Teaching Methods and Strategies

Scholars 2-10-09Oma Morey, PhD (409) 772-3235 ommorey@utmb.edu

Teaching Methods are the tools we use to transmit learning. Other terms are often used interchangeably (learning methods, strategies, activities or techniques, therefore the definitions are often blurred. Usually, there is a primary method with specific strategies used within the method. For example, experience-based methods such as role play incorporate both discussion and reflective learning strategies. However, both may be used as a stand-alone method. Primary types of methods include lecture, discussion, experience-based, cooperative learning, reflective learning and role modeling. Each of these, as well as variations of the method, will be briefly discussed below. An extensive bibliography is also included of you are interested in learning more about the method.

INTERACTIVE LECTURES

Although a traditional lecture is thought to be one of the best ways to deliver a great deal of information in a short amount of time, they don’t usually encourage learners to move beyond note-taking and memorization of the information. However, instructors can change a traditional lecture into an interactive lecture by changing or adding activities. This not only revitalizes learners’ attention, but causes them to become actively engaged intellectually with the lecture content. The list below includes many options that can be included within a lecture and move it to a more learner-centered teaching method.

Intersperse Questions throughout the LectureThe simplest interactive technique is to ask questions (preferably open-ended questions) throughout the lecture. The purpose of these questions could include questions that determine the learners’ current knowledge level on the topic, evaluate learning or simply add change the pace of the lecture and add participation. Even when a learner doesn’t know the answer, a question stimulates thought and focuses their listening on the answer provided.

Have Learners write Questions:Instead of asking the learners if they have any questions, ask them to write down one or more questions they have about the material just covered. Then have several learners share their questions on the large group. If possible, have other learners answer them, if not, answer them yourself. Writing questions down gives learners an opportunity to determine what they do not know and seeing the questions in writing facilitates asking them.

Minute PapersAt the end of a class or a section of material, ask the learners to take a couple of minutes to write down responses to prepared questions such as "What was the most important point of today's lecture?" or "What question do you still have about this material?"

Practice Exam Question or Homework ProblemGive the learners a sample exam question or homework problem for practice. Randomly select a few learners to report their answers to the class. Giving the learners a chance to practice the type of questions they might see on homework assignments or examinations will give them more confidence when they have to work them alone.

Reaction SheetAfter presenting a controversial topic, ask each learner to write their reactions to three questions: "What ideas do you question," "What ideas are new to you," and "What ideas really hit home?" Follow up with discussion. As a variation, this activity can be done in small groups.

Pre-viewing or screened listening: As a way of introducing an instructor-centered activity (e.g., lecture, video/film, panel discussion, etc.) provide an overview of its content, a rationale of how it relates to the current topic being studied, and a reason learners need to know about it. Then have the learners focus their attention on specific aspects of the presentation by asking them to observe for important issues or to answer specific questions that will be addressed during the presentation. Make sure to discuss the answers following the presentation. Questions can be in the form of a structured note (see below) or written on a visual aid (e.g., PowerPoint or whiteboard).

Guided ImageryThis exercise can help learners get in touch with their expectations, assumptions, and even fears about an upcoming experience such as their first clerkship. It can also be used to help learners imagine the lives of those with whom they serve. Have the learners get comfortable, close their eyes if they wish, listen and picture themselves as part of the

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experience that will be narrated. The facilitator then guides them though a narrative explaining what a typical experience might be like.

Instructor Demonstration The instructor demonstrates a task explaining the procedure as he or she goes through the demonstration.

Intersperse multiple choice questionsSetup a brief multiple-choice questionnaire on a PowerPoint slide. Have learners respond verbally or with an audience response system.

Audience Response SystemToday’s students are part of the technology generation--they tend to learn through interaction and visual data. Audience response systems (ARS) are a fun and interactive way to involve learners in traditional lectures. With this system, each participant in the audience registers a response on a key pad, and the responses are instantly tallied and displayed on screen. Research has shown that the ARS can substantially improve the effectiveness of learning and retention of concepts presented in lectures. (Copeland et al, 1998; Shackow et al, 2003; Stein, 2003; Gagnon and Thivierge, 1997; Blandford and Lockyer, 1995). The ARS transforms lectures into stimulating, active learning. ARS can be used during a lecture to Clarify and expose misconceptions, support interactive case study analysis, adjust lecture emphasis according to needs, elicit diverse points of view when there is no correct answer and assess students' mastery of content.

Advance OrganizersAn advance organizer is information that is presented prior to the learning experience, directing the learner’s attention to what is important in the coming material. They also help the learner organize and interpret new incoming information. An advance organizer It helps the learner organize new material by outlining, arranging and sequencing the main idea of the new material based on what the learner already knows. Advance organizers may include:

1. Expository - describe the new content.2. Narrative - presents the new information in the form of a story to learners. 3. Skimming - used to look over the new material and gain a basic overview. 4. Graphic organizer/Concept mapping

Graphic organizerBelow is a list of categories of graphic organizers / concept maps:

Spider Maps - place the central theme or unifying factor in the center of the map with outwardly radiating sub-themes.

Hierarchy Maps - present information in a descending order of importance. The most important information is placed on the top. Distinguishing factors determine the placement of the information

Venn Diagram: If the task involves examining the similarities and differences between two or three items, use a Venn diagram. Example: Examining the similarities and differences between fish and whales, or comparing a book and the accompanying movie.

Chain of Events: If the topic involves a linear chain of events, with a definite beginning, middle, and end, uses a chain of events graphic organizer.

T-Chart Diagram: If the task involves analyzing or comparing with two aspects of the topic, use a T-Chart. Example: Fill out a T-Chart to evaluate the pros and cons associated with a decision.

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Structured NotesThe Structured notes are graphic organizers for note-taking during lectures, presentations, videos or reading assignments. Unlike most graphical organizers (that tend to provide a single generic form for all tasks), structured notes calls on teachers to create a custom note-taking organizer based on the unique organization of material. Learners complete the form when prompted by the instructor during the presentation.

DISCUSSION METHODS AND STRATEGIES

Classroom discussions can be powerful tools for learners in classes of all sizes and disciplines because they help learners process information rather than simply receive it. Discussions can be done in smaller groups are done with the entire class. Like other methods, discussion can be used as a strategy within another method, or used as a method itself. Different than lectures, learners are more active and have more personal contact in discussions. To be effective however, the learning climate needs to be supportive and they must have enough knowledge or background on the discussion topic so they can stay engaged

Discussions should also be planned in advanced and questions developed so they guide learners to complex and critical thinking. The instructor should determine the amount of time they want to spend on the discussion and the placement of the discussion within the class period. Learners need to know the ground rules for participation and respect each other’s contributions. Skilled instructors use questions to move the discussion to a predetermined goal. They use “wait time” effectively so that learners have time to formulate their answers. Since much of the learning happens during debriefing, all discussions need to be debriefed to summarize, synthesize and reinforce learning. If a large class was broken into smaller learning groups for the discussion, the instructor does not need to debrief all groups. A few groups can be randomly selected to report to the whole group. Often, responses will start to repeat indicating that you have exhausted class answers. If the instructor is unsure, he or she can always ask if other groups have different responses.

There are three major categories of discussions:

Open discussions Open discussions are used when learners already have knowledge of or attitudes about the topic being discussed. The instructor acts more like a facilitator – asking questions to get it started and ensuring that it stays on track. The goal is to have learners talk among themselves, where one learner’s comment spurs another and then another. The instructor will interject open-ended questions only to keep the discussion moving toward the objective or to get it back on track. The instructor often sits with the learners in a circular or u-shape format so he or she does not become a focus point for the learners.

Controlled discussions Controlled discussions differ from open discussion in that the instructor keeps maximum control. It is often more structured than an open discussion and may be relatively short in length. The instructor usually stands to maintain learner focus and often writes learner responses on a white board of flip chart. Although the instructor still uses open-ended questions to keep the discussion going, the answers are usually short and only one or two responses are given before the instructor takes back control by asking another question. These discussions are often used to assess learner knowledge on a topic. They can easily be placed within a interactive lecture

Small group discussions (which is often an open discussion held in pair are small groups within a large class) Small group discussions will be discussed in more detail in the next section (Cooperative Learning Methods)

COOPERATIVE LEARNING METHODS AND STRATEGIES

Group work can be an extremely useful addition to a large class. Not only does peer discussion help learners understand and retain material, but it helps them develop better communication skills. Learners also become aware of the degree to which other learners can be a valuable resource in learning. Group work is a common pedagogical strategy. ‘Tutorial groups’ such as problem-based learning groups, facilitate small-group learning and interaction. ‘Buzz groups’ work together in class on tasks set by the teacher; while formats vary, the teacher typically poses questions, and learners get time for buzz-group discussions before giving joint answers. An ‘affinity group’ is a group of learners willing to learn together. Unlike buzz groups that work together for only a short period of time, it remains constant throughout the class term. Unlike tutorial groups, its members work together regularly outside class hours. Some instructors break up a lecture by having learners divide themselves into groups of three or our and answer specific questions, or solve specific

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problems. Each group appoints a spokesperson who will report on the group’s progress, once the larger class reconvenes. It’s not necessary to call on very group for a response–a general sense of the class’s understanding can be gained by quickly polling several groups for their questions or comments.

