Technical Comments on the Lidow Ting

Ben B. JohnsonHead of Conservation

Jonathon E. EricsonConservation Chemist

IntroductionAncient Chou and Shang Chinese bronzes have capturedthe attention of researchers in the history of technologyfor many decades. The mastery of technical skills andunderstanding of materials displayed by these bronzes areas outstanding to conservators as are their iconographicand aesthetic properties to collectors and art historians.

The purpose of this article is to document our observa-tions and augment statistical information on this subject.Each object that undergoes careful examination and docu-mentation tests existing theories and either strengthensthem or gives rise to doubt about their validity.

The Ting a bronze ceremonial vessel donated to theMuseum by Mr. and Mrs. Eric Lidow, was not unknownto the Conservation Center. It had been a subject of greatinterest to us ever since the late Rutherford John Gettens,the preeminent scholar in technical research on Chinesebronzes, examined the bronze while working briefly at theMuseum. Mr. and Mrs. Lidow very kindly and enthusi-astically consented to the preliminary study and in 1969made the t i n g available to us for about one month. Muchof the information recorded here is the product ofMr. Gettens' in-depth studies at that time, and it is unfor-tunate that only he could ever hope to attain clarity andthoroughness in interpreting his tests and observations.His contribution is nonetheless equal in quality and per-fection to the great works he so loved and sought to helpus understand.1

Casting TechniqueThe casting technique and morphology2 of the LidowTing are similar to the well-documented Freer Ting andthe closely related ones at the National Palace Museum,Taiwan; the Rhöss Museum, Gothenburg, Sweden; andthe Fuju Yurinkan, Kyoto.3 The casting technique em-ployed in the construction of these bronzes is, in fact,identical; precast handles and legs are joined to the vesselbody -- a technique known to Shang dynasty artisans bututilized on a wider scale later during the Chou dynasty.4The stereo-binocular microscope (5-40~) enabled us todetermine not only the number of elements cast, but alsothe sequence in which they were cast.

To facilitate a discussion of the data accumulated andobservations recorded during this study, it was necessaryto devise a datum or point of reference. The single frontleg of the Ting has been chosen as an arbitrary datum forthe vessel. In plan, the three legs in a clockwise direction(fig. I) are designated as leg I, leg 2, and leg 3. Likewise,the two handles (fig. 1) are designated as handle I andhandle 2. The “step” that appears on the second plainband of the lid (fig. 2) roughly aligns with leg 1.5 In plan,the three hand grips are designated grip I, grip 2, andgrip 3.

The three legs appear to have been precast using anidentical pattern.6 On the bottom of leg 3 is a vestige of

16

3.

IMAGEUNAVAILABLE

a sprue or pouring duct. The legs are clay-cored, as indi-cated in the radiograph (fig. 3).

The handles also appear to have been precast. Severalrectangular chaplets or metal spacers were used in thespacing and positioning of the inner and outer moldswhich were not self-supporting (fig. 4). The joins of thetwo handles were investigated and found to be the sametype as those that appear at the apex of the legs, whichwould suggest that the vessel body was the last memberto be cast. After the legs and handles of the vessel werecast they were positioned symmetrically in the mold coreof the vessel, and the body was then cast onto them.7There is a single seam, quite visible in places, where eachleg is attached to the vessel (fig. 5). Spilling over fromthe vessel onto the leg, the flash can be seen only in a fewplaces, notably on leg 3 (fig. 6). In addition, there is noevidence of hard solder at the leg joins. The mold linesindicate that perhaps a four-piece mold was used in cast-ing the vessel body. On the bottom of the body there is alow circular band from which three mold marks, equallyspaced approximately rao degrees apart, radiate upwardtowards the relief decoration. Along the outer perimeterof this band, a mold line (fig. 7) suggests that a fourth,circular mold was used to fabricate the bottom section.*

