teacher's guide

DOCUMENT OF NBTE, PRODUCED BY HAMITLE CONSULTS 1

TEACHERS’ GUIDE

Entrepreneurship Education

HOW AND WHO TO TEACH ENTERPRENEURSHIP EDUCATION Enterprise education is about doing just as much as it is about learning. It is in fact learning by doing. Trainees learn about enterprise but also through enterprise. One way of implementing the latter is by encouraging and assisting trainees to set up micro and small businesses operated from their educational or training institution. The enterprise idea could be as simple as selling sweets on campus or washing cars in the neighborhood at week-ends to more complex dealings involving production and marketing of a product/services or commissioning the production of sportswear or greeting cards, for example. Ideally, the business idea would come from the trainees themselves, who would organize themselves, register and operate the business, produce a set of account at the end of the accounting period, have them audited and decide on dividend payment, if any. At the end of school year or accounting period, the enterprise might be dissolved or shares traded and a new group of directors voted in. The trainer could play an important role in guiding the whole process. He or she could also arrange or provide counseling or additional training for the trainees, when required, as well as facilitate contacts and negotiations both with the school/college authorities and the outside world. An additional extracurricular activity could be the setting up of a business club, which might involve company visits, inviting speakers to the school/college to address topics of interest, debates etc. Again, trainees would organize and operate the club, with the trainer acting as mentor. Apart from contributing to the development of an enterprise culture, such initiatives would likely develop a sense of responsibility among trainees and also make enterprise education a lot of fun. Recognition of the importance of the foregoing requires directors or heads of education and training institutions to reward those involved in such


activities, in particular compensating the trainers for their time and efforts. Approach The materials, although intended to be used by trainers, are trainee-centered which means that trainees are involved throughout the process and the responsibility for learning moves from the trainer to the trainees. This is achieved when the trainer creates a learning environment where trainees can engage in structured experiences individually in small groups or as a class, and through process of reflection and review, develop certain skills. These skills can then be applied to varieties of situations. To achieve this outcome, a range of trainee-oriented training methods are used. Techniques such as group discussion, role play, counseling and brainstorming are employed to ensure the active participation of trainees in the training process. Trainee-oriented instruction is not only concerned with the outcome but also in the steps that each individual takes to achieve outcome. A great deal of emphasis is therefore placed on trainee motivation. WHO SHOULD TEACH ENTREPRENEURSHIP? Trainers who have been self – employed or have experience of starting or running a small business might be expected to be the best persons to teach Entrepreneurship. Because the material is presented at the awareness level, however, no special background in small business ownership, management or instruction is required of the trainer. It is recommended that the trainer read the entire trainer’s guide for weeks before the programme begins. A thorough familiarity with all materials will greatly facilitate the achievement of the programme objectives. Upon completion of the materials in the guide, trainees should be reminded that they can increase their potential for being successfully self-employed by seeking additional training to gain technical knowledge and to practice entrepreneurial skills. Men and women entrepreneurs might serve as guest speakers in the classroom to provide personal experiences in being entrepreneurs. Trainer Competencies As indicated above, a thorough familiarity with course contents will greatly facilitate the achievement of the programme objectives. It would also provide the trainer with most of the key competencies required for teaching entrepreneurship at the awareness level such as understanding the process of business development and recognizing the characteristics of successful entrepreneurs.


In addition, the possession of two other competencies would greatly enhance the effectiveness of the trainer:

• Ability to employ enterprising teaching approaches

• Ability to encourage and inspire trainees

1. Ability to use enterprising teaching approaches

There exist many differences between the conventional mode of teaching and entrepreneurship teaching. In the former, the students play a passive role leaving completely the active part to the trainer. Enterprise teaching, however, involves a participative style and an orientation towards action and learning by doing. The following provides a summary of the main differences between the two approaches.

Aspects

Conventional Approach

Enterprise Approach

Actions Content-driven Process driven

Focus Trainer-led Pupil-centered

Trainer role

Expert

Fellow learner/facilitator

Emphasis

Knowing what

Knowing how and who

Trainee activity

Working alone

Working in small group

Ethos Competitive Collaborating

Trainee role

Passive/receptive

Active/generative

Trainee expectations

Dependence Independence

Sessions opportunist

Programmed Flexible,

Topic Imposed Negotiated

Mistakes

Should not be made

Are to be learned from

Trainee Discretion Limited Wide

Assessment Exams/Tests Profiles and results

View of the world

Right/wrong

Uncertainty, shades of grey

Determined by Exam board Local needs

Staffed by

Subject expert

Cross-curricular team

Aim Practice into theory Theory into practice


(Adapted from Caird, S and Johnson C. Some Reflections on the Meaning of Enterprise. Durham University Business School, 1987) The emphasis is on creating a learning environment where trainees are assisted in identifying their interests.

Outcomes Trainees should be involved throughout the learning process and encouraged to take responsibility for their own learning. This means, in terms of outcomes that trainees are expected to:

• learn how to learn

• identify learning strategies based on their needs

• express feelings

• gain self-confidence

• listen well and ask meaningful questions

• determine their own training

• face their problems

• make decisions

• develop plans and take responsibility for them

• develop standard for themselves

• be in control of their own learning The foregoing is not to say that the trainees do whatever they like. If trainees are not interested in something, they are encouraged to find something else in which they are interested. The trainer and the trainee in the entrepreneurship programme are a team that works together to achieve as much as possible for each team member. A supportive team atmosphere should be developed based on respect for each member of the group Application As with other areas of enterprise development, effective entrepreneurship education calls for the application of knowledge in illustrating and cementing concepts. The trainer needs to be able to relate activities to the needs, circumstances and profile of the trainees - The more practical his approach the better. This explains the emphasis on the trainee exercise throughout the course and as well as extracurricular activity such as the setting up of business club, micro and small enterprises within schools/colleges. It is important that the institution’s authorities


reward those involved in such activities, notably compensating the trainers and trainees for their time and effort. Multi-disciplinary teaching in a highly participative fashion requires stimulation to hold interest. The trainer should therefore employ interesting and varied teaching methods to capture and hold attention. This calls for the use of audio-visual aids, technology (such as computer, where available), different kinds of group exercises as well as encouraging individuals to think creatively and work on their own initiative. Ability to encourage and inspire trainees Entrepreneurship education is about developing entrepreneurial attitudes, as much as anything else, among trainees. This calls for a certain style or behavior on the part of the trainer in encouraging and inspiring trainees towards success and achievement. The following may not exactly be a code of conduct; their adoption, however, will help trainers achieve just as much as they inspire trainees:

• Be enthusiastic! Entrepreneurship is both fun and useful.

• Believe yourself. With good preparation, you can do it; and

• Be a role model- and a good one for that matter!

GENERAL TEACHING STRATEGIES Because this curriculum is designed to teach skills, trainers should use basic principles of behavior training to teach skills. First, the trainer provides instruction. During instruction, the trainer provides information, tells how to do something, and provides examples. Next, the trainer should model the skill. This may be done in a role-play. A role-play is a dramatization in which a person or persons practice the behaviors under conditions that are as close to real world situations as possible. This may require two people to sit and talk while one person practices listening skills; it may involve a person practicing calling a bus station to get information about a bus schedule; or, a role-play can involve a person practicing deep breathing techniques while another person pretends to be mad at them. Lessons that use role-play as a training technique will provide guidance for the specific role-play to be accomplished. Third, the student has the opportunity to rehearse the skill as the trainer modeled it. The rehearsal is probably the most difficult step in the


teaching process. However, this is a method that helps develop a person's confidence in dealing with a variety of social situations. Many people are uncomfortable speaking out in front of others. It is important that trainers are enthusiastic and try to make the role-plays fun. Finally, the trainer provides feedback. The feedback should be positive and reflect both the good parts about the rehearsal and the things on which the person needs to improve. If the student needs improvement, the trainer may need to provide more instruction, model the skill again, and/or have the person rehearse the skill again. Depending on the student, the trainer may need to break the skill into smaller steps or have the student rehearse the skill several times. There is no set amount of instruction and rehearsal that is needed for everybody. The only criterion is that the person can complete the skill and apply it following the training. If it takes some students two attempts at it, that is fine. It is also fine if it takes a student several times to master a skill. In addition to teaching skills, trainers will be presenting information. Most lessons involve the discussion of a topic. When a part of the instructional format indicates that the trainer should discuss, he should

give the students every opportunity to express their knowledge of the subject. This keeps the students more involved and aids in the learning process. After it is apparent that the students cannot provide any more information, then the trainer can provide the rest of the information. When students provide incorrect information, thank them for their effort to understand and go on to explain the correct information. Finally, motivation is an important part of the learning process. If a student is not motivated to learn or use the skill, the best teaching available is useless. A couple of ideas have already been presented such as involving the students as much as possible in the training, making the exercises fun, and providing feedback in a positive way. Additionally, trainers will need to break the information down into steps which the student can accomplish. Following the success in one step, the trainer should reinforce with praise and add the next step. This concept is called shaping. Shaping involves reinforcement of part of the final skill even

though the whole skill has not been completed. The taste of success, no matter how small, increases the likelihood that the student will continue to make attempts to learn. Every person is motivated by different things. Some people enjoy praises, some people enjoy certificates or more tangible things, and some people will only work for money. Each individual program will need to decide what they can offer for reinforcement for participation in the training.


Communication Skills There is a great deal of training on interacting with supervisors, calling companies to get information, and practicing other communications in daily life. The ability to send a clear, assertive message and understand the response is a critical skill in employment success. It is recommended that students develop basic communication skills to the best of their ability.

General Characteristics of an Effective Teacher An effective teacher will:

� Be sensitive to students' needs. He/she will listen to students' concerns with complete attention; respect students' feelings and, particularly with young people, err on the side of caution regarding their emotions.

� Consider learners' development needs. � Create a learning process where students feel a sense of

investment, ownership and empowerment. Effective teachers consider how they can share authority with the students.

� Develop a support system of people such as administrators, colleagues, interested parents or community members.

� Be enthusiastic about the learning process, the project the students are doing and life in general! It's catching.

Teaching Tips for Face-to-Face Instruction Speak slowly and clearly to ensure that students can follow you – this is especially important if some or all the students do not have English as their first language. Do not read your lecture notes verbatim. This is a sure way of losing your students’ attention. Always show an interest in what you are teaching. The Topics have been carefully planned, with exercises and discussions as well as lectures. Try to follow the schedule as set out in the Module. Try to use examples as often as possible to explain concepts. If the examples are taken from the students’ own countries or regions, so much the better. Try to keep within the daily timetable recommended for the Module – if you get behind in one lesson it may be difficult to make up time in a later lesson. Avoid extending the class beyond the time period allotted.


Be prepared to use back-up materials if for any reason the computer will not function during a lesson. Try to answer all questions from students, but if you do not know the answer to a question it is better to admit it than to try and bluff. Make sure that all equipment needed for a lesson are working properly before the lesson begins – things can often go wrong! Be ready to stay behind for a few minutes after each lesson to answer questions that students may have but that they did not wish to ask in class.

1. SELF-INSTRUCTION TRAINING Self-instruction training is a teaching methodology that helps even people with cognitive disabilities maintain the skills acquired during training after the assistance from the trainer has been removed (Gifford & Rusch, 1984). Some of the lessons in this curriculum may require the use of self-instruction training to assist in the learning process. However, trainers can use this methodology whenever they are teaching students any skill using the modeling and role-play procedure. Meichenbaum and Goodman (1971) were the first to illustrate the steps involved in self-instruction training. 1. A model performs the skill while talking through the steps. "First, I write the date in the appropriate spot on the cheque. Next, I write the name of the person or company I am paying. Next, I write the amount..." 2. The student performs the skill while the trainer talks the student through the steps. 3. The student performs the skill while the student says the steps out loud. 4. The student performs the skill while whispering the steps. 5. The student performs the skill while the student thinks about the steps in his/her head. Meichenbaum and Goodman pointed out four types of verbalizations a person can use while talking themselves through the skill. First, the person should ask questions about what needs to be accomplished. "OK, the boss told me to clean out the closet. What do I need to clean?" Second, the person answers the question. "I need to take everything out; clean the floor and walls, throw away any junk, and put the other stuff back neatly." Third, the person provides the self-instruction while completing the task. "OK, I need to take the stuff out of the closet. Then I need to get a bucket with hot water, and put the right amount of soap in


the water. Next, I should wash the walls..." Finally, the person provides self-reinforcement. "The task is finished. The closet looks good." As with other parts of the curriculum, this process may need to be modified to fit the students' abilities. This technique has been demonstrated to work with people of varying cognitive abilities.

2. EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING Characteristics of Experiential Learning We learn from our experiences. In fact, there is no other way we can learn. For example, a child might learn to be wary of touching a stove after burning her fingers on a hot plate that had been used recently. As we get older, our learning experiences become less 'concrete'. Indeed, many of the experiences from which we learn can be quite abstract, such as listening to a lecture or watching a television programme. However, at the heart of learning is an experience of some kind - and, most importantly, our reflection on it. Reflection Reflection is the key to learning from experience because it consciously focuses our attention on what we have learnt and thus consolidates it. Experiential learning is a process that develops knowledge, skills and attitudes based on consciously thinking about an experience. Thus, it involves direct and active personal experience combined with reflection and feedback. Experiential learning is personal and effective in nature, influencing both feelings and emotions as well as enhancing knowledge and skills. Experiential learning is a student-centred approach in which students are engaged in critical thinking, problem solving and decision making within contexts that are personally relevant to them. However, experiential learning involves more than just student-centred activities. It also involves following-up the learning activity with structured opportunities for debriefing and consolidation through teacher and peer feedback, personal and group reflection, and the application of newly developed ideas and skills. The teacher, as a facilitator rather than a controller of learning, is an essential feature of this process. A special responsibility of the teacher-facilitator is to create and maintain an atmosphere where students are supported and challenged. The section introduces some of the processes that are critical for facilitating experiential learning.


Thus, the module operates on two levels. The first focuses on the experiential approach with regard to effective teaching and learning strategies, student-centred learning, and using reflection and feedback to focus on what students have learnt. The second is an attempt to model the experiential process by using interactive experiences to illustrate the key elements of introducing and monitoring an activity, processing the learning, and examining the implications. Analyzing the Experiential Learning Process Experiential learning is often thought of as a learning cycle with experience and reflection being the first two phases. The idea of experiential learning as a cycle was suggested by prominent educationalists such as Jean Piaget, John Dewey and David Kolb. The experiential learning cycle involves four phases: Experience: Engaging in an experience in a particular situation and then observing its effects. Processing the experience: Understanding what we did, thought and felt during the experience. Generalizing: Understanding the general principle (called a 'generalization') behind the relationship between the action and its effects. Applying: Applying the principle or generalization to a new situation.

Fig. The Experiential Learning Cycle (Experiencing) Concrete Experiences Sequential Activities Goal Setting


(Processing) Observations and Reflections Individuals reflect on what actually happened physically and emotionally during the experience (Generalizing) Formation of Abstract Concerns and Generalizations Individuals think about and describe the implications of what they have experienced. (Applying) Testing Concepts in New Situations Individuals think about any changes they might like to make in terms of their own behaviour or the actual experience. Understanding The Importance Of Debriefing Reflection is part of the debriefing process. Debriefing is the name given to what teachers do in class to help students process the information and make generalizations from their experiences. Debriefing is an important phase of experiential learning because it helps students to: Learn through reflecting on what they have done; Consolidate their concepts and generalizations about the topic being studied through the process of reflection and with guidance by their teachers; and Apply what they have learnt in new situations.