Although some of the strategies listed below could be done individually, cooperative learning releases the power of working together as a team. Cooperative learning methods and strategies include:

Team LearningTeam Learning is an instructional strategy that fosters active learning through small-group interaction. It is unique in its ability to facilitate effective small group learning in classrooms with relatively high student-faculty ratios. With team learning the class period is devoted exclusively to team activities. Learning teams are first given problems that stimulate discussion about topics related to session goals and an assortment of reasonable solutions. The teams discuss the problems, select a solution, and defend their groups' answers in discussion with the entire class. Students pool their knowledge to develop a consensus and ultimately teach each other. Team learning promotes a high level of student cohesiveness, thought to be a powerful factor in the success of the method. Because the learning takes place in a team, it reinforces the utility of "team-based" decision making, and experientially lends appreciation for the multidisciplinary teams characteristic of the medical environment. Team learning has economic advantages over other small group methods because it can be conducted with multiple teams and one "expert" instructor, thereby not requiring multiple facilitators. Although there may be some variations on Team Learning, they are generally made up of the following interconnect components:

Learners are strategically-organized into small groups of at least five to seven people Learners are required to read assigned materials before the coming to class. They are expected to Learners are given an Individual Readiness Assurance Test (iRAT) at the beginning of class. The team repeats the same quiz, but work on the Team Readiness Assurance Test (tRAT) together. This is

followed by immediate feedback. tRAT scores can be appealed through a systematic appeal process. At this point, the instructor knows what questions the groups missed, so then lectures on only those concepts,

saving time by not lecturing on what everyone already understands. Application-oriented group assignments are specially-designed and conducted during class time.

Writing Exam QuestionsPairs, or small groups of three, learners write an exam question about material covered in class following the format of actual exam questions (e.g. essay, multiple-choice, etc.). After a brief discussion, ask several groups to ask their questions to the whole class. Write these on the board and ask other learners to critique them (give specific criteria). If possible, include some of these questions on the exam.

Guided Reciprocal Peer QuestioningShow learners a set of generic question stems (e.g. " What is the main idea of ___", "What are the strengths and weaknesses of ___", “explain how", "what if", "how does ____ affect ____?"). Each learner completes the questions focusing on material covered in class and discusses possible answers in small groups. The purpose of this activity is to help learners develop questions about new material and then generate discussion

Learner-Developed CasesSmall groups develop a fictional case based on the theory of the current topic. This can be done in class, as homework, or both. Several of the cases should be discussed in class.

Answers to these questions give you important feedback about the learners' comprehension of the material covered.

Think (or Write) - Pair - SharePose a question which requires analysis, evaluation, or synthesis. Each learner thinks or writes on this question for one minute, then turns to the person next to him to compare ideas. Then the pairs share their ideas with some larger group (pairs of pairs, section of the class, or whole group). (Wright, 1994)

Buzz GroupsAllows for total participation by group members through small clusters of learners, followed by discussion of the entire group. As a technique to get participation from every individual in the group. Highly adaptable to other group methods. Prepare one of two questions on the subject to give each group. Divide the members into small clusters of four to six. A leader is chosen to record and report pertinent ideas discussed.

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Formal Learning Groups Formal learning groups are teams established to complete a specific task, such as perform a lab experiment, write a report, carry out a project, or prepare a position paper. These groups may complete their work in a single class session or over several weeks. Typically, students work together until the task is finished, and their project is graded.

Informal learning groupsInformal learning groups are ad hoc temporary clusterings of learners within a single class session. Informal learning groups can be initiated, for example, by asking students to turn to a neighbor and spend two minutes discussing a question you have posed. You can also form groups of three to five to solve a problem or pose a question. Informal groups can be assembled at any time during a class of any size to check on students' understanding of the material, to give students an opportunity to apply what they are learning, or to provide a change of pace.

Fish Bowls Fish Bowls provide an opportunity for a select group of learners to openly discuss an issue, video, problem, or strategy in an open manner. Volunteers sit in a tight circle in the middle of the room and discuss two or three questions. Observers sit around the circle and watch the different perspectives for a later discussion, but do not participate. If the facilitator allows one group more time than others, conflict may arise. In order to process the Fish Bowls, simply allow for all to discuss openly, at the end of all Fish Bowls, any group's observation.

EXPERIENCE-BASED LEARNING METHODS AND STRATEGIES

The distinguishing feature of experience-based learning methods (or experiential learning) is that the experience of the learner occupies a central place in all considerations of teaching and learning. This experience may comprise earlier events in the life of the learner, current life events, or those arising from the learner's participation in activities implemented by teachers and facilitators. Experience-based learning requires the involvement of the whole person—intellect, feelings and senses – in the activity. They draw on the learner's relevant experiences to derive meaning from the activity itself. Debriefing and reflective thought are essential components experience-based methods. The experience alone is not necessarily educative. The quality of reflective thought brought by the learner is of greater significance to the eventual learning outcomes than the nature of the experience itself. Because experienced-based methods are very personal and individualized to the learner, a climate of respect, validation, trust, openness and concern for the well-being of the learner is critical.

Experience-based methods that are commonly used in education include:

Case or Case Study Methods including Problem-based learning Simulations Role Play Games

Case or Case Study MethodCase method is a valuable interactive learning tool that brings real world problems into the classroom. Cases are narratives, situations, select or statements that present unresolved and provocative issues, situations or questions. They are used to test learners’ analytic and problem solving abilities while making them aware of how to use the skills they’ve been developing in the class. To be effective, the case must be realistic and believable. The information included must be rich enough to make the situation credible, but not so complete as to close off discussion or exploration. Cases can be used for numerous learning activities. They can be used for short classroom discussions, or can extend over a week or semester. For example, a brief case can be used to illustrate a particular point or support a specific learning principle any time during a lecture, or learners can work through a case in class, where the instructor gives some information, asks learners for their hypotheses and areas for further inquiry, provides additional information, and systematically works through the case with the learners. Much of the power of case studies comes from the interaction among the learners. Learning from each other’s experiences is a valuable problem-solving approach. This exposure encourages them to recognize and reflect on their own. The incorporation of many points of view into the case discussion fosters the fundamental strength of generating alternative responses to problems.

There are several case formats that can be used.- “Finished” cases based on facts

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- Finished” cases are used for analysis only since the solution is already indicated or alternate solutions are suggested. Useful to incorporate into lectures.

- “Unfinished” open-ended cases- Unfinished” open-ended cases are cases where the results are not yet clear or the case has not come to a factual

conclusion in real life. Learners must predict, make choices and offer suggestions that will affect the outcome. As in problem-based learning, they may also require outside research on the topic.

- Original documents casesOriginal documents cases may include news articles, reports with data and statistics, summaries, ethnographies, video and audio recordings. With the right questions, these can become problem-solving opportunities. Comparison between two original documents related to the same topic or theme is a robust approach that promotes both analysis and synthesis.

Problem-Based Learning Methods and StrategiesOne form of case method is problem-based learning (PBL). In PBL, learners identify issues raised by specific case problems to increase understanding about underlying concepts and principles. New knowledge and understanding develop as a byproduct of working on the problem rather than requiring new knowledge as a prerequisite for working on the problem. Problem based learning is usually focused on small groups with a tutor and follows specific steps that help learners identify their needs in understanding a problem. Once identified, learners pursue their goals, usually independently, before coming back to their team to synthesize their findings. In PBL learners are progressively given more and more responsibility for their own education and become increasingly independent of the facilitator for their learning. PBL produces independent learners who can continue to learn on their own in life and in their chosen careers. The responsibility of the facilitators in PBL is to provide guidance that facilitates learning.

