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AUTHORTITLE

DOCUMENT RESUME.

SE. C36 C57

Butzow, John-W.; And - Others

Is Our Food Future in-the'deay A Marine EducationInfusion Unit on Aquaculture and Sea Farming. RevisedEdition. .

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.INSTITUTION Maine Univ., Orono,. Coll. of Education.SPONS AGENCY. National Science Foundation-, Washington, D.C.PUE DATE 81 .

GRANT NSF- SER- 800B177 = .

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NOTE 53p.; For related documents, see SE C36 055-059 andgD 177 012. Produced through the Northern New EnglandMarine Education Project. Contains coloied printwhich may not reproduce well. .

AVAILABLE FROM Northern New England Marine Education Project; Univ.of Maine at Orono, 206 ShibleS Hall, Orono, ME 04469($3.00).

EDFS pFICEDESCRIPTORS

MF01/PC03 Plus Postage.*Activity Units; Agriculture: Elementary :SecChdary,Education; Environmental Education; Fisheries;Instructional Materials; *Interdisciplinary Approach;Intermediate Grades; Junior High School Students;*Marine Biology; Oceanography; Science Activities;Science Education; *Water R9sources

`IDENTIFIERS -,Ac-Aquaculture: *Marine Education

.'ABSTRACa

Designed to introduce middle and junior ,high schoolteadhertland studrits to aquaculture 'and sea farming, t,te informationand lessons TrA,hiaeit focus on the biology, econdMics, and .

gastroncmics of 4 -use. fresh and salt water activities. An extensivesecticn containing teacherbackground information desCribes how-tofarm shellfish and finfish,' summarizes major developments in'aquaculture in the northern New England area, and discusses specificshellfish and other species. Five multidisciplinary activities focus-:on mussels; .crayfish; and aquaculture equi,pment. The unit ccncludsfrith a simulation game about the oyster culture industry. Lists oforganizational and commercial 'resources are provided: as well asbiblioRraphies of technioal,materials, general books, and cock books.Illustrations and,stUdent worksbee,ts are included. (EC)

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U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATIONEDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION

CENTER (ERICI

This document has been reproduced asreceived horn the person or organuabonongelating it

XMinor changes have been made to improvereprodunon Quality

Po.nts of vim:, or openons stated In this documeat do not necessanN represent othctal NIEposmon or poky

"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THISMATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY

TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCESINFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)"

Is Our food Futurein the Sea?

A Marine Education Infusion'Unit on'Aquaculture and Sea Farming

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Northern New England Marine' EducatiotrProject

The objective of NNEMEP is to encourage and supportmarine educatidi among the teachers of Northern NewEngland so that their students will appreciate theimportance of water in their lives and in the life of theplanet. The project has received support from theCollege of Education of the University of Maine atOrono, the National Science Foundation, and the Maine,New Hampshire Sea Grant Program.

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206 Shibles HallCollege of EducationUniversity of MaineOrono, Maine 04469207/581-7027

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Copyright C 1981 by the University of Maine at Orono.

'Permission is hereby granted to- classroom teachers and informal educators to make unlimitednumbers of copies of any portions of this material for classroom cif-teacher education uses.

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(Z) All other rights reserved. For additional permissions .write to the Northern New England MarineEducation Project, 206 Shibles Hall, University of Maine, Orono, Maine 04469.

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Units Revision Team

John W. Butzow, Project DirectorPeter Cbrcoran, Curriculum Writer

and Assistant DirectorSusan White, Educational Materials

Design and Production,Edward Hodgdon, Aquaculture ConsultantRick Hardman, Illustration

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Acknowledgement of SupportThe'origrnal editioni of these unIts were supported by the College of Educationand Maine-New Hampshire Sea Grant College with funding from the Office ofSea Grant, NOAA, U:S. Department of Commerce.

This edition'is based on work supported by the National Science Foundationunder Grant No. SER8008177.

Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recomm6ndations expressed in thispublication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views ofthe National Science Foundation.

ContributorsNNEMEP Staff

Project Director: John Butzow 1975-82Project Assistant Diriectors:

Richard Schlenker 1976-77Les Picker 1977-78Harry H. Dresser 1978-79Peter Corcoran 1979-82

Major ContributorRandall AmeroJohn Butiow

, Clayton CarkinPeter CororanVictor DiSilvestro .Harry H. DresserJohn Eiseman-Richard GlueckRuth GruningerDeborah HartneyWesley Hedlund5dward HodgdonMildred JonesWin Kelley

\Steven KilfoyleDaniel LancorJean MacConnellJulie Steed'MawsonLes Picker ' ,

Robert PrattGail SheltonLorraine4Stubbs

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Staff Assistants:Julie Bro,wnDeborah HartneyHeidi RichardsMichael Shirley

Developmental Art Work:Peter Archambault-Lori DombekCarol NicholsHarry DresserWilliam HepburnMelanie Hodgdon

Developmental Photographs,:Les. PickerJohn ButzowClarence Barber

Manuscript PreparationMary Blanchette Brown

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Revised Marine Education Infusion Unitsfor Middle School-Junior High SchoolHave You Been to the Shore Before? A Marine

Education Infusion Unit on Seashore and AquariumLife`.' 4: -

What Adventures Can You Have in Wetlands,Lakes, `Ponds and Puddles? A Marine Education

. Infusion Unit on Wet EnvironmentsWhat is Our Maritime heritage? A Marine Education

Infusion Unit on Ships and ShippingIs Our Food Futpre in the Sea? A Marine('Education

Infusion Unit on Aqua-culture and Sea FarmingHow al-People Use Lighthouses and Navigational

Effarts?.A Marine-Education Infusion Unit

Original Trial Editions (For Grades K-12)Crams and Other CrittersMarine ArtThe AquariumThe BeaverThe LobsterWhale Multi-disciplinary StudiesOur Heritage of ShipsShipping, Ships and WaterwaysThe ABC's of Celebrating Year of the Coast

in Your SchoolHave You Ever Been to the Shore Before?Blue MusselLighthdusesWetlands v'SeaweedsAquacultureNavigation

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More than one hundred teachersind members of past NSF sponsored summer institu s have trial tested\andcritiqued these units.

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Marine EducationOcean & 'Coast Conceptual Scheme

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MantleHistory

Boats, Ships & Navigation

j Fish 8; Fisheries

MAINE . NOVASCOTIA

Sea Mammals

Marine Plants -

NEWHAMPSHIRE

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Marine Biology

GULF°4 MAINE

AwarenessAttitudeAppreciation

Sea Birds

Tides & Currents

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Aquaculture,

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ForewordMal ine education is a relatively new ten-n embracing amulti-disciplinary approach to learning about the marineenvironment: how it relates to people and how peoplechange and relate to it. These units-are intended to serveas points of 'departure for teachers and students whodesire to increase their awareness of the watery world ofthis blue planet. Each Unit includes ideas and activitiesdrawn from a variety of content areas so that teachers ofmany different subjects at the junior high and middle.school levels can makeuse of them. These units may beused in their entirety or used as idea. or activity sources toinfuse into the usual curriculum

Our objective is to help teachers make 4e rning morewater-related. We did not plan a structural -,o,Ience oftopics for grades five through nine, but Tath offer theseteachers guides and student pages for your consideration.

The general focus within these units is the Thlf of acne.As the Gulf extends froni cape Cod to Nova Scoti- itwashes an extremely long and varied coast. We hdredged and seined themes from the activities, coorganisms, vessels, and the past of this vast wateof North America. We aim to be inclusive ratherexclusive, suggestive rather than factual, and stinjul ng,rather`than expert. Our hope is that your student willbecome more questioning, interested, and critical Of wateryconcerns. We hope your use of these materials w,' -)cidwater back into our culture.

John W. ;utzow

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A Noie on Measures and GendersW1 ever practical, metric measures are used in thisunit Teachers are urged to use metric measuresdescriptively as well as in student measurement andobservational activity

A number of-occupationalgtvords hive as yet nogenerally used non-sexist equivalent We havetherefore retained use of the terms fisherman andlobsterman for either sex.

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Contents Of The Teacher's GuideTeacher Background Information

How Shellfish Are Farmed1

Major Developments in Our Regi&I'sAquaculture .. 5

The Blue Mussel 8The Oyster 10Finfish Farming . 11The Lobster 13.Algae Culture *

, 16Other Aquaculture Species

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Classroom ActivitiesMussel Dissection , , 17Water and Nutrient Passage in Mussels 20Eating Mussels 20Crustacean Study 21Aquaculture Equipment , , 23The World Oyster Company Game , 23

Teacher ResouicesOrganizational Resources 27Commercial Aquaculture Companies 28Laboratory Supply Houses ° 29Technical, Bibliography 29Annotated Bibliography' 30A Bibliography of Cookbooks , 31

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dontents Of The PocketMussel Dissection Figures

1. Mussel exterior2. Mussel with Attached Drill

-3. Mussel Shpwing Valve Orientation4. Mustel Oriented for Dissection5. Closed Valves6. Open Valves7. Mussel withValve Lifted8. Mussel Interior9. Mussel Cross - section10. Gill Detail

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11. Mussel with Valve and Gill Reinoved12. Mussel Intestinal Tract

Unlabeled Lobster DiagramOyster Stock FormBank Balance Form

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The broad purpose of marine educatiori is to develop a marine literatecitizenry; that is to educate our students about the fundamental importance ofthe connections of human culture to the:marine and aquatic environment. Thegeneral purpose of the marine education infusion units in this series is to provideteaching materials to make this broad purpose possible for middle and junior highschool teachers in Northern New England. This unit on aquaculture and seafarming seeks tosintroduce this ptomiging area to teachers and students of ourregion. The term aquaculture.is being used to include both fresh and salt wateractivities. This unit focuses on the biology, economics, and gastronoinics of seafarming, especially of-shellfish.

This unit is not a step-by-step piece of curriculum; itadapt

designed to allowflexibility on your part. It will kie necessary for you to adapt the material to yourstudents' abilities and needs, your access to materials, and the availability oftransportation for field trips.

HoW Shellfish Are cycle., the oysters must be kept in heated tanks to aassure maximal growth and there are only a set

Farmed number of these tanks in any one facility.

To provide an understanding of what anaquaculture facility is and how it operates, thissection will describe the processes involved inproducing a marketable organism, using theEuropean oyster (Ostrea edulis) as a model. Muchof what follows applies almost directly to other_shellfish species such as clams, scallops, mussels,and even to finfish. The materials and techniquesused in these diverse indt,stries might appeardifferent at first glance, but the general proceduresunderlying them all-are similar.

Everything starts out it .the hatchery. It is therethat adult animals are, brought together in anenvironment which favors reproduction. This takesthe form of temperature and nutrient conditioning'n the case of the oyster. After a suitable

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co itioni iod, the animals release their eggsand spe, int the water. Since they are confinedin small -areas heir eggs and sperm can becollected and mixed in the proper proportion toassure maximal fertilization. Once tertiliied, the \zygotes ate transferred to a holding tank and aresubsequently . transferred ev4ry few days to freshtanks, the older tanks receiving a thoroughcleaning between transfers. Between each transferprocess the'animals are filtered to remove thelarger ones; the smaller animals are discarded: Theobjferaf,this process is to move the largest .

posiibie number of animals through the system inthe shortest period of time under the constraint's oflimited space. During the first weeks of their life

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Hatchery plagram

After about one to two weeks, oysters enter thepedivelliger stage. At this point they develop an eyespot, 'a foiiit, and settle to the bottom in an attemptto set on a hard substance or substrate. Just priort'o setting, the animals are transferred-to heatedsetting tanks to provide them with an optimalsetting medium Researchers at the Darling Centeriii Walpole, Maine sti4died various types of culch

knatenals upon which the oyster would set. It. wasfound that shell chips are one of the'best forms ofsubstrate. Thie problem with whole shells or largechips was that they contained a great deal of deadweight to be processed through this system. Thesolution to this problem came with the adoption ofwhat was termed culchless medium, and wasnothing more thap shells ground to fine powder.The oyster is now larger than the siva' chip andsubstrate weight is minimized.

The setting process induces a metamorphosis in '

the animal and converts it from a free swimming toa sedentary life Once the animal has set, it isgrown on fine screening for a period of time until itattains a size that can be introduced into themarine environment with'a low mortality. Thisdepends upon factors such as the temperature, agbof the oyster, and nutritional status.

Once the animals have reached a point that thehatchery manager feels they can be safely movedinto an exposed marine environment, the spat, or.very small oysters, are transferred into trays linedwith windowscreening. The oysters will now growat a rate determined by factors such as thequantity of planktonic or floating algae they preferto eat, the temperature of the water, and howdensely they are packed into the trays. If all thingsare favorable, the animals will double in volumeevery few days until they experience a physicalcrowding _During this rapid growth phase, theanimals may have to be transferred to new traysvery often keeping the sea farmer very busy"weeding" the garden This process of rapid growthand transferrence is repeated during the entire firstyear. It is interspersed with frequent cleaning, ordefouling, and sorting.to remove the largestanimals to larger mesh trays The idea behindmoving the animals to the largest mesh tray onwhich they will stay is that the larger the mesh, thelonger period of time it requires to foul. The longerthe oysters can grow without labor intensive inter-vention, the mdre efficient and cost effective theopera ion is

Fo ing is ca by rapid growth of competingorganisms such as algae and other shellfish Trayswhich are not carefully and frequently cleaned ordefouled will allow the animals to choke. This isbecause oysters, mussels, and other filter feeders"comb" out small planktonic algae from the wateras food and they breathe by-having passing waterlose its dissolved oxygen over their gillS If waterflow is impeded, redilced growth and, in theextreme, death will dnsue

Starting from microscopic size, oysters will reacha size something less than 30 to 35mm in diameter

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before the first winter Much of the research thathas been conducted on overwintering mortalityindicates that oysters that are able to attain the ,30 --to 35mm size range prior to overwintering have a 'very good chance of surviving the stress of thewinter months This is not to say that smalleranimals will die, in fact, they might prosper duringthe next growing season. It is quite likely that alarge percentage of the*mortality that a farmerexperiences during the winter will occur in the 15to 20mm size range.