The casting technique utilized in the construction ofthe lid appears to be identical to that employed in theFreer Tieg.9 The three round hand grips of the MuseumT&g were carefully examined for evidence of joining, andnone was found. No seams nor overlap of metal flash werefound. Those irregularities that do appear, where thegrips join the lid seams, are only mold marks (fig. 8). Thehand grips as shown by radiography (fig. 9) are solidmetal. All of these factors indicate that the hand grips andlid were cast as a single unit. The surface of the lid was ex-amined for chaplets. None were found under microscopicexamination, except possibly a squarish imperfection inthe outer plain band that upon further examinationseemed too much off-center to be a chaplet. The radio-graph of the lid shows many chaplets, well distributedalong the plain bands (fig. 9). In addition, the blowholes(fig. 9) in the area between grips a and 3 are identical tothose of the Freer Ti+zg lid.10

In conclusion, there are great similarities in the actualcasting techniques employed in fabricating the pieceunder study and the Freer TGzg. The similarities in mor-phology, casting sequence, details of structure, and eventhe blowholes within the interior of the lids all point to ahighly systematized technology. However, unlike theFreer TiBg, there are no vertical two-piece mold joinmarks on either side of the legs. It appears that a four-piece mold was used in casting this vessel, the fourth piecebeing the circular bottom mold.

18

I.

Front side view of the Lidow T&I.~ in itsoriginal “find” position. In order to facili-tate documentation, an arbitrary datumwas established as the front leg shown inthe foreground. This leg has been desig-nated as leg I. In a clockwise directionfrom the top, the left rear leg is leg z., andright rear leg is leg 3. The left handle isdesignated as handle r and the righthandle as handle 2. On the lid, the handgrip in the left foreground is grip I, inclockwise direction, grip a and grip 3appear in the background.

2.

Detailed plan view of lid, showing hand-grip I and “step” on plain band.

3.Neutron radiograph of leg and body sec-tion, provided by Atomics International,North American Rockwell Corporation,which shows core of the interior of the leg.

4.X-ray radiograph of handle, showing anumber of rectangular chaplets or metalspacers, the thickness of the metal, andthe presence of a clay core with the pre-cast handle.

5.Detail of a side view of leg and vesselbody showing join line and deep inlay.

6.Detail of flash or metal spills from vesselonto leg 3 which is indicative of pre-casting technique.

6.

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Table I

Ting (Accession No. M.74.103 )Height: 33.5 cm.Width: 49.5 cm. (across its handles)Weight: 102 kg.

Spark Source Mass Spectrographic Analysis

SampleNo. 69/1 69/16 69/18 69/20 76/336Location Leg 1 Leg 2 * Leg 1 Average B o d y * * I n l a y * * *

CU 8 3 . 7 6 % 6 3 . 9 6 % 56.7770 6 8 . 1 6 % 1 7 . 4 8 % 1 0 . 7 6 %

Sn 3.29 8.37 22.30 11.32 6.87 42.28Pb 11.96 27.39 8.10 15.82 74.85 46 .09

Bi .06 .02 .Ol .03 .13 .08

Sb .02 .02 .Ol .02 .I3 .08

A g n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. .24

As .07 .Ol .15 .08 .14 .29

Zn .OOl .093 .083 .06 .008 .052p _ - - - - -

Mn .005 n.d. n.d. - n.d. .OOl

Fe .55 .14 12.56 4.42 .39 .07

T o t a l 9 9 . 7 2 1 0 0 . 99 .98 99.91 100. 99 .94

* inner edge * * top of inside *** Leg 1

Chemical Analysis of Metal AlloysSamples were taken from several sections of the LidowT&g11 for an analysis of their constituent alloys. Thisanalysis was effected with an AEI MS702 Spark SourceMass Spectrometer which in fact gives thirteen chemicalanalyses from a single sample electrode.12 The results ofthese analyses are presented in Table I.

The copper-tin-lead components of the Lidow TGzg arecomparable to those of the Freer bronze.1 3 Also character-istic of the Freer bronze is the presence of high lead,‘4minor iron,15 and trace zinc.16 A comparative study ofthe trace elements of the Lidow and Free Yfiag~ assigns aChou date to the former.17

Surface DecorationFrom a technical point of view, the surface decoration ofthe Lidow T&g is quite varied. Three major types of deco-rative techniques have been employed in the design ofthe bronze, techniques that reflect an obvious concern forvaried surface textures and colors as well as iconographicmotifs. The most striking type is the zoomorphic reliefdecoration in the horizontal registers, encircling both thebody (fig. I) and the lid of the vessel (fig. IO). Equallyimpressive is the shallow metal inlay technique that dis-tinguishes the handle decoration, which must have beenstunning in its original state (fig. I 1) but is now almostobscured by patination. A third, and rather rare, techniquehas been employed to enhance the otherwise plain surfaceof the legs (figs. 5, 12): separately cast metal inlays createbold curvilinear patterns on each leg.