Simulation in Methods and StrategiesSimulation refers to the artificial representation of a complex real-world process with sufficient fidelity to achieve a particular objective, usually for the purposes of training or performance testing. They include devices, trained persons, lifelike virtual environments, and contrived social situations that mimic problems, events, or conditions that arise in professional encounters. Use of simulations is widespread in medical education and evaluation. The learner is required to respond to the problems as he or she would under natural circumstances. Frequently the trainee receives performance feedback as if he or she were in the real situation. Simulation procedures for evaluation and teaching have several common characteristics: Simulations can take many forms. For example, they can be static, as in an anatomical model. Simulations can be automated, using advanced computer technology. Some are individual, prompting solitary performance while others are interactive, involving groups of people. In general, simulations fall into the following categories:- Low-tech simulators- Models or mannequins used to practice simple physical maneuvers or procedures. - Simulated/standardized patients - Actors trained to role-play patients, for training and assessment of history

taking, physicals, and communication skills- Screen-based computer simulators - Programs to train and assess clinical knowledge and decision making, e.g.,

perioperative critical incident management, problem-based learning, physical diagnosis in cardiology, acute cardiac life support

- Complex task trainers - High-fidelity visual, audio, touch cues, and actual tools that are integrated with computers. Virtual reality devices and simulators that replicate a clinical setting, e.g., ultrasound, bronchoscopy, cardiology, laparoscopic surgery, arthroscopy, sigmoidoscopy, dentistry

- Realistic patient simulators - Computer-driven, full-length mannequins. Simulated anatomy and physiology that allow handling of complex and high-risk clinical situations in lifelike settings, including team training and integration of multiple simulation devices

Human Simulation / Living Sculptures - Learners physically model hard to understand relationships or concepts or processes as a way of understanding and retaining knowledge. The “living sculptures” involves the learner physically in the dramatic assumption of the role of some part of the concept being studied.

Role PlayingRole playing involves learners and observers in real problem situations. The process allows learners to gain insight into their own values, emotions, attitudes, perceptions and skills. Role play scenarios must be realistic and clearly link to educational objectives. Clear guidelines need to be stated to ensure the role play is safe. Role players need

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time to get into role and may wish to ask questions of clarification before starting. The role of observers needs to be established in advance. The facilitator directs the enactment, taking care to ensure that as the plot evolves and the role players stay focused. Rarely, highly charged scenes may need to be cut. Time for debriefing and discussion is essential to ensure the full educational benefit of this method. First and foremost, role players need to be de-roled before the facilitator moves into feedback and discussion. The primary role player (the person practicing the skills) needs to have the time to express the emotions and stresses experienced in the role immediately when the role play ends. This is especially critical if there was strong emotional content in the role play. The primary role player should also give his or her self-evaluation (including both strengths and improvement areas) of their enactment before anyone else (including the instructor) offers feedback. Feedback should be specific, nonpersonal and in the form of suggestions or alternatives for future consultations. Videotaping of role plays facilitate feedback and enables role players to watch and comment directly on their thoughts and feelings at a particular moment. Use of rewind or time out enables a different ending to the same scenario. Although role plays are often categorized as simulation, the roles are more structured and have a defined set of learners with specific times, places, equipment, and rules.

GamesA classroom should be a place of fun as well as instruction. Games are a perfect way to increase learner motivation while reinforcing skills and concepts and deepening discourse about topics learned. They can be used in classes of any size, either in the whole group or in smaller breakout groups, and may or may not be competitive. Games can facilitate understanding of difficult or hard to explain concepts by relating the experience to the concept to be learned. Still games should involve all the learners – even if some learners are just observers. Observers should be given a role (for example, specific things to look for while they watch the game). Learning comes from the learner’s reflection on the experience or game. Most games require skill and practice; therefore an instructor should not try them in class unless they are comfortable and certain they know how to accomplish them. Instructions should be clear and understood. Like other experience-based methods, games require a thorough debrief. It should not be rushed. For example, if the learner has not figured out the results of the game, trying to make meaning from the experience is worthless.

Many instructors borrow from television game shows to stimulate ideas for group participation. Variation of the copyrighted shows such as Jeopardy, Win Lose or Draw, Family Feud, Wheel of Fortune and Tic Tac Toe can be used as question/answer team games for introduction of units or review. Questions, designed to match the learning objectives are posed to individuals on the team and teams are rewarded for correct responses. Educational games can be found in books, on the web or developed specifically for the class and is only limited by the instructor’s creative thinking and resourcefulness.

REFLECTIVE LEARNING METHODS AND STRATEGIES

Reflective practice is fundamentally structured around inquiry. Reflective learning methods engage the learners in an exploration of their experiences in order to lead to a new understanding and appreciation. Reflection starts with an individual or group experience and is followed with a review of the experience in order to describe, analyze, evaluate and inform learning. Reflective learning is an active, conscious process that engages a large amount of the learners’ cognitive capacities. If applied to practice, reflective learning can result in improvement of clinical through the new knowledge gained from reflection.

The full benefits of reflective learning are often lost in university settings when faculty relates reflection to “touchy-feely" group discussions and consequently resist opportunities to utilize these methods. This aversion stems from what appears to be a barrier to talking about one's feelings, thoughts, and emotions. However, reflection need not be limited to the release of emotional energy, the sharing of feelings. Rather, reflection is categorically educational offering an opportunity to learn from experience. Reflection can take numerous forms, and touch on an endless variety of issues.

Critical Incident Reports Critical-incident reports are short narratives of events judged to be particularly meaningful by participants in the events. They are often used as vehicles that promote reflective learning in medical education. Critical incidents focus on the important events (high or low moments) that influence the learner’s professional development. Learners complete the critical incident reports individually as a form of self-reflection, but often share their stories in groups. Writing itself may help then deal with any emotions involved in the experience. Being personal, they engage the learner on the level of deeply held professional values and attitudes. Group discussion and reflection focuses on key

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elements brought out by the stories that most would agree are educationally significant. Having written the reports or stories first often makes it easier for learners to share emotionally charged events in a group setting.

Reflection GroupsWhen using reflection groups to share critical incident reports, learners read their stories aloud in the groups. The group then discusses questions such as what happened, why, and what alternatives or solutions existed. Above all, learners should not be pushed to reveal more than they are comfortable to share. The facilitator and discussion group should be supportive and help them clarify their feelings while seeking to gain perspective on the events themselves. When group members show empathy to the learner or admit to having had similar experiences and feelings, the learner is able to put his or her own moral values, which are often at stake in the critical incidents, into perspective. Critical incidents shared with others may also reframe experiences from "negative" to "positive" or constructive. Critical incidents reported, such as a failure to act when faced by breaches of one's personal values; feeling humiliated by a superior; feeling confused about one's assessment of a situation as "wrong;" feeling inadequate when wishing to take responsibility for a patient; even expressing compassion to a patient, who may have evoked the ire or disapproval of one's teammates; are commonly encountered in medical training and may be experienced as shameful and isolating, unless the feelings engendered by these experiences are validated by fellow trainees and/or faculty members. Such group support is generally experienced as healing and reaffirming.

Reflective Writing and NarrativeReflective writing is an established method for teaching medical learners empathetic interactions with patients. The writing relies on the learner’s reflections on clinical experiences. When learners reflect on their own lives in medicine, their memories and associations triggered by caring for the ill, they become more aware of their own feelings. Reflections on their own experiences deepen their ability to respond empathically to patients as well as to themselves. Reflective writing exercises have been used in medical education in myriad ways.

- Critical incident reports Clinical journal - learner describes clinical scenarios in which he or she is on the doctor side of the doctor–

patient relationship.

Other reflective writing exercises attempt to reduce the emotional distance between learner and patient. They include - Composition of letters to patients met in early physical diagnosis courses Writing autobiographical sketches of their gross anatomy cadaversWriting a clinical story from the patient's point of view Rewriting a patient's narrative from a first-person (changing from “him/her” to “I/me”

Personal Illness NarrativeThis reflective writing exercise is designed to allow learners to explore their personal experiences of illness in depth. Learners write about either a personal illness experience or that of a family member or friend. If, however they write about the illness experience of a close loved one, they describe how that illness affected their own lives. As learners explore their own subjective experiences of illness, they may become aware of how the experience critically informs their professional caregiving. For example, these illness experiences may be a central motivation behind a learner's decision to become a doctor or they may limit a learner's openness to hearing particular kinds of clinical stories. Learners may also discover unexplored challenges or biases that may affect their professional lives. Incorporating this emotionally revealing writing exercise into a medical school seminar is challenging and requires professional attention to safety and trust. Ground rules regarding strict confidentiality outside of the seminar, respect for others’ experiences, and support must be established early and articulated often. Small class size is important to foster an atmosphere of intimacy and mutual support.

Learning journals A learning journal is a vehicle for reflection that is written over a period of time. They come in many forms (paper and pencil logs, tapes and videos, electronic forms), and they may be described in different terms (journals, logs, diaries). They may be part of a class assignment, fieldwork, clinical experiences, or a service project. What distinguishes a learning journal from other forms of reflective writing is the focus on ongoing issues over time with the intent to learn from either the process or results of the assignment. Learning journals are not simply a record of events diary or log.

