teja tscharntke - ipb university...teja tscharntke . christoph leuschner . edzo veldkamp . heiko...

Teja Tscharntke .Christoph Leuschner .Edzo Veldkamp . Heiko Faust .Edi Guhardja . Arifuddin bidin.Editors

Tropical Rainforestsand Agroforests underGlobal Change

Ecological and Socio-economic Valuations

z34 springer

EditorsProf. Dr. Teja TscharntkeGeorg-August UniversityDept. Crop SciencesAgroecologyWaldweg 2637073 [email protected]

Prof. Dr. &lzo VeldkampGeorg-August UniversityBuesgen InstituteSoil Science and Forest NutritionBuesgenweg 237077 [email protected]

Prof. Dr. Edi GuhardjaBogor Agricultural UniversityDept. BiologyIPB Kampus Baranang SiangBogor 16144Indonesiastorma-ipb @ indo.net.id

hof. Dr. Christoph lruschnerGeorg-August UniversityAlbrecht-von-Haller-Institute of Plant SciencesPlant EcologyUntere 11n Oii1",37073 [email protected]

Prof. Dr. Heiko FaustGeorg-August UniversityInstitute of GeographyHuman GeographyGoldschmidtstr. 537077 [email protected]

Dr. Arituddin BidinTadulako UniversityDept. Forest ManagementKampus Bumi TadulakoTondo [email protected]

ISSN 1863-5520ISBN 978-3-642-00492-6 e-ISBN 97 8-3 -&2-0M93 -3DOI l 0. l 007/9't 8 -3 -642-W493-3

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Contents

Edi Guhardja, Ari,fuddin Bidin.

Tbopical rainforests and agroforests under global change:Ecological and socio-economic valuations - an introdrr"tio..Teja Tscharntke, Chri,stoph Leuschner, Edzo Vetdkarnp, Hei,ko Fau.st,

Part I Agroforestry management in an ecological and socioeconomic context

Biodiversity patterns and trophic interactions in human-dominated tropical landscapes in sulawesi (rndonesia): plants,arthropods and vertebratesYonn Clough, Stefon Abrahomczyk, Morc-Oliuer Ad,ams, Alarn

lnshary, Nunik Ariyanti, Lydia Betz, Dornayanti Buchori, DonieleCicuzzo, Keu,in Darras, Dod,ang Dwi putra, Brigitte Fiala, S. RobbertGradstein, Michael Kessler, Aresandra-Maria Klein, RamadhanirPitopang, Bandung sohari, christoph scherber, christian H. schulze,shahobudd,in, s'i,mone spom, Kothrin stenchly, sri s. Tjitrosoedirdjo,Thomas C. Wanger, Maria Weist, Am,o Wielgoss, Teja Tscharntke . -. .

The potential of land-use systems for maintaining tropicalforest butterfly diversityChristion H. Schulze, Stefan Schneeweihs, Konrad" Fied,ler.

Insect pollinator communities under changing land_use intropical landscapes: implications for agricultural managementin IndonesiaBandung Sahari, Akhrnad Rizali, Domayanti Buchori

1 5

73

97

VI Contents

Structure and management of cocoa agroforestry systems inCentral Sulawesi across an intensification gradientJana Juhrbandt, Thomas Duue, Jan Barhnann, Gerhard Gerold,Rainer MorgSraf . .. . .115

Land tenure rights, village institutions, and rainforestconversion in Central Sulawesi (Indonesia)Jqn Barkmann, G'iinter Burkard, Heiko Faust, Michael Flemerey,Sebast ian Koch, Agus Lan in i . . . . . . . .141

Rural income dynamics in post-crisis fndonesia: evidencefrom Central SulawesiJan Pri,ebe, Robert Rud,olf, Julian Weisbrod, Stephan Klasen, ImanSugema, Nunung Nuryartono .. . . ... .161

Gender division of labor in agroforestry activities withinhouseholds: a case of Wonogiri - Central Java - Indonesia f-Herien Puspitawoti, Ma'rnun Sorma .. . . ..

l. tZZ

The robustness of indicator based poverty assessment tools in ''.

changing environments - empirical evidence from IndonesiaXenia uan Ed,ig, Stefan Schwarze, Manlted Zeller . . . . . .. . 191

Demography, development, and deforestation at the rainforestmargin in IndonesiaStephan Klasen, Heiko Faust, Michael Grimm, Stefon Schwarze.. .. . . . .213

Part II Climate change effects on tropical rainforests andegroforests

I\rnctional biodiversity and climate change along analtitudinal gradient in a tropical mountain rainforestJrirg Bendis, Hermann Behling, Thorsten Peters, Michael Richter,Ent i .n Beck . . . . .239

Spatiotemporal trends of forest cover change in SoutheastAsiaSteJan Erasmi, Muhammad Ardiansyah, Paael Propastin, Alfredo Huete .269

Comparison of tree water use characteristics in reforestationand agroforestry stands across the tropicsDiego Dierick, Norbert Kunert, Michael K6hler, LuitgardSchwendenmann, Dirk Hiilscher. .. . ..293

E

Contents VII

A comparison of throughfall rate and nutrient fluxes inrainforest and cacao plantation in Central Sulawesi, IndonesiaCarsten Gutzler, Stefan Koehler, Gerhard Gerold ........309

Effects of '3ENSO-eventst' and rainforest conversion on riverdischarge in Central Sulawesi (Indonesia)Gerhard Gerold, Constanze Leemhuis . . . . . . .327

Adaptation to climate change in Iudonesia - livelihoodstrategies of rural households in the face of ENSO relateddroughtsNorbert B. Binternagel, Jana Juhrbondt, Sebasti,an Koch, MongkuPurnonto, Stefon Schwarze, Jan Barkrnann, Heiko Faust. . ......351

Terrestrial herb communities of tropical submontane andtropical montane forests in Central Sulawesi, IndonesiaDaniele Cicuzzo, Michoel Kessler, Ramadhanil Pitopang, Sri, S.Tjitrosoeilirdjo, S- Robbert Grad,stein . . ... -.377