Various types of containers will be used to holdthe growing oySters from this point until they are /sold. The only difference in treatment of small andlarge animals is the density of packing and the sizeof ,the mesh of the containers There are twogeneral kinds of devices or modules for shellfishgrow out the Japanese Lantern and the Meritecmodule. The Japanese Lantern is named becauseof its appearance It consists of a serigs of doubledipped galvanized .ings coated with two layers ofvinyl connected by nylon mesh. The whole modulecosts around $30.to $35 and is both lightweight andeasy to store because, it collapses almost flat Thelantern is round and capable of holdiug 10o0 to1500 adult marketable oysters. These conrair,can be made nearly neutrally buoyant by tyingstyrofoam containers to their tops They provide alightweight system of growing and harvesting the

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Cone Tank

Atlarrtec Module

Floating Tray

Grow Out Devices

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Japanese lantern

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oysters. The problems with this design are4,1) Theyare toofragile individually to withstand heavyloading which necessitates a large number oflanterns, 2) the rings will deform during roughhandling, 3) predators such as crabs can cut themesh, 4) getting the oysters into and out of eachcompartment in the lantern is time consuming hardwork, 5) washing and defouling is awkwardbecause the animal must be taken out of thelanterns.

The second device used to house growingoysters is the Meritec module. It is named for thecompany which designed it. The Meritec module isnothing more than a box with drawers which pullout much like the drawers in a dresser-chest. Eachdrawer consists of an oak frame around which ,

mesh material is wrapped, The top drawer iscovered with a flea plate of mesh in a woodenframe and the front' is secured by a locking device.This system allows very rapid entry into thecontainer, which substantially speeds up theservicing, cleaning, and defouling and sorting times.Since the drawers are interchangeable, severalmesh sizes can be combined into one module .reducing the total number of modules required.The problems with this design are its weight and

'awkwSrdness Despite the fact that the unit can bemade nearly neutrally buoyant with the use offlotation, once it is raised to the surface of thewater it may easily weight 100 to 200 pounds.There is also a problem with corrosion of the metalstaples used to fasten together the oak drawerpieces. They can disintegrate while under waterand spill the animals.

Both the Meritec modules and the JapaneseLanterns require a floating work surface This isprovided by a specially-fitted raft called a serviceraft, The service, raft is a wooden raft with excessflotation fitted with a hoist and track system thatallowg1he module or lantern to be raised with awinch onto the deck. Many.of the service raftshave.a hole in the bottom to allow the raft to passover the module and winch it through the hole. Byplacing the winch system on a track, the modulecan be maneuvered to different positions along thedeck once ie'has been raised. This design allowsone person to work on-one module while anotherperson-is bringing up additional modules. Since theoperation is very labor-intensive_the raft allows anumber of individuals to keep busy.

There are various ways to secure the containers ,

to the bottom. An older systerp called for eachcontainer to be weighted direay to the bottom byanchors Newer design allows each of the modulesto be hung from a line, called a long line), whichextends betWeen two points of land..

At the end of the first growing season, in lateOctober or early November, all the oysters mustbe placed intera container that will allow them tooverwinter. Since the animals will not grow muchonce they are put down, they can be packed athigherthan-normal densities The module shouldhave the largest mesh size which will hifdd the

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oysters and is buoyed off the bottom to reducesiltation mortalities Overwinterihg is effected bysimply sorting the animals into the appropnate sizelantern or Meritec module, removing some of, theflotation and/or weighing the ends and literallysinking the whole 'affair, lanterns and long linetogether.

At the end of the winter, the land end of the long:line will be followed outward until the first

container is encountered. This will then be raisedand cleaned ready for the second growingseason. In actuality, this operation is slightly moreinvolved. The last process is beaching the raft toprotect it,and allow it to be repaired. Overwintenngis unnecessary if the site does not freeze over andif thexitater is mild-enough not to destroyetiuiltiffhent. If the cold temperatures, silt, andfouling.do not kill the animals, if the ice does notdrag the modules away, and if all the' modules stayattached to the linelin one piece, one can start thenext growing season by simply pulling thecontainers up in April, Mi,, or June.

This process must be repeated until each yearclass of animals (all those animals which werebought in the same size range) reaches adult ,marketable size 50 to 60g, and 50 to 60mmdiameter. As each oyster reaches marketable size,'it is removed from the general population and,heldfor sale' Unfortunately, the process of over-. -wintering and growth leading to sale is complicatedby the pres'ence of other organisms.which competewith the oyster for its food and space, as well aspredatory organisms which do their best to makesure that there will not be any marketable oysters.The Sea Squirt (Bortryllus) and the mussel aremembers of the first category and the oyster drill,starfish,"and crab are members of the second .category. Each cultured organism such as theoyster and the mussel have their own particularnemesis which seems to be each animal's particularcurse. For example, mussel growers are oftenbeset,by 'Eider Ducks which strip the mussel linesclean. At one site, oyster growers might be up to.their eyes in sea squirts and at another site infestedwith oyster drills.

It should be understood "that one species such asmussels can often represent a major economic-loss -for aquaculturists growing another crop such asoysters. Because oysters grow at a slower ratethan mussels, the mussel can use the oyster as asetting medium and Outgrow it. This overcrowdingreduces the n4trients available to the oyster andincreases the fouling problems. Different glowershave combated this problem in different ways. Themost general procedure is to flush the undesirkdanimals off the oysters with a stream of highpreSsure water.

Most aquacultural operations face a common setof problems. deterioration of,equipment, over-wintering mortality, predation, diseases, andreduced-yields due to adverse environmentalfactors. Equipment will periodically be subject tosevere sea poundings and new equipment must be

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designed that will withstand this abuse while beingeasily serviceable cind low cost Even thoughaquaculture in the Northeast has not at this timebranched into the field of Vrge marine farms forhaivesting algae, and seaweeds. aquaculture hasalready produced an effeL updn otir areaAcquaculture'repre.senis a means of producingquality protein at relatively low energy inputs

4/Major Developments inOur Region's Aquaculture

The Maine Department of Marine Resources,(DMR) was the first in our area to become involvedinaqttaculture The Department has beeneacttve toexperiments dealing with the 'cultivation of many

.forms of marine life since 1966 Ithad the firstctiltured, oysters (Crassostrea utrgtritca and Ostreaedulis) in Spinney Creek and later in the MarshRivet in Brunswick, Maine *

Early in die 1970's the University of Maine, using 1state Sea Grant funds, built an aquaculture (add)at the Ira C Darling Center in Walpole TheDarling Center's program was designed to facjiitate rresearch into the feasibility of growing shellfis?inthe Northeast tt served as the focus around whichmuch, of the interest and expertise in the field ofaquaculture coalesced After the succeS441production of juvenile oysters at the center, the /University became involved in a program ofsupplying small oysters to growers. The concept ofthis informal program was to gather information onthe growth characteristics of the oysters growdeinthe Maine waters, while proA4ling assistance andguidance to the novice aquaculturists. Thisprogran) proved very successful in invoWed a largenumber of individuals in the aquacuttural field.

The major problems that confronted the growersat that time were getting enough seed, findingwhere to get the equipment necessary, knowingwhat the expecrd normal rate of winteringmortalities was, and dete<mining how4long would ittake to produce a marketable oyster Thequestions were all.very basic Few people wereeven aware of a second level of problems thatwould arise whkri they set about the task ofproducing osAters economically

By the mid 1970's, the problem of overwinteringthe oysteos was becoming critical The question

was not wh'ether to move animals to a shelteredlocttion duftng the winter, but where to movethem Massive nnortIVAduring the winter of1976-77 confirmed theft that suitable site -selection was one of the major concerns.

With each successive year, new problems willhave.to be roet ancrOverconne in the quest, toproduce a marketable oyster. Silting was a majorcause of elevated mortalities in the muddy growing

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areas. This was rectified by growing the oysters"oft the, bottom Fouling of the mesh cages byunde`Sirable organisms was the next major problem. .Frequent cleanings reduced the silting and allowedthe animals, to grow faster, but did not eliminatethe problem rt

The "floating tray" concept was developecoovercome this fouling and also to redo' e thedestructive fettces of bornig wo`rms (Torredo,) andencrusting barnacles The floating tray-was acontainer which would float pat-fully submergedSince the oysters were contained in the submergedhalf of'the tray, they would receive the advantages,of spending all their time in the water The traycould be flipped so fti,at the previously submergedhalf would now be exposed to the gun and air Thesystem seems simple in the y, especially since thetemperatures and nutrittw le els are both higher inthe upper portions of the wa r column Thissystem promises higher yield n horter times,while reducing the fouling problem

The floating tray system introduced a whole newset of problems At the present time, thany-growers are using the floating trays while manyothers are using submerged boxes or lanterns Itseems that the onty rule is "whatever works in ourarea is the system to use Growing seed in surfacetrays, however, appears to produc? elevated ratesof growth.

Totally subinerged containers were developed.simultaneously with'the floating trays as a meansof holding large numbers of animals in a relativelysmall space These containers were suspended offThe bottom by floats or runners and secured tb thesurface by a line. This system required the inter-vention df divers whenever the containers were putdown for the winter and raised in the summer, butit did effectively remove the animals from, theharsher surface environment during the wintermonths As with the floating trays, it seems thateach grower perfected a unique method of "puttinganimals down "

Prior to the present, most of the seed wasfrom hatcheries in California. Several local

hatcheries have been started in Maine in msponseto the need to obtain large numbers of high qualityseed These hatcheries encountered their ownunique types of problems

The next major problems with which to contendwere disease and genetically inferior seed By 1978;many of the growers were experiencing somemanifestation of the problem This resulted inhigher mortalities and longer.hatidlIng times whichsubstantially raised prices Oysters thai are lessthan perfect cannot be sold to the half shell',restaurant trade but must be sold at e much lowerpricey When the cost of handling is included, thisdifference could determine staying solventAlthough sea farming is an effective method of.supplying a few delicacies from the sea, it is

,becoming increasingly apparent that orily largescale, mechanized, and capitalized growers canrealize a profit, The,number of individuals who

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grow a few pussels or a few oyste,rs for homeconsumption has increased from the 1970's, butthe number df aquacultural businesses, has steadilydeclined ap the pioneenng aquacultunsts of theearly 1970's are slowly forced out of the market bylarge-scale growers.

In spite of there being fewer people involved inmussel culture, musselling has continued to be a

.major aquacultural business from its inception inthe early 1970's. Mussels have certain advantagesover oysters which allow them to be produced in arafting technique. This consists of hansing anobject, like a rope, from some floating device such

as an old automobileaire or other float Lines anbe spaced approximately two feet apart so that themussels will set on them This method leaves mot hto chance, so a latter refinement called fur "onion"bag tubes to be substituted for the ropes Themussels are-stuffed into bags and when theydevelop, they grow through the mesh andsubsequently attach to it This process ofharvesting and repacking the mussels may berepeated several times until the mussel has readiedmarketable size This type of culture method allowsthe animals to be grown off bottom, reducingsiltatkm and secleentation and provides an ample

Mussel Culture by Onion Bag Suspension

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supply cdfood by growing the organism closer tothe surface In addition, predation by snails, crabs,and starfish is reduced.

The mussel industry appears at present to haveadapted itself somewhat better to mechanizationthan the oyster industry Since the muss& industryhas been able to overcome some of the laborintensive problems which plague the oysterindustry, it 'appears that the mayor obstacle to themussel grower is one of public acceptance of theproduct..

Coho salmon and steelhead trout were theqrSttwo finfish cultured in northern New England.These species were not indigen6us to the area, so

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eggs had to be purchased frOm the Northwest. Tnefirst company, Maine Sea Farms, was located inGoose Pond at Cape Rosier. It was an abandoned'copper and zinc mine which was converted into anaquacultural enterprise by flooding it with seawater This farm was Nte large, boasting a 40 x

\ 50N 60 foot growing pen which had the capacity to\ produce about 300,000 smolts NI- year. Young

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clmon undergo the physiological changes known's smolting when they reach a weight ofproximately ten grams each. A second operation

was located at the oil-fired generation station inWiscasset and was known as the Maine SalmonFarms Their facilities were much smaller than the

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Mussel Culture by BiltigTire Suspension

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outfit at Cape Rosier being only 15 x i5 x 15,owing to the physical constriction at the growingarea.