THEATRE-BASED METHODS AND STRATEGIES

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The emotionally compelling nature of theatre is an effective way to teach medical learners about patients' experiences of illness and the patient−clinician relationship because it difficult to avoid or intellectualize the struggles and suffering portrayed. The nature of live performances exposes the humanity of people who are patients and promotes reflective discussions.

Research-Based Theatre Research-based theatre represents an innovative approach to transforming the results of qualitative studies into dramatic material. Dramatized autobiographical accounts of patient’s illness are well suited for teaching the medical learners the patient's perspective because it brings the voices of real people to life. Qualitative research transcripts have evolved into several forms of theatre including short plays, readers theatre (where learners take on the roles of the patient) and dramatic poetry (that could be read by the instructor to illustrate points in lectures about particular diseases or about issues in patient−clinician communication. Performance pieces of this type can be incorporated into medical education in a variety of ways and can be adapted to suit the needs of different audiences.

Play-Back TheatrePlay-back theatre, which originated in improvisational theatre, is an educational experience where the learners narrate their own experiences followed by a succession of spontaneous vignettes mimed by a group of actors. Through playback theatre, learners see their own stories mirrored and are able to interpret them through a different frame of reference.

ROLE MODELING AS A METHOD OR STRATEGY

Role models play an important part in determining how learners mature professionally. A role model teaches primarily by example and helps to shape professional identity and commitment through promoting observation and comparison. Unlike mentors, role models may have only brief contact with learners. Professional achievement, personality, power, influence, lifestyle, and values may all determine the influence a teacher has on a learner

Faculty members and residents serve as professional role models for learners. The modeling process should be a purposeful activity that demonstrates clinical knowledge, skills, attitudes and professionalism including the noncognitive dimensions of professional practice such as showing genuine concern for patients, recognizing one's own limitations, showing respect for others, taking responsibility, not, appearing arrogant and displaying enthusiasm for the practice of medicine and for teaching. They tend to be dynamic, energetic individuals with an infectious enthusiasm that comes from self-confidence, excitement about medicine, and pleasure in teaching. The apparent impact of enthusiasm on learners is to capture their attention, stimulate further thinking, and infuse the learning environment with energy. Learners need opportunities to observe role models in action and to study the behaviors that constitute their effectiveness. To be an intentional role model requires the ability to articulate the mental process that led to the successful completion of a diagnosis or clinical procedure. This process enables the learner to imitate more attending physician.  Through this modeling process, learner knowledge, skills, and attitudes can be changed profoundly.

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Teaching Methods and Strategies Teaching Methods and Strategies Bibliography

GENERAL READINGS ON ACTIVE LEARNING

Amin Z, Guajardo J, Wisniewski W, Bordage G, Tekian A, Niederman LG. Morning report: focus and methods over the past three decades. Acad Med October 2000;75(10 Suppl):S1-5.

Andresen L., Boud, D. and Cohen, R. Experience-Based Learning: Contemporary IssuesChapter published in Foley, G. (Ed.). Understanding Adult Education and Training. Second Edition. Sydney: Allen &

Unwin, 225-239

Annual, peer-reviewed collection of reports on innovative approaches to medical education. Medical Education Volume 34, November 2000. Page 947

Bonwell, C. Building a supportive climate for active learning. The National Teaching and Learning Forum, 6(1), 1996. 4-7.

Bonwell, C. C. and Eison, J. A. Active Learning: Creating Excitement in the Classroom. Jossey-Bass. 1991

Boud. D. and Miller, N. (eds.)Working with Experience: animating learning, London: Routledge. Useful collection of pieces exploring experiential learning. 1997

Brownell Anderson, M. A peer-reviewed collection of reports on innovative approaches to medical education. Medical Education, Nov2005, Vol. 39 Issue 11, p1143-1144

Demopoulos B, Pelzman F, Wenderoth S. Ambulatory morning report: an underutilized educational modality.Teach Learn Med. 2001 Winter;13(1):49-52.

Howell, S. Teaching undergraduates in primary care. BMJ 2003; 326 119.

Jacobsen, R.E. & Mark, B.E. Teaching in the information age: Active learning techniques to empower students. Reference Librarian, (51-52), 105-120. 1995

Jarvis, P. Adult and Continuing Education. Theory and practice 2e, London: Routledge. 1995

Johnson, D. W. and Johnson, R. T. Creative Controversy: Intellectual Challenge in the Classroom. Interaction Book Company. 1995

Krueger PM, Neutens J, Bienstock J, Cox S, Erickson S, Goepfert A, Hammoud M, Hartmann D, Puscheck E, Metheny W. To the point: reviews in medical education teaching techniques. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2004;191(2):408-11.

Leung, Wai-Ching. Gaining experience in different teaching methods BMJ 2003; 326 27

Murdoch Eaton D, Cottrell D. Structured teaching methods enhance skill acquisition but not problem-solving abilities: an evaluation of the 'silent run through'. Med Educ. January 1999; 33(1):19-23.

Nageswari KS, Malhotra AS, Kapoor N, Kaur G. Pedagogical effectiveness of innovative teaching methods initiated at the Department of Physiology, Government Medical College, Chandigarh. Adv Physiol Educ. December 2004;28(1-4):51-8.

Oliver-Hoyo, M.T., Allen, D, Hunt, W.F., Hutson, J. & Pitts, A. Effects of an active learning environment: Teaching innovations at a research institution. Journal of Chemical Education,2004. 81(3), 441.

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R.M. Felder and R. Brent, "Navigating The Bumpy Road to Student-Centered Instruction." College Teaching,1996. 44(2), 43-47.

Rubin, l. & Hebert, C. Model for active learning: Collaborative peer teaching. College Teaching,1998. 46(1), 26-30.

Silberman, M. Active Learning: 101 Strategies to Teach any Subject. Allyn and Bacon: Needham Heights, MA. 1996

Spencer, J. ABC of learning and teaching in medicine: Learning and teaching in the clinical environment. BMJ 2003; 326 591-594.

Spencer, John A and Reg K Jordan. Learner centered approaches in medical educationBMJ, May 1999; 318: 1280 – 1283.

Wang, X. Professional Development Module on Teaching Techniques. Texas Collaborative for Teaching Excellence. http://www.texascollaborative.org/teaching_module.htm.

Links

Resources and Information for Clinical Faculty Florida State University: Faculty Development Homehttp://med.fsu.edu/education/FacultyDevelopment/clinicalfaculty.asp

Resources for Educatorshttp://www.uchsc.edu/CIS/EduclSkill.html

Selecting a Delivery Strategy Honolulu community collegehttp://honolulu.hawaii.edu/intranet/committees/FacDevCom/guidebk/teachtip/delivery.htm

Student–Centred Learning: What Does It Mean For Students And Lecturers? In; Emerging Issues in the Practice of University Learning and Teaching. O’Neill, G., Moore, S.,

Lara, V. Professional Development Module: Student-Centered Teaching. Texas Collaborative for Teaching Excellence. http://www.texascollaborative.org/stdtcenteredteach.htm.

McMullin, B. (Eds). Dublin:AISHE, 2005. http://www.aishe.org/readings/2005-1/oneill-mcmahon-Tues_19th_Oct_SCL.pdf.

Teaching and Learning Resources Texas Collaborative for Teaching Excellencehttp://www.texascollaborative.org/resource-level2intro.htm

Teaching References Resourcehttp://pdptoolkit.co.uk/Files/wellcloseres/training.htm

Teaching References Resourcehttp://www.gp-training.net/doctors/ref/training.htm

Teaching Tips Index Faculty Development – Honolulu Community Collegehttp://honolulu.hawaii.edu/intranet/committees/FacDevCom/index.htm

Teacher Tips Newsletter http://www.teach-nology.com/newsletters/

LECTURE / INTERACTIVE LECTURE

Brown, George; Manogue, Michael. AMEE Medical Education Guide No. 22: Refreshing lecturing: a guide for lecturers. Medical Teacher, May2001, Vol. 23 Issue 3, p231-244,

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Bulstrode C, Gallagher FA, Pilling EL, Furniss D, Proctor RD. A randomised controlled trial comparing two methods of teaching medical students trauma and orthopaedics: traditional lectures versus the "donut round". Surgeon. April 2003;1(2):76-80.

Cantillon, Peter. ABC of learning and teaching in medicine: Teaching large groupsBMJ, Feb 2003; 326 - 437

Cashin, W.E. Answering and asking questions. IDEA Paper No. 31, Center for Faculty Evaluation and Development, Kansas State University. January 1995

Gulpinar MA, Yegen BC. Interactive lecturing for meaningful learning in large groups. Med Teach. November 2005. 27(7):590-4.