Guidelines for Experiential Learning

Stages Guidelines for Teachers

1.

Experiencing Set up the activity and provide clear instructions.

Disclose any risk.

Provide a safe environment on both a physical and emotional

level.

Answer clarification questions before and during the activity.

Move around the class actively directing learners, working

co-operatively with them, and allowing self-directed learning

to take over.

2.

Processing Make sure you have provided interactions between

learner/learner, learner/content, learner/facilitator and

facilitator/content. Think of questions you can ask.

Observe how students respond and act during the

experience.


Allow for students reflection time within the activity.

3.

Generalizing Ask individual students to describe what they have

experienced and to analyse the implications for themselves.

Provide feedback in a positive and open way.

Ask students to identify what their concerns are rather than

tell them what you expect.

4. Applying

Ask students to identify ways they can use what they have

learnt.

Lead students to identify any changes they could make to

their behaviour after considering this experience.

Provide further opportunities to apply or discuss their

learning with others.

Guide on Experiential learning: learning by doing

Adapted from Gibbs, G (1987). Learning by doing: A guide to teaching and learning methods. Birmingham: FEU Birmingham Polytechnic.

To achieve deep learning, we need to practice new behaviours and skills, receive feedback, see the consequences of new ways of behaving and in this way integrate new skills into our way of thinking and behaving.

What experiential learning is, and what it is not:

1. Experience is used to test out ideas and assumptions rather than to passively obtain practice. It is active exploration.

2. Experiential learning is not the same as discovery learning. Activities must be carefully designed by teachers, and learners must reflect on their experience in a critical way.

Planning for experience

1. Action plans Learners can review notes from a lecture concerned with general rules about how to undertake a procedure, and write an action plan about applying these general principles to the job.

2. Setting objectives Learners can set objectives for themselves before embarking upon an experience.


3. Designing problems Rather than giving learners a list of instructions to follow, allow them to design their own problems to solve.

4. Observation checklists Give learners lists of things to look out for during an experiential activity.

5. Devise criteria Discuss with learners the criteria that you will use to evaluate the outcome of their work. This will help the learners to be attentive to the important aspects of their practical experience.

6. Learning contracts Combine the setting of objectives, the devising of criteria and the formulating of action plans into a formal structured learning contract between the teacher and learners. This can be done individually or as a group.

Increasing awareness of experience

1. Log books Keeping a log of events heightens and focuses experience.

2. Listening exercises Train learners to be aware of effective and ineffective listening skills which they can use in experiences involving listening, to improve their attentiveness and recall ability.

3. Questions Recording questions which arise during an activity can help afterwards with reflection and with linking the experience to concepts and generalizations.

4. Increase awareness of feelings Encourage learners to become aware of and express their emotional reactions to activities by making ‘I’ statements and owning responsibility for their feelings in group work.

5. Silent demonstrations Increase attention to an activity by demonstrating a procedure in complete silence rather than providing a commentary. Provide learners with a list of things to observe and questions to answer in their heads. Ask for a full description of the procedure at the end.


Reviewing and reflecting upon experience

1. Diaries Diaries are written after the experience rather than during it such as the log books. They can be used to record reactions to experiences, analysis and conclusions.

2. Using video and audio recordings These can help learners with detailed recall of what they were thinking and feeling during an activity.

3. Peer appraisal Having someone watching a learner undertaking a task provides feedback to the learner.

4. Structured discussion Groups of learners can benefit from sharing experiences. Structure discussions so as to move learners from identifying key incidents, through to analysis of the experience and drawing general conclusions.

5. Structured de-briefing Structure de-briefings so that learners move through the full experiential learning cycle: description, feelings, evaluation, analysis, general and specific conclusions and personal action plans.

6. Self-assessment Encourage self-assessment during reflection by making it a formal requirement. Learners can submit self-assessment sheets listing strong and weak features of their work and a self-assigned grade together with every piece of work submitted for assessment.

7. Reflection checklists and questionnaires Help learners to get started on reflecting about their experience by giving them checklists and questionnaires to elicit attitudes and emotional responses.

8. Shared time and mutual interviewing In groups of two or three, allow a specific amount of time for each learner to reflect and talk while the others listen silently. When this is done they can then each have a set time to be interviewed by the others in order to dig deeper into difficult issues. This is different to a discussion that can follow once all have finished reflecting.


9. Modeling reflection Teach learners how to reflect by giving them an example of how to take a critical and analytical approach.

Providing substitute experiences

� Case studies should be structured to include: understanding of the situation; diagnosis of the problem; creation of alternative solutions; prediction of outcomes; choosing among alternatives; communicating the results of analysis.

� Role plays are useful for encouraging empathy with the position and feelings of others.

� Simulations represent a real situation and can be on-going. � Assessment simulations: ask learners to complete assessment

tasks which are simulations of real life settings.

The Value of Debriefing in Experiential Learning Debriefing assists learners to:

� process the experience by reflecting upon their learning; � clarify concepts and form generalisations by

- identifying and consolidating what they have learnt, and - relating this learning to previously learnt material or to related learning materials (e.g. the textbook, a video, an experiment, a field trip, etc.); and

� apply what they have learnt to new situations.

Reflective Journal � This journal is your chance to reflect on what you have

experienced and learnt today. � This journal is a personal record of your learning. You do not

have to share your thoughts with anyone else Reflecting about Experiential Learning I was surprised to find that ... I was please to note that ... I really like ... I did not like ... I want to learn more about

3. ENQUIRY LEARNING This section focuses on the use of enquiry based teaching as a strategy to develop students' investigative and thinking skills. The development of thinking skills within a formal school setting provides a number of challenges for teachers. An important component of the write-up involves the discussion and identification of the opportunities and constraints


teachers might face when developing enquiry-based learning exercises for their students.

Learning Process for Enquiry Based Education 1. Learning originates in a challenge

After becoming aware of demands, constraints, pressure and/or needs, students reach a state of puzzlement, tension, discord and expectation. At this point students feel challenged to enquire.

2. Preparation for the task The problem is defined or redefined. Students gather resources and work out what they need to know and do. They consider the problem, cast around, imagine, try to predict, work out what they already know and/or assess their ability to succeed.

3. Searching They then need to extend their previous knowledge; so they 'have a go'. They question, select, rehearse, talk over, narrow the field, sort, discard, share hypothesis and so on.

4. Trying out our solution Eventually students settle on a possible solution and try it out. This is where they make errors and/or have success, modify, consolidate and reassess their plans.

5. Reflection Then students need to consider how they achieved what they set out to do. They reflect, confirm, see where to improve, plan new things, celebrate and evaluate.

Four Enquiry Questions 1. Description

� What is the question, issue or problem? � Who does it involve? � Where is it? � Why does it occur here?

2. Evaluation � What is the significance of this issue or problem to my

life, the local community, nation, the world? � How have factors in the past influenced it? � How might it be seen by different people? � What conflicts of interest are there? � Who gains? Who loses? Who decides? � How are the relationships between people affected? � What are the relationships between people and other

phenomena?


3. Reflection � Are these relationships desirable? � What happens if these relationships are altered? � What are the alternatives? � How can these be evaluated? � Who gains and who loses from different decisions? Why? � Who decides? Why?

4. Action

� What change, if change is thought to be desirable, should be introduced?

� How can we bring about change if we, or others think it is desirable?

� Who could we contact to discuss action projects? � What action should we take?

Skills Students Need for Enquiry

1. Decision Making Students need to be able to make appropriate decisions according to each situation. This might include choosing appropriate decision making strategies, such as: consensus, modified consensus, majority rules, two thirds majority and secret ballot.

2. Facilitation Skills Students will learn these skills from their teacher as role model. Students can begin to use and build upon these skills by facilitating group discussions as part of the enquiry process.

3. Critical Thinking Skills Students need to engage in higher level thinking skills, considering both the factual and values components of information. One example is careful consideration of the source of information and possible bias.

4. Conflict Resolution Enquiry learning often involves issues that are controversial. Students need well developed communication skills to assist them to deal with conflict.

Characteristics of an Effective Teacher as Enquiry is Developed...

� They have well articulated goals and rationales. They will encourage parents and others to voice their questions and concerns.

� They will share what they know about the issue but also acknowledge what they do not know. They solicit a class effort to look for answers.


� They will teach complexity; don't protect students from it. Recognize the difficulty of such complexity, even for adults.

� They will teach multiple perspectives and explore several views on issues. They will use disagreement to spur further clarification and research.

� They will be aware of their own feelings and opinions about an issue. They make it clear to learners what their view is and that it is okay if other people disagree (especially students).

� They will allow disagreement to be constructive rather than destructive. They let it further the learning process.

4. COMMUNITY PROBLEM SOLVING This unit introduces teachers to the use of Community Problem Solving as a teaching and learning strategy. Community Problem Solving acknowledges the importance of students developing skills to participate in the solution of community problems. Learning how to investigate community problems and evaluate solutions so they can take actions is an important part of becoming an enterprising citizen. Here we explore the questions and issues teachers might face when they use Community Problem Solving technique.

Some Learning Outcomes of Community Problem Solving � Learn that it is possible to take action in the community. � Learn about the local community. � Learn to do research, including collecting, interpreting and

communicating data. � Learn to plan and work independently of the teacher. � Learn to work in groups with peers. � Learn to link school learning with the community.

Community Problem Solving is Different Community Problem Solving differs from other teaching strategies because it combines the following:

� Active investigation of a community problems, through various investigation strategies (scientific and social).

� The aim is real action aimed at solving a local community problem.

� Ongoing action in phases that allow for redefinition of the problem.

� An emphasis on local problems. � Attempts to involve the community affected by or responsible

for the problem.


Steps in Community Problem Solving 1. Exploring Community Problem Solving 2. Selecting Problem(s) 3. Developing Student Skills 4. Investigating their interests or concerns 5. Developing Visions 6. Planning Actions 7. Taking Actions 8. Evaluating Actions and Changes

As a Teaching and Learning Strategy Community Problem Solving as a teaching and learning strategy:

1. Involves students in their local community. 2. Develops entrepreneurship education attributes of awareness,

knowledge, attitudes, skills and participation. 3. Develops a range of education objectives, like: investigation skills,

creating and critical thinking, group work skills, literacy and evaluation skills.

4. Develops 'action competence' through students' first hand experience of taking actions that they have freely chosen and that are aimed at solving the community problem they identified

Skills for Community Problem Solving Group Process Skills

� Consideration and respect for others � Listening and comprehending � Clear verbal expression � Taking on a variety of roles within a group � Being a group leader when appropriate � Providing constructive feedback to others � Exploring group decision making processes � Monitoring 'on-task' behaviour of the group � Monitoring the time allocated for tasks

Information Gathering Skills

� Using the library including print and electronic resources � Designing data gathering strategies for the problem being

investigated � Using scientific and social science techniques (e.g water quality

testing, social survey) for investigation � Identifying relevant agencies, organisations and members of the

community � Requesting information from sources by writing letters, making

telephone inquiries, or using e-mail


Analysis and Decision-Making skills � Analyzing data gathered using scientific and social science

techniques � Thinking critically and creatively about possible alternatives � Considering the values of other people and their own � Deciding a course of action � Justifying decisions

Action skills

� Deciding on steps in an action plan � Freely choosing to take action � Evaluating whether the changes that were the result of the

actions addressed the problem

Sharing the Experience Sharing the experience of using Community Problem Solving provides professional development opportunities for:

� The teacher using Community Problem Solving: Writing the report and/or preparing the presentation engages the teacher in a process of reflection.

� Other teachers who might like to use Community Problem Solving: Teachers can learn about what Community Problem Solving is and make plans to use this teaching and learning strategy based on reports from their colleagues.

Community Problem Solving: A Teacher's Guide

Source: Debbie Heck, Griffith University, Australia.

1. Exploring Community Problem Solving This first phase involves providing students, teachers and school administrators with information about the nature and purpose of Community Problem Solving. Other community and educational groups who have used Community Problem Solving may be invited to explain the process and give examples of how it was used in their context. An important part of this phase involves teachers and administrators consciously deciding to use Community Problem Solving as a teaching and learning strategy because it acknowledges the importance of students working in their local community.

2. Selecting Problem(s) Problems can be selected in many ways. For example, a tour of the school grounds or local community may provide the impetus for students to generate a list of problems they would like to investigate. Students


could then decide on one problem, as a class, or a number of problems in small groups. An important consideration when selecting a problem is to ensure sufficient resources are available and that the problem is manageable within the time frame for the students involved. Students and teachers may need to consider questions such as:

• Why is this important to us? • What is its significance to us/others? - now/in the future? • Do we have sufficient resources? • Do we have time to undertake the entire community problem

solving process? • Should we choose a smaller problem?

3. Developing Student Skills Students will need to draw upon a range of problem solving, investigation and group work skills as they work through the phases of the Community Problem Solving process. Teachers should continuously monitor students’ skill levels and provide opportunities as part of classroom activities for ongoing skill development. The level of teacher guidance throughout the Community Problem Solving process will depend on the students' past experiences with the process and the specific problem solving, group work and investigation skills of the students. Teachers may need to consider questions such as:

• Do these students have Community Problem Solving experience? • What skills do they need to develop to get started? • What level of guidance will students need? • What skills do students need for the next phase?

4. Investigating The investigation phase is where students explore the full scope of the problem. This includes understanding the current situation and the reasons why the problem developed. Teachers and students might consider questions such as:

• What is the current situation? • How significant is this to me, the local community, nation, world? • What were things like before? • Why have they changed? • What has influenced these changes and why? • Do other communities - nearby or in other countries - experience

the same problem? Why or why not? • How do other people see it? • Are there any conflicts of interest? • Who gains? Who loses?


• What formal decision making processes could be used to solve this issue?

5. Developing Visions In this very important phase, teachers encourage students to develop visions of how they would like the current situation to look in the future. Students and teachers could consider questions such as:

• What are our visions for the future? • What would other groups and cultures think about this vision? • What are the alternative visions imaginable? � Which vision do we

prefer and why?

6. Planning Actions This phase involves students developing an action plan that will seek to achieve their selected vision for the problem being investigated. An essential component of this phase is the evaluation of the action and careful consideration of whether those actions will result in the desired changes. Teachers and students may need to consider questions such as:

• What changes will bring us closer to the visions? Are they changes within their own lifestyles and families and/or in the wider community?

• What barriers might prevent these changes for taking place? • How could these barriers be overcome? • What are the steps that need to be taken to make these changes? • What barriers might prevent us from carrying out these steps? • How could these barriers be overcome? • What is the action plan for each change? • How will we choose to evaluate this action plan?

7. Taking Actions This is the phase where the action plan is implemented by the students and teachers. In order for the Community Problem Solving Process to be truly democratic, it is important that students are allowed to freely choose to take actions that address the community problem identified. These actions may be within their own lifestyles and families and/or in the wider community. Teachers and students may need to ask questions such as:

• Do the actions we are taking address the problem? • Are students able to freely choose the actions they take?


