LANGUAGE COMMUNICATION DISORDERS IN CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL EDUCATIONAL NEEDS. CHARACTERISTICS OF

FUNCTIONING CHILDREN WITHIN AN EARLY-SCHOOL-AGE

INDICATORS DESCRIBING AREAS OF DISORDERS AND THEIR EDUCATIONAL AND SOCIAL CONSEQUENCES

STRUCTURE:1. Explanation of basic terms and their understanding

2. Selected developmental disorders in children in the context of the

communication process

3. The influence of verbal communication disorders on child’s functioning in the

cognitive, personality, emotional, educational and social sphere

4. Supporting and alternative means of communication

5. Characteristics of children with verbal communication disorders – examples

6. Summary

1. EXPLANATION OF BASIC TERMS AND THEIR UNDERSTANDINGIn the current period there is a tendency to ignore the conceptual vacuum between

scientific and applied fields. For example, concepts such as correction, compensation,

rehabilitation, such as psychological and socio-pedagogical activities are used in almost all

practical applications, and the terms are used with the corresponding scientific arguments.

Relatively newer in schools are the concepts of assessment, team evaluation,

therapeutic interventions, therapeutic interactions, and concepts entering from the grand

classification systems of ICD and DSM. This is not a template and literally-fragmentary

substitution with the concepts used in the previous stages, respectively diagnostics,

diagnostic team, correction/compensatory process, correction/compesational interactions. It

is definitely not an uncritical trend of the concepts of “becoming more western”, or more

"medical". These more current concepts are the result of the general categorical conceptual

and general conceptual transition as a result of overcoming the medical model of the

psychology of children and students with special educational needs and the acceptance of

the proven social benefit model. The model of inclusive education also has a very strong

impact. It is difficult for the social system to accept the terminological thesaurus of the

specialists. It is not even necessary, but inclusion is a process that also requires changing

the terminology of the citizens to bring together the uniquely diverse children and pupils with

special educational needs. As Miliev (2009) notes, the terminology influences:

- “the popular jargon that serves the mass media, the political vocabulary and the

everyday spoken language of the non-specialists;

- the author's terminology, which includes both work terms and terms borrowed from

other languages and thesauri, with which the author manages to describe their theories and

hypotheses;

- the international terminology that is covering the issues of international languages,

which is serving the scientific forums and translation dictionaries, where there are linguistic

equivalents these equivalents are also reflected in the glossary dictionaries as well as the

comparative terminology encyclopedias, glossaries or specialized dictionaries reflecting the

historical achievements of individual authors or schools. ”

Terms such as special educational needs, disability, communication and communication competence, language development and its disorders require defining

for the needs of their full understanding in different European countries. Children and

adolescents with developmental difficulties are referred to in the literature as children with

special educational needs. However, this term raises many ambiguities, according to

Bogdanowicz (2010) “the criteria for classifying this category are still debatable. The common

criterion for all people with special / different educational needs is the inability to meet the

school’s requirements in the same scope and the difficulties of varying intensity that affect

both school and social functioning, which are often accompanied by difficulties in language

communication. This group includes people with intellectual and sensory disabilities, autism

and Asperger syndrome, culturally diverse, chronically ill, with specific difficulties in reading

and writing, gifted and with language disorders of various origins.

There is also no single common definition for such terms as: handicap, disability. In

publications, we can trace confirmation of the lack of uniqueness of defining them, as

indicated by Meijer (2010): “These differences are dictated by administrative regulations and

procedures, and as such do not necessarily reflect the difference in the incidence of one or

other type of special educational needs in individual countries”. Currently, the understanding

of disability is taken according to the social model, which emphasizes disability as an effect

of social barriers and not a biologically determined effect. Despite the lack of definition of

disability, actions were taken in Europe to support children, youth and general population of

people with disabilities in the educational and social dimension (educational and social

inclusion).

Language development is a complex, dynamic process that is conditioned by the

biological and social development of an individual, and especially focuses on the

development of his or her individual experiences in relationships with the environment.

Language development disorders affect deficits in both understanding and speech

production, which hinders social development and building interpersonal relationships.

Communicative competence is the child’s knowledge of the language use in a social

group, otherwise known as knowledge of the language system and the ability to conduct

language adequately to the situation.

Disorders of linguistic communication concern the difficulties in effective

communication using the language system. They can have a different character, which

results from different conditions and the scope as well as depth of the disorder.

2. COMMUNICATION AND COMMUNICATION DISORDERSCommunication is a continuous process of interaction, convention and training.

Interaction represents the inevitably created relations in the process of communication, even

in quite situational and short-term communicative relations. In order to understand, a

"convention" is needed. That is why conventional meanings of linguistic symbols are

generally formed within the given social communities whose members, in turn, have to learn

them through training and learning. In communication, there are 3 elements in this exchange,

and all must be present: message, message must be expressed and message must be

understood (Левтерова, 2007; Сивакова, 2018).

The sign system itself is understood as a language which after being formed through

training, stores the semantic meanings in the brain and grammatical rules as a potential to

allow for linguistic encoding and linguistic decoding. In other words, this is an acquired

language competence. Speech, on the other hand, is included for the purpose of

communication in the process of producing verbal signals or perception of verbal signals

"(Malov, 2001).

According to Chomsky (2010), linguistic knowledge is language competence, and its

manifestation - linguistic realization. The language competence is expressed in the

knowledge of the grammar of the language, of its external, its phonological form, of the

correct use of language depending on the social context. Language conversion is the real

use of the language in the communication process and is expressed in generating and

understanding messages in different kinds of speeches.

Language competence is the result of a specific learning strategy and social implication

of communication. Communication is the essence of social relationships. The social code of

communication is language, which is a system of signs and rules for their combination.

Language is a necessary condition for communication, but is not enough and only a

condition. The language is a system of signs and rules for their use, while speech is the

individual use of the language. In this plan, the language is used by many people with

different expressions of speech. Communication takes place through the same language and

it is the real use of speech. Language competence is a high level of language proficiency.

Language competence is a challenge for people with specific learning abilities in the

following areas:

- expressive verbal production - in some cases there are articulation problems,

vocalization difficulties, structural and grammatical analysis, and the vocabulary is limited.

- speech reception - difficulties in the phonological and visual processes involved in the

perception and understanding of speech are manifested. The problem is expressed in the

segmentation of linguistic units, sounds and words blend. The effect of language recovery

has not been mastered.