Gülpinar, Mehmet Al ̱; Yeğen, Berrak Ç. Interactive lecturing for meaningful learning in large groups. Medical Teacher, November 2005, Vol. 27 Issue 7, p590-594,

Johnston, S. & Cooper, J. Quick-thinks: Active-thinking tasks in lecture classes and televised instruction. Cooperative Learning and College Teaching, 1997. 8(1), 2-6.

Kagan, S.& Kagan, M. Timed-pair-share and showdown: Simple co-op structures for divergent and convergent thinking. Cooperative Learning and College Teaching.,1997 7(2), 2-5.

Khaliq, Farah. Introduction of problem-solving activities during conventional lectures. Medical Education, November 2005, Vol. 39 Issue 11, p1146-1147

Kumar S. An innovative method to enhance interaction during lecture sessions. Adv Physiol Educ. 2003 Dec; 27(1-4):20-5.

Meltzer, D.E. & Manivannan, K. Transforming the Lecture-Hall Environment: The Fully Interactive Physics Lecture. American Journal of Physics. 2002. 70(6), 639-54.

Nayak B. Satheesha The Broken Lecture: An Innovative Method of Teaching Adv Physiol Educ 30:48, 2006.

Nayak B. Satheesha, S. N. Somayaji and K. Ramnarayan. Blunder Lecture–An Innovative Method Of Teaching Advan. Physiol. Edu. 2005 29: 130-131,

Satheesha NB, Somayaji SN, Ramnarayan K.Blunder lecture-an innovative method of teaching.Adv Physiol Educ. June 2005;29(2):130-1.

Steinert, Y. and Snell, LS. Interactive lecturing: strategies for increasing participation in large group presentations. Medical Teacher, 1999; 21(1); 37–42.

Walters MR. Case-stimulated learning within endocrine physiology lectures: an approach applicable to other disciplines. Am J Physiol. June 1999; 276(6 Pt 2):S74-8

Links

Interactive Lectures http://csudh.edu/SOE/cl_network/InteractiveLecture.html

Interactive Lectures: Summaries of 36 Formats http://www.thiagi.com/interactive-lectures.html

DISCUSSION

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Hahn & Others. A Method for Teaching Human Values in Clinical Clerkships Through Group Discussion. 1991, 3:143-150

Brookfield, S. D., & Preskill, S. Discussion as a way of teaching: Tools and techniques for democratic classrooms. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. 1999.

Christensen, R. C.; Garvin, D.; and Sweet, A. (Eds.). Education for Judgment: The Artistry of Discussion Leadership. Harvard University Business Press. 1991.

Johnson JP, Mighten A. A comparison of teaching strategies: lecture notes combined with structured group discussion versus lecture only. J Nurs Educ. July 2005;44(7):319-22.

Johnson, William D. "Classroom Discussion." Unpublished manuscript, University of Illinois, 1979.

Peterson JZ, Hennig LM, Dow KH, Sole ML. Designing and facilitating class discussion in an Internet class. Nurse Educ. January – February 2001; 26(1):28-32.

Welty, William M.  Discussion Method Teaching: How to Make It Work. Change v21 n4 July - August 1989, p40-49

Links

Frequently Asked Questions about Discussion

http://www.iub.edu/~teaching/faqdisc.shtml

http://www.iub.edu/~teaching/faqdisc.shtml

EXPERIENCED-BASED METHODS (EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING)

Alper BS, Vinson DC. Experiential curriculum improves medical students' ability to answer clinical questions using the internet. Fam Med. September 2005; 37(8):565-9.

Andresen L., Boud, D. and Cohen, R. Experience-Based Learning: Contemporary IssuesChapter published in Foley, G. (Ed.). Understanding Adult Education and Training. Second Edition. Sydney: Allen &

Unwin, 225-239

Experiential learning: helpful review of sites by Tim Pickles.

Experiential Learning Theory Bibliography: Prepared by Alice Kolb and David Kolb, this is an extensive bibliography of on experiential learning theory from 1971-2001. 

Hess R, Chang CC, Conigliaro J, Elnicki DM, McNeil M. Experiential learning influences residents knowledge about hormone replacement therapy. Teach Learn Med. Summer 2004; 16(3):240-6.

Kolb, D. A. (1984) Experiential Learning, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Kolb. D. A. and Fry, R. 'Toward an applied theory of experiential learning; in C. Cooper (ed.) Theories of Group Process, London: John Wiley. 1975

Midmer, D. Experienced-based learning: The processing cycle. BMJ Career Focus, November 2002; 325: S140.

O'Connell MT, Rivo ML, Mechaber AJ, Weiss BA. A curriculum in systems-based care: experiential learning changes in student knowledge and attitudes. Fam Med. January 2004; 36 Suppl:S99-104.

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Torbeck L, Joyce J, Flannery M. Integrating experiential learning in complementary and alternative medicine. Med Educ. November 2004; 38(11):1195-6. No abstract available.

Weil, S. Warner & McGill, I. (eds.) Making Sense of Experiential Learning. Diversity in theory and practice, Milton Keynes: Open University Press. 1989

Links

Kolb, A. and Kolb D. A. Experiential Learning Theory Bibliography 1971-2001, Boston, Ma.: McBer and Co, http://trgmcber.haygroup.com/Products/learning/bibliography.htm. 2001

PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING

Albanese, M., and S. Mitchell. 1993. Problem-based learning: A review of literature on its outcomes and implementation issues. Academic Medicine 68:52-81.

Allen, D.E., B.J. Duch, and S.E. Groh. 1996. The power of problem-based learning in teaching science courses. Bringing problem-based learning to higher education: Theory and practice.

Azer SA.Challenges facing PBL tutors: 12 tips for successful group facilitation. Med Teach. 2005 Dec;27(8):676-81.

Davis. MH. AMEE Medical Education Guide No. 15: Problem-based learning: a practical guide. Medical Teacher. 1999, 21(2): 130 – 140.

Dolmans DH, De Grave W, Wolfhagen IH, van der Vleuten CP. Problem-based learning: future challenges for educational practice and research. Med Educ. 2005 Jul;39(7):732-41.

Donner, RS.and Bickley, H. Problem-based learning in American medical education: an overview. Bull Med Libr Assoc. 1993 July; 81(3): 294–298.

Galey WR.. What is the future of problem-based learning in medical education?Am J Physiol. 1998 Dec; 275(6 Pt 2):S13-5.

Maudsley G. Do we all mean the same thing by `problem-based learning?' A review of the concepts and a formulation of the ground rules. Acad Med 1999; 74: 178-185.

Mayo, W.P., M.B. Donnelly, and R.W. Schwartz. 1995. Characteristics of the ideal problem-based learning tutor in clinical medicine. Education and the Health Professions 18:124-136.

Neame, R.L.B. 1981. How to construct a problem-based course. Medical Teacher 3:94-99.

Wilkerson, L. and Gijselaers, W. H. Bringing Problem-Based Learning to Higher Education: Theory and Practice. Jossey-Bass. 1996. pp. 43-52.

Woods, D. R. (1994). Problem-based Learning: How to Gain the Most from PBL. W.L. Griffin Printing Lt: Hamilton, Ontario.

Links

Greening, T. Scaffolding for success in PBL. Med Educ Online [serial online] 1998; 3,4. http://www.Med-Ed-Online.org. 

CASE STUDIES AND CASE METHODS

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Barnes, L.B., C.R. Christensen, and A.J. Hansen, eds., Teaching and the Case Method, 3d ed. Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1994.

Boehrer, J., M. Linsky. “Teaching with Cases: Learning to Question.” In M. D. Svinicki, editor, The Changing Face of College Teaching. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, no. 42. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1990.

Christensen, C. Roland. Teaching and the Case Method. Boston: Harvard Business School, 1987.

Christensen, R. C.; Hansen, A.; and Moore, J. Teaching and the Case Method: Instructor's Guide. Harvard Business School Publications Division. 1989

Foran , John, The Case Method and the Interactive Classroom  Thought and Action (the journal of the National Education Association).  2001. pp. 41-51

Gillmer, M.D., G.D. Gordon, P.S. Sever and P.J. Steer. 1991. 100 Cases for Students of Medicine. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone, 1991.

Herreid, C.F. 1994b. Journal articles as case studies: The New England Journal of Medicine on breast cancer. Journal of College Science Teaching 23:349-355.

Hunt, P. “The Case Method of Instruction.” Harvard Educational Review, 1951, 21, 2-19. Lang, C. Case Method Teaching in the Community College: A Guide for Teaching and Faculty Development. Newton, MA: Education Development Center, Inc., 1986.

Lantis, Jeffrey S., Lynn M. Kuzma, and John Boehrer, editors. The New International Studies Classroom: Active Teaching, Active Learning. Boulder: Lynn Rienner. 2000.