A third fishery, the Island Fisheries, wasestablished on Vinalhaven Island, Maine. It utilizeda circular pen design of fifteen foot diameter in an

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attempt to reciuk e waft'ed,s'paie and more nearly«-inform to the houling and swim habits of thefish This smaller. unit could be covered and thusreduced losses stemming from small animals andbirds. At the momenf, ittic finfish farming is beingdone in our region

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The Blue Mussel (Mytilus edulis) belongs to thephylum Mollusca and the, class Bivalva. The bluemusselis a common inhabitant'of the intertidalareas of the Northeast and even the most cursoryexpedition to the shore will probably reveal thelocation of several clumps of mussels The musselis so prevalent in the intertidal ecology that marineecologists have used the locations where musselsset as a key to divide the intertidal area into zonesThe reason that ecologists can do this is bgcausethe forced which influence a mussel to set in aparticular area are not random but are highlyspecific. All marine organisms must have access tothe ocean if they are to survive. They require thismarine environment for several reasons 1) tomaintain their water balance 2) to reduce thedrying effect of the sun 3) to facilitate oxygen andcarbon dioXide transfer in as a food transfer ."medium and 5) as a means of diluting their wasteproducts. An organism that lives its full life in the

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ocean has all its needs met by that environment,but an organism that spends'part of its lifephysically removed from) the water is rn serioustrouble from anyone or.all of the factors listedabove All these factors are of vital impattunk e toour friend the mussel beLause it lives betikeentides

Those mussels which settle lust below the lowwater mark'exist in a rather normal sea life.bec,,,Ause they are never really out of the water'exceptduring times of extremely luw tides ur neaptides These mussels have.unly tt, close up theirprotective covers for a few hours to overcome thehardships of nature and soon they are bak k to therelative stability of the marine environment Whatabout mussels a little further up into the intertidal 4region? These animals are exposed to the land .

environment for several hours a day In thesummer they can suffer from high temperaturesWhat about the therm stress if low tide Oct. urs inthe middle of the day in the dead of winter? The

ambient or land tc(mperattire can easily be 30degrees Celsius warmer or 50 degreeCelsiuscolder than the water environment

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;The longer that an organism is out of its marine

environment the greater are the stresses upon itHigher or lower temperatures are one form ofstress, but there are others Mussels breathe bypassing water over their gills The oxygen dissolvedin the water diffuses into the gills and blood andthe carbon dioxide diffuses out into the water Thisis exactly the same process that occurs whenpeople breathe in spite of the fact that we inhaleair rather than water, the actual gas transferoc urs in the aquatic medium within our lungs,

is is a remnant of our developmental history asnn rine creatures Humans have developed thea ility to breathe air while affecting a gas exchange,t e mussel has not Its alternative is not to breathel actuality, it respires at a slower rate and alsop ssesses the ability to respire for a limited periodt

ttiout elemental oxygen at all Thi slowerrespiratory rate or slower metaboli coupled withits system of respiring without oxy en allows themussel to keep its shell closed in ad situations Aslong as the animal is out of Ovate' and can remainclosed with the water retained thin the shell, this

r(uater acts to cool the animal if he outsidetemperature, is hot and to war i it if the ambienttemperature is cold It will als reduce the dryingeffect of the environment an' allow the animal tomaintain a certain osmotic ater salt) balance Allthings being considered, th mussel has evolved avery ingeneous system w ch enables it to stayalive for a short period of time entirely removedfrom its nominal marine vironment '

The higher above se level the mussel lives, thelonger period of time it is out of water and themore stresses it exper ences There exists a point,above which mussels, annot cope with this stress,and that point is fair consistent for each speciesof mussel This is o e of the reasons why there is amussel band in the intertidal zone. There are manyMhe ctors-whic influence the depth of-themu zone othe than the few that have beenmen toned For ixample, the zone can beextended if there are tide pools which areconstantly been; recharged with water The mussel .

p population nm t be virtually wiped out of an area ifthere were a 'tgh concentration of starfish presentor some othe form of predator A colony ofmussels nni t be easily' ripped up if a storm weretoo severe Which would in turn depend upon thefrequency storms and the degree of shelter thesite provid d Along with these factors, the qualityof the env' onment and the competition with otherspecies m st 4so be considered

Mussel which are higher up in the intertidalzone do of fare all that badly when comparedwith the'r cousins lower down in the zone for, afterall, they will both survive unless the environment isexcept' roily severe The biggest difference l

betWe n a mussel that spends most or all of itstime i ./ water and the onethat spends a fairpOrticln of its life out of water is that whenever amussel is out of water, it can not feed It is theoceop which brings the animal its food Many of

the bivalves, including mussels7,--are lilter:li4ders,they obtain their 'food_by filtering water through

-their gills The gills also's'erve the function of lungsand thus when water is passed over the gills, theanimal is able to respire and eat by the samefunction. Since -a mussel lower in the intertidal willfilter feed fora longer' period of time than onehigher up in the zone, the,first ;.inirrial will growlarger and reach adulthood sooner This differentialgrowth rate is large For example. a mussel gi-owntinder optimal conditions can reach market size(5bmm) in less than eighteen months whereas thesame mussel would require eight years to reach thesame size if grown high up in the intertidal zone

This difference in growth period is especiallyimportant to the mussel aquaculturists becausemussels, like other shellfish, are subiect to a

parasitic infection by trematode and cestode larvaeas well as aearine eggs The mussel responds tothis invasion by walling the organism off with the-same material that it uses to produce new shellsDepending upon the location of the foreign body,the new shell material, might he black brown incolor, consisting almost entirely of cootreddish in hue and composed of prismatic materialand conchiolin, or whitish and consisting primarilyof macreous material We know these substancesas mother of pearl, and we recogr ,ze the outcomeof this isolation procedure awa peat I Pearls frommussels have no commere'iar value but they dopresent a, problem for the aquacultunst The pearlcan do a great deal of damage if someone bitesdown on it Cultivated mussels, on the other hand,will reach marketi size before the pearl can becomebig enough to Minch in your teeth

Mussels eat by filtering the water across the gillsmuch like sand cartille sifted through different sizenriesh'Scwens The particles that' are too large.remain in the water, and only the proper sizeparticles are directed via ciliary motion towards themouth The rejected particles are coated with -a -

mucous material and expelled as "pseudo feces"which contribute to the fouling problem nehigher the concentration of food organism, in thewater, the faster the mussel will grow provided thefood is nutritionally adeqtlate The end result ofthis feasting is a healthy. plump, little mussel readyto provide a low cost protein reserve.

The mussel filters out of the water anyorganisms that are the right size forsconsunnption,regardless of the nutritional value of the organismor whether or not the food is good or had forpeople One group of planktonic organisms thatare definitely had for people is the phytoplanktonwhich causes red tide In the Northeast, red tide iscaused by the organism Gonyaulax tamarensisThis organism possesses a chemical which iscapable of inducing a neurological dysfunction inhumans, but is harmless to the shellfish thatconsumes it Because the toxin effects the nervoussystem and results in a partial,paralysis of thevictim, the disease is referred To as ParalyticShellfish Poisoning (PSP). Since the red tide 7

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organism responds much like other forms ofplankton, there will be a dramatic Increase in theirnumbers whenever the environmental factors arefavorable This is referred to as a bloom, and it isduring these blooms that the taking of shellfish isprohibited from infected areas along the coast. Thefact that mussels exhibit a rapid filtering ratemakes them more dangerous during these times,because of the large number of organisms andsubsequently toxin, that can be concentrated. It ispossible for mussels to concentrate certain agentssuch as toxins, heavy metals, and other chemicalswithin their bodies For example, it has beendemonstrated that the nnuwl can increase thetoxin concentration 50,000 tinnel,above ambientconcentrations This behavior ig known asbioconcentration

Life starts out for the mussel in open Watersbecause mussels go not generally hold the fertilizedeggs within shell space In response to a variety offactors such as temperature, change in the lengthof the daylight, phases of the moon, and thepresence of other animals, the female mussel willrelease between five and thirty five million eggs intothe water The male responds by releasing milt intothe water and the chance union of sperm and eggsresults in the generahon'of a baby mussel (zygote)These young mussels are unprotected frompredators in the environment and mortality rataare staggering This is one explanation why the*are so many eggs released The fertilized eggdevelops rapidly, becoming a larva in a few daysThe larva remains afloat for several weeks byclinging to a piece of floating debris or by trapping.air between its shells The young nnus<el willeventually settle to the bottom or some othersuitable substrate anci5attach itself via adhesivethreads called byssal threads The organism doesretain a foot with a sucker at its tip and so themussel is capable of movement throughout its adult'life. Most remain on the substrate to which theyinitially attach

There are distinctive developmental stagesthrough which many bivalves go as they matureEach of these different stages presents uniqueproblems for the organism to overcome Most ofthe animals do not survive and this explains whywe are not up to our ears in mussels One couldgo through the calculation of a ten cm organismproducing a twenty million viable offspring everyyear for three years to see how long it takes tocover the earth with mussels It was the prodigeousreproductive rate of the oy&ter which causedphilosophers to wonder why the earth was not onebig oyster.

As the mussel matures it settles on suitablesubstrate The problem is that the mussel cannotsettle just anywhere It requires a complexcombination a-chemical and physical cues before itwill send out byssal threads and become sedentary.Getting out of the water column means that it 4Sreratively safe from certain predators It alsoreduces the competitive pressures for food and

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space sin«e it is entering on eti1/4aronnient that manymarine creatures tans it entct lli stanolicity lifein a new emininnient possesses a vdiol iii w scLofproblems Predators h as tlit dint whelk 17 huislapillus), rock cabs (Cancer irrurutus), and drills(Urosqlphinx) as well as starfish are (onstatit. threatsto the mussels.

The OysterThe oyste belorfgs to the phylum Mollusca and

the class Biva va There are two species of oysterscultivated in the Northeast the iidigenousAmerican oyster (Crossiostena uirginica) and theimported European oyster (Ostrae edulis) Eachanimal is unique as to its requirements for optimalgrowth and its ability to survive arid prosper inNew England waters The external anatomy andphysiology of the yster is very similar to the bluemussel There is, ,owever, a major differencebetween these two members of the (las BivalvaThe mussel can exist for d relati1/4,ek lung period ofout of the water, the Oyster (Annul It is true thatan oyster, especially a Crossiostt .,u uirginku (ansurvive for several hours out of tit, water byemploying many of the tricks that a mussel use.However, nature has not pri/cidt:d the oyster withall the attributes that it would need to colonize thisnew environment For this reason, there is nooyster band analogous to the mussel hand in theintertidal tone, hot- will onc likely find oysters justunder the waters edge at low tide The oystervicements itself thoroughly to the substrate where itliterally sets and it is there that it will spend therest of its life. Neither the American nor theEuropean oyster can tolerate temperatureextremes as Well as the mussel Exposure to sub-freezing winds in winter or blistering heat duringthe summer presents a stress that would kill all butthe most hearty oysters.

The Crassiosteria is much more tolerant of coldthan the European oyster. There are reports ofCrassiosteria being frozen into blocks of ice withapparently little)iarnn once they were thawed out.The same,cannot be said forthe Gstrae This coldtolerance is a major factor In growing oysters. Aswinter approaches, the oysters must be put downfor the winter or over wintered. This process is'very time-consuming and expensive. It ofteninvolves one or two divers and several days

The American oyster thrives on slightly brackishwater (15 parts per thousand 0/00) but isrelatively slow growing They do not do well whenplaced in a truly marine envilbnrnent (35 0/00) andthus are confined to estuaries and growing'ponds.Since estuary land is at a premium in our area andbecause of the many droblenns encountered inestuaries, a new type of oyster was required which

-could grow in the marine environment.The European oyster was just what the growers

wanted. It is capable of attaining a marketable size

(50 to 60mm) in two or three years Since this typeof oyster would have to -be introduced into thearea, a struggle developed between the people whofavored the intro4uction of the Ostrae and thosewho opposed it. ne side argued that since theOstrae could not reproduce in our cold waters, itrepresented no threat to the Crassiostena andshoulde allowed as a means of developing theaquacultural industry The other side maintainedthat if the European oyster were growncontinuously in the colder climate, it wouldeventually acclimate to the cold waters and woulddevelop the ability to reproduce here. This wouldresult, it was felt, in the competitive elimination. ofthe Crassiostena because it was simply a slowergrowing animal After much debate the Ostrae wasintroduced and at present many growers produceboth oysters.jointly

The oyster is a filter feeder with an internalanatomy amazingly similar to the blue mussel.Because it lives in the same area, eats similarfoods, and has a similar make -up, the oyster hasmany of the problems that plague the mussel. It issubject to parasitic infections and will produce apearl in certain conditions in response to theseinfections. In the case of the oyster, the pearl maybe of considerable value Since the oyster willconsume the Gonyaulax organism it issubsequently another cause of PSP in peOple.

The oyster is enclosed in two half shells and istherefore a bivalve The two shells are noticeablydifferent in shape. The left valve is flat and the rightvalve is convex There is a pronounced umbo orbump with growth lines radiating outward from it.The presence of this umbo is so distinctive that itmarks a particular developmentM stage in theoyster's metamorphosis. The two types of oysters(Crassiosteria uirginica and Ostrea edulis) aremarkedly different in their adult morphology. Theuirginica is shaped like a shoe horn being two tothree times as long as it is wide. The edulis is muchmore rounded, with the length and width ratiobeing cldse to one Thi difference in shaperequires different mesh izes during grow out ofeach species.

Finfish FarmingFinfish belong to the phylum Chordata and the

class Osteichthyes. They are mobile and inhabitboth the fresh and marine waters.'Upon firstglance, they resemble humans more than shellfish.Fish, after all, have parts we easily recognize:backbones, eyes, a nose, a mouth, a Wry human-like digestive system and many have bones thatbear a striking resemblance to the bones in ourhands and feet.