The hydraulic performance of tropical rainforest trees intheir perhumid environment - is there evidence for droughtvulnerability?Ale$andra Zach, Bernhard, Schuldt, Viviana Horna, SoehismanTjitrosemito, Christoph Leuschner . . .391

Part III Integrated concepts of land use in tropical landscapes

Principle and practice of the buffer zone in biosphere reserves:from global to local - general perspective from managersversus local perspective from villagers in Central Sulawesi,IndonesiaMari,on Mehring, Susanne Stoll-Kleemann. . . . ... . .413

Institutions for environmental service payment programmes -

evidence of community resource management arrangementsin Central Sulawesi, IndonesiaChristina Seeberg-Eluerfeldt, Stefon Schwarze, Heiko Faust ......431

Agricultural expansion in the Brazilian state of Mato Grossolimplications for C stocks and greenhouse gas emissionsEleanor Milne, Carlos Eduardo P. Cerri, Jo6,o Luis Nunes Carvalho....447

VIII Contents

Contribution of agroforestry to biodiversity and livelihoodsimprovement in rural communities of Southern AfricanregionsKanungwe Felir Kalabo, Posie Chiruta, Stephen Syampungc'ti, Clifford,O l u y e d e A j a y i . . . . . 4 6 1

Human ecological dimensions in sustainable utilization andconservation of tropical mountain rain forests under globalchange in southern EcuadorPerdita Pohle, Andr6,s Gerique, Martino Park, Maria Fentand,a L6pezS a n d o a a l . . . . . . . . 4 7 7

Linkages between poverty and sustainable agricultural andrural development in the uplands of Southeast AsiaManfred Zeller, Tino Beuchelt, Isabel Fischer, Franz Heidhues.. .. . .. ..511

I n d e x o f k e y w o r d s . . . . . . . . . 5 2 9

List of Contributors

Stefan AbrahamczykInstitute of Systematic Botauy,University of Ziirich, Zollikerstrasse107 CH-8008 Ziuich, Switzerland

Marc-Oliver AdarnsAgroecology, University of Gtittin-gen, Waldweg 26, D-37073 Giittingen,Germany

Depa.rtment of Animal Ecoloryand Tlopical Biolory (Zoolory III),Biozentrum, University of Wiirzburg,Am Hubland, D-97074 Wiirzburg,Germany

Clifiord Oluyede AjayiWorld Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF),P. O. Box 30798, Lilongwe 03, Malawi

AIam AnsharyFaculty of Agriculture, University ofTadulako, Palu, Central Sulawesi,Indonesia

Muhammad ArdiansyahBogor Agricultural UniversitgDepartment of Soil Sciences andLand resources, Bogor, Indonesia

Nunik AriyantiDepartment of Biology, Faculty ofMathematics and Natural Sciences,Bogor Agricultural University, JalanPadjaja,ran, 16144 Bogor, West Java,Indonesia

Jan BarkmannEnvironmeutal & Resource Ecenomics, Department of AgriculturalEconomics and Rural Development,Georg-August-University G<ittingen,Platz der Giittinger Sieben 5, 37073Giittingen, Germany

Erwin BeckDept. of Plant Physiolory, Universityof Bayreuth, Universitaetsstr. 30,D 95440 Bayreuth, Germany

flermann BehlingDepartment of Palynolory and Cli-mate Dynamics, Albrecht-von-HallerInstitute of Pla.nt Sciences. Uni-versity of Goettingen, UntereKarspuele 2, D 37073 Goettingen,Germany

Jiirg BendixLaboratory for Climatology andRemote Sensing, Faculty of

X List of Contributors

Geography University of Marburg,Deutschhausstr. 10, D 35032Marburg, Germany

Lydia BetzAgroecolory, University of G<jttin-gen, Waldwe g 26, D-37073 Giittingen,Germany

Tina BeucheltDepartment of Agricultural Eco-nomics and Social Sciences in theTtopics and Subtropics, SectionRural Development Theory andPolicy, Universitit Hohenheim,(490a), D-70593 Stuttgart, Germany

Norbert B. BinternagelGeorg-August-University Giittin-gen, Faculty of Geosciences andGeography, Department of HumanGeography, Goldschmidtstr. 5,37077 G6ttingen, Germany

Damayanti BuchoriPeka Indonesia Foundation (In-donesian Nature ConservationFoundation)-Wildlife Tfust Alliance.Jl. Uranus Blok H No 1 Perum IPBSindang Bara.ng 2, Bogor, WestJava-Indonesia

Department of Plant Protection,Bogor Agricultural UniversitSKampus IPB Dramaga, Bogor-WestJava-Indonesia

Gtinter BurkardRural Sociology, Faculty of OrganicAgricultural Sciences, Universityof Kassel, Steinstr. 19, 37213Witzenhausen, Germany

JoSo Luis Nunes CarvalhoCenter for Nuclear energy in Agri-culture (CENA), The University ofS5,o Paulo,C.P. 96, C.E.P. 13.40G970, Piraci-caba, SP, Brazil

Carlos Eduardo P. CerriCenter for Nuclear energy in Agri-culture (CENA), The University ofS5o Paulo,-1.P. 96, C.E.P. 13.4'0G970, Piraci-caba. SP. Brazil

Paxie ChirwaStellenbosch UniversitS Depart-ment of Forest and Wood Science.Stellenbosch 7602, South Africa

Daniele CicuzzaInstitute of Systematic Botany,University of Ziirich, Zollikerstrasse107 CH-8008 Ziirich, Switzerland

Albrecht-von-Haller-Institute ofPlant Sciences, University of Giittin-gen, Untere Karspiile 2, D-37073Gottingen, Germany

Yann CloughAgroecology, University of Gtittin-gen, Waldwe g 26, D37073 Giittingen,Germany

