TEACHING LANGUAGE SKILLS

By : YUNI SUSANTIF42111064

CHAPTER 15

INTEGRATING THE FOUR SKILLS

Why Integrating?

It gives students greater motivation that converts to better retention of

principles of effective speaking, listening, reading, and writing. Rather

than being forced in a course that limits itself to performance, students are given a change to diversity their

effort in more meaningfull task

Models of integrated skills approaches:

• Content-Based Instruction• Theme –Based Instruction• Experiential Teaching• The Episode Hypothesis• Task-Based Teaching

Content-Based Instruction

• It is integrates the learning of some specific subject-matter content with the learning of a second language

• Example: Immersion program for Elemantey-school children

Theme-Based Instruction

It is important to distinguish:- The primary purpose of a course is to instruct

student in a subject-matter area, and language is of secondary and subordinate interest.

-place in equal value on content and language objectives.

The activities

• Use environmental statistic and fact for classroom reading, writing, discusion, and debate

• Carry out research and writing project• Have students create their own environmental

awareness material• Arrange field trips• Conduct stimulation games

Experiential Teaching

• It’s an activities that engage both left- and right-brain processing, that contextualize language, that integrate skills, and that point toward authentic, real-world purpose.

Example of learning-centered:-hands-on projects-computer activitirs-role-play and stimulation

Example of teacher-controlled-using props, realia, visuals, show- and tell-session-playing games

The Episode Hypothesis

• It means the presentation of language is enchanced if students receive interconnected sentences in a interest-provoking episode rather than in a disconnected series of sentences.

Task-Based Teaching

It is an activity in which:- Meaning is primary,- There is some communication problem to

solve,- There is some sort of relationship to

comparable real-world activities,- Task completion has some priority,- The assesment of task is in terms of outcome

CHAPTER 16

TEACHING LISTENING

Listening Comprehension In Pedagogical Research

Some specific questions about listening comprehension:- What are listeners “doing” when they listen?- What factors affect good listening?- What are the characteristics of “real-life” listening?- What are the amny things listeners listen for?- What are some principles for designing listening

techniques?- How can listening techniques be interactive?- What are some common techniques for teaching

listening?

An Interactive Model of Listening Comprehension

The process:- The hearer processes what we call “raw

speech” and holds an image of it in short-term memory. (phrases, clauses, cohesive markers, intonation, and stress pattern)

- The hearer determines the type of speech even being processed (a conversation, a speech, a radio broadcast)

- etc

Types of Spoken Language

Monologue- Planned- Unplanned

Dialogue-Interpersonal ( Unfamiliar, Familiar)- Transactional (Unfamiliar, Familiar)

What Make Listening Difficult?

• Clustering• Redundancy• Reduced Forms• Performance Variables• Colloquial Language• Rate of delivery• Stress, Rhythm, and Intonation• Interaction

Types of Classroom Listening Performance

• Reactive• Intensive• Responsive• Selective• Extensive• Interactive

Principles for Designing Listening Techniques

• In an interactive, four-skills curriculum, make sure that you don’t overlook the importance of techniques that specifically develop listening comprehension competence.

• Use techniques that are intrinsically motivating.• Utilize authentic language and contexts.• Carefully consider the form of listeners’ responses..• Encourage the development of listening strategies• Include both bottom-up and top-down listening

techniques.

Listening Techniques From Beginning to Advanced

• Bottom-Up Exercise• Top-Down Exercise• Interactive Exercise

CHAPTER 17

TEACHING SPEAKING

ORAL COMMUNICATION SKILLS IN PEDAGOGICAL RESEARCH

1. Conversational discourse2. Teaching pronunciation3. Accuracy and fluency4. Affective factors5. Interactive effect

WHAT MAKES SPEAKING DIFFICULT?

Clustering Redudancy Reduced forms Performance variables Colloquial language Rate of delivery Stress, rhythm, and intonation

TYPES OF CLASSROOM SPEAKING PERFORMANCE

1. Imitative : Drill is a legimate part of communicative language classroom; drill offer the students an opportunity to listen and to orally repeat certain strings of language that may pose some linguistic difficulty-either phonological or grammatical.

Here are some useful guideliness for successful drill :1. Keep them short2. Keep them simple3. Keep them “snappy”4. Make sure students know why they are doing the drill.5. Limit them to phonology or grammar points.6. Make sure they ultimately lead to communicate goals.7. Don’t overuse them.