In the Northeast, various people have cultivatedseveral basic types of finfish: Rainbow trout (Salmogairdneri), Brown trout (Salmo trutta),-Brook trout

s,(Saluelinus frontinalis), Atlantic salmon (Salmo

salar), and Coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch).At the present time, no one has attempted toculture either the channel catfish (ktaluruspunctatus), the Milkfish (Titania) or the Pike (Esox)though all these species have been successfullycultivated for many years in other parts of theworld.

In a hatchery situation, the problems of over-crowthig, stressinduced diseases, and bacterialand viral infections are present regardless ofwhether one is producing fish fry or oyster spat.The problems that fish farmers have growing a fishcrop are very similar to the problems a land-basedfarmer has growing a crop of pigs, sheep, orrabbits. Both types of animals must receive anutritious diet, they must be separated from theirown waste products, and they must nqt be undulystressed if they are to have optimal growth rates.The difference between the agriculture farmer andthe aquaculture farmer is the,ease with which theserequirements can be met. Since fish dump theirwastes directly into the water, it is necessary tochange or flush the water regularly. A sheep canbe fed by,walking out into the field and dropping abale of hay which the sheet; can eat until the hay isgone. The fish farmer is faced with the problemthat fish must be fed during a specific time and anyof th4 unconsumed feed will sink to the bottomand provide an excellent substrate for bacteriawhich may lead to a problem later. Overfeeding isless of a problem with shellfish. They'can be fedcontinuously with little adverse effect. Fish,however, are stressed every time that they are fedso the feedings are kept to a minimums It has alsobeen shown that overfeeding a colony of oystersand mussels does not predispose the colony to abacterial infection as is so often the case with fish.

Stress is a major factor which must beconsidered when raising the more developed fish.One of the manifestations of this advanceddevelopment is an increased susceptibility to stressinduced by overcrowding, thermal shock, poornutrition, and bacterial infection. Whenever anorganism is grown at high population density it ismore subject to infections than'en animal grown atloWer population density. This propensitydemonstrates itself both by a direct increase inmortality due to diseases and an indirect mortalityinduced by secondary infections. Both the shellfishand the finfish share the first problem. The secondproblem is of particular interest for the fish farmer.Fish are more subject to abrasion when raised in aconfined area than are shellfish. Even healthy adultfish succumb to a secondary infection induced by

'mechanical abrasion. Once shellfish reach "ccertainsize, mortality ratp-Altops off substantially, unlessthere is some catastrophe.

Adulthood is no sanctuary for the fish. Finfishmust be held in a very intensive aquaculturalsystem for their entire lives as opposed to ashellfish which can almost be "dumped Into thebay "_Therefore, finfish farming represents anextensive aquaculture. The finfish farmer has a

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substantial investment in etch adult fish The lossof a single animal is to be avoided if at all possible,so the fish farmer will more than likely have courseto use antibiotics in an attempt to kegreSnimalshealthy The problem with this approach is thatfeeding the antibiotic is the most effective way toadminister the drug bathing the animal in thedrug being ineffective, and injectili being toostressful and time consuming. However, there arevery few antibiotics which are both effective againstthe disease and certified safe by the federalgovernment.

The LobsterThe largest phylum in the animal kingdom is

Arthropoda, which includes animals with jointedlegs The American Ibbster (Homarus americanus)belongs to a group of arthropods calledCrustaceans The lobster is distinguished fromother crustaceans, such as the crabs, by the largeabdomen. It has five,pairs of legs Thischaracteristic of haring ten legs provides the namedecapoda or'ten-leggers to lobsters, crabs, crayfishand similar relatives The first pair end in pincersand are larger than the rest. -rh lobster is ustiallyright-clawed; that is, the large c usher claw is onthe right while the smaller pine er claw is on theleft. a

While living on the bottom, the lobster moveseasily on the tips of its slender crawling legs.During this process, it keeps its large clawsextended forward to reduce resistance as it movesthrough the water Since the lobster weighs less inthe water than in the air, its movement in thewater is much more graceful than the strainedcrawling we observe on thesink or on the table.

fcri; Tlierrit5n prirtAly through the rhythmicWhk,irveying its territcry, the lobster maintains

beatinS,of its swimmekts.If startled or in danger; the lobster can swim

rapidly by flexing its powerful abdomen ,or tail. Thisflexing results in a fast, backward movement of thelobster with.its legs streaming behind.

The lobster can be found in the Atlantic coastalwars and in estuaries from eastern Canada to themiddle Atlantic coast, from Bell Isle in Labrador toNorth Carolina. It is commonly found in the watersof the New England coast where it is mostabundant. The lobster is a bottom dweller. It livesamong rocks and in mud burrows seeking t14protection ofiseaweed, kelp, and other marinegrowths.-The lobster, as far as it presently known,is relatively non-migratory, only moving off-shoreinto deeper waters during the cold months, andreturning to the coastal shoals during the springand summer months.

Lobsters reproduce by the Physical union of tvttosexes. The female can only mate shortly aftermolting She haS a special organ called a spermreceptacle, where she stores the sperm from the

male until the eggs are ready to be extruded. Thesperm remains vital within the female's receptaclefor penods in excess of a year When the female isready to4py her eggs, she turns on her back andflexes her abdomen. The eggs then flow from hergenital openings at the bases of the second pair ofwalking legs over the receptacle where the eggs arefertilized by the previously storedIperm. Thefertilized eggs bgcome attached by a naturaladhesive to the female's swimmerets. The femalecarries these eggs until they are hatched. She isoiled a "berried," "seeder," or "spawn lobster"crunng this period. The eggs usually are cementedin bunches to the swimmerets and one female maycarry from 9,000 to 100,000 eggs.

The young go through a change anti afterhatching bear very little resemblance to the adult.The little lobster has a tiny rounded body. Thelength of time required for a typical young lobsterto grow to maturity is about 208 days. It isestimated that during this period, a lobster willgrow from a width of one millimeter to fivecentimeters. The life of a lobster usually rangesfrom three to fifty years or more, attaining a 500gram mass (about a poind) in f9ur to seven years.

The lobster is completely enclosed in a more or --less continuous hard-shelled coveirng, hinged likesuit of armor. This hard shell is incapable ofexpansion, so, in order to accommodate increasedsize due to growth, the lobster has to shed its shellfrom time to time. It does this by backing out of itsshell.

The lobster gives warning of an approaching_molt several days in advance. A black line appearsjust within the back margins of the outermostsegments of the swimming legs. This line changesto white then to red two or three days before themolting. Fishermen call the lobster in this conditiona "shedder,"

At the moment of molting the top shell orcarapace begins tomove away from the abdomenand a crack appears in each side of the shell goingalmost to the mouth. The bad( part of the bodybegins to stick out through,/he ap. At this time,the lobster usually lies motionless, but it can swimquite actively if disturbed The carapace is liftedhigher andll-rear walking legs begin to be titwithdrawn.

The only time the female lobster can beimpregnated is when she has freed herselfcompletely from her old shell. The lobster remainssoft for a short time only, for within two days thenew shell has hardened. Molting is an exhaustingprocess and dangerous because the lobster isdefenseless at this time.

The American lobster has two kinds bf senseorgans a pair of eyes and two pairs of antennaecovered with sensory hairs. Thoygh the eyes areprininent because of their size, the lobster's visionmay not be very keen and not very useful in brightlight. Like the eyes of insects, those of the lobsterare compound, with perhaps as many as 111,000lenses. There are suggestions, however, that

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different facets on the 'lobster's compound eye aresensitive to diffeknt light intensities. This mightmean that the lobster's sight is more effective thanpreviously thought

The function of smelling is performed by tolfactoiy hairs, which are found all over thlobster's body, with concentrations on the firstantennae and mouth parts These hairs aresensitive to chemical and tactile stimuli. As thecurrents send fine particles from live prey or fromdecaying organic matter, tnescolfactory hairscatch,,the scent and lead the lobster of its food.The lobster uses its pincers to rip and tear its foodand push it into its mouth,

A lobster can cast off a limb and grow a new onein its place This serves as a means of escape fromits enemie,s The growth of a netu limb begins atonce with the formation of a bud beneath the scarleft by the breaking off of the old limb The budtakes on the shape of a limb, indistinguishablefrom the former limb after a few molts

The lobster fisheries of Northern New.8ngland ,

yield a catch of millions of kilograms annually.These are exclusively lobsters called "selects"which are lobSters caught inshore and which weighunder one and one -half kilograms. The mostabundant size in this group is the "chicken" lob;terwhich has just molted into the legal minimum size"Chickens" weigh 500 grams or less. Maineprohibits the taking of large lobsters from offshorewaters by draggers.

Jnshore lobsters are caught-in traps set on theocean floor from twenty meters to several

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kilometers apart in from five to Milt -fathoms ofwater (1 fathom is 6 feet or about 2 meters). Thetraps are usually baited with fish cidtutags.,to attractthe lobster. A new pelle(ed bait is currently beingdeveloped which could be more convenient andless expensive. The 21.4 million lobsters caught inMaine in 1964 wasthe effort of 754,000 traps. -

Lobster may be placed in lobster cars or lobsterfloats to await sale. These are large, compcirtmentalized wooden boxes which lobstermen moornear ?heir boats. The lobsier car is divided intosegments. The lobsters arecheckcd for shellcondition and size and put into appropriatecompartments. Some lobsters are held in lobsterpounds, which attempt to provide a "natural home"and are fed until sent to market. Lobster potindsare sometimes dammed off coves along the coast.They have the advantage of being naturallycleansed by the,changes in the tide. However, thens of disease among lobsters stored in pounds is

, therefore, the lobsterni4n.runs theconstant risk of losing the catch while holding themawaiting the higher prices of wintoR-.

The lobster, along with prawns or shrimp(Pincieus), are likely.dandidates for intensiveaquaculture in the Northeast. The lobster is amarine organism as is the prawn, hlthough certainshrimp are freshwater organisms. The largest singleproblem encountered when cultivating either ofthese groups of crustaceans is the fact that theyare cannabalistic A second problem, especierilywhen dealing with the lobster, is its slow growthrate. In 5°C water it may require sevAl or eight <,

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years for a lobster to reach market size.Researchers in Martha's Vineyard have succeededin reducing the growth times in half by growing theanixnalsfi warmed water, but this induces at errn@:stress and predisposes the lobster tobacterial infections. It was also determined that themeats were not flavorful and lacked the desiredtexture, altkough,this problem might be overcomeby "finishing" the animals colder w,aters.

It appeais that the idea of reducing the timerequired to reach market size by elevating thewater temperatures needs more work. Emile Plantedeveloped the idea of putting individual lobstersinto their own cylindrical containers which weremounted one on top of the other and affectionatelyknown as the lo "Hilton." By-keeping theanimals out of sight ther lobsters the aggressivenature of the animals as reduced andcannabalism was impossible. This design did notreduce the interval of ,time required to producemarketable animals but could be a-tow costsolution to the problem of cannibalism.

Algae CultureAt present the Oilly!form of intensive algae

culture which is practiced in the Northeast isgrowing algae as a food for, shellfish in hatcheries.Algae can also be prown commercially and is usedin a vanety of ways. It can be harvested as a fooddirectly as is Insh Moss, Chrondus crispus, and theJapanese delicacies Nor, Porphyra, and Ddlse,Rhodymenia. Many of the red, green and brownseaweeds can be used in salads. Because algaecontains a complex mix' of minerals, it has beenused as a fertilizer for hundredg of years. Algaealso produce a widgkonely of chemicals which areindispensible in our modern society, especiallyemulsifiers, which are.used for everything from icecream to beauty creams.

Algae can also be harvested and converted toalcohol or.dried and burned directly. The largeralgae such as kelp, Laminana, attcl certain aquaticplants such as duckweed, Lemna, and waterhyacinth Echornia, are especially promising in thisrespe'ct. Since these aquatic plants are extremelyfast growing, they use up a great deal of nutrientsin the water and are therefore helpful in purifyingthat water. They also share the ability tobioconcentrate certain toxic chemicals within theirbodies and therefore offer a possible route for thedetoxification of polluted waters.

Singl cell algae.are-receiving increasing attentionas a tiefirce of protein referred to as Singe CellProtein (SCP), ancithany nutritional studies havebeen conducted using this type of algae. Whatone can do with algae is limited only by\tmaginationand budget. Profit figures from some of theexperiments in growing algae indicate flat thissource will soon becorrte a valuable addition to theother aquacultural enterprises. ,

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Other AquaculturalSpecies

. There are several other speues which have beencultured in the Northeast. These species includethe Bloodworm (Blyeera dtbranchtata), Eels(Anguilla), Frogs (Rana) and both bay scallop,(Argopecten irradans) and the deep sea scallop(Patinopecten yessoensis), as well as the Europeanscallop (Pecten maximus), Much more inforrnation

,must be gathered about the life cycles of theSeanimals before they will be suitable for an intensiveaquacultural system But each species holds itsown unique promise for the future

Certain members of this list are very difficult tocultivate, especially the Scallop, because of itsextremely delicate juvenile stages Other Speuessuch as he eels have been harvested in anextensive system for the last hundred years in thiscountry

As anyone whO has read In Search of the BlueEyed Scallop by Euell Gibbons will testify, there isalmost nothing that is safe from the foragers in theRocky intertidal zone in the Northeast The slipperlimpet (Crepidula), sea urchins(Strongylocentrotus) and even the commonperiwinkle (Littonna) will all be considereddeliciously fair game for the ar&nt epicureanforager. Even though these animals are not, as ofyet, intensively cultivated, the first step towardscultivation is a demand from people.