Kevin Darras14 all6e de Fr6nes F-01210 Verson-nex, France

Agroecolory, University of G<jttin-gen, Waldwe g 26, D-37 073 Giittingen,Germany

Diego DierickT[opical Silviculture and ForestEcolory, Burckhardt Institute,University of Giittingen, Biisgenwegl, D- 37077 Gottingen, Germany

Dadang Dwi PutraCelebes Bird Club, Jl. Thamrin 63A,Palu, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia

E

Thomas DuweDepartment of Landscape Ecology,Institute of Geography, Georg-August University Gtittingen,Goldschmidtstr. 5, 37077 G6ttingen,Germanf

Xenia van EdigDepartment of Agricultural Eco-nomics and Rural Development,University of Giittingen, Germany

Stefan ErasmiUniversity of G6ttingen, Institute ofGeography, Goldschmidtstr. 5, 37077Grittingen, Germany

Heiko FaustUniversity of Giittingen, Instituteof GeographS Division of HumanGeography, Goldschmidtstr. 5, 37077Giittingen, Germany

Brigitte FialaDepartment of Animal Ecologyand Tlopical Biolory (Zoolory III),Biozentrum, University of Wiirzburg,Am Hubland, D-97074 Wiirzburg,Germany

Konrad FiedlerDepartment of Population Ecolory,Faculty of Life Sciences, Universityof Vienna, Rennweg 14, A-1030Vienna, Austria

Isabel FischerDepartment of Agricultural Eco-nomics and Social Sciences in theThopics and Subtropics, SectionRural Development Theory andPolicy, Universitdt Hohenheim,(490a), D-70593 Stuttgart, Germany

List of Contributors XI

Michael FlemereyRural Sociolory, Faculty of OrganicAgricultural Sciences, Universityof Kassel, Steinstr. 19,37213Witzenhausen, Germany

Andr6s GeriqueI-nstitute of Geography, Fliedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nfirnberg, Kochstrasse 4/4,91054 Erlangen, Germany

Gerhard GeroldDepartment of Landscape Ecolory,Insbitute of Geography, Georg-August University Gcittingen,Goldschmidtstr. 5, 37077 Gtittingen,Germany

S. Robbert GradsteinAlbrecht-von-Haller-Institute ofPlant Sciences, University of Giittin-gen, Untere Karspiile 2, D-37073Giittingen, Germany

Michael GrimmInternational Institute of SocialStudies, Erasmus University Rot-terdam, Kortenaerkade 12, 2518AXThe Hague, The Netherlands

Carsten GutzlerInstitute of Geography, Departmentof Landscape Ecologr, University ofGiittingen, Goldschmidtstr. 5, 37077Gottingen, Germany

Flanz HeidhuesDepartment of Agricultural Eco-nomics and Social Sciences in theT[opics a,nd Subtropics, SectionRural Development Theory andPolicy, Universitit Hohenheim,(490a), D-70593 Stuttgarb,.Germany

XII List of Contributors

Dirk HdlscherTbopical Silviculture and ForestEcology, Burckhardt Institute,University of Gdttingen, Biisgenwegl, D- 37077 Gottingen, Germany

Viviana IfornaPlant Ecologr, Albrecht von HallerInstitute for Plant Sciences, Univer-sity of Gdttingen, Untere Karspiile2, 37073 Gtittingen, Germany

Alfredo HueteUniversity of Arizona, Departmentof Soil, Water and EnvironmentalScience, T\rcson, AZ, USA

Jana JuhrbandtEnvironmental and Resource Eco-nomics, Department of AgriculturalEconomics and Rural Development,Georg-August University G6ttingen,Platz der Giittinger Sieben 5,D-37073 G<ittingen, Germany

Kanungwe Fblix KalabaCopperbelt University, School ofNatural Resources, P.O. Box 21692,Kitwe, Zanbla

Michael KesslerInstitute of Plant Sciences, Univer-sity of Giittingen, Untere Karspiile2, 37073 Girttingen, Germany

Institute of Systematic Botany,University of Ziirich, Zollikerstrasse107 CH-8008 Ziirich, Switzerland

Stephan KlasenUniversity of Giittingen, Faculty ofEconomics, Platz der GiittingerSieben 3, 37073 Gdttingen, Germany

Alexandra-Maria KleinAgroecology, University of Giittin-gen, Waldweg 26, D-37 07 3 Gtittingen,Germanv

Sebastian KochEnvironmental & Resource Eco-nomics, Department of AgriculturalEconomics and Rurrl Development,l.eorg-August-University Gtittingen,Platz der Giittinger Sieben 5, 37073Gottingen, Germany

Department of Cultural and SocialGeography Institute of GeographyGeorg-August-University G6ttingen,Goldschmidtstr. 5, 37077 Gcittingen,Germany

Michael KdhlerTlopical Silviculture and ForestEcology, Burckhardt Institute,University of Gottingen, Biisgenwegl, D- 37077 Giittingen, Germany

Stefan KoehlerLandscape Ecology and Land Evalu-ation, Faculty for Agricultural- a^ndEnvironmental Sciences, Universityof Rostock, Justus-von-Liebig Weg6, 18059 Rostock, Germany

Norbert KunertTiopical Silviculture and ForestEcolory, Burckhardt Institute,University of Giittingen, BiisgenwegI, D- 37077 Gtittingen, Germany

Agus LaniniFaculty of Law, Universitas Tadu-lako, Kampus Bumi Tondo, Palu94118, Indonesia

Constanze LeemhuisCenter for Development Research,University of Bonn, Walter-Flex-Str.3, 53113 Bonn, Germany

Christoph LeuschnerPlant Ecology, Albrecht von HallerInstitute for Plant Sciences, Univer-sity of G6ttingen, Untere Karspiile2, 3707 3 G<ittingen, Germa.ny

Maria Fernanda L6pez SandovalEscuela de Geografia, Facultadde Ciencia Humana, PontificiaUniversidad Cat6lica del Ecuador(PUCE), Quito

Rainer MarggrafEnvironmental and Resource Eco-nomics, Department of AgriculturalEconomics and Rural Development,Georg-August University Gcitt'ingen,Platz der Grittinger Sieben 5,D-37073 G6ttingen, Germa,ny