8. Evaluating Actions and Changes It is important that this evaluation phase follows the action taking phase. It is at this point that teachers and students review the actions and identify the changes that have taken place. They then compare these changes against their vision for the future of the community problem they have been working on. This evaluation may lead the groups to revise their vision from Phase 5 or develop a revised action plan from Phase 7. Students and teachers may need to consider questions such as:

• What actions did we take? • What changes resulted? • How does this compare with our vision from Phase 5? Should we

return to Phase 5? • What barriers did we face? • Were we able to overcome them? Why/why not? • What other actions could we have taken? Should we return to

Phase 7? • What did we learn from Community Problem Solving?

Action Planning Matrix Problem Statement:

Desirable Changes

Steps Required

By Whom

By When

Resources Evaluation

1.

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

2.

2.1

2.2


2.3

2.4

3.

3.1

3.2

3.3

3.4

Skills for Community Problem Solving

This resource lists some of the skills students might need to use as they undertake community problem solving. Make any additions to the list as required. Identify in the column provided the phases from Community Problem Solving: Teacher's Guide where students might need to use these skills.

Group Process Skills Community

Problem Solving Phase

• Consideration and respect for others

• Listen and comprehend

• Clear verbal expression


• Take on a variety of roles within a group

• Be a group leader when appropriate

• Provide constructive feedback to others

• Explore group decision making processes

• Monitor 'on-task' behaviour of the group

• Monitor the time allocated for tasks

Information Gathering Skills Community


• Use the library including print and electronic resources

• Design data gathering strategies for the problem being investigated

• Use scientific and social science techniques (e.g water quality testing, social survey) for investigation

• Identify relevant agencies, organisations and members of the community

• Request information from sources by writing letters, making telephone inquiries, or using e-mail

Analysis and Decision Making Skills Community


• Analyse data gathered using scientific and


social science techniques

• Think critically and creatively about possible alternatives

• Consider the values of other people and their own

• Decide a course of action

• Justify decisions

Action skills Community


• Decide on steps in an action plan

• Freely choose to take actions

• Evaluate whether the changes that were the result of the actions addressed the problem

Report or Presentation Structure

The following headings are given as a suggested format only.

Background This section should give a brief description of the teaching context, school location, age of students and the community background. Also outline the part of the syllabus you are teaching and the objectives you hope to achieve by using Community Problem Solving with this topic in the syllabus.


Community Problem Solving Phases In this section give an overview of the Community Problem Solving process. Include details of the teaching and learning activities that were used. Highlight the various phases of Community Problem Solving.

Teacher Reflection Discuss your experiences of using this teaching and learning strategy. What were the constraints you faced and how where they overcome? What were the learning outcomes for the students? What worked and what did not work? Why?

Future Plans Discuss whether you would use this teaching and learning strategy again? Why or why not? How different would the approach be if you used this strategy with the same group as opposed to a new group of students? What would you do differently next time and why?

5. LEARNING OUTSIDE THE CLASSROOM This module encourages teaching and learning through the use of experiences outside the classroom. Providing students with high quality learning activities in relevant situations beyond the four walls of the classroom can provide better appreciation, altered perspectives, and first hand practical experiences that enhance learning. In the context of enterprise education, the opportunity for such experiences is critical as students are then more able to use their developing knowledge, skills and attitudes in their everyday lives. Objectives of Teaching and Learning outside the Classroom 1. Attitudinal Objectives

� To arouse students' curiosity. � To develop favourable attitudes towards learning through

enjoyable and meaningful outdoor activities. � To provoke students to ask questions and identify problems. � To sharpen students' perception and appreciation of real life

situations. � To give students the experience of the pleasure of discovery.

2. Knowledge Objectives

� To develop better understandings of the nature of issues discussed in the classroom and in books.

� To enable students to think and acquire knowledge through personal experience.


3. Skills Objectives

� To develop an understanding of scientific modes of inquiry. � To distinguish between necessary and extraneous information. � To develop skills in data collection, recording and analysis. � To develop skills for working co-operatively in groups.

Approaches to Teaching and Learning outside the Classroom: A Field Teaching Field observations (often teacher directed). Recording of information in the field. Some field interpretation. Back at school - further interpretation and explanation in class - writing up field report. B Field Research Identification of a problem as the result of direct observations or from class work or from special interests of students. Formulation of an hypothesis as a result of reading, discussion, thinking. Field activities to collect data to test hypothesis. Data analysis - processing information. Hypothesis testing - accept or reject. C Guided Field Research On some occasions (e.g. for younger students) it can sometimes be beneficial to help students set questions to be answered as the result of direct observations or from class work or from special interests of students. What students think are the answers. Field activities to collect data to answer the questions. Do students' conclusions agree with their tentative answers from before the field activity? Why/Why not? Hypothesis testing - accept or reject. Planning Learning Experiences Outside the Classroom: A Teacher Preparation

� Familiarize yourself with the appropriate school and system policies for conducting learning experiences beyond the school grounds.

� Pre-visit the site(s). � Develop clear objectives for the study. � Decide how you can build on previous learning experiences. � Plan pre-field study learning experiences and prepare students

to see fieldwork as active learning. � Prepare fieldwork activities and resources. � Decide how much time is required for the tasks and for travel to

and from the site.


� Prepare background information for other staff and parent/community helpers.

� Identify all possible risks and manage them appropriately, i.e. complete a Risk Management Matrix.

� Be aware of any possible distractions to students at the site. � Identify appropriate student/adult ratio. Parents may need to

be invited and briefed to assist teachers with supervision. � Organize the following:

- Consent from for parents - Permission to visit the site - Finance - Transportation - Toilet facilities - Clothing and equipment to meet safety requirements - Departure and arrival times

B Student Preparation

� Consider how you might introduce the experience to students. � Relate students' background knowledge and previous learning

to the field study. � Identify the questions, issues or problems, the students want

answered during the experience. � Develop students' skills for appropriate methods of recording

and reporting their data and conclusions. � Identify individual student and group responsibilities for data

collection and analysis. � Disclose the risks and discuss a study management plan. � Negotiate appropriate behaviour standards.

The Nature and Purposes of Learning outside the Classroom

Source: Adapted from Laws, K. (1989) Learning geography through fieldwork, in Fien, J., Gerber, R. and Wilson, P., eds., The Geography Teacher's Guide to the Classroom, 2nd edition, Macmillan, Melbourne, pp.105-116.

The Purposes of Learning outside the Classroom

A great range of objectives can be achieved through learning outside the classroom. Some objectives relate to the formation of attitudes and the development of an aesthetic awareness. Other objectives are concerned


with the development of understanding and knowledge. Still other objectives relate to the development of skills.

Although the teacher holds the ultimate responsibility for what happens during learning outside the classroom, the experience can be used to help students develop a greater sense of their own responsibilities towards each other and the tasks on which they are working. When planning learning outside the classroom it is necessary to match the activities selected with the objectives and purposes of the fieldwork. The selection of objectives will depend to some extent upon the timing of the fieldwork within the sequence of learning activities. For example, learning outside the classroom can be used early in the learning sequence as a means of basic information gathering and increasing the motivation of students. Sometimes, learning outside the classroom may be used towards the end of a unit of work as a means of drawing a number of themes together. At other times field activities may be integrated throughout a unit of work to develop students' understandings of concepts, generalizations and principles.

Approaches to Learning outside the Classroom

Two approaches may be identified in outdoor learning activities. The first, the traditional approach, is often referred to as field teaching. At its worst, this often involves the teacher taking students to a field location and delivering a mini-lecture from which students are expected to take notes. Little opportunity exists for student input and reaction. At its best, this approach involves students in the careful observation and description of an environment and in suggesting possible explanations based on previously acquired information.

The second approach, a field research approach, also involves observation, description and explanation but adopts a problem-solving focus, using techniques similar to those used in scientific explanation. This is the inductive approach to fieldwork.

Each of these approaches has relevance for environmental education and the approach adopted for any particular field study will depend on the purpose of the field activities. If students are inexperienced in making their own observations or lack confidence in their ability to solve problems, field teaching can help, provided that opportunities for them to find their own examples of features and processes are included as an integral part of the experience. Field research requires a high level of planning on the part of the students and the teacher. Students must know precisely what it is that they are searching for and how they are to go about their search. Teachers must ensure that students possess the


necessary data collecting and recording skills and provide assistance to the students during the analysis phase.

To be meaningful, learning outside the classroom should be integrated with classroom activities. A sequence of activities for students can be identified involving pre-fieldwork, fieldwork and post-fieldwork activities.

Problems and Constraints in Learning outside the Classroom

Despite the advantages of fieldwork as a learning experience, the problems and constraints have to be acknowledged. Many of the constraints are associated with organisational factors such as the difficulty of adequately supervising a large group of students and providing them with the assistance they may need, the lessons missed by the teachers conducting the fieldwork, the lessons missed by students, and alterations which have to be made to the school timetable. The time needed to plan a worthwhile field trip and the cost of transport and accommodation, if required, also have to be considered. The argument that a teacher may lack the detailed knowledge of the locality can be overcome by a reconnaissance, preferably with a colleague, and through reading. However, it must be acknowledged that the time factor is important. The safety of the students is also something which must be kept in mind when planning activities. The problems and constraints emphasise the need to ensure that only meaningful field activities are undertaken. One way this can be achieved is through the specification of the anticipated outcomes of any field experiences. In this way it is possible to alert principals and parents about the importance of learning outside the classroom.

Some problems in learning outside the classroom relate to the learning processes to be used by students. Observation, descriptive analysis and inferring are some of the skills required. However, there are many skills associated with data collection and the analysis of data which students must develop to get the most out of their learning outside the classroom.

Despite concluding this reading with a warning about the problems and constraints associated with learning outside the classroom it should never be forgotten that perhaps the most meaningful and lasting learning takes place when students are actively participating in exploring the great variety of environments around them. In addition, the learning outside the classroom experience provides opportunities for teachers and students to get to know each other and interact outside the structures of the classroom and the school environment.


6. THE USE OF CASE STUDIES A casebook is like a jigsaw puzzle. There are a large number of odd-shaped pieces that may be difficult to see how each relates to the whole. A deep analysis and discussion of each case will help the class put all pieces together and have a deeper understanding of what it takes to start up, sustain and successfully manage the growth of an entrepreneurial venture. A casebook that carefully selects various scenarios and challenges can give young entrepreneurs a fertile ground that provides suitable training for the practice of skills and trainings learnt in entrepreneurship education. It is therefore important to select diverse cases aimed at what identified entrepreneurs went through while defining and implementing their growth strategies. Aspiring and emerging entrepreneurs may find the situations presented in the cases very useful in developing their managerial skills for their ventures. The emphasis is not on the peculiarity of the selected cases but on the ability of entrepreneurs to use feedbacks from these cases to tackle future challenges in a more cost-effective manner. If one takes a critical look at the Nigerian businesses, most start small and tend to either stay small (with little or no formal structures outside the control of the owner-manager) or die from the stress of growth. Most entrepreneurs fail to see the danger posed by globalization and liberalization of trade and the need for continuous innovation and competitiveness. It is only those entrepreneurs who have succeeded in managing the increasing complexities of their venture operations and establish more formal structures (with delegated powers to carefully selected employees) to enable the enterprise attend to the changing needs of its patrons as well as the market dynamics that are sustained, grow and add considerable value to the national economy. An active use of case studies in the training of entrepreneurs is critical for dynamic growth, reinvigoration of the national economy, and strengthening the entrepreneur’s coping strategy. The approach to studying entrepreneurs and their enterprises should use experiential learning technique. During the encounter with the entrepreneurs, students must identify their motivation, growth strategies, operational drives, managerial skills and their ability to discover opportunities that are eventually turned into viable ventures. There is also a need to study their staying power in face of challenges posed by the market environment.


Our suggestion is that the teacher and his students must carefully study enterprises in their neighbourhood; and discover how the entrepreneurs were able to turn a business idea into a viable reality. This method should empower and embolden students to venture out and do something for themselves. There are many available case studies on entrepreneurship out of which the teacher can choose from to illustrate any traits or skills of entrepreneurship.

7. GAMES AND LEARNING “Games are… the most ancient and time-honored vehicle for education. They are the original educational technology, the natural one, having received the seal of approval of natural selection. We don’t see mother lions lecturing cubs at the chalkboard; we don’t see senior lions writing their memoirs for posterity. In light of this, the question, ‘Can games have educational value?’ becomes absurd. It is not games but schools that are the newfangled notion, the untested fad, the violator of tradition. Game-playing is a vital educational function for any creature capable of learning.” (Crawford 1982) Computer games are fast becoming a growing part of our culture; the global market is worth billions of dollars. In 2002, the world market for ‘games and edutainment/reference software’ realized 16.9 billion US dollars, with 3.3 million games consoles being sold in the UK alone (ELSPA 2003). People of all ages, but most visibly children, play these games, often dedicating long periods of time in total concentration. Today, researchers, teachers and designers of learning resources are beginning to ask how this powerful games medium might be used to support learning. Rather than shutting the door of the school against the computer game, there is now increasing interest in asking whether computer games might be offering a powerful new resource to support learning in this information age. There is a considerable current thinking about the role of computer games in supporting learning inside and out of school. Researchers and commentators have attempted to understand the lure of computer games. This has been characterized as a combination of fantasy, challenge and curiosity, and a level of engagement described as ‘flow’ where players become oblivious to distractions. Concern has been expressed that this leads to a neglect of other activities, often assumed to be automatically more worthy. Other authors see games play as inherently valuable, leading to a development of a range of skills and competences that may transfer to other social and work-related uses of digital technologies.


Nonetheless, teachers and parents have come to recognize that games play can support valuable skill development, such as:

� strategic thinking � planning � communication � application of numbers � negotiating skills � group decision-making � data-handling.

There are two key themes common to the development of games for education:- namely:

1. The desire to harness the motivational power of games in order to ‘making learning fun’.

2. A belief that ‘learning through doing’ in games such as simulations offers a powerful learning tool.

Software designed to support learning often borrows from game design in an attempt to replicate the levels of engagement and harness this to facilitate more traditional learning. Rather than aiming for an experience that superficially resembles leisure-based ‘fun’ activities, or one which attempts to conceal the educational purpose, it might be argued that we should understand the deep structures of the games play experience that contribute to ‘flow’ and build these into environments designed to support learning. Researchers, reflecting on how to design engaging learning experiences, draw on above definitions to propose eight characteristics as essential in games aimed at teaching skills. These engagements are:

1. task that we can complete 2. ability to concentrate on task 3. task has clear goals 4. task provides immediate feedback 5. deep but effortless involvement (losing awareness of worry and

frustration of everyday activity) 6. exercising a sense of control over our actions 7. concern for self disappears during flow, but sense of self is

stronger after flow activity; and 8. sense of duration of time is altered.