Walters MR. Case-stimulated learning within endocrine physiology lectures: an approach applicable to other disciplines. Am J Physiol. June 1999;276(6 Pt 2):S74-8

Wassermann, Selma. Getting Down to Cases: Learning to Teach with Case Studies. NewYork: Teachers College, Columbia University. 1993.

Wassermann, Selma. Introduction to Case Method Teaching: A Guide to the Galaxy. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University. 1994.

Links

University of California, Santa Barbara Case Method Website Teaching the Case Method: Materials for a New Pedagogyhttp://www.soc.ucsb.edu/projects/casemethod/intro.html

TEAM LEARNING

Cuseo, J.B. (1997). Tips for students when forming learning teams: How to collaborate with peers to improve your academic performance. Cooperative Learning and College Teaching, 8(1), 7-9.

Gibbs, G. (1994). Learning In Teams: A Student Guide. The Oxford Center for Staff Development: Oxford.

Haidet P, O'Malley KJ, Richards B. An initial experience with "team learning" in medical education. Acad Med. 2002 Jan; 77(1):40-4.

Levine RE, O'Boyle M, Haidet P, Lynn DJ, Stone MM, Wolf DV, Paniagua FA  Transforming a clinical clerkship with team learning. Teaching And Learning In Medicine 16 (3): 270-275 SUM 2004.

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Michaelson, L.K., 1992. Team learning: A comprehensive approach for harnessing the power of small groups in higher education.To Improve the Academy, 11: 107-122.

Links

Michaelsen LK,.. Getting Started with Team Learning http://www.med.wright.edu/tbl/Gettingstarted.pdf

Fink, LD. Beyond Small Groups: Harnessing the Extraordinary Power of Learning Teams. http://www.med.wright.edu/tbl/BeyondSmallGroups.pdf

Michaelsen LK,.. Getting Started with Team Learning http://www.med.wright.edu/tbl/Gettingstarted.pdf

SIMULATIONS

Amitai Ziv, Paul Root Wolpe, Stephen D. Small, and Shimon Glick Simulation-Based Medical Education: An Ethical Imperative. Acad Med. 2003. 78: 783-788.

Anderson J and DiCarlo SE. "Virtual" experiment for understanding the electrocardiogram and the mean electrical axis. Adv Physiol Educ. 2000. 23: 1–17

Bradley, Paul. The history of simulation in medical education and possible future directions. Medical Education, March 2006, Vol. 40 Issue 3, p254-262

Elman D, Hooks R, Tabak D, Regehr G, Freeman R. The effectiveness of unannounced standardised patients in the clinical setting as a teaching intervention. Med Educ. September 2004; 38(9):969-73.

Halvorsen, Fredrik H.; Elle, Ole Jakob; Fosse, Erik. Simulators in surgery. Minimally Invasive Therapy & Allied Technologies, August 2005, Vol. 14 Issue 4/5, p214-223

Issenberg, S. Barry; Mcgaghie, William C.; Petrusa, Emil R.; Gordon, David Lee; Scalese, Ross J.. Features and uses of high-fidelity medical simulations that lead to effective learning: a BEME systematic review. Medical Teacher, January 2005, Vol. 27 Issue 1, p10-28

Lambourn, Robert. Teaching problem consultations: a comparison of two approaches using videotaped simulated consultations in one-to-one teaching involving (a) the trainer role-playing and (b) the use of drama students. Education for Primary Care, Mar2005, Vol. 16 Issue 2, p192-196

Makoul G. Commentary: communication skills: how simulation training supplements experiential and humanist learning. Acad Med. March 2006; 81(3):271-4.

McMahon GT, Monaghan C, Falchuk K, Gordon JA, Alexander EK. A simulator-based curriculum to promote comparative and reflective analysis in an internal medicine clerkship. Acad Med. January 2005; 80(1):84-9.

Meller, G. A typology of simulators for medical education. Journal of Digital Imaging, 1997, 10(3, Suppl. 1), p194–196.

Mullner, M. Interactive patient simulators. BMJ. 2002; 324 743.

Rodenbaugh DW, Collins HL, and DiCarlo SE. Spirometry: simulations of obstructive and restrictive lung diseases. Adv Physiol Educ. 2002 26: 222–223

Schijven, Marlies P.; Jakimowicz, Jack J. Validation of virtual reality simulators: Key to the successful integration of a novel teaching technology into minimal access surgery. Minimally Invasive Therapy & Allied Technologies, August 2005, Vol. 14 Issue 4/5, p244-246,

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Simulation in medical education: A review. Simulation & Gaming, September 2001, Vol. 32 Issue 3, p297

Steadman RH, Coates WC, Huang YM, Matevosian R, Larmon BR, McCullough L, Ariel D. Simulation-based training is superior to problem-based learning for the acquisition of critical assessment and management skills. Crit Care Med. January 2006; 34(1):151-7.

Steadman RH, Coates WC, Huang YM, Matevosian R, Larmon BR, McCullough L, Ariel D. Simulation-based training is superior to problem-based learning for the acquisition of critical assessment and management skills. Crit Care Med. January 2006; 34(1):252-3.

Conn, Joseph. The Games Doctors Play. Modern Healthcare, July 2004, Vol. 34 Issue 30, p32-33

Wayne, Diane B.; Butter, John; Siddall, Viva J.; Fudala, Monica J.; Linquist, Lee A.; Feinglass, Joe; Wade, Leonard D.; McGaghie, William C.. Simulation-Based Training of Internal Medicine Residents in Advanced Cardiac Life Support Protocols: A Randomized Trial. Teaching & Learning in Medicine, Summer 2005, Vol. 17 Issue 3, p202-208.

Winston, Ian; Szarek, John L. Medical Education, Vol. 39 Issue 5, May 2005, p526-527

Ziv, Amitai; Ben-David, Shaul; Ziv, Margalit. Simulation Based Medical Education: an opportunity to learn from errors. Medical Teacher, May 2005, Vol. 27 Issue 3, p193-199

ROLE PLAY

Nikendei, C.; Zeuch, A.; Dieckmann, P.; Roth, C.; Schäfer, S.; Völkl, M.; Schellberg, D.; Herzog, W.; Jünger, J.. Role-playing for more realistic technical skills training.

Nilsen S, Baerheim A. Feedback on video recorded consultations in medical teaching: why students loathe and love it - a focus-group based qualitative study. BMC Med Educ. 2005, July 19; 5:28.

Piccoli G, Rossetti M, Dell'Olio R, Perrotta L, Mezza E, Burdese M, Maddalena E, Bonetto A, Jeantet A, Segoloni GP. Play-back theatre, theatre laboratory, and role-playing: new tools in investigating the patient-physician relationship in the context of continuing medical education courses.Transplant Proc. June 2005;37(5):2007-8.

Stafford, Faith. The Significance of De-roling and Debriefing in training medical students using simulation to train medical students. Medical Education, Vol. 39 Issue 11, November 2005, p1083-1085

Wearne, S. Role play and Medical Education.Australian Family Physician, 2004. 33(10): 858.

Links

The Effective Use of Role Play Therapeutic Resources.comhttp://therapeuticresources.com/2422toc.html

Sim, J. Curtin University of Technology. Learning patient care through role play http://www.herdsa.org.au/confs/1996/sim.html

GAMES

Allery LA. Educational games and structured experiences. Med Teach. September 2004;26(6):504-5.

A. Amory, K. Naicker, J. Vincent, C. Adams. The use of computer games as an educational tool: identification of appropriate game types and elements. British Journal of Educational Technology v30 no4, 1999, p311-321

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Bailey CM, Hsu CT, DiCarlo SE. Educational puzzles for understanding gastrointestinal physiology. Am J Physiol. June 1999; 276(6 Pt 2):S1-18.

Baldor RA, Field TS, Gurwitz JH. Using the "Question of Scruples" game to teach managed care ethics to students. Acad Med. May 2001; 76(5):510-1.

Ballon B, Silver I. Context is Key: an interactive experiential and content frame game.Med Teach. September 2004; 26(6):525-8.

Chandler MP and DiCarlo SE. An educational tool for understanding the cardiopulmonary changes associated with aging. Adv Physiol Educ 267: 1994, 17–36.

Chen Y and DiCarlo SE. An educational tool for understanding the cardiopulmonary changes associated with heart failure. Adv Physiol Educ 267: 1994, 37–53.

Collins HL and DiCarlo SE. An educational tool for understanding the cardiovascular changes associated with diabetes. Adv Physiol Educ 269: 1995, 4–31.

Fukuchi SG, Offutt LA, Sacks J, Mann BD. Teaching a multidisciplinary approach to cancer treatment during surgical clerkship via an interactive board game. Am J Surg. April 2000; 179(4):337-40.