Marion MehringApplied Geography and Sustain-ability Science, GoBi (Governanceof Biodiversity) Research Group,Institute of Geography and Geology,Ernst-Moritz-Arndt UniversitdtGreifswald, Jahnstr. 16, 17487Greifswald, Germany

Eleanor MilneThe Macaulay Institute, Craigiebuck-ler, Aberdeen, ABI58QH, UK

Colorado State University (NREL),Fort Collins, CO 8052&1499 USA

Nunung NuryartonoInstitut Pertanian Bogor, Indonesia,16710 Bogor, International Centerfor Applied Finance and Economics,Kampus IPB Ba.ranang Siang,Gedung Uta.rna Lt.II, Jalan R"aya Paiajaran

List of Contributors XIII

Martina ParkInstitute of Geography, Ftiedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Ntirnberg, Kochstrasse 4/4,91054 Erlangen, Germany

Thorsten PetersInstitute of Geography, University ofErlangen, Kochstr.4/4, D 91054Erlangen, Germany

Ramadhanil PitopangPeka Indonesia Foundation (In-donesian Nature ConservationFoundation)-Wildlife Tlust Alliance.Jl. Uranus Blok H No 1 Perum IPBSindang Barang 2, Bogor, West Java,Indonesia

Department of Forest Managmentand Herbarium Celebense, TadulakoUniversity, Palu, Indonesia

Perdita PohleInstitute of Geography Fliedrich-Alexa.nder-University Erlangen-Niirnberg, Kochstrasse 4/4,91054 Erlangen, Germany

Jan PriebeUniversity of Giittingen, Faculty ofEconomics, Platz der GtittingerSieben 3, 37073 G<ittingen, Germany

Pavel PropastinUniversity of G<ittingen, Institute ofGeography, Goldschmidtstr. 5, 37077G<ittingen, Germany

Mangku PurnomoBrawijaya University of Malang,Faculty of Agriculture, Departmentof SocioEconomics, Jalan Veteran,65145 Malang, Indonesia

XIV List of Contributors

flerien PuspitawatiDepartment of Family and ConsumerSciences, Faculty of Human Ecology,Bogor Agricultural University, JalanLingkar Akademik Kampus IPB,Darmaga, Bogor 16680, Jawa Barat,Indonesia

Michael RichterInstitute of Geography, University ofErlangen, Kochstr. 414,D 97054Frlangen, Germany

Akhmad RizaliPeka Indonesia Foundation (In-donesian Nature ConservationFoundation)-Wildlife Tlust Alliance.Jl. Uranus Blok H No 1 Perum IPBSindang Barang 2, Bogor, WestJava-Indonesia

Department of Plant Protection,Bogor Agricultural University,Kampus IPB Dramaga, Bogor-WestJava-Indonesia

Agroecolory, University of Gtittin-gen, Waldweg 26, 37073 Giiettingen,Germany

Robert RudolfUniversity of Giittingen, Faculty ofEconomics, Platz der G<ittingerSieben 3, 37073 Gottingen, Germany

Bandung SahariPeka Indonesia Foundation (In-donesian Nature ConservationFoundation)-Wildlife TYust Alliance.Jl. Uranus Blok H No 1 Perum IPBSindang Ba.rang 2, Bogor, WestJava-Indonesia

Matmun SarmaDepartment of Management, Facultyof Economics and Management,Bogor Agricultural University,Indonesia

Christoph ScherberAgroecolory, University of Giittin-gen, Waldwe g 26, D-37 073 Gtittingen,Germany

Stefan SchneeweihsDepartment of Population Ecology,Faculty of Life Sciences, Universityof Vienna, Rennweg 14, A-1030Vienna, Austria

Bernhard SchuldtPlant Ecolory, Albrecht von HallerInstitute for Plant Sciences, Univer-sity of G<ittingen, Untere Ka^rspiile2, 37073 Gcittingen, Germany

Christian H. SchulzeDepartment of Population Ecolory,Faculty of Life Sciencas, Universityof Vienna, Rennweg 14, A-1030Vienna, Austria

Stefan SchwarzeUniversity of Giittingen, Departmentof Agricultural Economics and RuralDevelopment, Platz der GiittingerSieben 5, 37073 Gtittingen

Luitgard SchwendenmannTlopical Silviculture and ForestEcology, Burckhardt Institute,University of Grittingen, Biisgenwegl,D- 37077 Gtittingen, Germany

Christina Seeberg-ElverfeldtNatural Resources Management andEnvironment Department (NRD),FAO, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla,00153 Rome, Italy

ShahabuddinFaculty of Agriculture, University ofTadulako, Palu, Central Sulawesi,Indonesia

-

Simone SpornAlbrecht-von-Haller-Institute ofPlant Sciences, University of Gcittin-gen, Untere KarspiiLle 2, D-37073Gtittingen, Germany

Kathrin StenchlyAgroecology, University of Gijttin-gen, Waldweg 26, D.37073 Gtittingen,Germany

Susanne Stoll-KleemannApplied Geography and Sustain-ability Science, GoBi (Governanceof Biodiversity) Research Group,Institute of Geography and Geolory,Ernst-Moritz-Arndt UniversitdtGreifswald, Jahnstr. t6, 17487Greifuwald, Germa.ny

Iman SugemaInstitut Pertanian Bogor, Indonesia,16710 Bogor, International Centerfor Applied Finance and Economics,Kampus IPB Baranang Siang,Gedung Utama Lt.II, Jalan Raya Paiajaran

Stephen SyampunganiCopperbelt University, School ofNatural Resources, P.O. Box 21692,Kitwe, Zarnbia

Soekisman TjitrosemitoFaculty of Science and Mathematics,Institute Pertania,n Bogor, Jl. RayaPajajara.n, Bogor, 16144 Indonesia

Sri S. TjitrosoedirdjoDepartment of Biolory, Faculty ofMathematics and Natural Sciences,Bogor Agricultural University, JalanPadjajaran, 16144 Bogor,'West Java,Indonesia