The zoomorphic design on the vessel will be discussedonly briefly here.18 The technique used to create the pat-tern is well known from direct archeological evidence aswell as from historical references, comparative technologi-cal studies, and empirical observations.19 Basically, therelief pattern is cut into wood or wax; parts are assembledinto an integral unit, which is then used to produce a“mother” mold of baked clay. Once the “mother” moldhas been created, it is used to make “daughter” molds forcasting the exterior surface decoration.

Several unique features of this relief design were ob-served. Interestingly, the vertical mold lines have beenincorporated into the actual design of the horizontal regis-ters. As they rise from the bottom, they are distinct andunchased, disappearing in the semi-polished zone belowthe band of relief then reappearing as pattern join markspassing through the upper and lower bands of the relief.The join is seen in the bands of relief as a thin, raised lineon the same level as the design. It is along these join linesin the design that an imperfect register occurs (fig. I 3).The join lines are very faint when they cross the half-round ridge that encircles the Ting between the upper andlower bands. On the lid are three concentric bands(fig. IO). A single pattern join line was located on the

20

7. 8.

7.Bottom view of Lidow T&g with leg I atthe top. Three mold lines of the threeIZO' lateral molds radiate out from thefourth mold line at the outside perimeterof the low circular band. Note the positionof the two bottom legs in close proximityto the handles and central plane of vessel;this positioning of the 1e.q provides asymmetrical center of gravity to the vessel.

8.Detail of lid, showing irregular moldmarks at hand grip 2 as well as the misreg-ister of the design.

21

9.X-ray radiograph of the lid, showing asolid hand grip I (light), squarish chap-lets in nearly equally spaced plain band,and the mossy blowhole complex in sev-eral areas near the outside perimeter ofthe lid.

10.

Plan view of the Lidow T&g in its origi-nal “find” position. The front leg I isshown between the “step” in the secondplain band and the hand grip I of the lid.Note the three concentric, decorativebands of the lid.

Detail of handle I showing the shallowmetal inlay technique. Noble metal hasbeen lost and a cuprite layer is nowexposed.

12.Line drawing of inlaid curvilinearpattern.

22

23

Detail of upper relief band on vesselshowing misregister of the pattern. Thelateral IZO” section mold line was to havebeen incorporated into the motif inthis area.

Detail of handle zz showing square than.neis to accept noble metal inlay and finejoin line of handle to vessel body.

24

outer band just below one of the hand grips (fig. 8). Nopattern joins are visible on the two inner bands.

The surface design on the handles (fig. I I ) is unlikethe relief design of the vessel itself. At first it was thoughtthat the design was inlaid much like the inlay in the legs,but subsequent examination showed that it is quite differ-ent. In fact, no inlay material could be found even whenthe area was probed. It was finally decided that the patternis only a ghost of a former inlay made from silver or goldfoil. Perhaps shallow channels (fig. 14) were made toreceive the precious metal, which was hammered in muchthe same way that silver and gold were later inlaid inMiddle Eastern bronze and brass pieces. It is clear that theinlay had long ago fallen out or was lost, since no trace ofany precious metal appears to remain. Meanwhile thechannels have become filled with reddish cuprite.

The technique employed in the foliate design that ap-pears on the legs was somewhat of an enigma in earlierphases of analysis. First of all, there was little reference tothis particular motif in the literature on Chinese bronzes,simply because of its rarity.20 A preliminary examinationof the inlays themselves revealed that they were of a light-colored metal, much too hard to be silver, and probably abronze of high tin content. Traces of corrosion on the inlaysurface were primarily of copper content and quite dif-ferent from that of the surrounding leg. On leg 3 an inlaypiece with scattered pitting could either be blowholes orlead inclusions that have now weathered away, both indi-cating a cast inlay. The above data led to the query: “Canthe inlay pieces be cast in place? Hardly, the edge of themetal inserts are flush and tidy. Is it possible that the inlaywas inserted in the mold like a chaplet?“*