Communication is the transmission of information by means of different means and / or

a separate language. Effective communication implies and requires synchronization in the

encoded and decoded characters and symbols of the communicator and the recipient, the

presence of the channel, the reality, and the effectiveness of the message. There is a need

to use the same language, understandable and accessible to the participants in the

communication process. The following five domains are important for the functioning of the

language:

Phonology- the ability to produce and discriminate the specific sounds of a given

language,

Semantic - the rules for deciphering the meaning of words,

Syntax - the set of rules, principles, and processes that govern the structure of

sentences in a given language, usually including word order,

Grammar - is the set of structural rules governing the composition of clauses,

phrases, and word in any given language.

Pragmatics - relates to the social representation or the ability to adapt and transfer

the form of the speech message to the specific situation and to the requirements,

expectations and needs of the interlocutors.

These aspects are organized in three dimensions: content, form and use.

Language content refers to the importance of the semantic aspect of the

message.

Language forms are related to the mechanisms of message transmission,

such as phonology, morphology, syntax.

Language use is in relationships with the purpose of communication and the

different listeners (Bloom, Lahey, 1988).

In case of communication disturbances, difficulties are noted in the three dimensions in

language and respectively speech function. Communication violations can be differentiated

into two main groups: verbal breaches and non-verbal communication violations.

Non-verbal communication occurs at a time and in a phylogenetic plan earlier than

verbal communication, but verbal communication has richer information opportunities. Due to

the wider communication capabilities at the verbal level, the various aspects and forms of the

language system, the individual specifics of speech function and violations are presented in a

more significant variety.

NEVERBALL COMMUNICATION DISORDERS Non-verbal communication is realized through:

Proximity - Provides the spatial and temporal organization of individual characters.

The main component is the "chorotype" - a - specific modality of spatial and temporal

constants of various communicative situations. The chorotypes change over the individuals

that are involved, but at the same time preserve their deterministic stereotype and can in turn

change the communicative intentions and the realization of communication. Chorotypes are

for example:

Communication capabilities of space - public distance, social distance, close

distance, intimate distance,

Communication capabilities of time - accuracy, adequacy, immediateness of

reactions over time.

Kinesics - the typical model of systematized signs - mimic, gesture, pantomime

which includes:

Posture and position of the individual parts of the body, including affective

vegetative changes - tremor, dermatography, etc., appearance, manipulation with objects -

routine, situational or intrusive.

Paralinguistic characteristics - vocalization system: smoothness and speech flow

velocity, diction, tone, rhythm, height and strength of the voice. Outline or emotionally-

accented accents and accents are presented.

Extra-linguistic features - signs that do not provide the basic information, but

influence the mutual perception of participants in the communicative act - pauses, inaccurate

and vaguely articulated exclamations, sighs, cries, etc.

DISORDERS OF VERBAL COMMUNICATIONDisorders of verbal communication is widely varied. Depending on neurophysiological,

psychophysiological, medical, pedagogical and other criteria, various classifications of verbal

disorders are established. There are several classification systems for speech and language

development disorders, eg. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Health Disorders

(DSM-V), which distinguishes: expression language disorders, mixed reception and

expressive language disorders, and speech production disorders (phonological disorders and

stuttering). They significantly impede family, educational and professional functioning, and

their source are comprehensive or fragmented developmental disorders, deficits of mental

development, damage to brain speech mechanisms, sensory disturbances or negative

environmental impact. In speech therapy, the term „communicative disorders“ means

inappropriate use of linguistic means of communication under pathogenic factors.

Communicative disorders represent pathological deviations from the rules of the spoken and

written language.

One of the widespread systematizations of verbal communication disorders (defined as

speech) is in line with the different sides of the speech:

• Sound-reproductive (phonetic) - dysplasia, rhinolia, dysarthria;

• Lexica-grammar - analysis, aphasia;

• Tempo-rhythmic - stuttering, stinging, tachylalia, bradylalia;

• Voice formation - phoning, dysphonia, rhinophony;

• The written language - alexia, dyslexia, agraphia, dysgraphia.

Depending on the conceptual frameworks of the theoretical approaches (traditional,

behavioral, linguistic or psycholinguistic, developmental or communication focus), variations

in systematization are derived.

Most popular in recent years is the behavioral model that is interpreting speech and

language violations to the impaired processing of information at the appropriate levels.

These differentiations include:

1. Language development disorders

- Specific phonological, specific language disorder (grammatical), verbal dyspraxia,

dyslexia.

- Common - early childhood autism.

2. Semantic and pragmatic disorders

- Due to a language violation

- Cognitive deficit affecting language use

- Socio - cognitive deficit

- The rules for engaging in dialogue

- Affective and emotional difficulties (Wetherby, 1985; McTear, 1991; Eastwood, 1995).

The referring systematizations focus predominantly on the individual offenses. They

introduce new concepts of demonstrated linguistic deficit that are not theoretically grounded

(Станкова, 2007; Тонев, 2006; Тодорова, 2013, 2016, Ценова, 2012, 2015).

Much more precise and interpretive of the cognitive, psychological, psycholinguistic

and instrumental levels of communication is the constructed hierarchical model of the verbal

communication process by Mavlov (1997).

In the Hierarchical model are presented the levels of speech communication and their

specific functioning in the norm and in the presence of a disorder, according to sensory -

motor, gnosis - praxis, neuropsychological and neurolinguistics symptomatology. The levels

of communicative process are represented in both fundamental expression and reception

positions.

In production of normal verbal messages realizes:

1. Mental (ideological) level.

2. Language (verbal, linguistic) level.

3. Level of speech praxis.

4. Level of elementary neuromuscular commands and motor execution organs.

At reception of normal verbal messages are recruited:

1. Level of elementary reception of sensory stimuli’s.

2. Level of speech gnosis.

3. Language (linguistic) level.

4. Mental (ideological) level.

Each of these levels presents different harm to individual communication disorders. In

more complex disorders, combinations of injured levels are noted.

The hierarchical model "provides a structured and functionally justified and logical

interpretation of the complex and varied symptoms of communicative disorders" (Mavlov,

1997).