Teja TscharntkeAgroecology, University of Giittin-gen, Waldweg 26, D-37073 Grittingen,Germanv

List of Contributors XV

Thomas C. WangerAgroecology, University of Gottin-gen, Waldwe g 26, D-37 073 Gottingen,Germany

Environment Institute. School ofEarth and Environmental Sciences,University of Adelaide, Australia

Julian WeisbrodUniversity of G<ittingen, Faculty ofEconomics, Platz der G<ittingerSieben 3, 37073 Giittingen, Germany

Maria lVeistAgroecolory, University of G<ittin-gen, Waldwe g 26, D-37 073 G<ittingen,Germany

Arno WielgossAgroecolory, University of G<ittin-gen, Waldweg 26, D-37073 Giittingen,Germany

Department of Animal Ecologyand Tbopical Biolory (Zoolory III),Biozentrum, University of Wiirzburg,Am Hubland, D-97074 Wiirzburg,Germany

Alexandra ZachPlant Ecology, Albrecht von HallerInstitute for Plant Sciences. Univer-sity of G6ttingen, Untere Karspiile2, 37073 Giittingen, Germany

Manfred ZellerDepartment of Agricultural Eco-nomics and Social Sciences in theTbopics and Subtropics, SectionRural Development Theory andPolicy Universitdt Hohenheim,(490a), D-70593 Stuttgart, Germany

!I

lI

Gender division of labor ir, agroforestryactivities within households: a case of Wonogiri- Central Java - Indonesia

Herien Puspitawatir* and Ma'mun Sarma2

1 Department of Family and Consumer Sciences, Faculty of Human Ecolory,Bogor Agricultural university, Jalan Lingkar Akademik Kampus IpB, Darmaga,Bogor 16680, Jawa Ba.rat, Lrdonesia

2 Department of Management, Faculty of Economics and Management, BogorAgricultural University, Indonesia

*corresponding author: H. Puspitawati, email: [email protected]

Summary

This chapter provides a brief description on the gender division of labor iuagroforestry activities within households. The introduction describes the un-derlying background of gender roles in agroforestry activities. In general itwas found that there is an imbalance of gender partnership in labor divi-sion applied at cultivation, processing and marketing of cashew nuts betweenmen and women. The unequal gender role has also existed at the accesibilityand control levels towards collector traders and wholesale buyers; however,an equal gender role has been found at the accessibility and control towardsfarming activities, and the role of women is even more dominant in process-ing than that of men. It was also found that the unequal gender partnershipat the community level is due to the socio-cultural constraints. Finally, research and policy recommendations describe the focus of research related togender in agroforestry, the capacity building for regional and national gov-ernment, and also community and gender empowerment. The community andgender empowerrneut includes the agreement among communities (both.menand women) in the village to reformulate its regional planning, the increaseof women's potential skills and knowledge, and the strengtheiing of farmergroup/institutions.

Keywords:Gender roles, gender empowerment, farming activities, agroforestry

T. TschanrJke et al- (eds.), Tropical Rairforests and Agroforests under Globat Change,Environmental Science and Engineering l77-1g9, DOI 10.1007/9n3_642-OO4SZ_i g.@ Springer-Valag Berlin Heidelberg 20 I 0

178 H. Puspitawati and M. Sarma

1 Introduction

1.1 Underlying Background

State promotion of agroforestry produ"tion is widespread in Southeast Asia.It frequently aims at economic development and sometimes environmentalprotection, particularly in rural areas. State promotion is often on a largescale and can fail to consider or monitor the various localized impacts ofpromoting a particular agroforestry activity. In many cases, the emphasis ison production rather than maximizing benefits to poor farm households, whichinvolves marketing issues such as improving bargaining power, ralue addingand product development.

Java is the most populous isla^nd in Indonesia, covering just six percentof its land but housing almost 60 percent of the country's 215 million or sopeople. Moreover, as the centre of industry and the main food productionarea in Indonesia, Java plays a leading role in the national economy. Thegovernment has launched a number of initiatives to ameliorate environmentaldegradation in Java and other parts of the country. One of them, which hasbeen running since the early 1980s, is reforestation of upland area.s throughagroforestry. Through this program, the government provides materials andother support to assist upland farmers to plant tree crops such as coffee and thecashew nut. Combined with a growing market, this policy has lead to extensiveparticipation of community households in the agroforestry production.

Farmers in Java are generally small landholders using a low level of produc-tion technolory and limited access to market information. They face a rangeof constraints including: tedious, complex and labor intensive processing; in-adequate grading and packing, and a lack of ma^rket information throughoutthe marketing chain. In addition, they generally bargain individually withmiddlemen, which give them less bargaining power. Despite this, cashew pro-duction contributes significantly to a processor's family income, and is wellestablished.

Wonogiri district is located in Central Java province at the latitude of7"32' to 8"15', with the longitude of 110o41' to 111o18' and the altitude isabout 400m above sea level. The district has the size area of 182 237 Ha (BPSProvinsi Jawa Tengah 2000). In the yeax of 2000, the district's population was966 414 people (BPS Pusat 2001). This means that the population density was530 persons per km2. Most of the area of Wonogiri district is upland with verylow soil fertility. Severe shortages of fresh water for drinking aud agriculture atthe dry sea.son have been another problem that hinders economic developmentof this district. The severity of economic problems in this district has forced asignificant part of its population to migrate to other areas of Indonesia, suchas Jakarta and Lampung, for jobs. This has been the underlying factor behindthe fact that its population density affects the socio-economic problems.

The program's environmental goal is to control soil erosion in river catch-ments. It is also expected to have a positive effect on incomes, particularly

Gender division of labor in agroforestry 179

through improved land productivity, water conditions, and soil fertility. Thus,the agroforestry program is also considered to be a poverty-alleviation pro-gram. Based on this reasoning, the study examines the gender division of laborwithin households in agroforestry activities.