CATEGORISING GAMES As games have become more complex in terms of graphics, complexity, interaction and narrative, so a variety of genres have increasingly come to dominate the market. There is, however, no standard categorization of such games; different stakeholders in the games industry, e.g. game outlets, developers, academics, web review sites, use a taxonomy appropriate to their own audience. The system employed by Herz (1997) which closely resembles that used by many in the contemporary games industry presents these major categories as:

� action games - these can be sub-categorized into shooting games, ‘platform’ games (so called because the players’ characters move between onscreen platforms) and other types of games that are reaction-based

� adventure games - in most adventure games, the player solves a number of logic puzzles (with no time constraints) in order to progress through some described virtual world

� fighting games - these involve fighting computer-controlled characters, or those controlled by other players

� puzzle games - such as Tetris � role-playing games - where the human players assume the

characteristics of some person or creature type, eg elf or wizard � simulations - where the player has to succeed within some

simplified recreation of a place or situation e.g. mayor of a city, controlling financial outlay and building works

� sports games � strategy games - such as commanding armies within recreations

of historical battles and wars. Simulations are one of the most popular types of entrepreneurship educational games. Cruickshank (1980, p76) defined a simulation game as one “…in which participants are provided with a simulated environment in which to play”, while defining simulations in their own right as (p75) “the products that result when one creates the appearance or effect of something else”. Laurel (1991) claims that:

“Educational simulations (as opposed to tutorial and drill-and-practice forms) excel in that they represent experience as opposed to information. Learning through direct experience has, in many contexts, been demonstrated to be more effective and enjoyable than learning through ‘information communicated as facts’. Direct, multi-sensory representations have the capacity to engage people intellectually as well as emotionally, to enhance the contextual aspects of information, and to encourage integrated, holistic responses.”


Simulation games possess several attractive properties: � they can be designed so that the player receives instant feedback

regarding the consequences of their actions � the game controller or designer can add, remove or adjust various

factors within the game � compared to real-world training where materials and resources are

used, a simulation is often a much cheaper option � they enable dangerous actions to be undertaken in a safe virtual

environment. For example, many people in the nuclear power industry train extensively on PC-based simulations

In theory, as more powerful gaming technology and graphics capabilities become standard, so simulation games can become more realistic in terms of appearance and plausibility. However, this is not necessarily the case; real-world situations often involve long periods of inactivity, punctuated by periods of action, which does not map well onto the ‘continuous flow’ and engagement of a game. The value of collaborative learning, and the role of computers in promoting such activity have been thoroughly researched. Whilst such collaboration cannot be assumed, and children have to learn to work together, computer-based activities can help in this process. How this collaboration translates into a multiplayer gaming environment and how these environments might be used to support learning, remain some of the most interesting areas for potential further research and development LEARNING WITH GAMES IN/OUTSIDE SCHOOL In line with developments in learning theory, research that has examined children’s self-motivated computer games play sees their learning as a process of participation in practice rather than a process of acquisition of facts or disconnected ‘pieces’ of information, ie ‘doing’ rather than ‘knowing’. This takes a variety of different forms. 1 Learning ‘Competencies’ Since games are often characterized by a trial-and-error approach to overcoming challenges or obstacles, commentators have suggested that these games can support the development of logical thinking and problem solving skills (Ink-pen et al1995; Higgins 2000; White-bread 1997). Much of this research has focused on ‘strategy or adventure games’, which encourage students in exploratory quest-like scenarios with a high degree of control over their progress (Malone 1983; Russell 1990).


2 Learning to learn – New Approaches to Collaboration Research into the wider context of games play indicates that, contrary to populist media opinion, games are often a facilitator to social, communication and peer activities. This has always been the case; in the early years of computer gaming, a ‘playground culture’ of discussing, swapping, buying and selling games emerged. Interactive communities often develop around mainstream games with or without developers’ encouragement, as enthusiasts create websites, discussion boards and other communication environments to exchange information, experiences and even resources related to a game. 3 Learning to Participate in Practice Central to the argument about what video games offer to learning is Gee’s assertion that semiotic domains are shared by groups of people, described as ‘affinity groups’, sharing knowledge, skills, tools and resources to form complex systems of interrelated parts. Within an affinity group, learners gain resources from fellow members that equip them to solve problems within, and perhaps outside of, the specific domain - and this is evidence of ‘active learning’. For Gee, however the crucial aspect of this practice is ‘critical learning’:

“The learner needs to learn not only how to understand and produce meanings in a particular semiotic domain that are recognizable to those affiliated with the domain, but, in addition, how to think about the domain at a ‘meta’ level…(and) how to produce meanings that, while recognizable, are seen as somehow novel or unpredictable.” (p23)’

8. FUTURE PROBLEM SOLVING

Future Problem Solving is an exciting and practical strategy for helping students develop skills for analysing a problem. It is based on a sequence of five steps that help them decide - from a futures perspective - what should be done about a problem.

In developing problem solving skills, this teaching strategy also helps students to develop an interest in the future and improve their research, group work and communication skills.

This activity models how the Future Problem Solving strategy can be applied to the waste management problems in a fictional city called Apapa.


Read background information on the problem of waste management in Apapa (see box on page 40-42). Statement of the Problem

A very important part of the Future Problem Solving strategy is developing a clear, but interesting and challenging, statement of a problem. This helps students learn to focus on solutions that address underlying causes - rather than just the symptoms of the problem.

In a good problem statement, the problem is set in the near future. It is established by examining the causes and effects that are interacting to create a current problem, and then thinking approximately 10 years ahead. The problem is then either 'out of hand' or getting out of hand, and the students are asked to plan a series of steps that will rectify the problem - and that probably should have been set in train 10 or so years back - in the present time. Explain why this is a good statement of the problem. Review a list of reasons why this is a good statement of the problem. A Six Step Process for Future Problem Solving

Once the teacher has prepared a clear statement of the problem and presented it to students in an interesting way (eg. newspaper cuttings, a story, a video, a role play, etc.), students follow a six step process for Future Problem Solving.

Identifying possible causes and effects

Identifying the underlying problem

Brainstorming potential solutions to the underlying problem

Developing criteria to evaluate solutions

Evaluating all solutions to determine the best one

Developing an action plan for the best solution

Source: Adapted from Crabbe, A. (1985) The Coach's Guide to Future Problem Solvers Program, Future Problem Solving Program, Ann Arbor.


Example: Future Problem Solving for Apapa

Identifying possible causes and effects Now that we understand the statement of the problem in Apapa (see page 40-42), it is time to consider the many problems related to it. Start by brainstorming (on a sheet of paper) as many factors as you can think of that may have caused the situation or may have resulted from it. Choose the ten you think most important.

Identifying the underlying problem

Study your list of ten factors (Question 4) and identify the main underlying problem.

Explain what you want to do about the problem.

Explain why it should be done.

Use the headings in your learning journal to guide your answers.

Brainstorming potential solutions to the underlying problem Brainstorm - on a sheet of paper, again - as many solutions as you can. Choose the ten most promising solutions and write each solution so that it indicates:

Who will undertake what action?

How will it be done?

Why will this solve the problem?

List three criteria that a very good solution to the problem ought to meet.

Evaluating all solutions to determine the best one Using the ten possible solutions from Question 6, identify what you think will be the very best solution to the underlying problem. It might link several ideas from your ten. Developing an action plan for the best solution Outline the stages you will need to follow to implement this solution. Then note the possible consequences of implementing each step. It is best not to identify more than five stages.


Waste Problems in Apapa: Existing Conditions

The current system for the collection of solid waste in Apapa is unreliable because of a number of local conditions. These include:

Apapa has a population of 3 million people and is growing very rapidly.

The torrential rains of the raining season cause flooding of the streets and severe deterioration of the paved roads necessary for refuse collection trucks.

Inaccessibility to the refuse sources because of the extensive areas where squatters live and because of the narrow, poorly maintained streets in many of the communities.

Poor road systems in the landfill disposal sites prevent refuse collection trucks from delivering their loads the wet season.

Apapa is very large and the collection vehicles are rather small. As a result the trucks must travel long distances to the landfill sites and make many trips. Some of these inefficiencies could be overcome by building transfer stations but funds are not available for this.

All of the existing landfill sites are poorly located for a city as large as Apapa has become in recent years. For example, groundwater pollution is increasing and there is insufficient clean soil for the daily earth cover necessary for a sanitary landfill operation.

The lack of earth cover of each day's refuse allows storm water to infiltrate the refuse. This causes anaerobic decomposition of the refuse and results in strong odours from the gas generated. Fires often ignite as a result. The lack of earth cover also provides ideal breeding grounds for rodents, flies and other vermin which can then migrate into nearby communities.

As a result, the best description of the existing landfill sites would be to classify them as open dumps rather than sanitary landfills.

In a properly operated sanitary landfill, the area would be fenced and the access gate serviced by either a series of scales for weighing the incoming tonnage or by a gate house where an estimate could be made of the yards of refuse to be disposed.

If this were done, then an appropriate charge could be made to the users of the landfill to recover the capital and operating costs for the landfill site.

Proposed Guidelines for Solid Waste Management in Apapa


A new plan calls for two landfills, one to serve the northern portion of the city, and the other to serve the southern part.

This would require a substantial number of heavy trucks and the construction of five transfer stations.

It is proposed that the new landfill sites be selected according to the following criteria:

They should be located in areas where there is no useable groundwater under the site.

There should be adequate buffer zones between the landfill site and other commercial and residential areas.

Access roads should be adequate for heavy collection vehicles and the roads should be wide enough to accommodate the refuse vehicles without leaving the paved surface.

Fences should be built around the entire disposal site to prevent access by squatters or scavengers.

The proposed new operational procedures include:

The sanitary landfill should not cause any nuisance to the community, for example by - placing soil over the refuse each day to ensure drainage of storm water; - controlling dust by water trucks each day; - alternative wet weather dumping areas constructed for access during rainy season; and - covering land fills on completion to support trees and shrubs.

Methane gas which can be produced anaerobically from within the landfill can be drawn off for use in gas engines or burned in a steam generating plant for producing electricity, if gas trenches and wells are constructed in the landfill.

Transfer stations should be designed to provide storage of refuse in a pit so that the collection vehicles can be promptly moved in and out of the station. If refuse storage is not provided, there must be adequate number of transfer vehicles available at all times to accept refuse directly from the collection vehicles.

Water Quality Management:

The major river systems in the Apapa Region - the Niger and the Ogun - flow into Apapa Bay. The rivers are so polluted from the discharge of


domestic and industrial wastewater that they can be termed 'biologically dead' except for the upstream portion of the Niger River. Most of the pollutants discharged in the region's river systems eventually end up in Laguna Bay.

The Ogun River flows east to west for 25 kms through Apapa to Laguna Bay. 70% of the organic pollution in the river is due to domestic waste and 30% to industrial discharges. Out of over 300 industrial firms along the banks of the river system, about one-half have been found to be polluting the water in varying degrees. River pollution is further aggravated by oil spills from over 200 service stations, several oil depots, and barges, tanks and boats docking in the area.

The Niger River system is the most polluted in the country - 58% domestic waste (both liquid and solid waste) and 42% from industrial waste. There are about 1000 industries along the river banks and about 16000 squatter families living within its watershed.

Both the Niger and the Ogun River systems have been significantly affected by the vast quantities of silt deposited in the river beds, which cause regular flooding due to riverbank overflows during intense rains. Siltation is caused by soil scoured from deforested upper watershed areas outside Apapa and by bank erosion.

Most of the pollutants eventually end up in Laguna Bay. The Bay is, therefore, the recipient of domestic and industrial waste discharges, agricultural runoffs and oil spills. One of the major causes of the pollution in the bay is the lack of adequate domestic wastewater sewerage facilities. Only about 15% of the population of Apapa is presently sewered. The increase in direct discharges of domestic and industrial wastes, and agricultural runoff, plus pollution carried in by tributary rivers, has degraded the water quality of Laguna Bay over the years. In the last 20 years, the watershed area of the lake has become one of the most heavily urbanised and industrialised areas in the region.

Completing the module: Students should be encouraged to look back through the activities and tasks to check that they have done them all; and to change any that can be improved now that they have come to the end of the module.


Evaluating Your Problem Solving

The solution you have suggested should be both desirable and practicable. It is desirable if it eases or removes the problem without creating other more serious problems. It is practicable if it can possibly be implemented in the Apapa situation; that is, in terms of social effects, cost, labour, machinery and technology.

Q1: Describe your solution in terms of its desirability and practicability.

Q2: List the six steps of future problem solving you followed in the Apapa case study.

Q3: Describe how you could use the six steps of future problem solving and the Apapa case study with a class you teach.

Q4: Identify another problem related to a topic in a syllabus you teach, and develop a plan for teaching it using the future problem solving strategy.

10 MORE TEACHING STRATEGIES Effective trainers vary their training technique often, even during session. It is important that trainees are actively involved in the learning process; hence a range of participative training techniques should be used for teaching entrepreneurship education courses. In addition to the methodologies discussed above, the following are equally effective:

1. Presentation (short and proactive) 2. Group discussion 3. Small group work 4. Individual assignments 5. Projects 6. Brainstorming 7. Role play 8. Guest speakers

The methods are briefly reviewed below. Presentation A trainer presentation, or lecture, is the most commonly used method of teaching. It can be very useful to arouse interest among trainers. It


involves a transfer of information from one person to a group. Typically, interaction is confined to the end of the presentation and it is often limited to asking questions. When making a presentation, it is common to make use of visual aid such as flip charts, overhead projector or slide projectors. Although various types exist, the most common type involves the presentation of a body of knowledge. The method may be used by both trainer and trainees. Key points are made which leads to some conclusions. Ideally, presentations should be kept short. Group Discussion Group discussions are commonly used as instructional strategy for exploring issues, solving problems and making decisions. A group discussion is one way to get a class to explore personal attitudes. Changes in personal attitudes can result from group discussions. A discussion should have clear objective which should be maintained throughout the discussion. The atmosphere of the group should be relaxed yet planned and organized. The group discussion should have a definite beginning, middle and end. For the discussion to be both effective, there should be a free flow of trainee opinions. The group discussion should be brought to a conclusion by a summary of the major points. A group member might be asked to do this. For trainees, group discussions offer opportunities to:

• exchange ideas and opinions

• review key points

• determine trainees knowledge about a topic

• develop listening skills

• encourage trainees to take responsibility for their beliefs

• express attitudes, beliefs and behaviors in front of others

• help trainees co-operatively work through a learning process Small Group Work Small group may be composed of about three to five members who work together for short time to complete a task or to solve a problem. Here, trainees are given a task to perform or subject to discuss. The task can last as little as five minutes or as long as a day, depending on the


nature of the assignment. There are various reasons of using small groups:

• trainees can express their opinions freely

• trainees’ interest is maintained

• trainees are encouraged to take responsibilities for their own learning

• trainees are actively involved. Individual Assignments Individual assignments are accomplished when each trainee is given specific activities. This assignments should have clear objectives and trainees should have clear objective evaluated. Individual assignments provide opportunities for trainees to learn by discovery. Trainers who use this method should select tasks that give trainees a sense of responsibility for their own actions.

Individual assignments are important part of every course. Each individual assignment should have clear instruction for completion and have specified time limit to be completed. Assignments should be assessed as soon as possible and feedback given to the trainee.