Given the main advantages and problems, the dichotomous differences and / or the

close, sometimes even the same concepts in the individual schools and the main aspects

and dimensions of the verbal communication, the explanation of the verbal communication

violations is presented in the following differentiation:

Speech disorders

Articulation disorders - apraxia, irregular articulation in structural disabilities, dyslalia,

etc.

Phonic / voice / abnormalities - phonophony, dysphonia, etc.

General disorders - rhinolalia, dysarthria

Fluent disorders - stuttering, stammering and others.

Language violations

Oral language- aphasia, developmental dysphasia, autism spectrum disorders,

intellectual disabilities, sensory impairment, visual impairment and hearing impairment, etc.

In the written language.

Disorders of the child’s communication process with the immediate surroundings take

on a different form from a total lack of speech through articulatory (expressive) difficulties,

phonetic and phonological difficulties to difficulties with understanding speech or its creation

in accordance with the rules of the mother tongue. In children with different educational

needs, verbal communication disorders occur in the following forms:

a) Aphasia (total impossibility of speaking);

b) Lack of speaking and using speech in social relations (internal speech) in

people with autism or intellectual dysfunction to a deep degree;

c) Disorders of verbal communication in children with intellectual dysfunction

(oligophasia);

d) Dyslalia or incorrect articulation of sounds – Includes elisions, substitutions or

distortions in children with delayed speech development of various etiologies, in children at

risk of developmental dyslexia;

e) Dysarthria, which occurs in children with cerebral palsy (difficulties in speaking

up or even speaking out);

f)Inconsistency of statements, lack of logical reasoning in people with Asperger

syndrome (problems concern building statements, understanding messages with good

knowledge of words);

g) Disorders of auditory perception as a result of damage to brain structures -

aphasia (difficulty naming objects, understanding speech), there is also a disturbance of

phonemic hearing found in children at risk or developmental dyslexia;

h) Speech fluency disorders (stammering).

3. SELECTED DEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS IN CHILDREN IN THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS CONTEXT

INTELLECTUAL DISABILITIESChildren with intellectual dysfunction are more likely to show linguistic communication

disorders than their peers with normal intellectual development. According to statistics, that

phenomenon affects up to 75% of children (Sawa, 1990). These disorders have a specific

and complex character, depend on the degree of intellectual dysfunction, while the lower

level of intellectual development causes greater difficulties in the development of speech and

forms of verbal communication. Speech of children with intellectual dysfunction develops

much later and is characterized by: an incorrect articulation, too poor vocabulary, presence

of agrammatisms, problems with building sentences, too slow or too fast rate of speech, too

quiet or too loud voice, speech without intonation (Tarkowski, 1999).

“Speech specifics in intellectual disabilities people have a secondary character:

- there is a later appearance of the speech - usually the first words appear about two

years later than the norm /. It is difficult to make a transition from pronouncing individual

words to phrases and entire sentences, echolalia is demonstrated.

- deficiencies in articulation are demonstrated - the prevalence of sigmatism,

lambdacism, rhoticism, dysgraphia, dyslexia, stammering, dyslalia (the indication of the

disturbances follows the frequency from the highest to the lower representation). From the

first to the eighth grade polymorphic dyslalia decreases by more than 6 times, the

monographic forms of dyslexia also follow this dynamics. It also brings out two main

regularities: "The first is that with the increase in age, the distribution of speech disorders, in

particular the various types of dyslexia, is greatly reduced. The second is that the prevalence

of some more complex types of disorders, such as dysphasia of development, stuttering,

dyslexia, and dysgraphia, is almost invariable. "

- Dictionary vocabulary is limited. Problems in semantics are obvious - inaccurately

designate objects and phenomena. Words expressing properties and signs find relatively

less use. Many prints and parasitic words or expressions are used.

- agrammatism is expressed in expressive speech - incorrect membership, conciliation,

use of incomplete sentences, incorrect grammar construction of simple and complex

sentences.

- flaws in impressive speech are noted. Difficulty in perceiving and misinterpretation of

spoken speech. As Rubinstein (1979) notes: "Underdevelopment of speech may be driven

primarily by slow-forming and unsustainable differentiating contingent connections in the field

of the hearing analyzer.”

- the regulating function of the speech does not unfold. Non-verbal means of

communication (mimic, gesture) are missing or are scanty (Караджова, 1999; Левтерова,

2009).

The delay or disorder of speech development related to the dysfunction of the intellect

is called oligophasia. People with intellectual disabilities acquire communication skills at

various levels and at different times, depending on:

• child’s intellectual abilities,

• on the environment and methods of linguistic education,

• the child’s motivation to communicate with others,

• level of communication anxiety,

• personality and temperament (Kułakowska, 2007).

The statements of children with mental retardation are much weaker in terms of

content, composition, logical consistency, and poor stylistic means typical of narrative.

AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDERSAutism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by

social - cognitive deficits, communication disorders and repetitive behaviors, interests, or

activities.

DSM IV - SIGNS OF AUTISM

- Quality impairments in reciprocal social integration

- Quality impairments in verbal and non-verbal communication and in creative activities

- The occurrence of recurring activities and interests

DSM V - AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER

A. Persistent deficits in social communication and social interaction across

multiple contexts

B. Restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities

C. Symptoms must be present in early developmental period.

D. Symptoms cause clinically significant impairment in social, occupational, or

other important areas of current functioning.

E. These disturbances are not better explained by intellectual disability

(intellectual developmental disorder) or global developmental delay.

Autism Spectrum Disorder and Intellectual Disability frequently co-occur; social

communication should be below that expected for general developmental level.

In people with autism, language communication disorders are associated with a deficit

in social skills and cognitive processes, including auditory perception. Communication

disorders and social deficits are a source of relationship difficulties for this group of people.

People with autism display communication difficulties in all parts of speech, e.g.: in the

phonological, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic areas, that is, in the use of speech in social

situations. A characteristic feature of language communication disorders in people with

autism is echolalia (an unnecessary repetition of heard expressions or words) in different

varieties: direct (occurs immediately after hearing), deferred (consists of repeating with

delay). Echolalia is a communication tool for children with autism, but also for people with

schizophrenia, eye damage or other brain structure damage.

In cases of the autism spectrum disorders, the so-called triad of impaired is noted:

impairment of social relationships and social integration,

impairment of social communication and imagination,

impairment of social understanding and presentation, associated with a rigid,

repetitive pattern of behavior (Wing L., 2000; Масалджиева, Костова, 2016, Василева,

2006, Тричков, 2106).