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Mussl DissectionThe dissection of shellfish requires care because

mussels have few colored organs. There are,however, many,things that can be readily seen andthe observations made during dissection can serveas the basis for discussion.

The dissection deals specifically with the Bluemussel, Mytilus edulis, but will apply equally well tomany of The other bivalves (oysters Ostrgeedulis, Crassiosteria virginica, soft shell clams, Myaannaeres, hard shell clams, Mercenaria, and bayscallops, Aquipecten). Specific. mention of certainother bivalves is made throughout this dissectionand if a specimen of one or more of these animalsis included, the scope of the experience will beincreased. It is; however, not necessary to haveany other shellfish present to'conduct a dissectionof the blue mussel.

The mussel should be opened and dissected insalt water to reduce the damage to the gill andmantle structures, and the initial cutting of theadductor mussels requires a sharp knife. For thesereasons, it is suggested that the teacher providestudents with precut specimens or'allow two tothree animals for the student te'practice on" priorto starting the dissection. The problem with bivalvedissection is that one does not know what is insidethe shell.until it is opened 4nd careless opening ofan animal will destroy delicate structures.

External Anatomy .

There are several things to obkrve about theoutside of the mussel. Figures for this dissectionare found in the pocket. You will want to refer tothem. as you read the following background onmussel anatomy. The first is the presence ofconcentric rings on the shells. These are growthrings and there is a direct relationship between thespacings between the ringi and the environment,exactly analogous to a tree's ring system. The twovalves of the mussels are equal in size; however,shell equivalence varies among the bivalves.Scallops and oysters exhibit a marked differencebetween shells, the right valve being flat and theleft convex. Shell morphology reflects growthpattern and is characteristic of each species,though pronounced irregularities can occur underdisease conditions.

The next thing to observe is the presence of thebyssal threads, especially apparent if the musselwas collected along with the substrate. These

tl

:JP

threads are laid down within a few minutes andprovide the mussel with the ability fo hold on. Ifyour catch oftriussels includes some kill attachedto their substrate, it might be profitable to have thestudents try to pull the mussels free. Care shouldbe used in handling the shell, however, as theedges can be quite sharp.

Some mussels collected may have small holes intheir shells. These holes may go partially orcompletely.through the shell?and are the work ofdrills which attach themselves to the shells. Thedrill rasps the shell Away until it can feast on thehelpless mussel inside. Drill holes are very regularin shape and are the size of a pencil point.

The last external feature to note is the presenceof a-cartilaginous, rubbery material on the back ofthe shell. This acts like a hinge and allows themussel to open the two way valves by a pivotingaction which will be discussed later. If the organismis healthy, none of the internal organs, mantle, gills,bsiphon, or foot should be protruding from the shell.

Internal Anatomy.Orient the mussel in the hand as shown in

Figure 4 of the pocket section. Familiarize yourselfwith the four exterior areas (anterior,or head end;posterior, or rear end; dorsal, or top area; ventral,or bottom area) and sides (left and right valves, seeFigure 3). If mussels have been cooled at 2-3°Cfor a half hour prior to dissection, addtietormuscles will be relaxed and the process of openingshells will be simplified. Insert a flexible knife at thearea shown in Figure 4, and gently slide it acrossthe interior,of the upper, left valve. Care should betaken to keep the knife blade from damaging theinternal organs, which will be located in the centralregion of the mussel, Three major muscle groupswillhave to be severed before the shell can beeasily lifted to expose the organs: (1) posterioradductor, (2) foot retractor muscles, and (3)anterior adductor muscle: The posterior is largestin size, and the most easily cut. The anterioradductor may be located and cut aftet the othertwo muscle groups have been cut, allowing thevalves to gape. If there is not a marked relaxationfollowing your cutting motion, you may have torepeat it, always seeking to avoid damaging inflpnalorgans, particularly the delicate gills. The hingeligament is positioned so that the valves areopen in a relaxed made. The shells or .valves areheld closed by the constriction of the adductormuscles. When these are relaxed, the valves willnaturally open (see Figure 5 and 6 of the pocketsection).

17

' 28.

diesector,Williminediately beconfronted, by,ortUnate.,44:thatalmost everything.ineide a

,ussefis ,Sarne.colpr.-Aleo, many organs-are,7s ped and..tend to overlay each other.

ote;eXarniiiing:theurgane, you.shouldexaminedell nterior "WWhen all miscles havebeeh

seyeredilift theleft valye-up and locate the pallial..:.--fint;ISee Figure 7),.whiat marks the-place where;the mantle attaches:, The inner layer of sheltiecompletelsidifferent in'texture and color from theexteriorportiOn_bf the shell. This is because theshellAs.riOt one material but is COmposed of layers

, ofdifferent thateria14, If it were possible to observe,thectosesection.of the. shell under a microscope,

. three,,,,distinct lagers-would become apparent: theinnettir.Peristracurn layer, - .composed. of*other of,pearl), and two outer crystalline layerscomposed of talcitun carbonate-andconchiolin.

The location and _number of theadductormuscles is highly variable among bivalves and cam'be used as an identification. aid when a :dried shellis located.on the beach.

In certain bivalves, the mantle, is fused ventrallyand attached td the shell, but in the mussel, themaritleis sed ventraPy,,nor is it attached-to

ell.-Because of.this distinction, it is possibleto' identify dried shells of different bivalves by thepresence Or absence of the pallial line: It shouldalso: be noted. that in certain bivalves, this pallial

. line,is deformed into a sinus by_thepresenceof the exhalent siphon. Adried shell can tell you elot about the animal that lived in that shell. It canalso be used as a rough, identification aid toseparate certain members of the class Bivalva suchaslinussels from clams. Theshape'oT the,pallialsinussives:you an idea of the importance of.the

:,.,lexhalent siphon td" the animal. Burrowing, animalsfdepend Upon ,this .organ more than non-burrowinganimals. The number and location of the adductor'muscles can also be used as.an identification aid. Itis:,sugested..that to fully demonstrate thedifference; described above, the teacher shouldobtain:a dried scallop, mussel, and clam shell,

With the left -hand shell rernoved,those 'strucluresdepiCtedin Figute8(pocket section)should be visible.1-he. structure which completelysurrounds thebody,of the organism much like ablanket is -the. mantle, Oneofthe functionof themaritle" is fhe.:Productionpfnevi shell material,:thoughif..cen.assumeseveraidifferent functiOnsdepending-Upon the species of .the animal and theatagezcifdevelopitent,,In the mussel, the mantle isnot fused elongthe- Ventral _border. You may findlhafin,cutting,the adductor musclee'to open the,yaliy.sAtotteut,thespantle,,with.portiOnsadhering,jotioth,valyes.-Manibiyalves,such as _the scallop_ .

;and, oyeter4poSeirs% wellIdevelbped, fold of themantleknOwAas.the velum or pallial curtain; This

-often; possesses seniorY:cellsalcingthe marginalacts, as a (O44,gathering device,

Wdtifol$97-40;Water,e,';',internal'prganSof.theblvalve.carthe,diyided

intoigrOUPitiy,thekfunctionS:j4respiringendior

t .ea ting,"(2) locomotion, (3) reproduction, and .(4)musculature. Each of these organ systems may bethought of as a separateentity for the purpos ofhis dissectiont but it must be remembered that .

severalorgans Mayunction together at any onetime. x

The gill is actually composed of two W-shapedctertidium, fused along the dorsal surface (seeFigures 8, 9, 10 of the pocket section). Afterexamining the left gill in place (for location, refer toFigure 7 of the pocket section), you may remove itby lifting and cutting carefully along its entirelength. You. will find- that it is attached to the mainmass of organs along a rather straight line fromthe mouth area to the posterior adductor muscle.Care should be exercised not to accidentallyremove the kidneys, while doing this (see Figures 11and 12 of the pocket section). When the gill is.-removed, the digestive organs should be easily :-exposed, although the dissector should not plan onexercising the entire -digestive tract, as the organs -

are poSitioned in layers:The digestive system of bivalves consists of an

esophagus,- stomach, digestive diverticulum, midgutor intestine, and hindgut or rectum. Water isdrawn over the ctenidia and die food particles aresorted out and covered with a mucous material.This food package is carried towards-the labialpalps. and the mouth by tiny.hairlike projections .

from the cell. These projections are called, cilia andtheir beating createsa current directed towards themouth. On reaching the pains, the food is sorted.The,material which is small enough to be acceptedpasses onward and the larger material is passed

-outward-towards the peripheryof the mantle. Theiiiicus-hound food enters the mouth from the -oralgroove of the. palps and moves to the stomach viaa short escophagus, Once the food reaches thestomach and intestine it is subjected to.mechanicalabrasion by .the crustal styleand chemicaldegradation by. the enzymes and chemicals in -theseorgans. Food is sorted by ciliary ction andconveyed to the digestive diverticulum andeverittially,is,excreted at the. anus into the cavity ofthe Shell.11ereqhd feces (the matter .whic haspassed.thrOugh the digestive tract) and the Pseudo-feces (the-Material Which was rejected at the labialpall's) are bOth discarded through the excurrentsiphohtO The outside.

The footji the Organ of locomotion. In animalssuch as the. soft-shelled clam, the foot is used toborrow. Burrowing is accomplished by extendingthe footihrtlugh the mud and then causing theterrninal(enaportiOnof this organ to swell, actingas an inchOr. When the foot-issecured,.the-retractor_musclee which normally retract the foot,are contracted, and, since the.footis secured, thebody,moyee toward the foot rather than vice versa.,Certain bivalves such as thShard Shelled clainhave'devAped a,w,edge.shaped ioOt to facilitatethis buff:owing, action, ThiSmeAge.,shatied 'foot 1st&pronounced that the arinnal derives the name of its'Order from if wedge or hatchet' iciOt PerecPP04

9

As the organism developed-from the burrgwingto the sedentary mode of life, it developed a meansof securing itself to hard substrates, called thebyssal structure. Since the mussel is a creaturewhich clings to its substrate, you would expect toobserve this byssal apparatus...Externally, thethreads are easily apparent; internally, they can beSeen to originate frorri the foot structure proper.

When tree organism became more sedentary, thesize of the foot decreased and the size of thebyssal threads increased. The byssal apparatusfunctions in two ways to secute the animal to itsenvironment In the case of the mussel, threads are,produced which act as guy wires to secure theanimal In the case of the oyster, a gland producesa cementing agent which secures the animaldirectly to its substrate. The mussel foot isattached to the shell by a series of retractormuscles, and it is connected to the other organs bya blood and nervous systern. It should be possible,to locate the foot, which you Will probably find"tucked" forward, almost under the mouthapparatus .c

The gonads usually lie in the. foot below thevisceral mass, and `depending upon the species andtime of year, their size can be highly variable. Manyof the bivalves are functionally.

forming sperm and ova in different parts of thesame gonad Other bivalves can change their sexin response to the need to balance the number ofmales and females within the population. This sexchange can occur either as a single event orseveral times. during the lifetime of the animal.Fertilization occurs externally, although the alma)may hold the fertilized eggs within the shell (supra-granchilal cavity) in response to adverr environ-mental conditions. The hermaphroditic nature ofmany of the bivalves is clearly demonstrated in thescallop, where the fully developed gonad isobserved as a large creamy white testis lying dorsalto a bnght orange or red ovary. In the mussel, thegonad is one color.

19

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After you try the dissection yourself, duplicateand distribute the mussel dissection figures fromthe pocket to your class. You may want to usethree days for this dissection. Day one could beu4-ed"for introduction and external anatomy alongwith comparison with other bivalves using eitherliving organisms or their dried shells. Day twocould be opening practice along with an overviewof internal anatomy with dissection groups workingalong with the teacher. Day three could becomplete dissection of a whole mussel and/or anadditional organism such as an oyster or follow-updiscussion.

Mussels may be collected or purchased from thesupermarket or fish market. They may be kept.aweek or so in'the refrigerator without water orreturned to the refrigerator after partial dissectionto wait for the next class. There is no need to useany kind of preservative. Be sure you are aware oflocal and state ordinances and pollution conditionsbefore you collect mussels. More information canbe obtained from the State Department of MarineResources

A Note On Safe Collecting Of Marine Organisms

If you plan to collect specimens, it is always a good idea tocheck first by telephone with the Marine Patrol Officer of theDepartment of Marine Resources who is responsible for thetown where your field tnp will take place There may be a localshellfish ordinance with which you must comply, a ban on somespecies due to Red Tide, or the area may be dosed due topollution of other types

If the growth conditions of light, temperature, nutrient level,and salinity are in certain propoitions, there may be a bloom ofRed Tide. This occurs when the dominant phytoplanktonspecies which multiply rapidly under these ideal growthconditions is Gonyaulax tortiorensis. These phytoplanktonproduce chemical substances within their cells that are toxic toanimals Filter feeders such as dams, mussels, and oystersconcentrate the toxin in-their systems Whelks, snails, andothers that eat the filter feeders also become toxic When aperson eats these creatures, he or she may suffer from. paralyticshellfish poisoning (PSP) which can result in illness and deathFish,.crabs, and lobster contact this phytoplankton only.indirectly, do not concentrate the toxin, and are safe to eat

It is illegal to collect lobsters in any stage of developmentlarval through adult Other marine organisms may be collectedwithout a license when collected in small quantities It isenormously important if you feel it is necessary to collect, thatyou stress conservation and make plans for effective, humanetransportation of the living things back to school

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30'

Water and NutrientPassage in Mussels

Place a live mussel in a container of sea waterand observe its movements. When the musselbegins to filter, add some carmine powder,!obtainable from science supply houses. Observethe filter currents. Then determine where waterenters and where it exits. After about twentyminutes dissect the mussel carefully and observewhere the carmine powder has collected.