Projects Projects are another form of assignment which might be accomplished individually or in a group. Generally-speaking, a project should result in a report which might include an analysis of facts, a discussion of options and recommendations to solve a specific problem. Recommendations might also include a clear strategy for implementing the solution. Projects may be used to have trainees practice a number of skills or topics already thought in the class. Brainstorming

Brainstorming is a technique used for creating problem-solving as well as for generating ideas. The object is to come up with as many ideas as possible. It usually starts with a question or problem statement. For example, you may ask ‘What are the product and services needed in the home today which are not available?’ Each idea leads to one or more additional ideas, resulting in a good number. When using this method, we need to follow these four rules;

• Don’t criticize or judge ideas of others


• Freewheeling is encouraged-ideas that seem to be wild or crazy are welcome

• Quantity is desired-the greater the number of ideas, the better

• Combine and improve upon the ideas of others. Furthermore, all ideas, no matter how seemingly, illogical or crazy, must be recorded. Role Play Role playing may be used to illustrate, by drama, the various aspects of an interpersonal problem. They are particularly useful for promoting understanding between different viewpoints as well as demonstrating how people might react under certain condition. Guest Speakers

Guest speakers provide variety to a class setting. They can also serve as role model for trainees. They could be subject matter experts, entrepreneurs or other figures in the community whose work pertains to the subject under discussion. To be able to make the best use of this resource, trainers need to develop their own personal network of associations and institutions concerned with entrepreneurship and small business development. These might include:

� Banks � Small business development/promotion agencies � Accountants � Lawyers � Community/local/regional development organizations � Non-governmental organizations � Religious organizations � Local entrepreneurs � Government ministries � Employers’ organizations � Trade unions

Finally, entrepreneurship education is meant to be fun. We suggest all teachers develop strategies that best address the needs of the class as well as “Ability to encourage and inspire trainees’. Have fun! All the best!!


APPROPRIATE ASSESSMENT Introduction There have been many changes in how we think about assessment over recent years. Many of these changes are relevant to entrepreneurship education. Perhaps the most noticeable change is the focus on relating learning with the measurement and reporting of what students have achieved. This relationship helps make assessment an integral part of students' day-to-day schooling rather than a series of end-of -course tests. This goal is especially important in entrepreneurship education because of the wide range of objectives concerned with knowledge, skills, values/attitudes, and action. This module develops ways of assessing student learning that are appropriate to entrepreneurship education. Objectives

� To develop a sense of direction and innovation in the assessment of learning in entrepreneurship education;

� To analyse key assessment issues and make decisions that will integrate assessment with effective teaching and learning; and

� To develop skills for using appropriate ways of assessing the knowledge, skill and values objectives of entrepreneurship education.

Defining Assessment One of the important themes of 'Innovative Approaches to Assessment' is to establish the difference between (1) assessment and (2) evaluation. Participants were given the following definitions Assessment is often equated with tests and examinations. This is misleading since neither are essential to assessment. Assessment is an all embracing term. It covers any of the situations in which some aspects of a student’s education is in some sense measured, whether this measurement is by the teacher, an examiner or indeed the student herself. It is concerned with how well the student has done. Evaluation is whether it was worth doing in the first place. Evaluation cannot take place without assessment.

Source: Adapted from Lloyd-Jones, R. and Bray, E. (1986) Assessment: From Principles to Action, Macmillan, London.

Educational assessment is an omnibus term which includes all the processes and products which describe the nature and extent of children's learning, how it meets the aims and objectives of teaching, and how it relates to the classroom environment which is designed to facilitate learning.


Source: Adapted from Statterly, D. (1989) Assessment in Schools, Basil

Blackwell, Oxford.

Assessment is a process that helps teachers understand degrees of achievement and performance, and it often forms the core body of data upon which teachers report on the achievement and performance to students' parents and the wider community. As such, it must be reliable and valid. Evaluation serves quite a different purpose. Its purpose is to improve curriculum and pedagogy. The evaluation process is formative. Assessment and evaluation are integral parts of the educational process and all aspects of teaching and learning provide opportunities for both.

Source: Adapted from Hunt, G., Murdoch, K., and Walker, K. (1996) Assessment and evaluation: Profiling achievement in SOSE, in R. Gilbert (ed) Studying Society and Environment: A Handbook for Teachers, Macmillan, Melbourne

Participants reviewed above definitions and at the end of discussion, it was agreed that: Assessment refers to the process of monitoring student learning achievements for the purposes of diagnosing learning strengths and difficulties, reporting to parents, and providing a certificate of achievement for employers and other educational institutions.

Evaluation is the broader process of monitoring all aspects of the learning process (including the relevance of objectives, appropriateness of content, resources and teaching methods, the quality of the learning environment, etc.) for the purpose of making judgments about how to improve the learning process. Reasons for Assessing Student Learning The teachers at the workshop were then asked to compare two approaches to assessment to identify the one they believed was most appropriate to education. View 1 We teachers say that we test children to find out what they have learned, so that we can better know how to help them learn more. This is about 95% untrue. There are two main reasons why we test children: the first is to threaten them into doing what we want done, and the second is to give us a basis for handing out rewards and penalties on which the educational system - like all coercive systems - must operate.

Source: Holt, J (1969) How Children Fail, Penguin, Harmondsworth, pp. 51-52.

View 2 Assessment should play a critical part in any educational process. Wherever learning takes place, or is intended that it should take place, then it is reasonable for the learner, the teacher and other interested


parties to be curious about what has happened both in terms of the learning process and in terms of any anticipated or un-anticipated outcomes. We would argue that good education, by definition, encompasses good assessment. However, we would wish to disassociate ourselves immediately from much of what has gone under the guise of 'good' educational assessment. Assessment has been viewed for far too long as a formal process, which normally involves the administration of formal tests and examinations through procedures that are totally divorced from the educational process and setting to which they are supposed to relate.

Source: Murphy and Torrance (1988) The Changing Face of Educational Assessment, Milton Keynes, Open University

Above views represent two types of assessment: 1. Formative Assessment Formative assessment refers to the ongoing forms of assessment that are closely linked to the learning process. It is characteristically informal and is intended to help students identify strengths and weaknesses in order to learn from the assessment experience. 2. Summative Assessment This form of assessment usually occurs towards the end of a period of learning in order to describe the standard reached by the learner. Often this takes place in order for appropriate decisions about future learning or job suitability to be made. Judgments derived from summative assessment are usually for the benefit of people other than the learner. Defining Assessment Terms The teacher/facilitator must understand some of the technical terms associated with assessment:

� Formative and summative assessment � Informal and formal assessment � Continuous and terminal assessment

Methods of Assessment There are many different methods of assessment, including:

� Multiple choice tests � Map or diagram interpretation � Vocabulary tests � Debate performance � True-false tests � Lecturette � Labels-on-a-diagram tests � Structured essay � Comprehension tests


� Unguided essay � Short answer tests (paragraph answers) � Field trip report � Decision making exercises � Library research essay

The choice of different assessment methods should be related to different educational objectives. The following five types of objectives are identified and are relevant to entrepreneurship education: Knowledge: What a person knows. Skills: The ability to do something, especially manual or physical. Thinking Processes: Advanced ways of thinking, such as applying, analyzing, synthesizing and evaluating. Values: Standards and principles that can be used to judge the worth of an idea or action. Actions: What people do as a result of the other kinds of learning.

When asked to explain the nature and purposes of assessing student learning through a decision making exercise, the facilitator explained that traditional assessment methods are not usually useful for assessing thinking skills and the process of analyzing attitudes and values. Decision-making exercises are an excellent way of doing this. Decision-making exercises are structured problem solving exercises that are presented to students as a series of tasks:

� Identifying the problem � Understanding the problem � Finding solutions � Summing-up


Example of a Student Exercise:


Task 4: Summing Up 4.1 Illustrate your understanding of the topic by writing a short essay on: To what extent is air pollution in Hong Kong today worse than it was 25 years ago? Explain how the present situation has arisen, and what different groups in society see as possible actions in response to the problem. Which action strategy would you recommend? Why? Grade the essay using the following criteria:

� Conceptual knowledge; � Organization/structure; � The illustrations and examples used; � The quality of the arguments that are used to support your

recommendation; � Written communication skills.


TEACHING METHODS/STRATEGIES


Note In this work, Lecture/short presentation method is considered applicable in all cases,

therefore it has not been mentioned. For illustrations, only few cases are mentioned

because such cases are seen to require such illustrations. Teachers are required to choose

methods and techniques that best suite their situations keeping in mind the requirements

of active student participation.

REFERENCES:

1. Know About Business (KAB); ILO Training Kits

2. Start and Improve your Business (SIYB); ILO Training Kits

3. Abraham, O. Doing Uncommon Things to Get Uncommon Results, Olumide Emannuel Ministry. Lagos. 2003, p. 40.

4. Adewunmi, Wole, Business Management, an Introduction, McMillan Nig. Ltd, Lagos, 1988.

5. Akinwumi,Olayemi, “Women Entrepreneurs in Nigeria: Notes on the Yoruba "Alajapa" and "Alarobo"” University of Ilorin, Nigeria, 2000.

6. Aworolomole, A. M. and Oyedokun, T. A., Entrepreneurship Structure and Practice, 2nd ed., Aseda Publishing, Ibadan, 2006.

7. Baumback, C. M. Basic Small Business Management, Obafemi Awolowo Press Ltd., 1992, p. 145.

8. “Energizing the Economy through Small Scale Enterprise”, the Guardian April 5, 2001, pp. 19

9. Faleye, T. A. B., “A Review of the Methods of Financing Small Scale Industries,” contributed paper in “Small Scale Industries and Local Raw Material Financing Adaptation & Consultancy,” , Susu, A. A. and Olatunji, F. O. Eds, NSChE 1999, p. 136-137.

10. Federal Ministry of Industries, “Brief on small and Medium Industries Development Agency”, (SMIDA), pp. 2-3

11. Hirsh, Robert D. and Peters, Michael, Entrepreneurship, 4th Ed., Irwin McGraw hill, New York, 1998.


12. Ibru, C. A. O., “Accessing the SMEIS fund: Issues, Challenges and Prospects”, A presentation at the Seminar on the Baseline Economic Survey of SMI in Nigeria held at Muson Centre, Lagos, Sept. 13, 2005.

13. Jamodu, K. “Government’s Plan to Promote Small and Medium Enterprises”, Keynote Address at the 44th Yearly General Meeting of Nigerian Employers Consultative Association (N.E.C.A.), Lagos, reported in the Guardian, May 14, 2001, p. 59.

14. Meredith, Geoffrey G., Nelson, Robert E. and Neck, Phillip A., The Practice of Entrepreneurship, University of Lagos Press, Lagos, 1996.

15. Ogunmuyiwa, J. A. The Practical Business Guide for the Entrepreneur in Africa, Pathead Enterprise, Lagos, 1994, p. 92

16. Olatunji, Toyin, Introduction to Small Scale Businesses, Michael Publishing, Ibadan.

17. Olson, D. D., “Entrepreneurship and Management”, Journal of Small Business Management. Vol. 25. No. 3, July 1987. pp. 7-13.

18. Onah, J. O. and Thomas, M. J. Marketing Management, Pacific Publishers, Uruwulu-Obosi, 1993.

19. Oshagbemi, T. A., Small Business Management in Nigeria, Longmans Group Limited, London, 1983, p. 102

20. Osoba, A. M., ed., Towards the Development of Small Scale Industries in Nigeria, NISER, Ibadan, 1987, p. 145.

21. Owualah, S. I. Entrepreneurship in Small Business Firms, G. Mag. Investments Ltd, (Education Publishers), 1999, p. 6.

22. Park, W. R. and Park, S. C. How to Succeed in Your Own Business, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, 1978, p. 3.

23. Sani, U., “30 Polytechnics Earmarked for Entrepreneurship Programme”, reported in the Guardian, June, 6, 2002, p. 39

24. Stanton, W. J. Fundamentals of Marketing, 6th Ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1981, p. 93

25. Tijani-Alawe, B. A., Entrepreneurship Process and Small Business Management, Industrial Science Centre, Sango-Ota, 2004


26. Timmons, Jeffry and Spinelli, Stephens, 6th Ed., New Venture Creation: Entrepreneurship for the 21st Century, McGraw Hill, New York, 2004.

27. Weston, J. F. and Brigham, E. F., Managerial Finance, 7th ed., The Dry Den Press, Hindsdale, Illinois, 1981. p. 2.

Methods of Assessment: There are many different methods of assessment from which the lecturer can choose for this course. These include:

� Multiple choice tests � Map or diagram interpretation � Vocabulary tests � Debate performance � True-false tests � Lecturette � Labels-on-a-diagram tests � Structured essay � Comprehension tests � Unguided essay � Short answer tests (paragraph answers) � Field trip report � Decision making exercises � Library research essay

The choice of different assessment methods should be related to different educational objectives (see table below).


SCORE: A scoring ratio of 40:60 is recommended for continuous assessment to end of course examination. The continuous assessment score of 40% should include, but not limited to, the following:

� Project; � Project presentation � Attendance � Tests and quizzes;

The examination should include, but not limited to, the following:

� Case study � True-false questions � Multiple choice questions � Short answer questions and � Essays


EEd 126: INTRODUCTION TO ENTREPRENEURSHIP

Course main Aim/Goal: This course is designed to create an entrepreneurial mindset and awareness in the student. General Objectives: On completion of the course, the student should:

1. Understand the meaning and scope of Enterprise and Entrepreneurship

2. Understand the history of Entrepreneurship in Nigeria;

3. Understand the types, characteristics and rationale of Entrepreneurship;

4. Understand the role of Entrepreneurship in economic development;

5. Understand Entrepreneurial characteristics and attitude;

6. Understand the key competencies and determining factors for success in

Entrepreneurship; and

7. Know the motivational pattern of Entrepreneurs.


Objective: 1.0: Understand the meaning and scope of Enterprise and Entrepreneurship. Time Available: 6 hrs

Specific Learning Objectives (SLO)

Teaching

Methods/Strategies

Illustrations

Learning Resources

1.1 Define an Enterprise in its narrower and wider contexts.

1.2 Explain different

forms of Enterprises.

1.3 Classify the

different forms of enterprises into small, medium and large enterprises.

1.4 Explain the terms:

Enquiry method, Information sheet. The teacher provides a guide to students on how to search for information.

- do - Community problem solving, Field trip and Enquiry methods. Information sheet. Enquiry and Internet search methods to

In the enquiry method, students need to develop critical thinking and should be able to ask searching questions while trying to find information. Skills required are:

- Decision making skills

- Facilitation skills

- Critical thinking skills

- Conflict resolution skills

Information sheet provides information to students. The sheet should provide essential facts, show differences and explain certain principles or provide information that will be helpful to student. Community problem solving method help student develop skills to investigate and evaluate solutions in the

Text books and journals Internet facilities Relevant video and audio clips Multimedia projector Successful Entrepreneur as guest lecturers


Entrepreneur Entrepreneurship Wage Employment Self Employment

1.5 Explain clearly

the business terrain in Nigeria.

be used. - do -

community. Students can: - Learn to do

research in the community.

- Learn to plan and work independently.

- Learn to investigate and find information

Searching the Internet for information should be a major habit of students. Teachers should encourage students to use the Internet extensively to get information.


Objective: 2.0: Understand the History of Entrepreneurship in Nigeria. Time Available: 4 hrs


Teaching

Methods/Strategies

Illustrations

Learning Resources

2.1 Trace the evolution of entrepreneurship development.

2.2 Compare

Entrepreneurship in Nigeria with Japan, India, China, Malaysia, South Korea etc.

2.3 Explain

Nigeria’s values in relation to Entrepreneurship.

2.4 Describe the role

of Entrepreneurship in the development of enterprises.

Enquiry, search Internet for historical development. Assignment method to be used. Enquiry, Internet search to get information on various countries. Learning outside classroom. Show films/videos on entrepreneurship

Students to get information through enquiry, Internet search and use information to write an assignment. This entails students working outside the classroom to get information. Use films/videos to show students the role of entrepreneurship in the development of enterprises.