Children's social, communicative and learning difficulties are the result of limited, rigid,

repetitive behavior, stereotypes, aggression or over-passivity, self-injuries. Some of the

children have skills or specific abilities that predestinate age development, for example in the

field of music (Newsom, Rincover, Holanitz, 1989)

To the quality violations in verbal and non-verbal communication and in creative

activities can be addressed:

- Some of them do not make eye contact, they seem to notice things with a brief

peripheral look. They have poor facial expression and poor gestures, as well as many

stereotypical movements that do not express the meaning.

- The use of language is almost always abnormal, unnatural. Children fully follow their

own impulses by not complying with the requirements of the environment.

- there are no means of communication such as facial expression, mimics, gestures or

spoken language;

- there are abnormal models for non-verbal communication, not using a visual contact,

body position, gestures for initiation or modulation of social integration/ they do not look in

the eyes, they can have a "wandering" look while talking, smiling, having a fixed stare in

social situations);/

- lack of creative activities, such as performing adult roles, fantasy or roles with animal

images, lack of interest in tales and stories with fantasy situations and circumstances;

- Distortions in speech production are present, such as content disturbances, rhythm,

intonation, strength and height / vocabulary disturbed, monotone or very high voice /;

- the forms and content of speech are violated, including stereotypes and repetitions /

echolalia or mechanical repetition of certain words, advertisements, use of a third party

instead of a first person (instead of "I want water" it is said "you want water), ideosyncratic

use of words or phrases, often irrelevant phrases are introduced (for example, when a sport

talk is being conducted, a story about animal movies has suddenly begun)

- Abnormal ability to start or maintain conversation with others

The ability to interact is very limited, which means that a normal conversation can not

be engaged.

The level of intellectual functioning in individuals with ASDs is extremely variable,

extending from profound impairment to superior levels.

The DSM – 5 redefined the autism spectrum disorders to encompass the previous diagnoses of autism, Asperger syndrome, pervasive developmental disorders not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS), and childhood disintegrative disorders.

CEREBRAL PALSY - MOTOR DISABILITYCerebral palsy takes on a different clinical form, on which both the efficiency of

speaking and the communication process depend. According to sources, about 50-80% of

children with CP have difficulty speaking with the fact that these difficulties affect 94% of

children with intellectual delay and about 50% of children within intellectual norms. The

author distinguishes three groups of etiological factors conditioning speech disorders:

• Mental retardation associated with brain damage (75%);

• Hearing disorders, which are definitely higher in children with intellectual dysfunction;

• Movement disorders, the extent and severity of which depend on the location of

damage to the central nervous system (Sawa, 1990).

The result of movement disorders of the nature of brain damage is dysarthria, which

concerns the control of muscle motility involved in the production of speech sounds. Speech

in these children is released (bradylalia), acoustic agonoscopy, central dyslalia, stuttering

and dysgrammatism are observed, accompanied by difficulties in swallowing.

HEARING IMPAIRMENTSpeech and thinking in children with hearing impairments are situational and specific-

imaginary, and communication is carried out by means of sign language, which consists of

communication by means of sign and sign symbols defining a given concept (person, thing,

phenomenon, activity). It is a graphical structure that does not contain inflectional endings.

Sign language is not a tool for abstract thinking (Kozłowska, 2004). The group of deaf

children is diverse, and among them there are people who do not hear or speak at all, and

those who use speech to a limited extent. The hearing of deaf children is characterized by:

• Slow pace with visible effort while speaking;

• Faulty speech rhythm;

• “Breathing” speech, i.e. when speaking, the child exhales a lot of air;

• Poor voice quality as a result of incorrect glottis setting;

• Replacing and leaving out sounds and sometimes adding specific sounds;

• Poorly developed sentences;

• Mixing voiced consonants with voiceless ones;

• Poor intelligibility and bad articulation (Sękowska, 2001).

In the group of communication forms with the deaf child there are also: oral speech,

combined speech, which consists of oral or auditory speech, finger alphabet and signs and a

total communication method including various ways of communication (Eckert, 1999,

Попзлатева, 2015).

Speech is shaped in a peculiar way and specificity; due to the absence of auditory

perceptions and auditory control without special training deaf children without speech

experience and hearing remarks do not speak alone (hence the term deafness, which is

incorrectly transferred to the whole category of children with hearing impairment).

Hard-hearing children later pronounce their first words.

There are shortcomings in the phonation - due to lacking or low hearing self-control,

the voice is falset, mutilated, or hoarse, with varying strength and height.

Disorders of articulation also occur - some sounds are mistaken, omitted or replaced

with others, in general articulation disorders.

The melodic intercourse has also been changed - monotone speech, no

expressiveness, pauses and meaningful reflections of intonation.

Receptive speech has been disturbed.

The morphological and grammatical aspects of speech are mastered slower.

The communication process uses mimics, gestures, pantomime. Hearing impaired

people use dactyl, calving and gesture speech. Calcifying Speech is a type of speech, in

correspondence with the verbal language, based on everyday linguistic constructions.

Mimic-Gesture Speech is a system of dynamic and static signs are represented by hands

and facial expression ( Попзлатева, 1999, 2015; Левтерова, 2007, 2009, Атанасова, 2016,

2018)

Gestures as elements of speech and language can be indicative, indicating and

designating an object. Gestures are an integral part of the system of communication. The

gesture language, which contains a hundred thousand different signals, is considered to be

preceding the oral communication nearly a million of years. Gesture can be defined in three

main categories: symbolic, representational and expressive. The symbolic gestures as

crossing or greeting the National flag mark a habitual event or idea. They often replace the

language, as they are conscious for the person fulfilling them and have meaning for definite

group. The representational gestures resemble the thing they represent. The expressive

gestures include such behaviours as friendly or mocking smiling, murmuring etc. The

research of gestures re-covers with the research of non-verbal behaviour and

communication. Mice indicate the quality of the object. Deaf children use a mimic-gestural

speech, in which gestures and mimics of hands, face, and the whole body are expressed

whole concepts. Mime-gesture speech is successfully mastered with the desire of hearing

impaired children, as its utilization and use is based on preserved analytical systems - visual

and motor-kinetic. Targeted training in this language system is limited to support the

formation of verbal concepts, which is a very convenient computational method because all

the possible capabilities for perceiving information are used. Only mastering and application

of mimics-gesture speech does not contribute to the complete psychological development of

the child's psyche, but in synchronous use and development of oral speech it is extremely

important for the formation of communicative and social competence of hearing impaired

persons.