2. Intensive : intensive speaking can be self-initiated or it can even form part of some pair work activity.

3. Responsive : short replies to teacher or student initiated questions or comments.

4. Transactional (dialogue) : carried out for the purpose of conveying or exchanging specific information, is an exteded of responsive language.

5. Interpersonal (dialogue) : carried ot more for the purpose of maintaining social relationships than for the transmission of facts and information. Students can involve some trickie conversation of the following factors :

• A casual register• Colloquical language• Emotionally charged language• Slang• Ellipsis• Sarcasm• A covert “agenda”6. Extensive (monologue) : here the register is more formal and

deliberative.

PRINCPLES FOR DESIGNING SPEAKING TECHNIQUES

1. Use techniques that cover the spectrum of learner needs, from language-based focus on accuracy to message-based focus on interaction, meaning, and fluency.

2. Provide intrisically motivating techniques.3. Encourage the use of authentic language in meaningful

context.4. Provide appropriate feedback and correction.5. Capitalize on the natural link between speaking and

listening.6. Give students opportunities to initiate oral communication.7. Encourage the development of speaking strategies.

TEACHING CONVERSATIONRichards (1990: 79-80) offered the following list of features of conversation that can receive sppecific focus in classroom instruction :

• How to produce both short and long turn in conversation• Strategies for opening and closing conversations.• How to use both a casual style of speaking and neutral or more formal style• How to use conversational routine. Etc

Here are some sample task that illustrate teaching various aspect of conversation, as well as an oral grammar practice technique:

a. Conversation-indirect (strategy consciousness-raising)b. Conversation-direct (gambits)c. Conversation-transactional (ordering from a catalog)d. meaningful oral grammar parctice (modal auxillary would)e. Individual practice: oral dialogue journalsf. Other interactive techniques

TEACHING PRONUNCIATION

Our goal as a teachers of English pronunciation should therefore be more realistically focused on clear, comprehensible pronunciation. The factor within learners that affect pronunciation, below are the list that you should consider:

Native language Age Exposure Innate phoonetic ability Identitu and language ego Motivation and concern for good pronunciation.

There are three techniques for teaching different aspects of English pronunciation :

1. Intonation-Listening for Pitch Changes2. Stress-Contrasting Nouns3. Meaningful Minimal Pairs

CHAPTER 18

TEACHING READING

Research on reading a second language1. Bottom-up and top-down processing in bottom-up processing, readers must first

recognize a multiplicity of linguistic signal. While in top-down processing in which we draw our own intelligence and experience to understand text.

2. Schemata theory and background knowledgeResearch has shown that reading is only incidentally visual. More information is contributed by the reader than by the print on the page. Skill in reading depends on the efficient interaction between linguistic knowledge of the world.

3. The role of affect cultureThe autonomy gained through the learning of reading strategies has been shown to be a powerful motivator (Bamford & Day 1998), not to mention the affective power of reading itself. Similarly, culture plays an active role in motivating and rewarding people for literacy.

4. The power of extended readingJohn Green and Rebecca Oxford (1995) found that reading for pleasure and reading without looking up all the unknown words were both highly correlated with overall language proficiency.

5. Adult literacy trainingTeaching literacy is a specialized field of research and practice that derives insights from a number of psycholinguistic and pedagogical domains of inqui

TYPES OF WRITTEN LANGUAGEEach of the types listed below represents, or is an example of, a genre of written language:

Fiction Nonfiction Letters Memo Message Announcements Form, applications Diaries, journal Recipes Maps Invitations Comic stips, etc

CHARACTERISTICS OF WRITTEN LANGUAGE

• Performance• Processing time• Distance• Orthography• Complexity• Vocabulary• formality

STRATEGIES FOR READING COMPREHENTION

• Identify the purpose in reading• Use grephemic rules and pattern to aid in bottom-up decoding

(especially for beginning level learners)• Use efficient silent reading techniques for relatively rapid

comprehention (for intermediate to advanced levels).• Skim the text for main ideas.• Scan the text for specific information.• Use semantic mapping or clustering• Guess when you aren’t certain.• Analyze vocabulary.• Distinguish between literal and implied meaning.• Capitalize on discourse marker to process relationships.