Text Books, journals and other publications Internet facilities TV and VCR Relevant video and audio clips Multimedia projector Successful Entrepreneur as guest lecture


Objective: 3.0: Understand the types, characteristics and rationale of entrepreneurship. Time Available: 4 hrs Specific Learning Objectives (SLO)

Teaching

Methods/Strategies

Illustrations

Learning Resources

3.1 Explain types of Entrepreneurs and their characteristics.

3.2 Compare and

contrast Technological and Social Entrepreneurship.

Experiential enquiry methods.

- do –

- do -

Experiential learning entails learning by experience. Reflection is a key element in this type of learning. The experiential learning cycle involves:

- Experiencing - Processing the

experience - Generalizing - Applying

Generalizing – Concrete experiences. Sequential activities, goal setting. Processing – Observations and reflections. Individual reflect on what actually happened physically and emotionally during the experience. Generizing – Formation of abstract concerns and generalizations. Individuals think about and describe the implications of what they have experienced. Applying – Testing concepts in new situations.

Text Books, journals and other publications Internet facilities TV and VCR Relevant video and audio clips Multimedia projector Successful Entrepreneur as guest lecturers


3.3 Identify the

different types of Entrepreneurs: - Self employed,

- Opportunistic, - Inventors, - Pattern,Multipliers etc. 3.4 Identify the role

of Entrepreneurship in business, society and in self-employment.

- do -

Students to search and do assignment on role of entrepreneurship.


Objective: 4.0: Understand the role of Entrepreneurship in economic development. Time Available: 4 hrs


Teaching

Methods/Strategies

Illustrations

Learning Resources

4.1 Identify resources and constraints of Entrepreneurship

4.2 Explain how

Entrepreneurship leads to import substitution and utilization of local resources.

4.3 Explain how

Entrepreneurship leads to socio-economic development.

4.4 Explain the role

of an entrepreneur in grass root/local economic development.

Community Problem Solving and Enquiry methods. Field Trips.

- do - - do - Learning outside classroom, Information sheet, Community problem solving methods.

Field Trips may involve visits to set-up and companies that are entrepreneurial in nature to study them.

Text Books, journals and other publications Internet facilities TV and VCR Relevant video and audio clips Multimedia projector Successful Entrepreneur as guest lecturers Electronic projector and accessories


Objective: 5.0: Understand Entrepreneurial characteristics and Attitudes. Time Available: 4hrs Specific Learning Objectives (SLO)

Teaching

Methods/Strategies

Illustrations

Learning Resources

5.1 Explain the philosophy, values, scope, need and characteristics of Entrepreneurship.

5.2 Explain the

profiles of local entrepreneurs.

5.3 Demonstrate

high sense of innovation, creativity and independence.

5.4 Explain the

process of acquiring high sense of information seeking and ability in operating an enterprise.

Community Problem Solving, Information sheet, Enquiry, Assignment. Methods Role-plays, Community Problem Solving. Case study, Community problem Solving, Enquiry. - do -

Students to get as much information as possible and do assignment on the specific learning objective. Role plays involve the student assuming the task, duties and responsibilities of a particular person, associated with an organisation. The main purpose of role-playing is to enrich and develop the students understanding in relation to a particular role or position. Case study is where students work at particular cases related to their areas of interest and analyse the cases and came up with a good report on the cases.

Text Books, journals and other publications Internet facilities TV and VCR Relevant video and audio clips Multimedia projector Successful Entrepreneur as guest lecturers


5.5 Identify various

risks and remedies involved in operating an enterprise.

5.6 Evaluate Pilot

projects considering resource, time, personnel, equipment, money, materials etc.

5.7 Demonstrate

leadership and leadership skills by mobilising resources for establishing an enterprise.

5.8 Demonstrate

high level of problem solving techniques in overcoming internal and external constraints.

Community Problem Solving, Case study, Enquiries. Project Method. Role Playing, Case study, Experiential Method to be employed. - do -

Group students for survey studies and interview of entrepreneurs. In project method, students should be able to:

- Make decisions on the nature and extent of Project.

- Plan the project.

- Carry out the execution of project.

- Explain the relationships, developments and significance of project.

- Assess the project.


Objective 6:0: Understand the key competencies and determining factors for success in Entrepreneurship Time Available: 4hrs


Teaching

Methods/Strategies

Illustrations

Learning Resources

6.1 Identify the key competencies required in setting up a successful small business; Knowledge, Skill and Traits.

6.2 Identify key

success factors in setting up a small business; Resources, Ability, Motivation and Determination, Idea and Market etc.

6.3 Define

individual life goal and link it to Entrepreneurship.

6.4 Identify the

strengths and weaknesses in 6.3 above.

6.5 Explain Business

Games.

Enquiry, Discussion, Internet search methods. - do - Enquiry, Community Problem Solving, Case Study Methods. Case study, Enquiry Field Trips Methods. Business Games

Students to make search and list competencies. Student to do group studies of success factors in setting up small business. These are role-plays or simulations. The Games will depict a particular situation or simulate a particular situation. They could play role of a Business Executive, a banker, an accountant, a marketer etc.

- Games provide a lot of fun

- Games provide learning through simulation.

Text Books, journals and other publications Internet facilities TV and VCR Relevant video and audio clips Multimedia projector Successful Entrepreneur as guest lecturers Simulation games


6.6 Explain behavioural pattern observed in 6.5 above on: Moderate risk taking, Goal setting, Learning from feed back, Taking personal responsibility, Confidence and self reliance.

- do - Games can also show for example attack or defence, victory etc. Develop thinking faculty. So many are available in the market.


Objective 7.0: Know the motivational pattern of Entrepreneurs. Time Available: 4hrs


Teaching

Methods/Strategies

Illustrations

Learning Resources

7.1 Define Motivation. 7.2 List objectives of motivation. 7.3 Identify barriers to motivation and achievement. 7.4 Explain Thematic

Appreciation Test (TAT).

7.5 Explain how to

analyze motivation strength from TAT score.

7.6 Explain the spirit of

Achievement Motivation Test (AMT).

Information sheet, Case study, Enquiry methods to be employed.

- do - - do - - do - - do - - do -

Students to make Internet search on Thematic Appreciation Test.

Text Books, journals and other publications Internet facilities TV and VCR Relevant video and audio clips Multimedia projector


EEd 216: PRACTICE OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP Course main Aim/Goal: This course is designed to equip the student with necessary entrepreneurial skills for self-employment General Objectives: On completion of the course, the student should:

1. Know techniques for generating business ideas and the process of identifying

and assessing business opportunities

2. Know how to evaluate a business idea for developing an enterprise

3. Know methods of product/service selection

4. Understand the process and procedure for starting an Enterprise

5. Know the operational techniques in managing an Enterprise

6. Understand the various existing industries and support agencies in Nigeria

7. Appreciate the role of commercial and development banks in small and

medium scale industries development

8. Understand the role of personal savings and portfolio investment in National

Economic Development


Objective 1.0: Know techniques for gathering business ideas and the process of identifying and assessing business opportunities. Time Available: 4 hours


Teaching

Methods/Strategies

Illustrations

Learning Resources

1.1 Define business opportunities.

1.2 State the process of

exploring opportunities

1.3 Identify business

opportunities (SWOT Analysis)


conducting a market survey in order to establish demand/supply gap.


business idea generation.

Information sheet, Enquiry, Community Problem Solving, Case study. Show films and Video. - do -

- do - Learning outside classroom, Project methods, Discussion method. - do -

Search Internet to gather information on business opportunities. Guide student to conduct market surveys.

Text Books & journals Internet facilities Relevant video and audio clips Multimedia projector and accessories Guest speakers from successful businesses


Objective 2.0: Know how to evaluate a business idea for developing an enterprise. Time Available: 2 hours


Teaching

Methods/Strategies

Illustrations

Learning Resources

2.1 Define the concept of business plan.

2.2 Explain the process

of preparing preliminary project proposal.

2.3 Explain the process

of preparing a detailed business plan.

2.4 Conduct a model

business plan on a selected venture.

Information sheet, Enquiry, Group discussion, Project methods. - do -

- do - Project Method.

In the project method, students should follow the appropriate steps:

- Establish the need for the project.

- Set goal and objective.

- Agree on methods to carry out project.

- Project implementation.

- Project evaluation.

Textbooks & Journals Demonstration board Electronic Projector complete with accessories and D base, Internet facilities


Objective 3.0: Know methods of product/service selection. Time Available: 4 hours


Teaching

Methods/Strategies

Illustrations

Learning Resources

3.1 Define Product/Service 3.2 Explain the nature and

characteristics of product/service.

3.3 Explain product

selection criteria. 3.4 Identify key factors

associated with product selection. - Infrastructure - Technology - Availability of raw

material - Government

Policy/Regulation - Legal aspects of

business. 3.5 Explain venture idea

generation. 3.6 Explain the steps

involved in preliminary screening.

3.7 Explain different steps

in preparing pre-feasibility study.

3.8 Evaluate adequacy of

infrastructural facilities

Enquiry, Discussion, Case study methods.

- do - Enquiry, Community Problem Solving, Information Sheet methods. - do - Enquiry, Community Problem Solving, Experiential Discussion, Field Trips methods. - do - Project, Outside Classroom Trip, Discussion methods.

- do -

Text Books & Journals Publications Projector


for product selection. 3.9 Identify the relevant

technology available for the selected product.

3.10Evaluate sources and

adequacy of raw materials for the selected product.

3.11Explain different

government policy and regulations on the selected product.

3.12Identify legal aspects of

business in product selection.

Enquiry, Project methods. Enquiry, Outside classroom visits, Discussions. - do - - do -


Objective 4.0: Understand the process and procedure for starting an enterprise. Time Available: 4 hours


Teaching

Methods/Strategies

Illustrations

Learning Resources

4.1 Outline the main features of the companies and Allied Matters Act (CAMA) 1990 and the subsequent amendments.

4.2 Explain the functions

of the Corporate Affairs Commission (CAC) under the Companies and Allied Matters Act 1990.

4.3 Explain the legal

structure of business. 4.4 State factors to

consider in naming a business.

4.5 Explain the

procedure and requirements for registration of a business name.

4.6 Explain the

procedure and requirements for incorporating a business.

4.7 Explain the reasons

for the existence of registered business names and

Enquiry, Experiencial and Case study methods. Information Sheet, Enquiry, Outside classroom visit. Enquiry method. Enquiry method. Enquiry, Discussions, Information Sheet. Enquiry, Project methods. - do - - do -

Internet search will provide information on writing memos.

Textbooks & journals CAMA Articles and Memo of Association Certificate of Incorporation Internet (CAC Website)


companies. 4.8 Identify various

agencies responsible for issuance of licenses and permits.


Objective 5.0: Know the various operational techniques in managing an enterprise. Time Available: 4 hours Specific Learning Objectives

(SLO)

Teaching Methods/Strategies

Illustrations

Learning Resources

5.1 Define management and a manager.

5.2 Explain the functions of

management and a manager.

5.3 Explain Management

structure for an enterprise.

5.4 Explain the

communication process in the management of an enterprise.

5.5 Explain the techniques

and skills of:

- Planning - Organizing - Staffing - Leading - Controlling

5.6 Explain the basic

techniques of marketing, production and financial management in an enterprise.

5.7 Explain the principles of

record keeping, auditing and taxation.

Enquiry, Discussion methods. Role-play, Business Games. Enquiry, Information sheet. - do - Discussion, Enquiry methods. Enquiry, Case study, Discussion methods. - do -

Discussion method is meant to classify or enrich understanding of a subject matter or topics. The aim is to:

- Serve as a potential activity in the development of cognitive understanding.

- Serve as a

potential activity in the influence of the effective domain.

- Serve as an

activity to develop the individual’s ability to participate in various activities.

The leader: - Leads

discussions - Simulates

discussion - Regulate the

discussion - Evaluate the

discussion - Moderate

discussion.

Text Books Specimen of financial records Cardboard Marker Computer Company Organogram


Advantages: - applicable to

wide range of topics

- physical setting is minimal

- can be used with many different sizes of groups.

- Effective both in cogniture and effective domains.


Objective 6.0: Know the various existing industries and support agencies in Nigeria. Time Available: 4 hours Specific Learning Objectives

(SLO)

Teaching Methods/Strategies

Illustrations

Learning Resources

6.1 Explain various industry/support agencies.

6.2 Explain the types and

sources of materials used in both manufacturing and service Industries.

6.3 Explain the types and

sources of plants and machinery used in small scale Industries.

6.4 Explain the various

information and assistance for vital areas like finance, registration, project selection, training, marketing, research, quality control, raw materials, patent information etc.

6.5 Explain environmental

factors associated with Industrial and economic development in Nigeria

Discussions, Outside classroom visits.

- do -

Enquiry, Outside classroom visits, Discussions Methods.

- do - - do -

Textbooks & journals CD’s/Film VCR Electronic Projector and accessories Internet facilities


Objective 7.0: Appreciate the role of commercial and development banks in small and medium scale industries development. Time Available: 4 hours


Teaching

Methods/Strategies

Illustrations

Learning Resources

7.1 Identify institutions involved in entrepreneurial development.

7.2 Explain the role of

banks and financial institutions in the creation and development of enterprises.

7.3 Explain government

policy on financing small and medium enterprises.


microfinance (Formal and Informal) in financing enterprise.


capital markets in Financing enterprise.

Discussion, Enquiry, Outside classroom visits. - do -

- do - - do - - do -

Textbooks & journals Electronic Projector and accessories Internet facilities


Objective 8.0: Understand the role of personal savings and portfolio investment in National Economic Development. Time Available: 4 hours


Teaching

Methods/Strategies

Illustrations

Learning Resources

8.1 Define the following: Income, expenditure and savings.


savings in starting and sustaining businesses.

8.3 List the benefits of

interest. 8.4 Explain Personal

Financial Planning and Management.

8.5 Explain shopping

habits. 8.6 Explain portfolio

investment-shares, bonds, debentures

Discussions, Enquiry methods. Discussion.

- do - Experiential, Discussion methods. - do - Discussions, Enquiry.

Textbooks & journals Internet facilities Demonstration board Computer with appropriate software


EEd 413: ENTREPRENEURSHIP DEVELOPMENT Course main Aim/Goal: This course is directed towards developing in the student skills, competencies, understandings and attributes that will equip Students to be innovative, and to identify, create, initiate, and successfully manage personal, community, business and work opportunities, including working for themselves. General Objectives: On completion of the course, the students should:

1. Understand the history of entrepreneurship development in Nigeria

2. Understand the role of personal savings and portfolio investment in National

Economic Development

3. Understand various life skills needed by an entrepreneur

4. Understand the various sources of information for entrepreneurship

development

5. Appreciate the roles of commercial and development banks in small scale

industrial development.

6. Know the functions of various support agencies in small and medium scale

industrial development.

7. Understand the activities of different industrial associations in relation to

entrepreneurship.