Eating Mussels

There are many foods eaten throughout the worldWhich are seldom eaten in America, like mussels. Itseems that most Americans prefer a hamburger andfrench fries to french fr,ied squid and seaweedsoup. But, how rridnAmencans have ever triedsquid or seaweed?

Have your class investigate and discuss thevarious types of food consumed in foreigncountries that are seldom eaten in America. Nextdecide which ones might be available to you andtry them as a class. Many specialty foods can be4purchased at grocery stores or you may be able toget leads as to where they can be found. Several

,good recipes for Mussels follow,

RecipesMake sure all the mussels are alive (they closetightly when touched). Wash them well and pull ofthe byssus threads or "beard."

Steamed Mussels2 quarts cleaned mussels1 onion, chopped1 cup dry white wine or

1 cup water plus 1/4 cupvinegar or 1 cup apple cider

1 bay leafparsley1/4 tsp thyme*1/4 tsp pepper3 tbl. butter*

Put all ingredients in a large covered pot and bring quickly toa boil Shake the kettle often so that the mussels cook evenlySteam over medium heat 5 -6 minutes\or until shells openRemove whole mussel meats from shell to eat good tvithmelted butter and lemon Juice

Stuffed Mushrooms36 fresh mushrooms, at least

2 inches (5 centimeters)in diameter

1 large clove garlic, chopped6 tablespoons butter or

marganne1 mediumsized onion, finely

chopped

43

1St

cups (180 grams) finedry bread crumbs

1 cup (250 grams) cooked,chopped, and drainedmussel meats (canned, orfresh steamed by methodabove)

3 tbl. sherry*1/4 tsp. finely crumbled

oregano

oregano*Salt and pepper to taste .

Wash mushrooms and pat dry on paper toweling Removestems and finely chop half of them (use remainder another timein a stew or an omelet)

Saute the garlic in butter about 1 minute or until soft, toss inchopped stems and onion, saute until golden Remove fromheat, add bread crumbs, mussels, sherry, and oregano ixwell, taste, and add salt and pepper

Salt mushroom cap's-Inside, thenepoon in stuffing B9tterbaking pan and'put mushrooms on it, stuffing side downPreheat broiler and broil mushrooms about 5 JriLhes (10centimeters) below he t for about 2 minutes, or until hot andbeginning to soften With spatula carefully turn each over andbroil until light golden brown Serye piping hot

Creamed Mussels with Dill2.3 liters cleaned mussels1 2 tbl margarine or 1/2 1 tbl

each butter and oil2 tbl. whole wheat pastry flour1 cup milk

1/4 tsp. pepper*1/2 tsp salt*1/8 tsp paprika*dill

Put mussels in large covered pot-with small amount of waterBring quickly to a boil and steam 5.6 minutes, shaking kettle somussels cook evenly Remove meats from shells

Melt margarine or butter and oil in saucepan. Add flour andmix without browning flour Add .ruilk gradually, stirring rapidlyto make a smooth blend Add pepper, salt, and paprikaSimmer ten minutes Add 1 tb1, or more minced plain dill or afew crushed dill seeds Add mussels Serve plain or with rice

One tsp ts about 5m1 one tbl is approximately 15ml

A Note on Nutritional Characteristics of Blue Mussels asCompared to Beef Steak

3.5 'ounces(100 grams) Common T bone Steakraw meat blue mussel (choice)

CaloriesProteinFatCarbohydratesCalciumPhosphorusIron /

Iron'ThiaminRiboflavin

95 395.14 4 grams 14 7 grams2 2 grams 37 1 grams3 3 grams 0 0 grams

88 milligrams 8 milligrams1236 milligrams 135 milligrams

3 4 milligrams 2 2 milligrams3 4 milligrams 2 2 milligrams

. 0 16 milligrams- 0.06 milligrams0 21 milligrams 0 13 milligrams

SOURCE. United States Department of Agriculture HandbookNo 8, Composition of Foods, December 1963

20 31,

g..

Crustacean Study

4

You mly wish to establish an aquarium withcrayfish in it so the class may observe the externalanatomy and behavior of a decapod very similar tothe lobster Try the activities described below.

You may find that a live lobster is unattainableor eery expensive in your area. A crayfish is thecommon freshwater crustacean cosn of theAmerican lobster If you live near a pond or streamyou may find an abundant supply of them. Theseorganisms are primarily nocturnal in their feedingand may be observed close to shore in the earlyevening hours if one were to look using a flash-light Many times divers who might dive in the locallakes and ponds have observed their behavior andhave picked them up quitereadily. Perhaps youknow a diver who would be willing to collect themfor you The crayfish could also be taken with atrap which may be an interesting project for theclass It is constructed as follows A rectangularbox of any convenient size, 30 by 50 centimetersfor example, is built of half centimeter meshgakanized screen Cvire. A removable funnel shouldbe made on one end of the trap. This isconstructed of the same material and shouldextend about halfway into the trap and have aflattened opening about nine centimeters wide andthree centimeters deep. A minnow trap can beused as well if you choose not to build one. Thiscan be purchased in a sporting goods store.

The trap should be set in shallow water along asloping bank and buned partly with mud or sand.The opening should face the shore line with tbottom of the funnel even with the bottom of the .

stream or pond. Some of the trap will project outinto tie deeper water. Any type of dead fish or rawmea will attract the crayfish. Secure, this bait tothe bottom of the trap with some flexible wire orstring. This trap should be set in lite afternoon orearly evening and left overnight. If there are anycrayfish in the pond, the trap shobld captureseveral of them. .

Another option is to order these creatures froma biological supply house. The narpes andaddresses of several companies are in the "TeacherResources" section. They may be purchased livingand the cost depends on their size It is a goodidea to plan for this activity several weeks inadvance to allow set up time to take care of thecrayfish. Small to medium crayfish are cheaper andeasier to keep.

A forty Nei aquarium is of sufficient size tg holdtwo or three crayfish. First collect fresh clean pondstream, or lake water in covered containers. Whenyou collect make sure you keep mud and other .

sediments out of the containers. Pond water willkeep for an indefinite period of time and will brasource thfoughout the time you keep the crayfisltIf there is no easy access to this type cif water, youmay use ordinary tap water. You must age thiswater allowing the water in the containers to stand

,

for several days. This gives sufficient time for thechlorine to escape from the water and not hafinour crustacean friends.

The next step is to set up the aquarium Beginby washing coarse angular gravel to remove alldust and dirt Clean all equipment, including theaquarium itself, with baking soda Never use adetergent Put gravel into the bottom f theaquarium and add about eight centimeters depth ofpond water or aged tap water. A plastic cover issuggested to help keep evaporation down and tokeep out things that do not belong in theaquarium. The same can be done for a divider ifthey are not available at the pet store.. Place theaquarium in a-naturally well-lighted area but neverin direct sunlight.

Place several large rocks intAch aquarium toallow the crayfish to climb out of the water. Theydo not require an air bubbler; although you sh6uldchange the water every weel. Provide crayfishhiding places. You might choose discarded, cleanplastic flower pots placed open end down Cut adoor to admit your crayfish.

When you obtain your crayfish, clean them offby rinsing them separately, in a bucket of,waterbefore adding them to the' aquarium. Give thecrayfish several days to familiarize themselves withtheir new home before feeding them

The crayfish May be fed small pieces of thawed,raw frozen fish. Use only unbreaded fish and feedsparingly. The size of the fish should be abolt halfcentimeter cubes. It is best to feed thgm on aregular time basis like in the morning on Tuesdaysand Fridays. This will carry them through the .

weekend. They do not need feeding every day.Leave the food until they finish eating most of itone day is usually sufficient. Remove any floating

-.food or uneaten food after this or it willcontaminate the water. You may even feed themseparately from the aquarium This can be anenjoyable activity for your students to watch.

Crayfiih Feeding Observations1. How do crayfish.react when they are hungry?

(Drop a little food in fronts of them.) Do notdisturb them as they eat just observe them.

2. How do they use their claws and mouth partswhen they eat? Are they right-handed or left-

.handed?

3. Are they very defensive when they eat?4. If one piece of food is dropped around several

__crayfish, which one eats first?

i

Crayfish Locomotion and Navigation1. Crayfish have two types of movement. What are

they?' .2 Can cryfish climb very well? What legs do they

use?

3. When are they most active? (morning, iateafternoon, when are they hungry?) '

.,.

21 32t-,

4. On a day when crayfish are not being fed, washoff a few small rocks-and set up an obstaclecourse in the aquarium. How do crayfish getaround them.? Do they climb over them?

5. On a feeding day, place a small clean plasticladder, against the wall of the aquarium. Flow dothe crayfish get around this? Place some food atthe top of the ladder. Will the crayfigh climb

' the ladder? Which legs do they usg? Do they usetheir antennae?

6. Ina darkened room, place a flashlight on oneside of the acidarium. Are they attracted to the

44ight?

Handling Crayfish f -A large fish net should be useA to Ock up the

crayfish from the aquarium wh n first handlingthem. This avoids introducin contaminants fromyour hands and also preven your, friends frominjury. Have a white ename d or draWer dividertray with about two cm of Grater in it. You maywant to slant'them slightly'. he crayfish will walkup the bottom of the pacl: When 'you pick up thecrayfish (with washed hinds), approach them f4ctnthe rear behind their claws and,pick them up by,their backs gently bultfirmly Crayfish do not bile,do not sting, and arg`not poisonous. They only '

pinch with their two large claws. The small walkinglegs will not harm you either Crayfish are veryactive, move quickly, and are a lot of fun toobserve.

Out of Water ActivitiesBe sure not to leave the crayfish out of water

too long. Five minutes a.tte most, once a daywould not be too much.

1. How many legs do they have? Are they paired?How are they located.

2. How many antennae are there? ..

3. Are'there any exceptions to these numbers?

4. If you have access to balanceS, you may want tokeep'a record of their weights. This is a goodmetric exercise. Record their weight in gramsand keep a daily record posted next to theaquarium. Do the crayfish gain or lose weight?You may want to carry this one step further andidentify which ones gam lose weight. ThisMeans you will hoyef5Tabel them.

5. Measure their claws, back, abdomen, and-otherparts in millimeters.

Labeling CrayfishHandle the crayfish carefully. After removing

from the aquarium, wipe off the crayfish with a,s'Ofttow!. Al2:3 use the towel to cover the claws andhead. Then mark them with white nail polish. Sinceit is too difficult to write names with a brush, youmay want to use a number system to mark themon their backs.

1+,

22

,Creative WritingThe objective of this activity is to have the pupil

look more closely at the life of the crayfish in theaquarium and to have them put themselves inanother animals place. You may add some interestby placing a cleaned bird cage mirror (made ofplastic, not metal) in front of one of the crayfishand testing its reactions.

Materials:paperpencils

Procedure:Give the pupils a list of topics related to thecrayfish's life and discuss thege topics to stimulatetheir imaginations,

1. If I were a crayfish in the tank..

2. Why I like my new home...

3. How I make my shelter..

4. What do I look like in the mirror?

5. My eyes are very different from other animal'seyes...

6. Where Fused to live...

7. Who are my friends...

8. The strange things that observe me in my newhome..

These questions can be reworded to suit the2. vocabulary of each group. After writing their

stories, have the students illustrate them.. There are many activities that could be centeredaround the crayfish and its life cycle. You maywant to separate the male from the females. Theycan be sexed like a lobster. The first pair ofswimmerets are elongated in the male and shorterin the fe ale. If the crayfish do reproduce, thefemale II become berried (carrying young) aroundFebru or March. The young will hatch out afterabout p month on the female's tail. After leavingthe tail they will have to be separated or they willbe cannibalized. Have the students devise a way toraise them.

Another critical time is in the spring. Thecrayfish undergo mo)ting. The pupils may watchthiS prqcess and want to report on it. The crayfishis very weak after this and may be eaten by theothers. Remove any others but do not disturb thenewly molted one as its new shell is very soft. Itwill harden in about two weeks.

Their life cycles are very similarro the lobster.You may substitute the anatomy'and many of theactivities in the unit on the lobster for the crayfish. .

You will quickly find that the aquarium and thecrayfish will be a center of attraction in yourclassroom.

Aquaculture EquipmentAquiculturOs a new industry and has to design

new equipment that best fits its particular needs.This area is open for new ideas on designing andbuilding different types of equipment. Majorproblems encountered with different types ofaquaculture species.

Oysters1 WiuteringBecause of the cold waters in Maine

oysters have had to be relocated to warmerwaters during the winters

2 SiltingThe trays have been located too close tothe bottom and silt would get into them and foulthem.

3. CostDiving has been the only-mearlifto relolethe trays and clean them. It has been vett/costly.

Mussels1 CullingA mechanical means has- yet been

developed to separate and sort tile mussels inorder to get the desirable size for market.

2. PearlsThe trematode worm, Cymnophallus,gets in the mussel and the pearl is formed around

3. Eider ducksThese birds find the farm, a havenfor food, just right for the plucking.

4. PSP poisoning-=(Red Tide) Mussels are the firstto be effected by this organism.

Finfish1. BirdiBirds like the delicate flavor of the brood

fish and raid the holding pens. 12. DiseaseFin rot is the most prominent disease.