The second phase of research involved the chemicalanalysis (Analysis 7 6/3 3 6) presented in Table I, a metal-lographic cross-section analysis (fig. I 5) and probing ofthe inlay of the leg interfaces. The results of these analysesand observations were equally perplexing. Upon remov-ing the sample for a spark source mass spectrographicanalysis, a definite whitish metal was observed at consider-able depth (5 mm.) without a change in color, density, orconsistency. The chemical analysis suggested that perhapsa bimetal layer had been crossed and not detected, i.e., ahigh-tin bronze soldered with soft solder to the leg. In onearea on leg I, an &z s&z cross-section of the inlay couldbe examined. No bimetal layer was observed at that point;the inlay had complete integrity. Examination of the cross-section removed at that point indicated the same infor-mation (fig. I 5), except for the occurrence of diffuse spher-ical lead blebs. The metal inlay was extremely brittleupon its removal, a characteristic of a high-tin contentbronze.** Furthermore, it was observed that the inlay hadactually been cast into the leg or vice versa. But despitethese observations, we were unable to resolve the technicalproblems, namely how the inlay had been inset into the

25

15.Microscopic view (I 6oX) of metal cross-section of inlay from leg I showing high-tin bronze alloy and spherical lead blebs.Sample preparation by 5-minutechromate etch.

16

Detail view of pea-sized nubs of green,botryoidal malachite which is prevalent inthe inner surface of the lid.

=7.Detail of handle 2 and vessel body rim,showing the repaired break of the handlewhich is covered with false patina.

IS.

X-ray radiograph of bottom of T&g,showing three lateral mold lines radiatingfrom fourth mold line on the outside peri-meter of low circular band. Note the extrathickness of the metal of the entire centralarea indicated by the change in density oftone of the photograph.

18.

leg. We can, however, with this data arrive at a plausible

hypothesis.The original query seems to hold the answer, although

the inlay metal could not have been inserted like a chap-

let. The latent heat in casting the high-copper content

bronze leg would have melted the inlay or distorted itsoriginal morphology. The following casting sequence of

the leg is thereby suggested:

A. A positive image of the deep-seated inlay is created

within the leg mold.

B. The leg is then cast in this mold.

C. A second identical mold without the positive image

of the inlay is made using the leg as a pattern.

D. The low temperature copper-tin-lead mixture iscast carefully into the leg section.

E. After finishing, this inlaid precast leg is then cast

onto the vessel body, etc.In summary, three different techniques have been incor-

porated into the design of the Lidow Ting: the shallow

inlay of metal on the handles, the predominant relief de-sign on the surface of the vessel body and lid, and the

deeply inlaid foliate motif on the legs. These techniques

and their respective decorative results create an appealing

variation in surface texture, color, and iconographic

motifs.

Patination and ReparationScattered patches of green malachite form the patina in

many places on the surface of the vessel. The dominant

patination on the inside of the lid is botryoidal mala-chite*3 which appears as pea-sized nubs (fig. 16). In cer-tain small areas, particularly along the lip of the rim, the

malachite is spread over the surface like smooth enamel.

Other parts of the surface are spotted with rough, red

cuprite. Some of these red areas, however, like that on

handle I, are smooth, which indicates that they may have

been revealed by grinding down the overlaying malachite

patination at some point in the past (fig. I I) .

A line was observed across the middle of both uprightsegments of handle z (fig. 17). Further probing revealed

the presence of soft-solder, which may be entirely lead.The existence of the solder would suggest a repaired

break. Barely 2 mm. wide in places, the lead seam musthave repaired a clean break.The line of repair is concealed

with a green puttylike material that looks like naturalpatina, but cleaves easily and smoothly from the surface.

When examined microscopically under both reflected andtransmitted light, the substance was found to be a mixture

of a bluish green crystalline material and an inert whiteand brownish one. No sign of particles of artificial pig-

ments, such as Paris Green, was observed. From the appear-ance of the cleaved-off sample of this imitation patina, it is

suspected that it is comprised of the corrosive product from

another bronze and dehydrated aqueous adhesive, possiblyanimal glue. This adhesive was probably used to fix the

corrosive substance to the surface of the bronze. But despitethis small repair, the overall condition of the Lidow T&gis considered excellent.