8. Know the functional areas of business

9. Understand the need for business planning.

10. Understand the strategies for consolidation and expansion of a business

enterprise

11. Understand the need for management and business succession plan


Objective 1.0: Understand the History of entrepreneurship development in Nigeria. Time Available: 4 hours


Teaching

Methods/Strategies

Illustrations

Learning Resources

1.1 Define an Enterprise and identify different forms of Enterprises.

1.2 Classify the different forms of enterprises into: private vs. public, Profit vs. non-profit, Formal vs. Informal, Individual vs. Community, Local vs. Foreign, Business vs. Social Small vs. Large, Manufacturing vs. Service, Consumer vs. Industrial. 1.3 Narrate the history

of entrepreneurship development in Nigeria.

1.4 Assess the success of and impact of entrepreneurship in Nigeria in comparison with other Countries of the world: Japan, India, China, Malaysia, South Korea, etc.

Enquiry, Discussions., Out of classroom visits. Seminar, Discussion methods. Enquiry, Information sheet methods. -do -

A seminar is a very essential teaching-learning method. Group of students discuss a particular topic under the guidance of a teacher or invited speaker. If properly organised, students will learn a lot. Seminar can be used to:

- Introduce new content to students

- Explore the application of theoretical concept

- Challenge or classify selected content

- Broaden the group’s understanding of a subject matter.

Text Books, Journals and other publications Use of internet and relevant video clips Exhibitions and trade fairs Guest speakers from successful businesses


Objective 2.0: Understand the role of personal savings and portfolio investment in National Economic Development. Time Available: 4 hours Specific Learning Objectives (SLO)

Teaching

Methods/Strategies

Illustrations

Learning Resources

2.1 Define the following: -Income, -Expenditure and -Savings. 2.2 Explain the

role of savings in starting and sustaining businesses.

2.3 List benefits of

interest. 2.4 Explain

personal financial planning and management.

2.5 Explain

shopping habits.

2.6 Learn about

how taxes are paid on income that people earn and how income tax is calculated.

Information sheet, Enquiry methods.

- do - - do -

Discussion, Experiential methods. - do - Discussion, Enquiry, Outside classroom visits.

Textbooks, Journals and other Publications Internet facilities Videos, CDs and films Computer Guest speakers


Objective 3.0: Understand the life skills needed by an entrepreneur. Time Available: 2 hours


Teaching

Methods/Strategies

Illustrations

Learning Resources

3.1 Identify the characteristics of an entrepreneur.

3.2 Define

communication. 3.3 Explain the role of

communication in an enterprise.

3.4 Define team work

and team spirit. 3.5 Identify the

characteristics of teams.

3.6 List benefits of team

work in an enterprise.

3.7 Define Leadership. 3.8 List the qualities

and characteristics of good leaders.

3.9 Describe a target. 3.10 Explain how

targets are set.

Enquiry, Role Play methods. Information sheet. Discussion, Role Play methods.

- do - - do - Group Discussion. Discussion, Role Play methods. - do - Enquiry, Group Discussions. - do -

Textbooks, Journals and other publications

3.11Explain how a target is achieved.

3.12Explain discipline

and self-discipline.

Outside classroom visits and Surveys. - do -

Students to make surveys and compile indicators for achievement of targets.


3.13State the benefits of

personal discipline in the success of an enterprise.

Students to interview people in enterprises to get information on discipline and successes.


Objective 4.0: Understand the various sources of information for Entrepreneurship development. Time Available: 2hours


Teaching

Methods/Strategies

Illustrations

Learning Resources

4.1 Identify nature and type of information required by entrepreneurs.

4.2 Identify sources of

the information required in 4.1 above.

4.3 Identify organisations

and agencies involved in the promotion and development of entrepreneurship.


Banks and financial institutions in enterprise promotion and development.

4.5 Describe the

contributions of government agencies in sourcing information.

4.6 Describe methods of

obtaining assistance from the above organisations.

Enquiry, Discussions methods. Enquiry, Outside classroom visits. - do -

- do -

- do - - do -

Organise visits to places where students can get appropriate information. Such as trade fairs, exhibitions etc.

Text Books & Journals Video Film, TV & VCR, Internet, Electronic projector and accessories Workshops


Objective 5.0: Appreciate the roles of commercial and development banks in small scale industrial development. Time Available: 2 hours


Teaching

Methods/Strategies

Illustrations

Learning Resources

5.1 Identify financial institutions involved in entrepreneurship development.

5.2 Describe the

assistance provided by commercial banks.


development banks in the promotion and development of small and medium enterprises (SMEs)

5.4 Assess

government policy on financing SMEs.

5.5 Explain the

process of opening and operating a healthy Bank Account.

Seminar, Community Problem Solving methods. Discussions. Enquiry, Discussions. Discussions. - do -

Text Books & Journals Video Film, TV & VCR, Internet facilities Sample cheque book, withdrawal slips, etc. Guest speakers/Resource persons


Objective 6.0: Know the functions of various support agencies in small and medium scale industrial development. Time Available: 4 hours


Teaching

Methods/Strategies

Illustrations

Learning Resources

6.1 Identify various support agencies involved in the promotion and development of entrepreneurship in Nigeria.

6.2 Explain the following and their roles in the promotion and development of entrepreneurship:

- NEPC - NIPC - NERFUND - NDE - RMRDC - SMEDAN - IDC - TBICs - Federal and State

Ministry of Commerce/Industry.

6.3 Explain the assistance rendered by research and academic institutions in entrepreneurship development.

Enquiry, Discussion. - do - Outside classroom visits to Research and Academic Institutions.

Invite Agencies to talk on their operations.

Text Books & Journals Computer Electronic/Overhead Projector Information pamphlets/fliers and posters of relevant organizations Guest Speakers


Objective 7.0: Understand the activities of different industrial associations in relation to entrepreneurship. Time Available: 4 hours


Teaching

Methods/Strategies

Illustrations

Learning Resources

7.1 Explain the meaning of the following acronyms: - NASSI - NASME - NACCIMA - MAN - NECA - SMEDAN

7.2 Describe the roles and

functions of each of the above in the development and promotion of entrepreneurship.

Visits to Trade fairs, Exhibitions, and Discussions methods. - do -

Expose students to visits to Trade Fairs, exhibitions. Organize discussions on various organisations.

Text books & Journals Computer Internet facilities Electronic Projector and accessories Posters, fliers, publications, etc. of relevant organizations Guest speaker


Objective 8.0: Know the functional areas of business. Time Available: 2 hours


Teaching

Methods/Strategies

Illustrations

Learning Resources

8.1 Explain basic management concepts and functions.

8.2 Explain the basic

functions of human capital management in a small enterprise.

8.3 Explain the cycle of

business growth and the need for adequate manpower development at each stage.

8.4 Explain labour

relations. 8.5 Describe the finance

functions in a small enterprise.

8.6 List the books of

Account necessary for operation of small enterprise.

8.7 Explain financial

regulations and taxes affecting small enterprise operation.

8.8 Explain the significance of insurance coverage for small enterprise.

Enquiry, Information sheet. - do -

-do-

-do-

-do-

Group discussion.

-do-

-do-

Text Books, Journals and other Publications Video Film TV & VCR Computer and accessories, Internet facilities

8.9 Explain the importance of marketing mix to the

-do -


growth and expansion of small enterprise.

8.10Explain the

production function in a small enterprise: - product planning and control - production forms

and techniques - factory and

facilities layout - operational

bottlenecks in the areas of order intake,

- procurement, storage and inventory control, distribution, safety and health etc.

8.11 Explain the importance of quality control and production standards. 8.12 Explain the need for maintenance management. 8.13 Explain staff training and retraining needs of an enterprise.

Enquiry and Discussions.

- do - - do - -do -

Students to carry out SWOT analysis in some enterprises.


Objective 9.0: Understand the need for business planning. Time Available: 2 hours


Teaching

Methods/Strategies

Illustrations

Learning Resources

9.1 Identify a viable business opportunity based on:

- demand - availability of

resources - import

substitution - export oriented

products. 9.2 Explain the different

steps in preparing a preliminary project report.

9.3 Explain how to

formulate a project report.

9.4 Explain how to

analyse a project report.

Enquiry, Project methods.

- do - - do –

-do -

Students to use knowledge of project analysis and implementation to carry out assignments.

Text Books Journals, Publications, Computer and Internet facilities Sample project reports


Objective 10.0: Understand the strategies for consolidation and expansion of a business enterprise. Time Available: 2 hours


Teaching

Methods/Strategies

Illustrations

Learning Resources

10.1 Explain justification for business diversification and expansion.

10.2 Explain the

process of growth, diversification and expansion in an enterprise.

10.3 Evaluate the

strategies for consolidation and expansion of business venture.

10.4 Explain the

characteristics of franchise, license and patent systems of enterprise.

10.5 Explain how

multinational companies operate.

Enquiry, Group discussions, Project presentation. - do -

- do - - do - Enquiry, Business talks.

Students to make project presentations. Invite a multinational to talk to students on their operations.

Text Books, journals and other publications; Internet facilities; Video/CD and TV Electronic projectors and accessories Guest speakers


Objective 11.0: understand the need for management and business succession plan. Time Available: 2 hours


Teaching

Methods/Strategies

Illustrations

Learning Resources

11.1 Explain management succession plan and reasons for corporate formations.

11.2 Explain the value

of continuity and perpetuity in enterprise.

11.3 Explain exit

planning.

Enquiry, Discussions and Role Play.

- do - - do -

Students to Role Play a Boardroom session.

Text Books, journals and other publications


Appendix:

Entrepreneurship Education: An Overview A Paper by Dr. Sola Aliu, COO/Principal Consultant, Hamitle Consults Abuja, at the NBTE Sensitization/Curriculum Critique Workshop on Entrepreneurship Education for Polytechnics and Monotechnics, held at Hamdala Hotel Kaduna from 5th to 6th November 2007. Protocol Preamble:

As economic, social and technological change gathers pace, people everywhere need to

develop their knowledge and skills, on a continuous basis, so that they can live and work

meaningfully in a knowledge society. Education and training contribute to an individual’s

personal development, increase her/his productivity and incomes at work, and facilitate

participation in economic and social life. It follows that education and training help

individuals to escape poverty by providing them with the skills and knowledge to raise

their output and generate income. This calls for continuous, lifelong learning and training

to enable continuous relevance to the world of works.

Definition of Entrepreneurship Education:

The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) Ministerial

Council on Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs has adopted the

following definition of Entrepreneurship Education:

“Learning directed towards developing in young people those skills, competencies, understandings, and attributes which equip them to be innovative, and to identify, create, initiate, and successfully manage personal, community, business, and work opportunities, including working for themselves.”1 Enterprise education is not a discrete subject or learning area. Being enterprising is a way

of thinking and operating, so it is not restricted to one part of the curriculum.

Involvement with the community is a feature of successful Enterprise education

programmes in schools. The community beyond the school, including business and

1 Towards an Entrepreneurial Culture for the Twenty-first Century: UNESCO & ILO Research Findings, 2006; UNESCO Publishing Paris.


industry, is a rich resource for the development and delivery of enterprise activities and

programmes.

Students should be encouraged to think about problems not just in the abstract but how

they might be solved in real life. This includes providing students with mentors and role

models beyond the school – profiling career pathways, self-employment opportunities,

and not-for-profit activities. It requires teachers to get to know community organisations,

businesses and individuals in the community, and to develop a sound understanding of

how these organisations and individuals operate locally, nationally and internationally.

Importantly, the involvement of these organisations and individuals as partners in the

learning process is the distinguishing feature of Enterprise education activities.

From the foregoing definitions, it is clear that good practice in entrepreneurial education

should aim at producing better workforce (intrepreneurs) as well as enterprise-creators

(entrepreneurs) through seeking to foster in students:

• creativity, self-reliance, a capacity to respond to change, and an ability to generate, recognize and seize opportunities;

• a greater understanding of how the workplace operates; • the ability to demonstrate initiative and look for new opportunities in the work

environment; • a wider appreciation and understanding of the complexity of community, business

and industry enterprises; • the ability to take a greater degree of responsibility for the quality of their work;

and • the ability to apply enquiry, reasoning, critical thinking, problem solving and

analytical skills to different situations. The 21st Century Work Environment:

The world is moving from a natural resource-based economy to a knowledge-based

economy. National economic and social trends, show frequent changes in demand for

different classes of goods and services, and for different types of skills and knowledge in

such a way that education need to easily adapt to the evolving scientific, technological

and socio-economic changes. We must not only develop the organizational, scientific and

technical knowledge and skills relative to our natural resources; we must also master and

integrate changes, ideas and opportunities that are constantly generated from modern

science and technology by learning to understand, to be creative and committed to


universally shared values. The key to transforming our strong comparative natural

resources advantage into a competitive advantage is the creation of an appropriate human

resource space through the three pillars of education as shown in figure 1 below. This

appropriate human resource space is the ideal educational environment for producing

individuals with a mind-set of self-reliance, creativity and high productivity; ready to

cope with the 21st century world of work.

Figure 1: Appropriate Human Resource Space

It is evident that when people are in the logic of self-reliance, creativity and productivity,

they have a strong absorption capacity. They will aggressively:

- search for and use information, techniques and practices that are available through self-motivation, and

- seek for anything that will help them to maximize their productivity

Nature of Knowledge:

All knowledge is either tacit or rooted in tacit knowledge2. Tacit knowledge is the kind of

knowledge that cannot be articulated because it has become internalized in the

unconscious mind of the people. Some knowledge is also socially constructed and any

attempt to follow a cognitive-representational transition simply tends to make this soft

knowledge hard. A possible solution to the dilemma lies in “Communities of Practice

2 Polanyi M: The tacit dimension, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1967.


(CoP)” which can assist the creation and propagation of such knowledge. Such

knowledge is also referred to as indigenous knowledge (IK)3.

• IK is local knowledge which is unique to a particular culture or society and provides problem-solving strategies for communities

• IK is the basis for local-level decision-making in agriculture, healthcare, food preparation, education and natural resources management

• IK is tacit knowledge and is difficult to codify and is embedded in community practices, institutions, relationships and rituals

The Nonaka’s Spiral of Knowledge (fig. 2) gives a graphic view of how

internalized/externalized knowledge is propagated and used by communities. It also

suggests that cultural values and characteristics influence entrepreneurship. Local values,

resources and environment affect the entrepreneur’s strategic positioning, opportunity

recognition and ability/commitment to change (see fig. 3). His economic and social

actions are a result of his perceived needs, motives and locus of control. His training

needs must, of necessity, recognize this local influence. The effective teaching and

learning of entrepreneurship education must, therefore, become highly innovative and

proactive using a range of in-class and out-of-class approaches.

Figure 2: Nonaka’s Spiral of Knowledge4

3 Dr. M. V. Ananthakrishnan & R Tripathi: Towards Handling Intuitive and Nurtured Knowledge, KReSIT, Indian Institute of Technology, Mumbai (India) 4 Nonaka I: The knowledge creating company, Harvard Business Review, 69 (Nov.-Dec) 1991.


Figure 3: Value-Environnent-Resources Synergy5

In its capacity as the specialized agency for education within the United Nations system,

UNESCO has researched various teaching and learning techniques over a period of many

years. UNESCO is therefore well positioned to provide guidelines and professional skills

for using learner-centred teaching strategies, including: enquiry learning, learning outside

the classroom, promoting values and citizenship education, respecting and integrating

indigenous knowledge, and developing outcomes-based assessment. This promotes a

vision of education that empowers teachers and students to live, work and learn for a

sustainable future; supports educational reform by addressing the challenges of planning

for whole-school change, updating curriculum content to focus on issues and values of

sustainable development, and strategies for teaching in an interdisciplinary way.