1

Lobster1. CannibbalismThe_adult tends to eat anything

-in sight including their young.

Suggested Activities1. Discuss the major problems encountered in

Aquaculture farming.

2. Discuss how other farming techniques, such aslanckfarming, can be used in water farming.

3.:Individual reports: have students pick a particu-lar species and report on its-life cycle and .

problems encountered in farming it.

4. After a discussion on one of the major problemsof farming:

, a. have the class brainstorm to design a piece ofequipment that might be used in that industry,and

b. have the class build a model of the piece ofequipment.

S.

5, Have an aquaculture farmer come to the schooland discuss with the class the problems andbenefits of their equipment.

The World OysterCompany Game

Overview. This is a simulation of the oysterculture industry in which the students act asgrowers The purpose of the game is todemonstrate the major economic concerns thatcontrol the success of aquacultural operation.

This game assumes that an oyster crop requiresat least three and one-half years (42 months) to

-mature to market size. Each turn represents one;month. A complete game may repuire several classdays to play. In any case, at least fifty turns arerequired to show most of the factors built into thissimulation.

You will need about 25 copies of each form"OystereStock Form," and "Bank Balance Form"from the pocket and one pair of dice for an averagesize class.

Before play starts each student group simulatesa company In small classes companies would becomposed of single students but a better size isthree. All corporate decisions are by majorityvote of this board. When student groups areformed, ask each to select a company name. Newcompanies are issued a $50,000 bank account asworking capital. More money may 'oe obtainedfrom the bank, the teacher, at 1.5% interest eachturn or month.

The teacher, in the role of banker, monitors playand helps to remind each company to pay itsdebts.

The First Three TurnsTohelp students adjust to the rules, the .first

three months of play simulate start up pro( eduresof a sea farm. These are obtaining land and waterrights, purchase of equipment and baby animals(seed) and borrowing money to increase theoriginal investment.

The First TurnDuring the first turn each company tells the

bank its name and. pays $200 for incorporation.Land may be leased for $4000 per year and a $500license fee is paid to the Qepartment of MarineResources through the bank for water rights.

Theteacher may want to use ti're blackboard oroverhead projector to record and update bankbalances andloan balances for each company. It isuseful for discussion purposes to save theserecords to the end.of play and then use a period tosummarize what happened to each company. Thefirst turn is January of the current year. Use this

2 4 34

turn to introduce the Bank Balance Formreproduced from the pocket.

the Second TurnIt) now February. Since this is a cold winter it

is tdo early to put out and stock seed oysters and41,1 gear. If you have not yet reviewed the gear used in

oysterculture with your class this is a good time to'do that.

Companies will now order seed and JapaneseLanterns for growing seed. Lanterns are purchasednew for $25 each. Lanterns can hold a differentnumber of oysters depending upon! their size. FOrexample:,

zi

/ greater thanSize 2 9mm 10 14mm 15-34mm 35mm

Number of 1.000,000 100,000 10,000 Lowoysters perlantern

Baby oysters (called seed) can be purchased inseveral size ranges. The larger sizes costsubstantially more than the smaller sizes. Thismust be weighted with the fact that generallyspeaking, the larger animals are more likely tosurvive than are the smaller ones. The largeroysters must be held, for a shorter penod of timeuntil they mature and can be sold. The choice ofanimals will be determined by cost, as well as otherfactors. It should be remembered that as theanimals grow they will demand more and more andmore lantern space. Growers will have to makeprovision for this event which can be done byholding funds in the bank to cover expenses asthey arise.

Animals must be transferred to'new lanterns asthey grow and need more space. Growth rates, fortransferring are given below:

Size 2 9mm 10-14mm 15-20mm 35mm Jumbos

-11

months be 3

fore trans-ferring to nextsize.vi sum-me*rowingmonths

6

Mussel's 35mm and larger are not transferred in this gatne

The grower must'keep track of the sizes of eachoyster group and the month that they change sizeCompanies have:110 spare time to buy new lanternsand get the crowded animals into new morespacious accommolEtions.lf companies do not dothis, they,will lose 10% of,,the total number ofoysters in'tharsize group every month that it is notdone. The growth rates of various size seeds alongwith cost is given as follows:

Size 2 9mm. 10 14mm 15-20mm 35min Jumbos

Cost, $5 00 $1000 515 00 $20 00 $25 00

thousand

Time the 24

animal mustbe held untilmaturity (insummer

4growingmonths)

21 16 10 8

Companies should be encouraged to purchaseseed and lanterns so that time of maturity andhence cash return is staggered Make no loansduring the second turn but as 'companies decidehow they wish to make their original investrhent,introduce them to the Oyster Stock Forrri Be sureeach company `records the dates oyster stocks maybe sold.

The bank pays 0 50% simple interest each monthfor bank balances. This% about 6% on an annualbasis, and is approximately the same for a realbank. All money changes are made only onledgers. Do not use play money. Using nocertificates for money places more emphasis onrecord keeping.

The Third' TurnIt is now March. Loans spay be obtained and

additional stock may be purchased.ioans may benegotiated by a throw of a single die. Odd numbersindicate a loan was rejected. A comj5any mayborrow an amount equal to $10,000 times a second

throw of the die. In Ibis and subsequent turnscompanies may purchase uked equipment or oysterstocks from other growers al prices they negotiate.The bank simply oversees these transfers andcharges the seller a 5% brokerage fee .

Other RulesLoans

The pnncipal of each loanniversary month. Interes

24q5

must be paid on itsnust be paidat the

I

rate of 1 5% each month Payment is monthly andthe bank must bill each company. Companiesunable to pay can have assets seized by the bank,and sold at a negotiated price to other Companies.

SalesWhen oysters have reached marketable size, the

price is determined by the throw of a single die

--4

Number on Die Price

1

2

3

4

5

6

$0 50, oyster$0 45/oyster

aio 40/oyster35/oyster

$0 30/oyster$0 25/oyster

When a marketing sale is concluded, the bank actsin the role of purchaser

HardshipStarting with the fifth turn, each company must

roll the die to determine if a hardship is .

encountered. Companies rolling odd numbers mustdraw a hardship card and abide by it.

Hardship Cards:Damage to lOterns, lose 1, 10 of the total number of modules3;4 of these are recoverable if the grower is willing to pay a flatfee of $300 to divers to retrieve them

Troubles with the owner of the land, you lose your lease. Youmust now lease land next to your site, pay $4,000

Ten lanterns damaged in a storm, must be replaced No loss ofseed

Equipment' damage due to a storm must double'the labor-costfor this month to correct problem, lose $2,000

If you have a sale in this turn you will have to purchase.1,'3 ofthe oysters which you Mould normally sell from another buyerat $0 40/oyster owing to the fact that your operation hadproblems getting all the animals in time to meet th order date

You have experienced excessive fouling which resulted in thedoubling of your labor costs for this month, lose $2,000.

You have experienced excessive sea squirt problems, doublethe cost of labor this month, lose $2,000 Applies only insummer.

If the calendar is September, 0Atober, Apnl, May, the weatheris cold, double the labor costs for this month, pay $2,000

If you have any money in the bank which is collectingterest at6%, you lose the interest from that money for this turn If not,draw again

There is an increase in interest rates, pay 2% per month on anyloan negotiated this month ,

Lantern manufacturer is late in delivery, lose 10% of stockneeding larger quart s. <

If it is December, JaTaary, FebtiOary, you have lost 1/2 of yourtotal oyster crop due to severe winter mortality. If it isn't one ofthese months, disregard card and do not draw again

If it is November, December, January, February, you lose 1/3 ofyour total oyster crop due to severe storms If not, disregardCard but draw again

25

Regardless of the month, lose 1/4 of the total number ofoysters

Regardless of the month, lose 1;10 of the total number of/oysters.

gegSrdless of the month,lose 1/2 of the oysters 1 year old andyounger and 1/10 of those oysters older than 1 year

Regardless of the month, you have experienced a 90% mortalityfor all seed purchased this year and a 25% mortality for all other.animals

Raft destroyed in high winds you must replace at a cost of$5000

Raft damaged in storm repaired for $2,500.

50% of all the salable oysters this turn are infected with adisease and must be sold locally for $0 10 each

The shipment sold last turn died in transit and the buyer refusesto pay you Subtract this income from.your budget.

Annual Fees and PaymentsLeases and Avater rights licenses are renewed

each January for $4,000 and $500 each. Federaland State taxes are calculated at the rate of 50% ofall income from sales and bank interest. Taxes aredue in April and, must be paid. Players should bewarned in August of the first "year" of play of this/fact.

Determining the WinnerThe game can continue indefinitely but should be

run for at least fifty turns to allow the 3-5mmoysters to reach market size and for the grower torealize a profit from these animals. The game wasdesigned to allow students to understand andappreciate some of the hardships involved in theaquacultutp industry as well as providingexperience in areas of mathematics and socialstudies. The game can be used as ajumpins offpoint for discussions of some of the other activitieslisted in this unit especially a.visit to or from anaquaculturist. If neither is possible students mayprepare queRtions for a sea farmer or marineresearcher t discuss as a taped interview.

4

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6 Louden Road

;Telephone: (603) 862-1255

Sharon Meeker, DOcent Program CoordinatorNew England Center Administration Building

University of New Hampshire Marine Programs

Durham, New Hampshire 03824

and recreation. The ARK (Aquarium Resource Kit) isavailable for two dollars. Although it is designed forclasses that will visitIt has much valuable information onadaptation and coloration for any class. The Aquanumhas a curriculum resource center which you may use by

Telephone: (603) 271-3556The Department offers a variety of educational servicesand resources. Write or call for details.

workshops for educators, programs at Odiorne State

known the world of water" through education,tresearch,

mail or in person

Ju Silverberg, Interpretive Specialist

Telephone: (617) 742-8830The Aquarium provides superlative classroom materials,

trips. The philosophy of the Aquarium is "to make

Concord, New Hampshire 03301

UNH Marine Program including marine resource

Park, and consultation with teachers to assist in theirprograms.

in addition to being a favorite destination for annual field

New Hampshire Department of Resources

Pa 's and Recreation Division

Julia Steed Mawson, Marine Education

Telephone: (603) 862-1255Many fine services fOr teachrs are available trhough the

variety of materials and services; we encourage youto contact them for assistance.

Boston, Massachusetts 02110,

New England AquariumCentral Wharf, off Atlantic Avenue

Organizational

University of New Hampshire Marine Programs

Durham, New Hampshire 03824

Resources

New England Center Adthinistration Building

and Economic Development

These organizations can help by providing a

Specialist

'Eilte'risive special services include outreach programs,inthe schools, a speaks bureau, and marine resourceworkshops.

0

Shoals Marine LabJohn Hieser, DirectorPost Office Box 88Portsmouth, Nvw Hampshire 03801The lab offers teachers workshops in marine science foreducators.

A A.

State of Maine Department of Marine ResourcesLorraine Stubbs, Marine Science EducatorState House Station 21At;gusta, Maine 04333Telephone: (207) 289-2291The DMR has the ability to work with teachers andschools in setting up programs and planning curriculumA speaker service with slidel)resentations can betailored not only to your grade level, but your particularclass interests and needs. Hands-on materials andanswering questions are part of the presentation.Publications for use by teachers, Which are free ofcharge, are abundant in the DMR library, as are manytechnical reports for teacher background material orintensive study projects by students. The department willalso arrange for visits to aquaria or research labs. Thehighly-knowledgeable and skilled Lorraine Stubbs isresponsible for these diverse and high-quality services.

University of Maine Sea Grgnt Marine AdvisoryPiogram

Sea Grant Office, Coburn HallUniversity of Maine at OronoOrono, Maine 04469Telephone: (207) 581-2719 .

Sea Grant has many research and commercial aqua-culture publications available, primarily of a technicalnature. Marine researchers and local marine advisoryservice agents can be located through the MarineAdvisory Program.

Northern New England MarineEducation Project

Dr. John W. Butzow, Director206 Shibles HallCollege of EducationUniversity of Maine at OronoOrono, Maine 04469 °

Telephone: (207) 581-7027The primary purpose of this project is the production ofmarine education materials for use by teachers of Maineand New Hampshire. There are sixteen published multi-disciplinary units ora variety of topics for a range ofgrades, several of which could be adapted to your gradelevel. The unit you are now using is the first of five to beproduced especially for middle/junior high school use.The project also sponsors workshops in schools, marineeducation conferences, and summer institutes.

27 38

The Nova Scotia Museum .

Education SectionI747 Summer StteetHalifax, Nova Scotia .Canada B3H 3A6 .

Telephone: (902) 429-4610

The Museum offers you publications, resource kits,collections, and reponses to specific inquiries For thoseliving close to Halifax, a broader array of museumresources for school oceanography is available Call orwrite for further information

The International'Atlantic Salmon FoundationBox 429 ,

St. Andrews, New BrunswickCanada EGG 2X0

This organization participates in the maintenance of anexperimental hatchery of Atlantic Salmon and fundssalmon research and information activities on both sidesof the border They publish a newsletter and distribute acurriculum on Salmon called Salar Salar includesstudent text, teacher guide and filmstrip

The Huntsman Marine LaboratoryBrandy CoveSt. Andrews, New BrunswickCanad4 EOG 2X0

'..'