The mime-gesture system has some peculiarities. The most characteristic are its

multiplicity (one word corresponds to several characters) and polysemy (one gesture has

many meanings), there are no flexes, not all prepositions and alliances are indicated, does

not count the change of verbs by number and time, which in the contextual connection of

gestures sometimes changes the statement in meaning. Under the influence of mastery of

the verbal speech and the dactyl in the non-verbal language system, prepositions and

alliances appear. In this context, in the special education of hearing-impaired children,

gesture speech finds its place in total communication, without being single and basic. In the

special education method, dactyl education involves total communication. While the mimic-

gesture speech and its international version (called gesture) with one gesture denote whole

concepts, the sign with the right hand sign is a sign of the alphabet. The dactyl has a wide

application in the mastering and use of oral and written speech with in hearing impaired

children. In adults it is used for specifying the individual concepts or included in the system of

gesture communication. Under good command, the rate of the dactyl speech is close to the

oral rate (at the expense of specific abbreviations, conditional indications, etc.). Through the

mimic-gestural speech and dactyl the mastering of spoken language is supported. In this

regard, the emerging conditional reflexive links between articulation and dactyls in a way

compensate auditory control over pronunciation.

The facial expressional components take larger place in comparison with verbal

languages. Each gesture sign is a unique combination of different aspects of visually

perceptual movements which taken alone have no meaning. As main structural elements

having sense- differentiating role, Stoke defines 55 "ceremes". The ceremes fulfil the role of

phonemes in verbal languages and group in three classes according the following differential

symptoms:

- Place of fulfilment of gesture - tabula -12 ceremes

- Configuration of hand –designator -18 ceremes

- Movement or changing the configuration of hand-signacia-25 keremes

The differences in materialising of the inner intention between the verbal and gesture

languages is that linear principle is not obligate. Gestures are always continuous in time.

Certain gesture ceremes and gesture signs cannot be presented simultaneously. The

principle of linearity is not obligatory and by simultaneous production of gesture complexes

are presented analogues of sentences (Stoko, 1960; Korsini, 1998).

It is assumed that the method of total communication using various methods of

assisting the hearing impaired child in expression, perception and speech development is the

best way to reliably master the perceptually expressive speech symbols, especially at pre-

school age when communication between the parents and the child is vital. However,

questions about speech education and communication are still being refined and discussed.

There is no precise indication of a speech development method in deaf and weak-hearing

children as the most perfect.

DEVELOPMENTAL DYSLEXIA (SPECIFIC DIFFICULTIES IN READING AND WRITING)

Developmental dyslexia, as we read in the definition from 1994, means the inability to

learn reading skills which is caused by linguistic disorders. The essence of the

developmental dyslexia are disorders of phonological processing, including difficulties in

recognizing and differentiating speech sounds, poorly controlled dependence between

spoken and written words (sound and its recording), poor ability to memorize sound

sequences and free naming of letters. In the international medical classifications of DCM-IC-

TR, they appear as learning disorders (reading disorders-315.0) (disturbances in the use of

letters - 315.2), (Bogdanowicz, Borkowska, 2009).

Symptoms of auditory-language dysfunctions change with the child’s age. They

include: delay of speech development, problems in memorizing material arranged in series,

sequences, difficulties in memorizing texts, distorting words, difficulties with rhyming words,

difficulties in playing with syllables. Later, there are difficulties in reading, writing from

hearing, confusing letters of a similar shape or sound, problems in memorizing words,

commands, and problems with mastering the multiplication table. Difficulties in mastering the

spoken language in the form of reading and writing make it difficult for the further social,

emotional and personality development of the individual.

In classification systems ICD 10-R and DSM V, reading problems are defined

differently.

ICD 10-R is about specific learning disorder:

- specific reading disorder,

- specific writing disorder,

- specific disorder of calculus,

- mixed type disorder.

Specific learning disorders are noted in DSM V:

- writing

- reading

- calculus

- non-specific.

There are two main types of dyslexia - acquired dyslexia and dyslexia of development.

Acquired dyslexia is characterized by disturbances in the act of reading itself and reduced

verbal activity. Dyslexia of development occurs in children who fail to acquire a normal

reading competence, i.e. there is a difficulty in learning, not the destruction of an already

formed reading ability.

DYSLEXY - problems of linguistic competence are subject to reading problems.

Signs of dyslexia:

- violation of the process of perception of information. The baseline difficulty is related

to visual and auditory perception disorders,

- violations of the integration of information at the three levels - arrangement,

separation, organization,

- memory misconduct - mainly in short-term memory, which does not carry out

profound treatment of perceived stimuli and they are not stored in the long-term memory,

- violations of reproduction that usually occur at linguistic and motor level.

“The processing of information is associated with the perceptual identification of the

essential signs correlating with previous experience and cognitive development of the

individual. Regarding the processes of mastering the written form of speech, this means that

the perceptual identification of linguistic incentives is one of the important and indispensable

conditions for fully mastering these processes.” (Matanova, 2016). Similar is Roussecka's

position on reading as a complex psychophysiological process aimed at the decryption and

understanding of the written message. Reading, as well as writing, enters one of the types of

speech activity: in the written speech. The mastering of the operating staff of the reading

habits and the application of the acquired skills (reading and understanding of the words,

sentences) in the independent activity corresponds to the educational and cognitive motives

and needs of the children of primary school age (Rusezkaia, 2007).

There are no significant differences in defining dyslexia in different research and

applied fields.

The main problems are related to the improper phonological processing (the sound

side of the language), the verbal memory and the processing speed of the information.

There are the following signs of dyslexia:

- replacement and blending of phonetically close or graphically similar characters,

- alphanumeric or syllable reading

- skipping vowels or altering the sound-whistle structure of the words,

- disregarding and blending of polysyllabic words and complex sentences,

- conffusion of directions - read left and right, up and down, in and out,

- misunderstanding of the read text,

- agrammatism when reading grammatically correctly written text.

These specifics of dyslexia are provoked by:

• late speech development and fluency disorders,

• problems with reading on different days - there are good and bad days for no obvious

reason

• difficulties with consistency in automated speech

• Work memory problems.