While there is value and economy in presenting mini-lectures during a training course to

deliver new information and theory, the passive nature of this learning strategy leaves

facilitators with little understanding of the perceptions of the new knowledge that

participants are gaining. It also disadvantages participants as they do not have a chance to

synthesize and assimilate the new knowledge. If the presentation of new information is

5 Bill Bolton & John Thompson: Entrepreneur, at://www.1000ventures.com.


combined with interactive experiences, then it is more likely to be critically assimilated

into the individual cognitive systems of participants. Subsequent parts of this paper will

be devoted to some of these learning techniques.

Enquiry learning 6 is a learner-centred approach that emphasizes higher order thinking

skills. It may take several forms, including analysis, problem solving, discovery and

creative activities, both in the classroom and the community. Most importantly, in

enquiry learning students are responsible for processing the data they are working with in

order to reach their own conclusions.

A Challenge: After becoming aware of a significant question, issue or problem, students

may reach a state of puzzlement, curiousity and/or concern and feel challenged to enquire

further. The next step is to clarify, define and redefine the particular question, issue or

problem to investigate.

Active student investigation: Students gather resources and work out what they need to

know and do. They consider the problem, cast around, imagine, try to predict, work out

what they already know, and/or assess their ability to succeed. This is the stage when

students analyse and interpret the data before them.

Making generalizations: Eventually students can synthesize what they have found into

generalizations or principles which can be used to decide on possible solutions.

Reflection: Students need to consider how they achieved what they set out to do. They

reflect, confirm, see where to improve, plan new things, evaluate, and consider possible

action

Community Problem Solving provides students with an opportunity to practice the

skills that are needed to participate in finding solutions to the local issues that concern

them. This helps to develop the important citizenship objectives of learning for a

6 Adapted from Gough, N. (1992) Blueprints for Greening Schools, Gould League, Melbourne, p. 90.


sustainable future and integrates skills - for both students and teachers - of using

experiential and enquiry-based strategies. It also integrates skills in the planning of values

clarification and values analysis with the possible solutions so that students can take

action to help achieve a sustainable future.

Skills Active listening skills Analysis and problem solving skills Small group facilitation skills Team Work Selecting an issue that is practicable for students to investigate is a key aspect of planning

for Community Problem Solving. The following criteria may help you - and your

students - choose a possible project and location:

• The locations are readily accessible to students. • There is no serious risk to the safety of students at these places, • The projects are within the range of ability of students, • There is a genuine need in the community for this problem to be solved, and • Students believe the problem is significant to them.

Objectives:

• To develop an understanding of Community Problem Solving, especially as it may be used in education for sustainable futures;

• To identify the skills students need for participating in Community Problem Solving;

• To explore questions and issues that may be encountered when teaching through Community Problem Solving; and

• To identify teaching and learning strategies that may be used as part of a Community Problem Solving project.

Service learning - through which students volunteer to work on projects in their

communities (not necessarily problem-solving ones) - has a long tradition in education in

some countries. Examples of service learning projects include: volunteering to assist in a

hospital, kindergarten or other community centre; working in a youth conservation

project; and developing a community education and information campaign around a

topical issue. Service learning is a common action that students and schools choose as a

way of acting on – and achieving - the visions of a sustainable future that are developed

during a Community Problem Solving project.


The largest impact on civic attitudes was on the measure of service leadership; and the

most direct measure of student attitudes towards service itself. Here, the students have

reported that they felt that:

• they were aware of the needs in their communities; • they believed that they could make a difference; • they knew how to design and implement a service project; and • they were committed to service now and later in life.

Teaching Skills

It takes a skillful teacher to teach skills to students.

A sequence of procedures for teaching a skill might include:

• Analyse the skill to identify its parts; • Motivate the students so that they realize they need to learn the new skill; • Demonstrate the whole skill, with students watching; • Do a second demonstration, step by step, and comment on each step as you work; • At the end of each step, students should carry out the same activity as

demonstrated; • Observe the students at work and offer individual coaching where possible; • Provide the students with opportunities to use the skill so they can perfect it; and • Encourage students to judge their own performances.

Teaching by Progression

This involves teaching particular skills by breaking them down into parts and building

upon each one – and then increasing the complexity of the task until an eventual goal is

reached. For example, in teaching map reading skills for a visit to a forest, these steps

might include:

Step 1 - Indoor sessions with simple maps Step 2 - Practical sessions in the immediate environment Step 3 - Indoor sessions with topographical maps Step 4 - Practical exercises in an open environment with clear boundaries Step 5 - Practical sessions in the forest environment. This approach will ensure that students learn the skills they need so that they are less likely, for example, to get lost when participating in field trip experiences.

Experiential learning styles tend to occur on a continuum from concrete involvement,

reflective observation, abstract conceptualization to active experimentation. This

represents constructivist learning in which participants are given opportunities to practice

and enhance their abilities to organize and structure knowledge through reflection on


experience and interaction with others. Participants who engage in dialogue with each

other can start to critically analyse their experiences in relation to the educational issue or

curriculum problem under consideration.

Experiential learning is often thought of as a learning cycle. The four phases in the

experiential learning cycle is shown below.

Conclusion and Recommendations:

Current research7 shows that in many instances people are indeed born with ambition,

motivation, and a willingness to take risks, but encounter barriers that erode this spirit of

adventure. Rather than providing something new for young people, entrepreneurship

education needs to remove some of the barriers that have eroded self-confidence and self-

esteem and, along with them, the spirit of adventure and the willingness to take initiative

and risk--the spirit of entrepreneurship. These findings should be considered when

planning and developing programs for young people in the area of entrepreneurial

education.

7 Towards an Entrepreneurial Culture for the Twenty-first Century: UNESCO & ILO Research Findings, 2006; UNESCO Publishing Paris.


Prescription is not at the heart of entrepreneurship. The entrepreneur is a searcher, an

explorer, an adventurer. True to this, an education program that guarantees effective

means in inspiring and assisting entrepreneurship is impossible to prescribe. The effective

entrepreneurship education program lies in the ingenuity, innovation, and inspiration of

the effective educator--a program tailored to needs, circumstances, and opportunities.

Never be satisfied with your program: This represents the true spirit of entrepreneurship.

The effective entrepreneurship educator and the effective program will never be partners

of complacency. Even if the efforts to find new and better ways are frustrated, the

ongoing search will keep the entrepreneurial spirit alive. The successful entrepreneurship

educator and the successful program will always ride the crest of the wave of high and

positive expectations. The program should personify the spirit of the "little engine that

could" and the exemplary educator will lead students up that hill--perhaps puffing and

panting--but always with the expectation that it can be done and they can achieve. This

writer is a firm believer that young people will live-up-to or down-to our expectations of

them. Nowhere in education will it be more important to have faith and confidence in

ourselves and our students than in a program of entrepreneurship education.

The problem for many students is that no one has ever expected very much from them,

and as a result they have come to expect little of themselves. In the end, nothing is

expected and, in return, nothing is accomplished. It is unfair to expect youth to readily

alter their expectations of themselves. Such a responsibility must be with another

generation--one that takes the initiative to raise its expectations and, in the process, raises

the sights, hopes, dreams, and self-confidence of our young people. No effort is more

certain of failure than one that is expected to fail. Similarly, we can hope that there is no

better fuel for the inspiration of successful entrepreneurship than expecting students to be

their best.

I believe the following represent important elements in the design of an effective

entrepreneurship education program. They are not prioritized neither are they exhaustive.


• The entrepreneur does not accept the fact that there is a right answer, but seeks out new and better answers. A program in entrepreneurship education should engender this attitude in its students;

• Entrepreneurs are action-oriented. They are doers. They are movers and shakers who stir things up. In keeping with the nature of the entrepreneur, the program should not place the student in the role of passive learner. The student should be involved in activities, research, investigation, planning, and the hunt for opportunities and new ideas. The students should use, exercise, and develop their entrepreneurial muscles, not let those muscles stay flabby. Learning by doing is not only a good way to learn about entrepreneurship, it also demonstrates clearly that entrepreneurship is not for the lazy.

• The effective program should allow the student to have frequent and clearly identifiable experiences with accomplishment. There should be short-term goals that vary from student to student, focused on accomplishment in the student's area of strength, where success has a high probability.

• No area of educational activity has more of a need--or a more positive potential--for community integration than entrepreneurship education. Entrepreneurs are hunters in their environments. They learn about their environment: They study it, examine it, turn it upside down, and look for what is wrong, what is needed, and what can be done. In short, they are constantly on the hunt for opportunities. Students in entrepreneurship programs can learn from entrepreneurs in their community. They can see what has been done well, and can identify community needs, problems, and solutions.

• Creativity and inspiration flow from variety, from something a little different. An effective program in entrepreneurship education will have to employ a variety of teaching styles and techniques in order to reach Students who learn differently, to expose them to variety and change, to lead them by creative example, and to keep their minds from encountering a rut.

• Entrepreneurship is fun and exciting and the program should be as well. Research has shown the correlation between what they call the ‘aha’ experience and the ‘ha ha’ experience. Fun, excitement, and humor encourage innovative thinking. It leads the mind down new and often wacky paths, down which frequently lie insight and new perspective. Fun, humor and excitement are powerful learning tools and motivators and should be an integral part of any program in entrepreneurship education.

• There is no more important attribute of entrepreneurship than a sense of self-confidence, the belief in oneself and one's own ideas. Entrepreneurs are agents of change, and change is usually resisted. Entrepreneurs will continually confront roadblocks and resistance from individuals who do not support or believe in their ideas. They will have to convince others of the soundness of their thinking to muster support. To confront and overcome the resistance they will encounter, it is imperative that entrepreneurs have a sense of self-confidence. Unfortunately, activities in our school system today work against the instilling of self-confidence in youth!

• A successful program in entrepreneurship education will enable students to get their teeth into the subject by enabling students to apply acquired knowledge and


skills to a particular endeavor. Each student should have the opportunity to explore the school, community, and local economy in search of a particular entrepreneurial opportunity. Once identified, the student should have the chance to formulate and test ideas that result from the perceived opportunity. The student should be allowed to establish a plan for the initiative so that experience can be obtained in learning how to identify needed resources, how to mobilize resources, and so forth.

• There are many common problems that confront entrepreneurs. The causes of failure tend to be all too similar on many occasions. Students should be alerted to the common problems and their potential for failure. In addition, students should be taught how to learn from failure. Most successful entrepreneurs have had failures along the way. At the same time, you will find that many entrepreneurs do not talk about these experiences as failures, but rather regard them as learning experiences, stepping stones to eventual success.

• The successful entrepreneurship program should not only enable the teacher to be entrepreneurial--it should expect the teacher to be entrepreneurial. Students are encouraged to pursue entrepreneurship via effective role models. There is no more available and effective role model than the educator. Not only is it important that information be conveyed to students in an entrepreneurial way, the teacher can serve as one of the most important role models by providing examples of new and innovative ideas.

• Much of the attention for entrepreneurship education naturally focuses on content and teaching approach. However, the learning environment must be given its due. It seems inappropriate to expect the kind of instruction that has been discussed above to take place while students sit in regimented rows. If the learning outcome is to be dynamic, fluid, and relatively unstructured, then so should the learning environment. It will be important to develop a learning environment that is conducive to the spirit of entrepreneurship--one that is flexible, fluid, adaptable, changeable, and innovative.

• The program should utilize case studies that are varied in terms of the nature of the entrepreneur, the type of initiative, and the degree of success. One of the objectives of an entrepreneurship program should be to open the eyes and cars of youth to the notion that entrepreneurs come in all sizes, shapes, colors, heights, sexes, and so on. To emphasize this, care must be taken when selecting the case studies for use in the program.

One of the wonderful aspects of entrepreneurship education is that hopes, dreams,

inspirations, and aspirations are part of the curriculum. No matter how great or how

small, there is the belief that the world--or some small part of the world--can be better.

What a marvelous challenge for an educator--to aim to instill such a spirit in young

people and to attempt to equip them with the knowledge, skills, and judgment to help

them succeed.

Thank you for your attention.


Useful websites The following websites provide information that can be used by teachers in their development of Enterprise education in schools. They also contain many links to other useful websites. www.curriculum.edu.au/enterprise This site provides information and links to resources on Enterprise education. www.ecef.com.au Enterprise & Career Education Foundation (ECEF) is responsible for the way in which businesses and communities at a local level work in partnership with schools to assist young people to prepare for working life. The site includes a search faculty, ASK, which allows you to explore the world of enterprise and career education. www.ecef.com.au/e-communities e-vocation is an email discussion list for practitioners involved in vocational education and school–industry partnerships. e-vocation is accessible through e-communities on the ECEF site. www.gocareer.gov.au Go Career is a Commonwealth government initiative designed to provide young people with information on the sorts of skills, training, experience, and advice required to enable them to make informed choices about their futures. Information is provided about enterprise and career education activities suitable for parents, business and the wider community. www.worldskills.com.au WorldSkills Australia is an independent, non-profit organization developed to promote the standards and status of vocational training and job skills. The mission of WorldSkills is to challenge young people, their teachers, trainers and employers to achieve world-class standards in all industries and to promote the status of vocational education and training across Australia. www.curriculum.edu.au/vetis This site provides resources to support the implementation of Training Packages in Vocational Education and Training in Schools programmes for secondary school students. It includes general information, including implementation advice, as well as specific resources to assist with Training Package delivery in a range of industry areas. The online resources for separate industry areas include details about: the industry; implementation, assessment and support materials; and a database of resources.


www.curriculum.edu.au/ozjac The Australian Courses and Careers Database (OZJAC), a career information database specifically modified to incorporate information on business. www.innovated.gov.au InnovatED is funded by IP Australia – the Commonwealth agency responsible for patents, trade marks and designs. The project aims to stimulate innovation in Australia, to explore the creation and development of intellectual property and to empower young Australians through their own ideas. www.sfu.ca/~mvolker/biz/index.htm For teachers new to Enterprise education and wanting more background in business concepts, the Business Basics for Engineers website takes a down-to-earth, commonsense approach that is ideal for beginners. www.austrade.gov.au The Student Centre link provides information on exporting including curriculum support materials on international trade and enterprise for teachers to use with their students in Economics, Business studies and Studies of society and the environment. ADDITIONAL READING Burnard, P. (1988) Experiential learning: Some theoretical considerations, Journal of Lifelong Education, 7 (20), pp. 127-133. Chapman, S. (1992) What is experiential education?, The Journal of Experiential Education, 15 (2), pp. 16-23. Cornell J. (1989) Sharing the Joy of Nature, Dawn Publications, Nevada City. Cowan, J. (1988) Learning to facilitate experiential learning, Studies in Continuing Education, 10 (1), pp. 19-29. Heron, J. (1989) The Facilitator's Handbook, Kogan Page, London. Knapp, C. (1997) Lasting Lessons: A Teacher's Guide to Reflecting on Experiences, ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools, Charleston. Westheimer, J., Kahne, J. and Gerstein, A. (1992) Reforms for the Nineties: Opportunities and obstacles for experiential educators, The Journal of Experiential Education, 15 (2), pp. 44-49. Whitaker, P. (1995) Managing to Learn: Aspects of Reflecting and Experiential Learning in Schools, Cassell, London.

teacher's guide

Documents