Conc lus ionsAncient Chinese bronzes have intrigued scholars of tech-

nology for some time. Technical examination of the Lidow

T&g suggests that it has much in common with the pre-viously mentioned bronzes that exhibit analogous

morphology and style and can therefore be similarlydated. Only two minor differences distinguish the casting

sequences employed in the construction of the Lidowand Freer Gallery T&zgJ. A comparison of our chemical

analysis with published data on other such bronzes24indicates agreement with seriation or dating based uponstylistic criteria.25

The use of three very different types of surface decora-

tion underlines the uniqueness of this piece. Each of these

designs reflects a different technical skill, testifying tothe virtuosity of the Chinese artisan. The deeply cast inlay

design on the vessel legs is unusual, and requires investi-

gation beyond the scope of this preliminary study. Also,

the unexplained presence of a distinct botryoidal mala-

chite patination on several areas of the Lidow T&g pro-

vides another area for study.

Through the extensive art historical and scientific ex-amination begun by Mr. Gettens, the Lidow T&g has

become more fascinating and beautiful than before. We

hope that this research will stimulate further applicationof technical knowledge to the study of the iconographyand aesthetics of ancient bronzes.

7 7

Notes

I .We are also indebted to Dr. Gunter Gigasof Atomics International, North AmericanRockwell, for taking neutron radiographswhich were invaluable in our technicalevaluation of the piece; to W. T. Chase,Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institu-tion, for additional information on theFreer T&g (47.20); and to Frank Burkeof Burke’s Aluminum and Brass Foundry,Los Angeles, for his special consultationon modern foundry practices. We wouldlike also to thank staff members of theConservation Center, Los Angeles CountyMuseum of Art, for their cooperation inthe study of this piece, especially PeterDammers, Assistant Conservation Chem-ist, for his aid in conducting chemicalanalyses; George Wight for his superla-tive X-Ray radiographs; and John Geb-hart, Conservation Photographer, whoworked so diligently and patiently toobtain the technical photographs.

2.

The extension of the international mor-phological classification system to bronzevessels is suggested here. Under that sys-tem of morphological classification, thevessel body and top are designated asC185/29 [IO]-H207 [5] andEroo/roo/6o[8], respectively. See further, Jonathon E.Ericson and E. Gary Stickel, “A ProposedClassification System for Ceramics,” lIZi&Archaeology, IV, 1973, pp. 35667.

3.For further discussion, see John Alex-ander Pope, Rutherford John Gettens,James Cahill, and Noel Barnard, TheFree-7 Chinese Bronzes, Volume I, Cata-logtie, Oriental Studies No. 7, Freer Gal-lery of Art, Smithsonian Institution,Washington, D.C., r967, p. 492.

Note: On stylistic grounds, the LidowThg is more closely related to a group of&g.r described by George Kuwayama inthis volume.

4.For an informative discussion on the his-tory of the Chinese bronze-casting tech-nology, please consult: Noel Barnard,Bronze Casting and Brorue Alloys haA+zcient China, Monumenta Serica Mono-graph Series, The Australian NationalUniversity and Monumenta Serica, Mono-graph XIV, 1961, p. 156.

5.An interesting observation was madewhen attempting to relate the vessel to itslid, which appears to be extremely sym-metrical. The notable exceptions are thezoomorphic characters of the patternsand a single “step” on the second plainband shown in fig. I. The lid was set in itsoriginal “find position” indicated bymatching points of corrosion between thelid and vessel body. By chance or perhapsby custom, the anomalous “step” featureof the lid roughly aligns with the frontleg.

6See Pope et al., Freev Chinese Bronzes, pl.90, which indicates medial and laterallines along two legs, not apparent in theLidow Ting.

The process of interlock casting of the legto the vessel body is clearly shown as across section (Gettens, 1967 : fig 2~). Itappears that in this process the dark core ofbaked clay remaining from the precast legis actually excavated to provide a channelof extra metal under the leg.