At the same time, there are also positive features:

- Verbal Intelligence (IQ) is more than 90.

- there has been a reading gap in the past two years if the age is not more than 11

years and 6 months.

- normal central and peripheral vision.

- normal physiological hearing.

- built-in motivation for reading.

- there is no lack of educational opportunities.

- no physical damage (such as brain damage and / or tumors).

- no emotional reading problems are noted.

Dyslexia is related to problems in the process of verbal information processing, which

reflects on the literacy process and is characterized by differences and disparities between

tasks and their implementation (Moray House Center for Specific Learning Difficulties, 1993).

Information operations and their stages are basic for the classification of dyslexia.

THE INFLUENCE OF VERBAL COMMUNICATION DISORDERS ON THE CHILD’S FUNCTIONING IN THE COGNITIVE, PERSONALITY, EMOTIONAL, EDUCATIONAL AND SOCIAL SPHERES

As noted by Kinga Kozłowska: “speech is a very delicate instrument and even minor

dysfunctions affect it adversely” (Kozłowska, 2004). Using speech allows the child to explore

the world, make contacts, and express their own feelings and emotional states as well as

needs. Any developmental disturbances in the form of negative deviations from the norm

have their consequences in the development of speech and the process of efficient

communication. Inhibitions in reception as well as the transmission of sensory impressions

and their processing, poor vocabulary, speech defects, hearing impairments impede the

child’s normal cognitive and emotional process and, above all, make his socialization

process more difficult. Disturbances in verbal communication lead to many adverse changes

in the functioning of the individual, which we can analyse in three key areas: development,

relational and educational.

Table 1 Verbal communication disorders consequences in early school age children Development area Relational area Development area

Cognitive development

delay (thinking, attention,

memory, perception), slow

acquisition of words and

disturbances in the development

of phonemic hearing

The low level of

communication competence makes it

difficult to enter into deeper

interpersonal relationships with peers

and adults

A low amount of words

causes a poor expression or

reluctance to speak in a class or

group forum

Difficulties in recognizing

important elements of the

language: accent, intonation

(hearing defects, cerebral palsy)

hinder the process of speech

Verbal communication

disorders are a factor of social

maladjustment, social isolation and, in

extreme cases, social exclusion

Agramamtisms and

difficulties in building statements

affect the freedom, fluency,

communicativeness of oral and

transmission and reception written statements

Difficulty in

understanding the meanings of

individual words or expressions

makes it difficult to shape

conceptual thinking (autism,

hearing defects, intellect

dysfunctions)

Lowered social activity, low

sociability, poor verbal expression

Disturbances in phonological

development adversely affect the

mastery of reading and writing (the

language of symbols)

Difficulties in satisfying

individual developmental needs

(belonging, recognition, contact)

hinder social and emotional

development)

Difficulties in understanding

messages are the cause of conflict

situations, increase in aggressive

behaviour or withdrawal from social

situations

Numerous mistakes in

reading and writing, especially in

listening. Communication disorders

make education and self-interest

difficult and result in school failures

Source: own elaboration

The above-mentioned consequences have a heterogeneous picture and their large

diversity depends on the extent and degree of communication disorder as well as the source

of its origin. Children with intellect dysfunction, autism, cerebral palsy, hearing defect function

very poorly in the social and relational areas, they have primary difficulties in transmitting and

receiving verbal messages, hence often using alternative methods of communication/

methods supporting speech. Within that group, it is often difficult to have basic relationships

with parents/ guardians, teachers due to the total lack of communication or its deep disorder.

Children with developmental dyslexia have the weakest functioning in the field of education,

especially in situations of reading, writing, free expression, while maintaining better

relationships with other people or users of the educational space.

4. SUPPORTING AND ALTERNATIVE MEANS OF COMMUNICATIONThe need to communicate is an important necessity of each person, due to the fact that

it allows communication, which has a pro-developmental function, but it also satisfies basic

psychic needs such as: belonging, love, emotional contact, recognition. In the absence of

verbal contact, alternative methods of communication are used. There are many non-verbal

methods of communication that find application in relationships with a child with different

levels of communication capabilities. Amongst them are:

I. Alternative systems for communication based on lettering

1. Dactyl

This system consists of signs, which presents a definite position of the wrist and the

fingers of the hand, corresponding to a concrete letter from the alphabet. The sign (called

dactylemes) are different in the different written alphabets-the Latin, the Cyrillic, the Greek

alphabet etc. Movements of hands, which depict visually the letters, realise the

communication.

2. Block - method

This system represents writing of capital print letters on the palm of one of the hands

as direct touch between the communicating partners is carried out. The letters are stereotype

written to avoid double engenders. They are written with the top of the forefinger one after

another and one upon another on the sleek side of the palm. Writing letters is made so

simple, that the separate signs are depicted by a couple of touches under defined rules.

3. Dactyling upon the palm of the hand

In this system the signs of the visual dactyl are being written on the palm of the partner

while communicating, to be tactile accepted.

4. Lorm-method

The system for coding of the letters is based on the linear sliding and touching of points

on the fingers and the palm of the recipient with one or several fingers of the hand of the

communicator. Lorm uses the phonemic principle of coding-the five vowels are the touches

to the tops of the five fingers and the consonants are representeb by sliding on the fingers

and the palm. The system has an adaptation to Cyrillic alphabet.

5. English hand alphabet

In vowels its principle resembles the method of Lorm, and the consonants are like the

two-handed dactyl in Great Britain, but fulfilled by "the speaking" on:” the listening" hand.

They resemble the outlines of letters for easier remembering.

6. Malossi or Italian Hand alphabet

Different in character pointed touching on the inner sides of the fingers-on the area of

the three of phalanxes and on the joints immediately under the fingers. Characteristic for this

system is the using of the two kinds of signals-touching with one finger and pinching with two

fingers, with the purpose of differentiating on very near contact zone. In that way upon the

every one finger of the one palm of the recipient five contact zones are formed and together

with the additional zone become twenty six, correspondent to the letters from the Latin

alphabet. For easier remembering they are ordered in alphabetic order from the thumb

towards the little finger and downward.

7. Method of Boryana Koskina

The author of this system in Bulgaria is a person with hearing and eye disturbances.