1.2 The Objectives of the Study

The objectives of the study are:

1. To examine the gender roles in production, processing, and marketing ofcashew nuts.

2. To propose strategies to improve market bargaining power of women soas to improve their contribution to their family income.

2 Literature studies

Gender Mainstreaming was defined by the United Nations Economic and So-cial Council in 1997 as a strategy for making women's as well as men's con-cerns and experiences an integral dimension of their policies and programs.The Government of Indonesia's increased efforts to Gender Mainstreani intoits national development process is an affirmation of the commitment to gen-der equality and the rights of both women and men (KPP-UNDP 2007).

As a stratery, Gender Mainstreaming aims at promoting a fairer distri-bution of resources, opportunities and benefits of development processes andpopulation programs. As Indonesia is now implementing a decentralized approach in the country's development, the need for mainstreaming gender con-cerns in local government's programs and policies has become more important(KPP-BKKBN-UNFPA 2004).

The mea.ning of gender is different hom the meaning of the type of sex.However, both gender and the type of sex involve both men and women.The type of sex in general is applied to identify the difference between menand women from biological anatomy that it is natural. Meanwhile, genderdiscusses the differences of role distributions and function between men andwomen that are decided by the community/culture since they were born andthat it is not natural. At this point, gender does not discuss women only,but also men in relation to cooperation/partnership and the role distributionbetween men and women to achieve the same goal. Therefore, gender discussesthe problems of both men and women in society's life. Thus, gender is thecommunity perspectives toward roles, functions, and responsibilities amongmen and women are a result of social and cultural constructions that can bechanged along with the dynamics of bime and community aspirations (KPP-BKKBN-UNFPA 2004).

The application of gender roles in the howeholds' life is shown by thepower of men and women, with women typically being the less powerful part-ners. The differences in power between men and women are directly related


to differences in their income and other resources. The work of women athome is unremunerated, and therefore not regarded as "real" work, and ofbenconstrains women's opportunities to earn outside income. Thus, the publicworld of work is a men's domain, but the private world of home is a women'sdomain (Renzetti & Curran 1995).

Gender roles in agricultural work are influenced by the gender division oflabor. In some countries women are virtually full-time farmers, while in othercountries women do little work in fields. In some places, women are activefarmers and work side.by-side with the men in the fields and in other placeswomen are work separately from men in the fields (Osteergaard 1992).

3 Research methodology

3.1. Location of the study

The study was conducted at Rejosari village, located in the important cashewproducing sub-district of Jatisrono Wonogiri District of Central Java, Indone'sia during January-March 2006 (as part of the SEANAFE Project on Mar-kets for Agroforestry Tiee Products) (SEANAFE. 2007a; SEANAFE. 2007b;SEANAFDIPB. 2OO8).

3.2 Types of Information Required and Their Sources

In this study, both primary and secondary information have been used toachieve the study's goals. The required prima"ry information was obtainedfrom a variety of respondents. The respondents included farmers, middlemen, processors, exporters, relevant government agencies, financial institu-tions, farming cooperatives and NGO's. The respondents were interviewedin-depth, either individually or collectively through FGD's (Focus Group Dis-cussions). Meanwhile, the required secondary information will be obtainedfrom va^rious agencies (private and public agencies) and relevant publications.

3.3 Methods of Analysis

The information collected was analyzed by using a variety of analytical tools.The tools of analysis include descriptive analysis, by using gender analysisapproach.

Gender analysis is a process for the analysis of data and information sys.tematically about men and women to identify and indicate the status, func-tion, role and the responsibility of men and women and its affected factors(KPP-BKKBN-UNFPA 2004).


4 Findings

4.1 The Meaning of Gender and Family

The fact that Wonogiri upland is upstrea,rn of the Solo River tras been a^n-other important reason for the government to make this upland area a targetfor the agroforestry program. The Solo River is an essential source of freshwater for industry and people not only in Central Java, but also in East Javaprovince. The important role of this river for the population and economicdevelopment of these provinces has, in fact, led the government of Indonesiato place the ma.nagement of this river under a special management authoritycalled Perum Jasa Tirta 2.

The agroforestry program implemented in the Wonogiri upland areas hasbeen quite successful, especially in promoting the cultivation of cashew nuttree crops on private farmland. This can be discerned from the data whichhighlight some aspects of cashew nut tree crops in Wonogiri district. Itomthe data it can be seen that the area of cashew nut tree farms has increasedquite significantly from 5 643 ha in 1999 to 7 738 in 2004. At the same periodof time total production also has increased quite significa.ntly, from 5 304.42tons in 1999 to 10 833.20 tons in 2004. Simila^rly average farm productivityhas also increased significantly from 940 Kg/ha in 1999 to I 400 Kg/ha in2404.

In Wonogiri district, farmers produce cashew nuts not just for their ownhousehold consumption, but also for the ma,rket. For these small farmers thecultivation of cashew nuts tree crops on their small ma.rginal land is for thepurpose of obtaining cash income. Farmers are involved in the market forcashew nuts through selling of almost all of their production into their localmarket. The market for cashew nuts in this district is, in fact, growing over thelast few years. This market phenomenon is reflected in the growing of cashewnuts of Wonogiri district to be shipped into overseas markets. The total ofexport of cashew nuts from Wonogiri district increased from 5 304 420 Kgs in1998 to 10 833 200 Kgs in 2004. Similarly the value of exports also increasedfrom USD 6 129 22I in 1998 to USD 17 027 652 in 2004 (Bappeda Wonogiri2005).

Most of these upland farmers are small-holders, with the average farrnsize of less than 0.50 ha. In fact, in 2004 the number of farmers that wereinvolved in cashew nuts tree crop farming in Wonogiri district was 23 422households. This meant that the average holding was 0.33 ha per fa.rminghousehold (Bappeda Wonogiri 2005).