Notably, the thickness of the extrametal appears to be greater in the top sec-tion than the bottom. This provided agreater support at the point of greateststress along the leg/vessel body interface.Rutherford J. Gettens, “Joining Methodsin the Fabrication of Ancient ChineseBronze Ceremonial Vessels,” in Applica-tions of Science h. the Ezarninatioa ofWovkr of Aft, ed. William J. Young,Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, 1967,pp. 205-17.

8Four independent observations suggestthat a fourth circular bottom mold wasemployed in casting this piece as comparedto the three-piece mold of the Freer T&zg(Pope et al., Freer Chinese Bronzes, I,493). As mentioned, there is a fourth cir-cular mold line adjacent to the low circu-lar band (fig. 7). The three vertical moldlines join but do not appear to crosseither this mold line or the band (fig. 7).The rough, irregular rectangular feature,perhaps representing a break or defect inthe vertical mold, is actually skewed withrespect to the rigid vertical and circularsections. Finally, the analysis of the radio-graph (fig. 18) indicated that the metal is

thicker in the bottom section. If correctlyinterpreted, there is a difference in thecasting techniques.

9.Described ibid., as follows: “The lidshows no signs of mold joins. It was prob-ably made in a two-piece mold with part-ing lines around the rim. The three loophandles appear to be cast as one with thelid. X-rays reveal that the lid casting isfull of blowholes; also, that there are anumber of chaplets in the plain circularbands that divide the decor bands.”

I O .

The near identity in the fabrication of theT&zg lids is shown in the X-ray radio-graph (fig. 9) of the Lidow T&g andradiograph of the Freer Ting (Gettens,Freer Chinese Brofzzes, II, figs. 224, 225).

Rutherford John Gettens, The Free?Chinese Bronzes, Volume II, TecbnicalStudies, Oriental Studies, No. 7, Freer Gal.lery of Art, Smithsonian Institution,Washington, D.C., 1969, p. 257. Theblowhole complex may have been due topouring metal which was too hot, givenlocal thermodynamic conditions.

II.

Samples of interior metal were taken bydrilling into the bronze to a depth of r-r.5cm. or its equivalent with a small high-speed twist drill (Size No. 53, 1.512 mm.diameter, vanadium bright finish, Avild-sen Tools and Machines, Inc., Style 3 50SM), rotated by a variable speed drill(Foredom Micro-variable Speed Drill).Silver was used as the carrier in all analysesexcept 76/336, thus it is not reported inthem.

12.For details of the instrumentation andtechnique employed, see Thomas Cairnsand Ben B. Johnson, “Recent Interfacesbetween Mass Spectrometry and Art,” inDevelopments &z Apelied Spectroscopy,ed. A. J. Perkins, E. L. Grove, Emmett F.Kaetble, and Joan E. Westermeyer, NewYork, 1972, X, pp. 3-14.

See also Ben B. Johnson, “KrishnaRajamannar Bronzes : An Examinationand Treatment Report,” in KriJbna: TheCowbefd King, ed. Pratapaditya Pal, LosAngeles County Museum of Art, Mono-graph Series, Number I, 1972, footnote 7.

28

13.The compositional ranges for copper-tin-lead components are as follows: 93.3 -63.7%, 21.6- 1.795; Z&I-0.007%; re-

spectively (Gettens, F?eev Chinese BromeJ,II. pp. 41-42). See ibid., fig. 18, for ahistogram of these components. Our aver-age values presented on Table I are withinthe ranges provided by Mr. Gettens.

Although it has an anomalously high-lead concentration, it (Analysis No. 69/20)is included on Table I. This anomalousanalysis may indicate a separation of thelead-rich phases during cooling whichthen “sinks to the bottom of the mold orcrucible,” ibid., 42.

14.The high-lead content is characteristic ofChinese bronzes of this period, ibid., 19.

15.Iron is the most abundant impurity ineach analysis, as noted ibid., 43. The ironconcentration of Analysis No. 69/18 isdefinitely anomalous. Gettens indicates theaverage iron concentration as o.2 %, andonly one bronze (Yu 47.12) had a valuegreater than I % (ibid., 43).

16.The trace amount of zinc which was ob-served is characteristic of Shang and Choubronzes. To quote, “those bronzes confi-dentially attributed t’o the Shang and Choudynasties, contain scarcely any zinc but, onthe other hand, the bronzes of later peri-ods often bear zinc in varying amounts”(ibid., 20).

