarci, .and (;alge19821 cxaimicd thc fhidings frio fi xc

teacher effectiencss experinicilts i thelight of these three criteria and fmd(lthat the more highly- imiplemiclnte prac-ticcs tended to be percecixccl as specific.philosophlicall acceptable. ianl/orworth the effort. *alaix of the practicesthat were not adoptcdl xxcrc seen asvague, as philosopihicall Ilnlacccptahllc.or as too lluchl work.

lTh Ces autlhors also imllcstigated tiherelationshlip bhctcel teacher attitucde to-ward the recollmmendallcltions anllc iliple-mentation il one of tile experimeintsTeachers xxho exprcssed disagreementclwith the recmoiilmmlclndatiomis (for ii-stance. "I don't beli\ec in hiaxig highschool studenlts read aloud") or Iholisted manlx probilems or difficulties x iththem (G;rouipinig is too Illih x\\ork: Ialreads dlo enough plamlig!" ) tldciednot to inmpicnient thie suggested prlc-ticcs

Sparks ( 1983hi) iicasurecd teachers'perceptions of the illportance aindl dliffi-cultx of each of the practices recoiml-mended in Stallings' I:ffcctiec-lsc-of-Time workshops. I he teachers' ratingsof the importancc of using the tech-niques correlated positixcly and signifi-cantlv witli their inllplcllentation ofthem and xith the degree of impro\c-ment. Ratings of the difficult\ of thepractices, hoc\xecr. (lid not predict thedegree of use or improvcileitt. Somnicteachers xwxho improved dranmaticalli felt

EI)UCATI()NAL LAI)D:IRSHIP70

the changes had been cas' to make;other iniproxilg teachers felt they hadkIcin difficult. The perception of diffi-cunlht seemedl to he anl indi idual matter.

Based on this work. it appears that.for teachers to use rcconmininded prac-tices in their classrooms. the techniquesneed to he made clear and explicit andtcachers neeCl to hicomn conminced (a)that the practice is xxorth-llile ill termnsof teacher or studcut outcolncs) and hb)that the change canll he iadc w-ithouttoo Il)LICh x'[ ork Or disrtptioll

'Ihe Process ot l eacher Change. BothSparks I 19831)) and Shom crs 1983) in-tcrxicxcd tle teachers tlhce trained to

gain a deeper understanding of ho%changes in teaching occur. This re-search has provided ncvs insights intothe process of teacher change.

Sparks 198hb) examined intern-ics.questionnaires. obscrnation data. andfield notes for five teachers ihlo madeexceptional iniproseclents ton class-room management and active instruc-tion) and five teachers sho madc noimpro-clllcnts.

()nc interesting difference bCethcnlthe groups %sas in their Icecl of self-expectations. 'IThe improvers said thingslike. "I no' rcalize I have control oecrmain! things I thought I had no control

Highlights From Research on StaffDevelopment for Effective Teaching

Studies comparing various models or processes of staff developmentare rare. While it is not possible to state conclusively that one inservicedesign is superior to another, we can put together the many pieces ofresearch reviewed here to make some general recommendationsabout staff development programs for more effective teaching.

1. Select content that has been verified by research to improvestudent achievement.

2. Create a context of acceptance by involving teachers in decisionmaking and providing both logistical and psychological administrativesupport.

3. Conduct training sessions (more than one) two or three weeksapart.

4. Include presentation, demonstration, practice, and feedback asworkshop activities.

5. During training sessions, provide opportunities for small-groupdiscussions of the application of new practices and sharing of ideasand concerns about effective instruction.

6. Between workshops, encourage teachers to visit each others'classrooms, preferably with a simple, objective, student-centeredobservation instrument. Provide opportunities for discussions of theobservation.

7. Develop in teachers a philosophical acceptance of the -newpractices by presenting research and a rationale for the effectiveness ofthe techniques. Allow teachers to express doubts about or objectionsto the recommended methods in the small group. Let the -otherteachers convince the resisting teacher of the usefulness of thepractices through "testimonies" of their use and effectiveness.

8. Lower teachers' perception of the cost of adopting a new practicethrough detailed discussions of the "nuts and bolts" of using thetechnique and teacher sharing.of experiences with the technique.

9. Help teachers grow in their self-confidence and competencethrough encouraging them to try only one or two new practices aftereach workshop. Diagnosis of teacher strengths and weaknesses canhelp the trainer suggest changes that are likely to be successful--and,thus, reinforce future efforts to change.

10. For teaching practices that require very complex thinking skills,plan to take more time, provide more practice, and consider activitiesthat develop conceptual flexibility.

over.' and "1 no longer feel powerless.The training helped these teachers d-selop a nest confidence in their compe-tenc-. The nonimprosers. in contrast.seemed to hace lost hope that amnchanges could bhe made. Ihev felt thattring anthing ilce swould make nodifferencc. It '.as a sad casc of lokexpectations for both the teacher andstudents (sec Cood. 1981. for a resicsof teacher expectations rescarch L

Shoswers (19831 used teacher inter-vicews. obscnations of. and conwsrsa-tions 'with the teachers in her Mlodels-of-Teaching training to invcstigate thedifficulties teachers had in transfrringtheir nies repertoire of rather compklxskills to the classrooml

T'lic most interesting prohlek-m theteachers had ,-%ith the models was inknowing when to use them. leacharseither could not form objictises that fitthe models. could not think of theircurriculnl in temis of the models andthe concepts they- dereloped. or used themodels inappropriatel-. It vwas as if cor-rect use of the models required someteachers to think about their obicetieesand curriculum in an clhtirel ncs Swa.That. for some teachers. was a cogniti-ctask that prosed too complex.

Although mans of the bamers tochange can he exlplained hb l[)oie andPonder's ( 1977t notions of inmtrumental-ith. congrucnce. and cost; tou otheraspects of teacher change hare beenhighlighted bh these studies self-cffcae'and cognitie coniplcxsit-. irst. it ap-pears that it max be desirable to helpteachers acquire a heightened sense ofsclf-efficac--a confidence and belief inone's abilith to deal ecffcicel withclassroom problems Perhaps this is bestdone by starting suith changes in teach-ing that are not too difficult but thatensure success and positise feedbaick Itappears that. for some of the teachers inthe Showers (1983) shtud!. using some ofthe models correctl- required too man-complex skills that the teachers did nothavc. Thus. the% could not exprcnncsuccess waith tle models.

The sercond piece of the puzzle ofteacher change isvolves the restructur-ing of teachers' conceptualization ofsubject matter. That is. if a teacher seesbiology as a series of lists to he learnedand activities to be perfomwed. it isunlikel- that much concept deeklop-ment is going to occur. This teacher willneed to be led throtgh a reexaminationand restruchring of the topics and con-cepts of biology. This point takes onmore importanlcc swhen we recognize

NOVFEMBEFR 1983 71

the current need for more and betterteachers of the higher-level thinkingskills involved in math and science. Itmay be, as Oja (1980) has sucggested.that we need to teach teachers hos1 tothink about their subjects wcith greatercognitive complexi'. FI

'Although some authors make a distirc-tion between staff developmcnit and inscrs iceeducation. I have used the two terms intcr-changably to mean any training acti'itv thatattempts to help teachers improve teachingskills

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72 EDUCATIONAL. L�.Aoi-.Rsi-np

72 EI)UCATIONAt. LEADERSHIP

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