Agriculture is one the most important sectors in Wonogiri. The contri-bution of the sector on regional gross domestic product (RGDP) is around54 per cent in the last five years, followed by trade (8.7 per cent), industry(5.6 per cent). Amongst sub-sectors in the agricultural sector, the food cropis the most important, contributing to 43.7 per cent, followed by estate crops(5.2 per cent), cattle (1.9 per cent) and fishing (0.7 per cent). As mentioned

182 H. Prupitawati and M. Sarma

before, the cashew nut is one of the most important crops in the estate cropsub-sector.

Wonogiri has also faced persistent problems of a high level of poverty.Based on the National Socio.Economic Survey conducted in 2004, the num-ber of the people living below the povorty line is 272 795 people, a.round 24.4per cent of total population. This poverty incidence is much higher than thenational level of 16 per cent. Some other indicators ofthe high level ofpovertyin the region are the high level of illiteracy (5.3 per cent), child-mortality rate(14.6 of I 000), and a high rate of undernourished people (4.8 per cent). Withthis situation, the government of Wonogiri has placed its poverty alleviationprogram as one of the central programs. Moreover, since agriculture is themost dominant sector, then the government has promoted agricultural devel-opment as a leading sector in combating poverty.

With a total population of 1.12 million people and a family size around 4.4people per household, Wonogiri still faces serious problems of unemployment,although population growth has been actually very low, between 0.44 0.62 percent per annum. The official unemployment level is 2.1 per cent, but the realunemployment level must be much higher. This is because the education levelof the man-power from Wonogiri is low. The education level of the man-powerhas is low because almost 40 per cent of the population has only completedelementary school (BPS Wonogid 2005).

Rejosari village located at Jatisrono sub-district, Wonogiri District, Cen-tral Java Province is an agricultural axea surrounded by people's forests andhilly a.reas. In 2004, the population in the village was 1,075 head of families or4,627 people consisting of 2298 (49.67 per cent) women and 2329 (50.33 percent) men. Almost 60 per cent of the population is engaged in agriculture a^sfarmers or fa.rm workers.

The community of the Rejosa.ri village is an agricultural community dom-inated by rural traditional life. Although in general the society's norm ispatriarchal, in daily life the community has been practicing close cooperationbetween men (husba,nd) and women (wife) at the family level since a longtime ago.

It is acknowledged by the women's group (majority at the age of 3G40years old) that the role of women in the traditional family is parenting chil-dren, helping in all domestic jobs and assisting agricultural jobs in the paddyfield. Women born in 195G1960 admit that they marry their husband fromthe same village/district and get married at around 17 years old. The women'sconstraint in general is the limitation of education and mobility. This situationprevents women from becoming independent in many ways psychologically aswell as economically. This is proven by the fact that women from this vil-lage feel afraid of going alone to the outer cities. This means the accessibilityof women to the economic activities; financial credit and training opportuni-ties are limited. However, most women &re aware that there is a big changeright now shown by the increase of women's roles in all aspects in their vil-


lage. Some of the young generations of women have started to go to the outercities/regions for selling food (meat balls, rice a^nd soup) and traditional herbs.

The division of roles in their daily family activities has been implementedrespectively both in economic and domestic activities. The community of Re-josari village has been getting used to implement the gender distribution ofroles starting from the family level and continuing to the community level,even though it is still at the traditional stage. The value of the division ofgender roles has been practiced in their daily fa.rnily management activitiesstarting from collaboration between husband and wife in their domestic activ-ities to the economics and community social activities. The values of gender

equality and justice have also been implemented in formal education. Boysand girls are not discriminated against for entry into school from Primaryto Junior High Schools. The community realizes that the value of boys andgirls are the same, even though the community acknowledges that boys canbe leaders for the family as is the root custom of Javanese culture and themajority of Moslem societies who have been practicing a patriarchal system.

The villagers consider the importance of family values in every aspect ofhuman life. They realize that a human will not have a quality of life withoutfarnily. If somebody has a problem, he/she will ask for help to his/her family.Somebody who is successful in the citg at the end he/she will return tohis/her place of origin and finally to his/her large family. Thus, the ralues of

"my fa;rrily is my world" and "back to my family'' are basic values of familylife in Rejosari village.

The community of Jatisrono sub'district in general, and the communityof Rejosari village in particular, have been popularly seen as tough and hard-working people, people who cooperate readily, love peace and maintain a surf'tainable environment. The existence of good work ethics of the communityhas been provided by the good organizational structure ofvillage government,good village administration, active village cooperative, good facilitim of infras-tructure, bridges, and the village office. Most of the community infrastructureswere built by local enterprise using the community's own finance. The peoplein the village, both men and women, young and old, were reported on partic-ipating in the construction of the village road in 1997. This activity is viewedas the community's close cooperation both in social and economic activities,with involving men and women. These activities make Rejosari Village oneof the role models of community empowerment that involves gender equalityand equity.

4.2 The Gender Division of Labor in Agroforestry Activities

The results ofthe survey showed that in general the partnership has existed ingood condition in the activity ofthe cashew nut business, even though it is notbalanced yet and perfect (Figure I & Figure 2). There is an unequal genderrole in the accessibility and control as a collector trader and wholesale trader,whereas the roles of men are dominant over women as collectors,.wholesale

#ryw.w


traders, access to credit and information, and marketing. However, the roles

of women in the processing of cashew nuts and the use of machinery forprocessing are relatively higher than that of men.

GRAo|IG T PTCXAGTIG!ffra

?r

Fig. 1. Gender roles in the processing of Cashew nuts

In general, it was also found a good partnership existed between menand women in the accessibility of control towards resources and processing

technology. The role of women is limited in the accessibility of information onpricing and training. Even the access of women to credit for the production

and marketing does not yet exist in Rejosari village, Wonogiri District' On

the other hand, the role of women is greatest in the overall manufacturingprocess.

The role of gender in the household activity is a good practice and almostequal between men and women. The role of gender in the activities of financialeconomics of the cashew nut business is presented in Table 1.