17.We wanted to know if bronzes of differenttime periods could be statistically differ-entiated into chemical groups. See ibid.,45. With the relationship between compo-sition and time of origin of the bronzesknown, then the analyst could assign abronze to a particular time period, inde-pendently of stylistic or other criteria. Theanalysis of the Freer Chinese bronzes byMr. Gettens provide the most extensiveand internally consistent data for such anundertaking; specifically, values for I 3 ele-ments of 12 I Freer bronzes are described(ibid., Table I) .

As a pilot study conducted at the UCLAComputer Facility, 54 of the 12 I Freerbronzes, which are placed chronologicallyby Pope, Fleer Chinese B~omes, I, were

19.entered as data in a stepwise discriminate See Gettens, Free? Chzese Bronzes, 11,analysis. Discriminate analysis is a statis- 23-31 and 57-120. Also see, Barnard,tical analysis that “maps out” regions in Bronze Casting.n-dimensional space, in this case I I-dimen-sional space for each group is then tested 2.to see if it is unique by F-statistics. Thestepwise discriminate analysis is quite sim-

W. T. Chase, Freer Gallery of Art (per-

ilar, except the n-dimensional space issonal communication, 1976), recalled a

built in steps by taking the most discrimi-lead inlay of Chien F.G.A. A.15. 107,

nating variables in rank-order of their#95. The section in Gettens, Freer C&zeJe

power of discrimination. Next, in a reit-BTonzejJ II, pp. 2o4-5, entitled ‘Inlays

erative fashion, each member of eachwith semi-precious stones and metals,”

group is independently classified as a checkseems to refer to the noble metal inlay

on the original classification. The com-decor form rather than the deep-seated

puter program, BMDP7M, which wasinlay form observed here. See also the

used in this analysis, provided the follow-discussion in Barnard, Bronze G&fig,

ing information : means, standard devia-157-68.

tions, means/standard deviation ratios, therank-order of each of the I I variables,

21.

their power of discrimination, and a re-Gettens, Los Angeles County Museum of

classification of each sample in terms ofArt, 1969 laboratory notes.

the original groups. Finally, and most im-portantly, unknown samples can be classi- 22.

fied or assigned to the original groups Gettens, Freer C/hese Bronzes, 11, 41.

evaluated by Mahalanobis D-squared dis-tance from. and posterior probabilities for 23.

the original groups. The genesis of the botryoidal habit ofThe results of this study indicated the malachite is unknown. An extensive liter-

internal consistency of Freer data. The ature search was made, beginning with theShang-Early Chou-Middle Chou formed Encyclopedia of Mheralogy, ed. Willardone large chemical group statistically sep- Roberts, George R. Rapp, Jr., and Juliusarated from the Late Chou-Han group. Weber, New York, 1974, which citedThe percent correct classification of the Dana’s System of iV&reralogy, Seventhbronzes by time period and chemistry are Editioe, ed. Charles Palache, Harry Ber-45.5 $% Shang, 86.4% Early Chou, 83.3 ‘% man, and Clifford Frondel, New York,Middle Chou, 83.3 $% Late Chou, and 1966, II, pp. 252-56, as the best refer-66.7% Han. The rank-order of the I I ences. Then, a search through the entireelements ftom most to least discriminating A1&eyaloRica/ Abstracts from vol. I to the

are the following: Ni, Sn, Pb, Bi, Fe, Cu, present revealed that the chemical andSi, As, Co, and Ag. The Lidow Ti%R physical origin of botryoidal malachite re-average value was assigned to the Han mains as a definite research question. Thegroup in very close proximity to the Late lack of information notwithstanding, the

Chou group. If one considers the problems morphology of concentric hemispheres ofinvolving comparing interlaboratory analy- botryoidal malachite suggests a cyclic semi-ses and the high Fe-value of the Ting. arid precipitation of copper carbonate. Onthis assignment of the piece was the other hand, a wet environment would

unexpected. produce the elongation and pairing of a

In retrospect, this pilot study was quite stalagmite,~stalactite habit.

informative and will be extended to othercollections and published data. 24.

See note 17.

18.See further detailed description and anal- 25.ysis by George Kuwayama, pp. 6-15. See note I 8.

29