The staffat HML9perate a fine museum and aquarium,in the summer and distribute information on a yearround basis -; -,

Commercial AquacultureCompanies (Circa) 1981 :

Oysters and Mussels' John Smith

Pratt's Islands RoadWest Southport, Maine 04569

Terry HaskellLittle Deer IsleBox 533Ellsworth, Maine 04654

Dodge Cove Marine FarmDick Clime & John StewartBox 211Newcastle, Maine 04553

Maine Mooring Oyster CompanyChester Brown .South Bristol, Maine-04568

Spencer FullerBox 427Vinalhaven, Maine 04863

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0.

Ni.

MentecOn the Gut .South Bristol, Maine 04568

Ken GraySouth Bristol, Maine 04568

Great Eastern Mussel farmsChip Davison/Frank SimmonsDamanseotta, Maine 04543

Spinney Creek Oyster CompanyIan WalkerEliot, Maine 03930

Marine BioservicesJohn SheldonHigh IslandSouth Bristol, Maine 04568.

Deborah Cameron134 Dummer StreetBath, Maine 04530(207) 443-5956 '

Abandoned Farms, IncEdward MyersDamariscotta, Maine 04543

Richard FoxwellBox 40Lincolnville, Maine 04849

Boothbay Aquaculture;:- James Greenleaf and Lester Rhoads

Boothbay, Maine 04537 '

FinfishBill and Nancy Blake,-Quarry EnterprisesSte George,. Maine 04860

Duck Trap River CompanyDes FitzgeraldRFD 1Lincolnville, Maine 04849

Evelyn SawyerSea Run, IncRFD 2Kennebunkport, Maine 04046'(207) 985 7957

Equipment.,s Sheepscot Oyster Company

Reg & Gil GilmoreBox 286Newcastle, Maine 04553

) 28

Professional HelpState of Maine Department of

Marine Resources Laboratory..,McKown PointBoothbay Harbor, Maine 04530

11

VAi

0/ i

Laboratory Supply HousesBerkshire Biological Suppy CompanyP 0 Box 404Florence, Massachusetts 01060Telephone (413) 586-6149

Connecticut Valley biological Supply Company IncValley Road, P 0. Box 326South Hampton, Mas-sachusetts 01073

..,,lCarolina Biological Supply Company 6,urlington, North CarolinaToll Free Telephone. (800) 334-5551

CENCO160 Washington StreetSomerville, Massachusetts02143Telephone- (617) 776.1800

Turtox /CamboscoMacMillan Science Company, Inc8200 South Hoyne AvenueChicago, Illinois 60620Toll Free Telephone (800) 621 8980

Wards Natural Scientific Establishment, IncP..0 Box 1712Rochester, New fork 14603

Technical BibliographyThis bibliography is included for the teacher or

advanced studeot wh9 wants technical detail. Manyof the publications are rare or out of print. SeaGrunt Advisory Services and University or StateLibraries may be the only sources of some ofthese.

Bardach, John E., John H, Ryther, and William 0.McLarney. 1972. Aquaculture: the earmin andHusbandry Of Freshwater andiMarine/Organisms. Wiley Interscience, New York.Bayne, B.L. 19(35. Growth and the delay ofmetamorphosis of the larvae of Mytilus edulis.aphelia 2(1):1-47.Brooks,illiam. The Oyster. Baltimore: The JohnHoPkinsPress, 1905.

Cowger, Joel. Natural Occurencetof the Americanin MaineOyster,sCrassostrea virginica, ivlaine and its

Relevance to the Critical Areas Program. StatePlanning Office, Report #4, 1975.

, Dow, R.L. Marine and Estuarine Culture inMaine. Fisheries Circular No. 24, Maine Mepartmentof Marine Resources, Augusta, Maine, 1970.

Dow, R.L. PartiqlReportgiAquaculturalStudiesConducted by DMR. 19,69-1973. DMR. Augusta.

Dow, RI. and D.E. Wallace. 1954. Blue Mussels(Mytilus edulis) in Maine. Department of Sea andShore Fisheries Bulletin.

Ehrbar, Charleen. The New Maine OysterIndustry. Maine Sea Grant Information Leaflet 11.September 1975. ,.

Field, I.A. 1922. Biology and<ecorion it value of thesea mussel Mytilus eduhs. gull. U.S. Bur. Fish.38:127-259.

Foster, Walter. Cobscook Bay Aquaculture(Potential. Maine Department of MarineResources. Bull. #36, State House, Augusta, Maine04330, March 1976.

Foster, Oalter. Ecological ConsiderationS inOystc, Bottom Culture. Research Bulletin No37, Mate' of Maine Department of MarineResources, June 1976.

Galtsoff, P.S. The Amencan Oyster: U.S. Fishand wildlife Serv. Fish. Bull., 1927, 64 480 pp

Gates, J.M., G.C. Matthiessen, C.A. Griscom 19Aquaculture in NewEngland. Univ of Rhode

SeaGrant Office, Report #18

Herbert, and Mark Richmond 1974 .

Commercial Oyster Aquaculture in Maine.University of Maine Sea Grant Program, Sea GrantBulletin #2

Jensen, Kathi, (ed) ) Aquaculture 1976: A Digestof Sea Grant Research. Sea Grant Office,University of D.E., Newark, D E `j971

Lutz, Mark. MUssel Culture and Harvest.- INwYork: Elsvner Pub. Co., 1980.

Lutz,R.A. 1974. Raft Cultivati n o; Mussels inMaine Waters Its Practi bility, Fecrsibility;"and Possible Advantage aine Sea Grant .

Bulletin 4, Darling Cente , Walpole, Maine.Lutz, R.A. and L.S. Inczsive Review of the MusseUnited States.- National MarinDepartment of.Commerce (Mar

1977. A C,..1mprehen-dustry in the

Fisheries Service,977).

Mdee,°A. Farming the Sea. New York Thoinas-Crowell Co., 1969,

McNeil, WA., ed. Marine Aquaculture. Corvallis,Oregon: State University, 1970Pratt, Robert S. 1976,Votential of AquacvItureUnder H.J. 1833. Ilablic Hearings onAquaculture, U.S. Government Printing C nice,Washingt8n, D.C.

Pratt, Robert S. 1976. Prospects forlShellfishCulture Utilizing H.R. 1833, Ira C. Darling, .

Center, Walpole, Maine.

Richmond, Mark S. Oyster Culture in Maine,Specifications and ApproxiMate Costs ofRetiring Equipment. Maine Sea Grant Leaflet 5. °August 1974.

Ryther, J.H. 1968. The status and potential ofaquaculture particularly invertebratealgae' cultfire. Vol. I:Part 11. Invertebralgae culture. Washington, Q.C., AmencInstitute of Biological Sciences. ,Scattergood, L.W. and C.C. Taylor 1949The mussel resources of the North Atlanti Region.Part I. The survey- to discover the locatio andareas of Ihe North Atlantic musselrodu ing beds.

ndto and

Comm. Fish. Rev. 11(10:1-120.

.29

40'

--I"

Schwind, P. Practical Shellfish Farming.Camden, Maine:international Marine PublishingCompany, 1977.

Shaw, W.N. Raft Culture of Eastern Oysters inChatham, Massachusetts. Proc. Nat: ShellfishAssoc., 1960, 51:81-93.

Shaw, W.N. The Growth and Mortality of SeedOysters, Crassostrea uirginica, from Broad Creek,Chesapeake Bay, Maryland, in High and LowSalinity-Waters. Proc. Nat. Shellfish Assoc.,1966, 56:67.72.

Stillings, B.R. 1969. New Foodsfrom the Sea. In:Caster, W.O., ed. -1969. The Promises andProblems of the New Foods, Report #3 Inter-Institutional Committee on Nutrition, University ofGeorgia, Athens, Georgia.

Welch, W.R. The European Oyster' Ostrea edulisin Maine. Proc4Nat. Shellfish Assoc., 1963,54:7 -24.

1."

.t*

Annotated BibliographyThe following bibliography should be of help to

students and teachers to further their knowledge of -this vast subject.

,

-Amos, William H. The Life of the Seashore. NewYork: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1966.

From l'Our Living World of Nature"-series,published in cooperation with The World BookEtityclopedia, this volume is beautifully illustrated,well- organized, and has a good, writing style. Usesan ecological approach with sDecific examples.

Bardach, John. Harvest of the Sea. New York:Harper and Row Publishersp1968.

This book evaluates Present, probable, andpossible developments regarding the ocean-environments. Exkrnines the means by whichpeople can.best utilize the potential of the sea.General, reading.

Clark, Eleahol. The Oysters of Locmariaquer.New York: Pantheon Books, 1964..

Substantially worthwhile reading for anyoneinterested.in the pleasures and hardships of afisheiman. This novel is set in Brittany on the'northwestern shore of France and describes manylifeline situations involved ih harvestirig the oceans'resources:Cousteau, Jacques. The Ocean Wanld ofJacques Cousteau: The ,Sea in Danger. NewYork: World Publishing, 1974.

CoUsteau's style shines through on this informs-five publication. It gives many accounts of whereMankind stands in relation to the oceans. Lavishly-illustrated with color photography, it presents many

,perplexing questions for.the human race.

Department of ilarine Resources. MarineResources Laws and Regulations. Augusta;Maine, 1981.

A recent shell fishing lawbool can be obtainedfrom the State of Maine Department of MarineResources which discusses the various lawsconcerning the gathering and raising of shellfishcommercially and for personal use. Maine MarineResources Laws and Regulations is revisedperiodically. Address Lawbook request to: Depart- .

ment of Marine Resources, State House Station 21,Augusta, Maine 04333.

Hanson, Joe A., ed. Open Sea Mariulture.Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania: Dowden, Hutchinson,and Ross, Inc., 1974.

This work is a compendium of research onperspectives, problems, and prospects of open seamariculture undertaken by the National Oceanicand Atmospheric Administration and the OceanicFoundation. It is comprehensive in scope and was'written by expert: :n each field:

Idyll, C.P. The Sea Against Hunger. New York:Thomas Y. Crowell Company,.1978:-"This is perhaps the best book on thiS subject inthe Project's experience. Presents a criticalexamination of humankind's chance of, avoidingwidespread hunger by increasing the use of foodfrom the sea. The book's many revelations willcreate an understanding of the ocean's resourcesand natural processes and how we should act if thesea is to increase its share of nutrition forhumanity. It also contains good bibliography.

Stubbs, Lorraine. The American Lobster.Fisheries Education Unit #13, Department of pMarine Resources, Augusta, Maine, 1979.

It

Thorson, Gunnar. Life in the Sea. New York:McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1973.

From the "World University Library" series, thissuperb volume is packed full of worthwhileinformation and could easily be considered astandard in this area of study. It is very wellorganized, accurately written, and excellentlyillustrated. Written for the novice as well as theexpert.

Zim, Herbert S., and Krantz, Lucretia.Commercial Fishing. NewYork: William Morrowand Company, 1973.

.This is a first rate book for middle gradestudents: It presents many important facets, of thecommercial fishing industry throughout the world,while also giving a good account of how all peoplecan and do benefit from the sea's resources.Zinn, Donald J. Handbook for Beach Strollersfrom Maine to Cape Hatteras. Chester,Connecticut: The Pequot Press, 1975.

This charming little book covers marine life fromreproduction- and life cycle to good recipes. It issimply written and appeals to a wide age range.

30

1

I

A Bibliography ofCook BooksThig bibliography contains books about seafoodand different ways of preparing it. For those who .are fed up with fast-food restaurant 'chains and ',expensive dining.out, there are many alternatives,as you will find in these books, Also presented aremany regional and ethnic seafood specialties, aswell as bizarre and exotic recipes, breads,andabout everything imaginable that goes`withseafood.

Since one of the main concerns of modern livingis a healthy and nutritious diet, people should eatmore seafood. It is low in calories and high in

*protein. Many species provide vitamins andminerals of unexcelled quality. It is often simple toprepare, requjring,few cooking materials and isindescribably delicious. Whether chef, homemaker,or occasional cook, you are sure to find somethingof interest included in some of these volumes.

Alberson, Sarah D. The Blue Sea Cookbook.New York: Hastings House, 1968

Brody, Jerome. The Grand Central Oyster Barand Restaurant Seafood Cookbook. New York:Crown Publishers, Inc., 1917.

Day, Bunny. Catch'em and Cook'em. GardenCity, New York Doubleday and Company, Inc.,1%1.

rHill, Paul J. and Mavis A. The Edible Sea. NewYork: A.S. Barnes and Company, 1975.

Milqradoviffi, Milo. The Art of Fish Cookery.!Garden City, New York Doubleday and Company,,,Inc., J970..

Ross,.Shirley. The Seafood Book. New York;McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1978.

Spear, Ruth A. Cooking Fish and Shellfish.Garden City, ktew York: Doubleday and Company,Inc., 1974. ,

.

Zachary, Hugh. The Beachcomber's Handbookof Seafood Cookery. Winston-Salem, NorthCarolina: John F. Blair, Publisher, 1969.

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Edge of Mantle

Growth Lines

Anterior Portionof Mussel

Posterior Portionof Mussel

Figure 3. Mussel showing left /right valve orientation.

43

aO,

AnteriorPortion of,Mussel

AnteriorAdductor

: Muscle

HingeLigament

FootRetractorMuscle's Knife Inserted

BetweenValves'

DorsalPortion ofMussel

Posterior. Adductor Muscle

PosteriorPortion ofMussel

Figure 4. Musiel oriented in hand for beginningdissection.

44

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0,

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Figure 5. Clased valves.

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, . .

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o

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OYSTER STOCK FORM for the year

Company Name

Month Size Number Cost DateSalable.

TotalCosts

AvailableFunds

Adjusted Budget(avail. for next month)

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