Galanos, Anthony N.; Cohen, Harvey J. Medical education in geriatrics: The lasting impact of the aging game. Educational Gerontology, Vol. 19 Issue 7, Oct/Nov 1993, p675.

Handfield-Jones R, Nasmith L, Steinert Y, Lawn N. Creativity in medical education: the use of innovative techniques in clinical teaching.Med Teach. 1993; 15(1):3-10.

Howard MG, Collins HL, DiCarlo SE. "Survivor" torches "Who Wants to Be a Physician?" in the educational games ratings war. Adv Physiol Educ. December 2002; 26(1-4):30-6.

Howarth-Hockey, G. and Stride, P. Can medical education be fun as well as educational? BMJ 2002;325 1453-1454

James T.; Boult, Chad; Hepburn, Ken Pacala,. Ten Years' Experience Conducting the Aging Game Workshop: Was It Worth It? By: Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, January 2006, Vol. 54 Issue 1, p144-149.

Mann BD, Eidelson BM, Fukuchi SG, Nissman SA, Robertson S, Jardines L. The development of an interactive game-based tool for learning surgical management algorithms via computer. Am J Surg. March 2002;183(3):305-8.

McVey LJ, Davis DE, Cohen HJ. The 'aging game'. An approach to education in geriatrics. JAMA. September 1989, 15;262(11):1507-9.

Moy JR, Rodenbaugh DW, Collins HL, DiCarlo SE. Who wants to be a physician? An educational tool for reviewing pulmonary physiology. Adv Physiol Educ. December 2000;24(1):30-7.

Odenweller CM, Hsu CT, DiCarlo SE. Educational card games for understanding gastrointestinal physiology. Am J Physiol. December 1998;275(6 Pt 2):S78-84.

Ogershok PR, Cottrell S. The pediatric board game. Med Teach. September 2004;26(6):514-7.

O'Leary S, Diepenhorst L, Churley-Strom R, Magrane D.Educational games in an obstetrics and gynecology core curriculum. Am J Obstet Gynecol. November 2005;193(5):1848-51.

Rodenbaugh DW, Collins HL, and Dicarlo SE. Creating a simple Powerpoint multimedia game. Adv Physiol Educ, 2002, 26: 342–343

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Smith-Stoner M, Willer A.Innovative use of the Internet and intranets to provide education by adding games. Comput Inform Nurs. Sep-Oct 2005;23(5):237-41.

Steinman RA, Blastos MT. A trading-card game teaching about host defence. Med Educ. December 2002; 36(12):1201-8

Links

Bingo Card Generatorhttp://www.teach-nology.com/web_tools/materials/bingo/

Puzzle Make – numerous types of puzzles (Free Tools)http://puzzlemaker.school.discovery.com/

Crossword Puzzle Maker (Free Tools)http://www.teach-nology.com/web_tools/crossword/

Word Scramble Makerhttp://www.teach-nology.com/web_tools/scramble/

Word Search Makerhttp://www.teach-nology.com/web_tools/word_search/

REFLECTIVE TEACHING METHODS

Backstein D, Agnidis Z, Regehr G, Reznick R. The effectiveness of video feedback in the acquisition of orthopedic technical skills. Am J Surg. March 2004;187(3):427-32.

Backstein D, Agnidis Z, Sadhu R, MacRae H. Effectiveness of repeated video feedback in the acquisition of a surgical technical skill. Can J Surg. June 2005;48(3):195-200.

Bateman, W. L. (1990). Open to Question: The Art of Teaching and Learning by Inquiry. Jossey-Bass.

Bean, J. C. The professor’s guide to integrating writing, critical thinking, and active learning in the classroom. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. 1996

Benbassat, Jochanan MD; Baumal, Reuben MD. Enhancing Self-Awareness in Medical Students: An Overview of Teaching Approaches. Academic Medicine. February 2005.

80(2):156-161,

Boud, D. et al (eds.) Reflection. Turning experience into learning, London: Kogan 1985

Branch WT Jr, Paranjape A. Feedback and reflection: teaching methods for clinical settings.Acad Med. December 2002;77(12 Pt 1):1185-8.

Brookfield, S. D. Developing Critical Thinkers: Challenging Adults to Explore Alternative Ways of Thinking and Acting. Jossey-Bass. 1987

Dewey, J. How We Think, New York: Heath. 1933

Elliott DD. Promoting critical thinking in the classroom. Nurse Educ , 1996,21: 49–52

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Garrett, M., Schoener, L., & Hood, L. Debate: A teaching strategy to improve verbal communication and critical-thinking skills. Nurse Educator, 1966 21(4), 37-40.

Goldsmithle, R.G., & Hatcher, J.A. Reflection activities for the college classroom. Paper presented at the Natio, S. Journal reflection.1996

Henderson, B.B. Critical-thinking exercises for the history of psychology course. Teaching of Psychology, 22(1), 60-63.1995

Kasman DL. Doctor, are you listening? A writing and reflection workshop. Fam Med. 2004; 36: 549–51.

Lichstein PR, Young G. "My most meaningful patient". Reflective learning on a general medicine service. J Gen Intern Med. July 1996;11(7):406-9.

Lowe, PB. and Kerr CM. Learning by reflection: the effect on educational outcomes. Journal of Advanced Nursing 1998 27(5):1030.

Meyers, C. Teaching Students to Think Critically. Jossey-Bass: San Francisco. 1986

Mezirow, J. Transformative Dimensions of Adult Learning, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 1991

Novack DH, Epstein RM, Paulsen RH. Toward creating physician-healers: fostering medical students' self-awareness, personal growth, and well-being. Acad Med. 1999; 74: 516–20.

Pololi LP, Frankel RM, Clay M, Jobe AC.One year's experience with a program to facilitate personal and professional development in medical students using reflection groups. Educ Health (Abingdon). 2001; 14(1):36-49.

Scanlan JM, Care WD, Udod S. Unravelling the unknowns of reflection in classroom teaching. J Adv Nurs. April 2002; 38(2):136-43.

Schön, D. The Reflective Practitioner, New York: Basic Books 1983

Links

Elliott, G. Teaching in post-compulsory education: profession, occupation or reflective practice? http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/000000104.htm

Evans, Dave Reflective Learning Through Practice-Based Assignments http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/000000468.htm

Hudson, Brian Seeking connections and searching for meaning: teaching as reflective practice http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/00001565.htm

Schön - (1987) Educating the reflective practitioner. Address to the 1987 meeting of the American Educational Research Association. http://educ.queensu.ca/~russellt/howteach/schon87.htm

Smith, Mark K (2001) Donald Schon (schön): learning, reflection and change http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-schon.htm

REFLECTIVE WRITING – CRITICAL INCIDENT REPORT

Branch WT Jr. Use of critical incident reports in medical education. A perspective. J Gen Intern Med. November 2005;20(11):1063-7.]

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Branch WT Jr., Pels RJ, Lawrence RS, Arky RA. Becoming a doctor: "critical-incident" reports from third-year medical students. N Engl J Med. 1993;329: 130–2.

Hupert N, Pels RJ, Branch WT Jr. Learning the art of doctoring: use of critical incident reports. Harvard Student BMJ. 1995;3: 99–100.

THEATRE

Bates RA. Popular theatre: a useful process for adult educators. Adult Education Quarterly, 1996; 46:224 236.

Deloney LA, Graham CJ.Wit: using drama to teach first-year medical students about empathy and compassion. Teach Learn Med. Fall 2003;15(4):247-51.

Gray R, Sinding C, Ivonoffski V, Firch M, Hapson A, Greenberg M. The use of research-based theatre in a project related to metastatic breast cancer. Health Expect 2000;3: 137–44.

Lorenz KA, Steckart J, Rosenfeld KE. End-of-life education using the dramatic arts. The Wit Educational Initiative. Acad Med 2004;79: 481–6.

Rosenbaum ME, Ferguson KJ, Herwaldt LA. In their own words: presenting the patient's perspective using research-based theatre. Med Educ. June 2005;39(6):622-31.

Saldana J. Ethical issues in an ethnographic performance text: The dramatic impact of juicy stuff. Research in Drama Education, 1998; 3:181 196.

Shapiro J, Hunt L. All the world's a stage: theatrical performance in medical education. Med Educ 2003;37: 922–7.

Savitt TL. Medical Readers' Theater: A Guide and Scripts. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press 2002.

Walford G, Massey A (eds) Studies in Educational Ethnography, Vol. 2: Explorations in Methodology. Oxford: JAI Press, 1999.

REFLECTIVE WRITING – NARRATIVE

Bolton G. Reflective Practice: Writing and Professional Development. London: Paul Chapman Publishing/Sage; 2001: 117–8.