The method is near to Lorm but used a principle characteristic for Malossi- only point

touchings in contact zones of fingers and palm are used where the letters from the Cyrillic

alphabet are schematically distributed.

II. Alternative system for communication based on gesture and gesture-mimic

1.Visual gesture-mimic

The system contains gesture symbols that replace words and verbal phrases of the

oral speech. Can be accompanied by emotional expression, which blends the meaning of the

communication additionally.

2. Tactile gesture

There are two main kinds:

-Tactile perceiving of visual gesture. It is used when the individual has a good trial and

practice in visual gesture-mimic- most often these are persons with disturbed hearing, which

later on aquired eysight damage. It is realized by: feeling the structure of gesture; holding the

palms and the base of the fingers of the recipient and by forming the outlining movements

with hands and fingers of the recipient round the mouth and face of the gesturing person as a

substitute of the emotional expression and facial expression.

-Tactile gesture created especially for persons with disturbances of hearing and

eyesight. There are many such methods, one of them is of Daniel Reies - a president of the

association of the blinded-deaf in Spain. He adapted a part of the gesture from the Spain

gesture-mimic, language, which are realized in an analogical way, but by touching and

movement only the hand of the recipient, from fingers to shoulder.

In practice all kinds of tactile gestures are successfully combined with lettering of palm

especially in giving words, for which there is no special tactile gesture.

• Bulgarian sign language - is the language, or perhaps languages, of

the deaf community in Bulgaria. The sign language is based on communication of gestures

and facial expressions. Usually this combination of words directs towards the luxuriant,

complete, complicated, on its own account system of manual and facial expression signs,

used by people with hard disturbance of hearing. Still in 17c. Fr. Baycon in “Progress of

Education” wrote that “ as language speaks to ear, so gesture speaks to eye”. Gesture

Languages age: demiotic (gesture and facial expressions, used by all people, in different

situations), professional (of stockholders, brokers, builders etc), alternative (exchanging the

speech in some tribes) and primary (of people with disturbance of hearing).

• Polish sign language – it is the language of deaf people that has its own visual-spatial

grammar. An important role in communicating with this method is the gesture, facial

expressions and other signals transmitted in space. It is used to improve communication with

people with extensive verbal communication disorders and to develop their communication

skills;

• Sign language system – based on a combination of sign language and Polish sign

language, rooted in Polish language grammar, which allows deaf people to build correct

statements;

• Makaton language program – applies to people with serious disorders in verbal

communication, including people with autism, Asperger syndrome which is used to learn how

to communicate. It is a system of gestures and graphic symbols containing over 350 terms

from the everyday area and 700 concepts in the field of extended vocabulary. Each concept

is supported by the appropriate manual character (gesture) and / or graphic image (symbol).

This method occurs in many versions adequate to the language system of a given country;

• Bliss’ alternative communication system is a system based on drawings as a graphic

representation of a specific statement. The dictionary includes 3,000 symbols representing

over 6,000 words that let the person name a specific object as well as an abstract concept.

The system allows building sentences, whole statements reflecting experiences, emotions

and experiences, which promotes the development of the child’s personality. It is designed to

help communicate with people who do not speak, their speech is very poorly developed or

not very clear (mental disability, cerebral palsy, autism, dysarthria, aphasia);

• Pictograms – represent words or concepts. The symbol is white and placed on a

black square with the word above it. This system has 2,000 symbols, including 2% of

ideograms (conceptual similarities to abstract concepts). It is adapted to the cultural

conditions of the language. It is used to develop communication in people with intellectual

deficits, with problems related to language understanding and practical use. They are simple

and effective ways of establishing communication with people who have problems in

language communication (they do not speak, do not understand speech, do not understand

social situations, children with learning disabilities as well as impaired visual and auditory

perception), (Błeszyński, 2006);

• Pictogram Communication Symbols (PCS) – are a collection of drawings that depict

the basic words necessary for everyday communication. Abstract words are expressed in a

specific symbol. It is available in many language versions, also in the PC version. It works

well in the process of communicating with people affected by periodic inability to

communicate verbally;

• Dactylography (finger method) is a form of communication based on an appropriate

fingers’ pattern, in which each letter or a number corresponds to a specific dactylographic

sign. In this method, grammar rules are maintained (Błeszyński, 2006).

The functions of gesture languages as antroposemiothic system are:

Communicative

Information

Cognitive

Nominative

Iconic

Symbolic

Educational

Corrective

Stimulative

The rich thematic literature distinguishes three groups of people who need to improve

the communication process. These are:

a) people with linguistic expression disorders who have the ability to

understand speech, but are unable to use it (children with cerebral palsy, people with a slight

mental disability). Their difficulties consist of articulation difficulties, creating and extracting

words due to various disorders, delays in speech development or damage to speech

mechanisms;

b) people who require linguistic development that have different

developmental dysfunctions and the associated difficulties of verbal communication, both

verbal and written (children with specific difficulties in reading and writing - developmental

dyslexia) or temporary problems with verbal communication;

c) people who need language support through alternative communication.

This group includes children and adults who lack verbal communication or its significant

limitation related to low level of development and speech understanding (people with

intellectual dysfunction to a significant degree, deep, deaf people). Their communication is

based on sound signals and non-verbal behaviours. The important thing is that in some

children it is necessary to combine forms of verbal communication support taking into

account the changing communication and general development needs.

Below, there is described the functioning of children with selected verbal

communication disorders, taking into account the previously quoted division.

5. Characteristics of children with verbal communication problems – examples

AUTHISM AND ASPERGERA SYNDROME1. Verbal functioning of a child:

• Lack of communication through the language system or verbal communication is very

simplified (single words supported by gestures);

• The child signals its needs with a shout, echolalia, utters unnatural sounds (clicking,

humming);

• A speaking child has problems with diction and speech melody;

• The child uses stereotypical language;

• The child does not speak out alternately, does not enter into a dialogue;

• A child with Asperger’s syndrome often has a rich vocabulary, but the problems

concern the ability to use it, as well as uttering and understanding meanings

2. Description of the child’s behaviour:

• The child avoids social contacts, isolates itself from the closest environment;

• His/ her behaviour, as a response to a change in the environment, is unpredictable;

• The child does not communicate danger to the loved ones;

• It is impulsive, bad-tempered;

• He/ she has problems with completing tasks by a simple instruction;

• The child does not respond to its name;

• He/ she chooses stereotypical games, has a passion for routine activities;

• A child with Asperger syndrome does not maintain a relational distance during a

conversation, shortens it by violating the interlocutor’s space;

• A child with Asperger syndrome incorrectly interprets social signals;

• A child with Asperger syndrome is truthful and does not take into account the feelings

of other people by often hurting other words;

• The child is not capable of using the objects in a symbolical manner.