Based on the survey, it has been recognized that in general the role of

women is more dominant than that of men in financial economic activity andthe cashew nut business. On the financial activity ofthe cashew nut business,both men and women participate actively whether it is alone or altogether to

budget for family expenses, to plan family finances, to manage family finances


: Indicates a low level ot some.Vmen role

) , /n : Indicates a high level of uomery'men role

Fig. 2. Gender analysis of the cashew nut business in Rejosari village, wonogiridistrict.


Table 1. Distribution of Respondents Based on the Role of Gender in the Activitiesof Family Economics and Cashew Nut Business (n:28).

Wifen T o n T o n Y o n T o

family money2. Management of family 18 64.3 9 32.1 1 3.6 28 100

money3. Planning of family finances t2 42.9 15 53.6 1 3.6 28 1004. Management of cashew nut 17 60.7 l0 35.7 1 3.6 28 L00

money5. Planning of fina^nce cashew 12 42.9 12 42.9 4 14.2 28 100

nut business6. Bonowing/credit money for 5 23.8 11 39.3 5 23.8 21 100

business7. Borrowingmoney for family 10 40.0 11 44.O 4 16.0 25 100

needs8. Finding alternative

solutions for financialproblems

9. Activity of maintenance of 6 28.6 4 19.0 LL 52.4 21 f00cashew nut tree

10. Activity of fertilizing 7 33.3 2 9.5 12 5T.l 21 100cashew nut tree

11. Activityof harvesting 8 38.1 7 33.3 6 28.6 21 100cashew nut tree

12. Activity of drying cashew 8 34.8 13 56.5 2 8.7 23 100nut

13. Activity of processing I 39.1 13 56.5 1 4.3 23 100cashew nut

14. Activity of selling cashew 23 a5.2 I 3.7 3 11.1 27 1OOnut

15. R.eceiving of payment from 25 89.3 0 0.0 3 10.7 28 100selling cashew nut

16. Responsibility of public 2 7.1 16 57.L 10 35.7 28 100work/economics

4 I4.3 21 75.0 3 10.7 28 100


for the cashew nut business, to borrow money for family needs, and to applyfor a credit for their business. For the activity of the cashew nut business,both women and men participate actively whether it is alone or together inthe activities of maintenance of cashew nut trees, fertilizing, harvesting, dryingand processing. Women are dominant in selling the cashew nut and receivingthe money, whereas men are responsible for public/economic activities. Belowis a presentation of the proposal of ma,rketing strategy of the cashew nutbusiness (Table 2).

Table 2. Distribution of Respondents Based on the Proposal of Ma,rketing Strateryfor the Cashew Nut.

Wifen T o n T o n T o n V o

1. Raising finance by pawning 2 33.3 3 5O.O 1 16.7 6 100of goods to plant cashewnut

2. Searching for credit to plant 2 28-6 4 57.1 1 14.3 7 f00cashew nut

3. Increase working hours to 3 14.3 13 61.9 5 23.8 21 100plant cashew nut

4. Asking assistance from 6 42.9 7 5O.O | 7.L 14 100ctrildren to plant cashewnut

5. Selling assets to plant 0 0.0 1 1OO 0 0.0 1 100cashew nut

6. Reducing other costs to 2 20.0 7 7O.O 1 10.0 10 f00plant cashew nut

7- Fleduce the cost of I 25.0 2 5O.O 1 25.0 4 100trarnportation bywalking/riding bicycle orjoin with friends

8. Withdraw savings to plant 1 20.0 4 8O.O 0 0.0 5 100cashew nut

family/neighbor to plantcashew nutSEARCHING INFOR^\4ATION

for planting and processingcashew nut


The result of the survey consistently shows that the role of women is moredominant than that of men in the finance and economic activity in the cashewnut business and the cashew nut marketing strategy. It also recognized thatboth men and women a"re participating actively whether it is alone or togetherfor implementing income generation :'lategies such as pawning assets to cul-tivate cashew nut, seeking of credit for cashew nut business, increase workinghours to cultivate cashew nut trees, asking children to cultivate cashew nuttrees, and selling assets to cultivate cashew nut trees. It was found that bothmen a"nd women are participating actively whether it is alone or together forimplementing cutting back strategies such as the reduction of cost of cultiva-tion of cashew nut trees, reduce the transportation costs by cycling, walkingor obtaining Iift,, and withdrawing savings to cultivate cashew nut trees. Therole of information gathering and the forming of strategies to cultivate cashewnut trees is dominated bv men.

5 Conclusios and recommendations

In conclusion, it is found that there was an imbalance of gender partnershipin the division of labor applied at cultivation, processing and marketing orcashew nuts between men and women. This unequal gender role also existedin the accessibility and control with collector traders in the collection andwholesaling processes. However, an equal gender role already existed in ac-cessibility and control of farming activities, while in the processing the roleof women was the more dominant. It is also found that the unequal genderpartnership at the community level was caused by socio-cultural constraints.

Based on the above findings the following recommendations are ma.de.Firstly agreements among communities in the villages should be used to re-formulate regional planning of agroforestry so that it involves both womenand men. secondly female empowerment strategies should be focused on thepotential of their processing skills with expansion into higher processing skillse-9. the processing of broken nuts into nut-sandwich (chips) and cashew nutchocolate. Thirdly, farmer groups should be empowered by increasing the qual-ity of women's skills and knowledge, especially in the area of marketing andprocessing of local commodities. Finally, it is proposed that there is a needfor capacity building by regional government aimed at strengthening genderempowerment in agroforestry programs.


References

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BPS Provinsi Jawa Tengah (2000) Jawz, Tsngah dalam Angka: Tahun 1999.Semarang: BPS Provinsi Jawa Tengah

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Bacon. Boston. USASEANAFE (2007a) Cashew Marketing in Wonogiri District, Central Java,

Indonesia: A Case Study. A Research Report. SEANAFE, BogorSEANAFE (2007b) Marketing Curriculum: Case Study Cashew Marketing

Chain, Indonesia. SEANAFE, BogorSEANAFDIPB (2008) SEANAFE'S-MAFTP Teacher's Guide. SEANAFE

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