Brady DW, Corbie-Smith G, Branch WT Jr. "What's important to you?": the use of narratives to promote self-reflection and to understand the experiences of medical residents. Ann Intern Med. 2002;137: 220–3.

Charon R. Narrative and medicine. N Engl J Med. 2004;350: 862–4.

DasGupta S, Charon R..Personal illness narratives: using reflective writing to teach empathy.Acad Med. April 2004; 79(4):351-6.

Egan, pp. 24-38. New York: Teachers College Press, 1995. 

Greenhalgh T, Hurwitz B. Narrative Based Medicine: Dialogue and Discourse in Clinical Practice. London: BMJ Books; 1998.

Gudmundsdottir, S. "The Narrative Nature of Pedagogical Content Knowledge." In NARRATIVE IN TEACHING, LEARNING, AND RESEARCH, edited by H. McEwan and K.

Horowitz CR, Suchman AL, Branch WT, Frankel RM. What do doctors find meaningful about their work? Ann Intern Med. 2003; 138:772–5.

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Hunter K. Doctors' Stories: The Narratives Structure of Medical Knowledge. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press; 1991.

Kleinman A. The Illness Narratives: Suffering, Healing and the Human Condition. New York: Basic Books, 1988:54.

Reifler DR. Early patient encounters: second-year student narratives of initiation into clinical medicine. The Pharos. 1996; Winter:29–33

Reifler DR. “I actually don't mind the bone saw”: narratives of gross anatomy. Lit Med. 1996; 15:183–99.

Verghese A. The physician as storyteller. Ann Intern Med. 2001; 135: 1012–7.Links

Fitzclarence, L., and Hickey, C. "Pedagogical Narrative Methods." 2001. http://www.deakin.edu.au/edu/crt_pe/activities/narrative_idea.htm 

Marsha Rossiter Narrative and Stories in Adult Teaching and LearningERIC Educational Reports http://www.ericdigests.org/2003-4/adult-teaching.html

COLLABORATIVE LEARNING STRATEGIES

Brufee, K. A. Collaborative Learning: Higher Education, Interdependence, and the Authority of Knowledge. Johns Hopkins University Press. 1993.

Bruffee, K. Collaborative Learning. The John Hopkins University Press: Baltimore, MD. 1995.

Cortright RN, Collins HL, Rodenbaugh DW, and DiCarlo SE. Student retention of course content is improved by collaborative-group testing. Adv Physiol Educ, 2003. 27: 102–108

Johnson. D. W.; Johnson, R. T.; and Johnson Holubec, E. The Nuts and Bolts of Cooperative Learning. Interaction Book Company. 1994.

Kadel, S. and Keehner, J. A. Collaborative Learning: A Sourcebook for Higher Education, v2. National Center on Postsecondary Teaching, Learning, & Assessment. 1994.

Millis, B., & Cottell, Jr., P. Cooperative Learning for Higher Education Faculty. Oryx Press: Phoenix, AZ. 1998.

Rao SP, Collins HL, and DiCarlo SE. Collaborative testing enhances student learning. Adv Physiol Educ , 2002. 26: 37–41

R.M. Felder and R. Brent, "Effective Strategies for Cooperative Learning." J. Cooperation & Collaboration in College Teaching. 2001., 10(2), 69-75

Slavin R. When does cooperative learning increase student achievement? Psychol Bull . 1983. 94: 429–445

PEER-TEACHING

Cortright RN, Collins HL, and DiCarlo SE. Peer instruction enhanced meaningful learning: ability to solve novel problems. Adv Physiol Educ 29: 107–111, 2005.

Dollman J.A new peer instruction method for teaching practical skills in the health sciences: an evaluation of the 'Learning Trail'. Adv Health Sci Educ Theory Pract. 2005;10(2):125-32.

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JAMES DOLLMAN A New Peer Instruction Method for Teaching Practical Skills in the Health Sciences: an Evaluation of the ‘Learning Trail’ Advances in Health Sciences Education (2005) 10:125–132

Rao SP and DiCarlo SE. Peer instruction improves performance on quizzes. Adv Physiol Educ 24: 51–55, 2000.

SMALL GROUP

Cooper, J. L. & Robinson, P. (2000). Getting Started: Informal Small-Group Strategies in Large Classes. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 81, 17-24.

Cuseo, J.B. (1997). Guidelines for group work. Cooperative Learning and College Teaching, 7(3), 11-16.

Downey, J.K. (1997). Resisting and yielding to small groups. The National Teaching and Learning Forum, 6(2), 6-7.

Jaques, D. ABC of learning and teaching in medicine: Teaching small groups BMJ 2003;326 492-494.

Holsgrove GJ, Lanphear JH, Ledingham IMcA. Study guides: an essential student learning tool in an integrated curriculum. Med Teacher 1998; 20: 99-103. Schwartz. P.L. 1989. Active, small group learning with a large group in a lecture theatre: a practical example. Med. Teach. 11:81-86.

Steinert, Y. Student perceptions of effective small group teaching. Medical Education. 2004, 38(3): 286-293.

INSTRUCTOR ROLE MODELING

J B Reuler and D A Nardone. Role modeling in medical education. West J Med. 1994 April; 160(4): 335–337.

Matthews, C. Role Modelling: how does it influence teaching in Family Medicine? Med Educ. 2000 Jun;34(6):443-8.

Paice, E., Heard, S. and Moss, F. How important are role models in making good doctors?, BMJ 2002; 325: 707-710.

AUDIO RESPONSE SYSTEMS

D. Turpin . Enhance learning with an audience response system.  American Journal of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics, Volume 124, Issue 6, Page 607

Latessa R, Mouw D. Use of an audience response system to augment interactive learning. Fam Med. 2005 Jan;37(1):12-4

Pradhan A, Sparano D, Ananth CV. The influence of an audience response system on knowledge retention: an application to resident education. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2005 Nov;193(5):1827-30.

Schackow TE, Chavez M, Loya L, Friedman M. Audience response system: effect on learning in family medicine residents. Fam Med. 2004 Jul-Aug;36(7):496-504.

Uhari, M., Renko, M. and Soini, H. Experiences of using an interactive audience response system in lectures. BMC Medical Education 2003, 3:12.  http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6920/3/12.

INTERACTION THROUGH QUESTIONS

Cashin, William E., Brock, Stephen C., and Owens, Richard E. Answering and Asking Questions. Manhattan, Kansas: Center for Faculty Development in Higher Education, 1976.

Hunkins, Francis P. Questioning Strategies and Techniques. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1972.

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Rowe, Mary Budd. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 11 (1974): 81-94, 263-279. Two articles on topics relating to "wait-time."

Sanders, Norris M. Classroom Questions, What Kinds? New York: Harper & Row, 1966.

Schneider JR, Sherman HB, Prystowsky JB, Schindler N, Darosa DA. Questioning skills: the effect of wait time on accuracy of medical student responses to oral and written questions. Acad Med. 2004 Oct;79(10 Suppl):S28-31.

Williamson KB, Kang YP, Steele JL, Gunderman RB. The art of asking: teaching through questioning. Acad Radiol. 2002 Dec;9(12):1419-22

ADVANCE ORGANIZERS

Ausubel, D.P. (1960). The use of advance organizers in the learning and retention of meaningful verbal material. Journal of Educational Psychology, 51, 267-272.

Ausubel, D. (1978). In defense of advance organizers: A reply to the critics. Review of Educational Research, 48, 251-257.

Barron, R. F. (1970). The effects of the advance organizers upon the reception learning and retention of general science content. (ERIC Document Service No. ED 061 554)

DiVesta, F. J., & Fray, G. S. (1972). Listening and note-taking. Journal of Educational Psychology, 63(1), 8–14.

Doug Buehl. Classroom Strategies for Interactive Learning. International Reading Association; 2nd edition (January 1, 2001)

Romance, N.R., & Vitale, M.R. (Spring, 1999).Concept mapping as a tool for learning: Broadening the framework for student-centered instruction. College Teaching, 47(2), 74-79.

Schwartz NH, Ellsworth LS, Graham L, Knight B. Accessing Prior Knowledge to Remember Text: A Comparison of Advance Organizers and Maps Contemp Educ Psychol. 1998 Jan;23(1):65-89.

Smith, P., & Tompkins, G. (1988). "Structured notetaking: A new strategy for content area teachers." Journal of Reading, 32, 46-53.

Links

Graphic Organizer Worksheets (Development Tools)http://www.teach-nology.com/worksheets/graphic/

Kinds of Concept Mapshttp://classes.aces.uiuc.edu/ACES100/Mind/c-m2.html

Making Concept Mapshttp://classes.aces.uiuc.edu/ACES100/Mind/c-m3.html

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