TYPES OF CLASSROOM READING PERFORMANCE

Classroom reading performance

Oral silent

intensive ExtensiveLinguistic content skimming scanning

global

PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING INTERACTIVE READING TECHNIQUES

• In an interactive curiculum, make sure that you don’t overlook the importance of specific instruction in reading skills.

• Use techniques that are intrinsically motivating• Balance authencity and readabiliry in choosing texts.• Encourage the development of reading strategies.• Include both bottom-up and top-down techniques.• Follow survey, question, read, recite, review seqence.• Subdivide your techniques into pre-reading, during-reading,

and after-reading phrases.• Build in some evaluative aspect to your techniques.

CHAPTER 19

TEACHING WRITING

Research on Second Language Writing

• Composing vs. writing• Process vs. product• Contrastive rhetoric• Differences between L1 & L2 writing• Authentic• The role of the teacher

TYPES OF WRITTEN LANGUAGE

• Non-fiction• Fiction• Letters• Greeting cards• Diaries journals• Memos• Messages• Announcements• Newspaper “journalese”• Academic writing• Forms, applications• Questionnaires• directions

• Labels• Signs• Recipes• Bills• Maps• Manuals• Menus• Schedules• Advertisement• Invitations• Directories• Comic strips, cartoon

CHARACTERISTIC OFWRITTEN LANGUANGE:

A WRITER’S VIEW• permanence• Production time• Distance• Orthography• Complexity• Vocabulary• Formality

Microskills For Writing

1. Produce graphemes and orthographic pattern of English

2. Produce writing at an efficient rate of speed to suit the purpose

3. Produce an acceptable core of words and use appropriate word order pattern

4. Use acceptable grammatical systems, patterns, and rules

5. Express a particular meaning in different grammatical forms

6. Use cohesive devices in written devices in written discourse

7. Use rhetorical forms and conventions of written discourse

8. Appropriately accomplish the communicative function of written texts according to form and purposes

9. Convey links and connections between events and communicate such relation as main idea, supporting idea, new information, given information, generalization and exemplification

10. Distinguish between literal and implied meanings when writing

11. Correctly convey culturally specific references in the context of the written text.

Types of Classroom Writing Performance

1. Imitative2. Intensive or controlled3. Self-writing4. Display writing5. Real writing

a. Academicb. Vocational / technicalc. Personal

PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING WRITING TECHNIQUES

1. Incorporate practices of “good” writers.2. Balance process and product3. Account for cultural /literary backgrounds4. Connect reading and wri5. Provide as much authentic writing as possible6. Frame your techniques in terms of prewriting, drafting, and revising

stages7. Strive to offer techniques that are as interactive as possible8. Sensitively apply methods of responding to and correcting your

students’ writing9. Clearly instruct students on the rhetorical, formal convention or

writing

CHAPTER 20

FORM-FOCUSED INSTRUCTION

The place of grammarNo one can tell you that grammar is irrelevant, or that grammar is no longer needed in a CLT framework. No one doubts the prominence of

grammar as an organizational framework within which

communication operates.

to Teach or Not to Teach Grammar

Grammar is important in some degree in all the six variables :

• Age• Proficiency levels• Educational background• Language skills• Style (register)• Needs and goal

Issues About How to Teach Grammar

• Should grammar be presented inductively or deductively

• Should we use grammatical explanations and technical terminology in a CLT classroom

• Should grammar be taught in separate “grammar only” classes?

• Should teachers correct grammatical errors?

Grammar Techniques

• Charts• Objects• Maps and drawings• Dialogues• Written text

Grammar Sequencing in Textbooks and Curricula

• Grammatical categories are one of several considerations in curricular sequencing

• A curriculum usually manifest a logical sequence of basic grammatical structures, but such a sequence may be more a factor or frequency and usefulness then of clearly identified degrees of linguistic difficulty.

• Beyond those basic structures, a few permutations here and there will make little difference in the eventual success of students, as long as language is being learned in the context of communicative curriculum.

A “Word” About Vocabulary Teaching

• These are some guidelines for the communicative treatment of vocabulary instructions.

• Allocate specific class time to vocabulary learning

• Help students to learn vocabulary in context• Play down the role of bilinguals dictionaries• Encourage students to develop strategies for

determining the meaning of words.• Engage in “unplanned” vocabulary teaching

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