3. Manners of communicating with the environment (parents, teachers, peers)

• Repetition of words in the contact between an adult and a child,

• Supporting verbal speech with gesture and image,

• Issuing short, simple instructions,

• Keeping the right distance in contact with the child,

• Applying images in day planning,

• Referring to a child by name,

• Speaking in the presence of a child,

• Using computer programs in contact with a child,

• Using the alternative communication programs (Makaton, Bliss system)

INTELLECTUAL DISCUSSIONS - Communication and social skills in that group of

children largely depend on the intellectual dysfunction degree, hence three activities are

necessary: speech improvement, its support as well as alternative communication.

1. The child’s verbal functioning

• The child has a delayed development of speech, which is manifested by difficulties in

verbal expressing of his thoughts – difficulties relate to the expression of speech, therefore,

the importance of non-verbal speech;

• The child with a moderate intellect dysfunction has a fairly rich vocabulary, due to

good mechanical memory, on the other hand, in people with severe and moderate disabilities

the speech is less understandable, and the vocabulary is poor;

• The child has difficulty understanding the meanings of the speech and freely

constructing his own statement (low level of creative speech with a better-developed

reproductive speech);

• In the utterances the child uses specific concepts and the difficulties relate to the

definition of abstract concepts;

• The child chooses words inadequately, sometimes builds agrammatic statements;

• In speech, the child uses verbs and nouns more often, adjectives – less often.

2. Description of the child's behaviour:

• It is afraid of contacts with others (peers, adults);

• It is reactive, emotional in relationships with others, which translates into an emotional

way of expression;

• It has difficulty reading and understanding emotions in others, misdiagnoses them;

• It has problems with comprehension of complex verbal commands, which results in

the refusal to complete or incorrect execution of the task;

• It has reduced criticism and impaired social control which is the cause of inadequate

verbal behaviour in social situations;

• The child, despite the difficulties experienced, manifests the need for social contacts.

3. Methods of communication with the environment (parents, teachers, peers)

• Supporting statements by gestures, images or symbols. Using also individual

communication aids;

• Using information technology to communicate with the child;

• Using alternative communication systems (pictograms, Bliss language system).

HEARING IMPAIRMENT1. Verbal functioning of a child

• Deaf child communicates only by using alternative communication methods, the

information is mainly received visually, it is not possible to control speech by auditory means;

• A hearing impaired child has certain difficulties in verbal contact, the reception of

auditory stimuli improves with the use of a hearing aid, and it is possible to master oral

speech.

2. Description of the child’s behaviour:

• The child experiences serious difficulties in dealing with hearing people, which results

in a withdrawal, isolation and limitation to contact with people using the sign language

(Eckert, 2001);

• The child has limitations regarding the reception and understanding the oral speech;

• It is lost and helpless in the world of speakers.

3. Methods of communicating with the environment (parents, teachers, peers)

• A sign (ideographic) method, i.e. a sign language system,

• Dactylography (finger speech),

• Phono-gestures that complement invisible articulation movements, help in speaking

and reading speech from the mouth,

• An oral method that uses auditory, tactile and visual sensations related to the

perception of sounds,

• Provoking situations conducive to conversation

DEVELOPMENT DYSLEXIA – A child with developmental dyslexia (specific reading

and writing disorders) exhibits disorders in the phonetic and phonological language system

and requires language development support.

1. Verbal functioning of a child

• The child simplifies consonant groups in statements and written forms;

• The child hardly remembers the sequential material (sequence of sounds, words);

• It has problems with choosing rhymes;

• It garbles words or garbles letters within the words;

• It has difficulty recognizing words and recalling a name automatically;

• In descriptions the child uses half-prepositions, terms related to spatial orientation,

temporal relations);

• The child has difficulty with narrative speech, makes frequent pauses in speech;

• The child uses mainly singular sentences, which suggests a deficit in the use of

compound sentence rules (Krasowicz-Kupis, 2006).

2. Description of the child’s behaviour:

• The child uses compensation strategies (learning text by heart);

• The child ignores complex commands;

• It has problems with freedom of expression, therefore avoids public appearances;

• It has difficulty in capturing information from the text;

• It has difficulties in using the dictionary, encyclopaedia;

• The child can not share his or her experiences with others;

• The child does not initiate or make conversation;

• He/ she thinks about an answer for a long time, sometimes it seems like he or she

does not hear.

3. Methods of communicating with the environment (parents, teachers, peers)

Children with a risk of dyslexia or diagnosed developmental dyslexia have difficulties in

social relationships due to their preferred, individual learning style. Their communication style

depends on the preferred modalities and efficiency in the area of work of the visual, auditory

and kinaesthetic analyser. Children with a preference for visual modality opt for visual

methods of learning and communication, while children with a preference for auditory

modality choose auditory manners of communication. Finally, children with developed motor

modalities prefer active forms of communication and learning using the movement.

SUMMARYVerbal communication disorders are both the effect of other disorders, as well as they

may occur in isolation – as a result of the auditory function deficit. A child with language

communication disorders is experiencing difficulties on many levels of relationship with

others. These include problems with communicating one’s feelings, signalling one’s needs,

verbalizing emotional states or widely understood ‘social learning’ (social space). Problems

in communication make it difficult for the child to carry out his/ her developmental tasks

(practical, developmental aspect), understand commands and receive meanings (semantic

aspect), construct statements (syntactic aspect) or differentiate speech sounds (phonetic

aspect). In many children with developmental difficulties there is a low level of metalinguistic

knowledge, which hinders effective communication. In the absence of speech it is necessary

to use alternative communication methods that do not inhibit the development of speech, but

help in its reception and transmission, when the child possesses motor potential in the area

of using verbal speech. However, the choice of the communication method is individual,

addressed to the needs and abilities of the given child. The aforementioned methods can be

combined with each other in order to increase their effectiveness and influence on several

levels in the quest to extract the child’s cognitive potential.

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