Willard McCarty

Text and Genre in Reconstruction

Effects of Digitalization on Ideas, Behaviours, Products and Institutions

Cambridge

2010

Open Book Publishers CIC Ltd.,40 Devonshire Road, Cambridge, CB1 2BL, United Kingdom

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© 2010 Willard McCarty. Contributors are free to re-publish their contribu-tions in whatever other ways they choose.

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Contents

Contributors viiiIntroduction

Willard McCarty 1N'59)<)15H:F56.&:F056E:/*$5Z)[)27/(*05(*57!)59-3+)105V:3)5

John Burrows5 NU2. Cybertextuality by the Numbers

Ian Lancashire5 ULU'5\)]7-:.5R:7!(.(EF5

Peter Garrard5 LN4. The Human Presence in Digital Artefacts

Alan Galey5 KUQ'5;)Y*/*E5W.)271(*/25WC/7/(*0$565J/07(1/2:.5:*C5X-*27/(*:.5

Perspective !"#$%"&'$()*+,-5 NNK

6. Electronic Editions for Everyone Peter Robinson 145

L'5J(&5^/7)1:1F5=(1,05W]/07$5G3#./)CD5Z)#1)0)*7)CD5:*C5G*7)1#1)7)C5Peter Shillingsburg 165

M'5\)]75:056.E(1/7!35:*C5:05R1(2)005Paul Eggert5 NMU

K'5_G5Z):C57!)59)&05\(C:FD5`!5I(Fab$59)&0#:#)15R-+./0!/*E5 in the Online World Marilyn Deegan and Kathryn Sutherland5 >?U

Z)B)1)*2)05 >NK

!"#$%&#'()*+#,-&.&+/&#0+#Digital Artefacts1

Alan Galey

1. What Lies Beneath

\!)5 1):C)15&:*C)105:75 .)/0-1)5(<)15 03/./*E5Y).C0c5!)5#.:F05:*C5 1-*05:*C5*)<)1507-3+.)0c5:*C5!)5*)<)15E/<)05:57!(-E!757(57!)57/3)5:*C57)C/-35/75!:052(0753)57(5+:".)5&/7!57!)57!(1*05:*C5+1/:10D5&!/.)5G5&:052.):1/*E57!)5.:*C5B(15!/05+)*)Y7'5J)5C()05*(751)2,(*5def5!(&5E1):757!)5C/02(3B(17057!:750)2-1)C5!/052(3B(17D5!(&53-2!57)C/-35&:057!)5#1/2)5(B5!/05Y*C/*E5*(7!/*E57)C/(-0'

W1:03-0D5.)")157(5=/../:35=:1!:3D5612!+/0!(#5(B54:*7)1+-1F5 SNKLO5dNQNP8Of$5>O>T

This essay considers the tensions between the surface orderliness of scholarly resources and the stubborn irregularity of textual materials. Textual scholar-0!/#507:*C057(52(*71/+-7)57&(5,)F5/C):057(57!)5C/E/7:.5!-3:*/7/)0$5Y107D57!:757!)1)5/053(1)57(5).)271(*/25B(13057!:*5&!:751):2!)057!)5021))*c5:*C50)2(*CD5that the relationship of form to content is complex and sometimes beyond exhaustive modelling. These two points may seem commonsensical enough within a book-history context, but much of the hypertext theory that domi-*:7)C57!)5#1)</(-05C)2:C)5E/<)05./".)5/3#1)00/(*57!)F52(-.C53:")1'5R:175(B57!)5+-1C)*5(B5C/E/7:.57)]7-:.507-C/)053-075+)57(52(-*7)157!)5/*[-)*2)5(B57!(0)5hypertext theorists who rushed to essentialize computing, the Internet, and C/E/7:.57)]7-:./7F'5g(1)51)2)*75&(1,5+F5A:7!:1/*)5J:F.)0D5g:"!)&5A/102!)*-

Nh The work presented here was supported by the Social Sciences and Humani-7/)05Z)0):12!54(-*2/.5(B54:*:C:'5;/i)1)*75#:1705(B5 7!/05:17/2.)5&)1)5#1)0)*7)C5:75the conferences of the Society for Textual Scholarship and the Society for Digital Humanities / Société pour l’étude des médias interactifs, the University of Toronto’s Faculty of Information Studies, and Texas A&M University. I am grateful to those audiences for their questions and comments and especially to Willard McCarty, Ri-chard Cunningham, Christopher Moore, and Stan Ruecker for their comments on ):1.F5C1:j0'56*F51)3:/*/*E5)11(105:1)53/*)'

Alan GaleyKP+:-3D5^)<5g:*(</2!D56.:*5^/-D5:*C5(7!)105:00(2/:7)C5&/7!53)C/:80#)2/Y25:*:.F0/05:*C5*)&50(j&:1)507-C/)05!:050!(&*5&!:757)2!*/2:..F5/*B(13)C5#)1-spectives can bring to the study of digital textuality.2 Kirschenbaum describes 7!)/15:##1(:2!5:05(*)57!:75_2-.7/<:7)05E1:*-.:1D53:7)1/:.51):C/*E05(B57!)5/*)</-table cultural and ideological biases encoded by particular applications and /*7)1B:2)0b5S>??P:$5QUUT'5H-2!53(C)05(B51):C/*E5)]#(0)52(*7/*-/7/)05&/7!5#:075textual practices that some versions of hypertext theory were predisposed *(757(50))5k5F)750-2!5_E1:*-.:1D53:7)1/:.51):C/*E0b51)*C)15*)&57)]7-:.5#1:2-tices and technologies no less exciting for all that. This essay argues that it should be disquieting to see a deepening separation of material form from idealized content in our tools at the very moment when literary critics have established the materiality of texts to be indispensable to interpretation. As C/E/7:.5 7)]7-:.507-C/)057:,)050!:#)5:05:5Y).CD5 /75Y*C05/70).B52:-E!75+)7&))*5these divergent trends in computational practice and literary theory.

Textual scholarship has long been driven by an anxious desire to know what lies beneath the perceptual surface — the authorial consciousness )3+)CC)C5 /*5 &1/")*5 .:*E-:E)c5 7!)5 (1/E/*:.5 (B5 3-.7/#.)5 <)10/(*0c5 7!)5moments of live inscription held within inert physical artefacts. If the object of textual work is to delve beneath surfaces, the subjects who carry out 7!:75&(1,5Y*C57!)30).<)05:757!)57!1)0!(.CD5*)E(7/:7/*E5+)7&))*57!)5C):C5#:075:*C5./</*E5#1)0)*7'5G*5V:1F5\:F.(1b05(j8l-(7)C5B(13-.:7/(*D5_WC/7/*E5is a ritual we perform over the corpus of an author who has passed away’ SNKMM$5Q?TD5:*C5:..50-2!51/7-:.05)]/075 B(15 7!)50:,)5(B5 7!)5 ./</*E'5;/E/7:.5 7)]-tual scholars might well sympathize with Erasmus (quoted in the epigraph :+(<)T5:05!)5.:3)*7057!)52(*C/7/(*05(B5!/05)C/7(1/:.5.:+(-105(*57!)5m-.E:7)5of St Jerome. Erasmus’s words capture the double-vision that texts demand of us with regard to their mediation of surfaces and depths. It is the same with our tools, digital and otherwise. Beneath any smoothly functioning computer interface such as a Web browser, the source code may harbour 7!)5_7!(1*05:*C5+1/:10b5S/*5W1:03-0b05&(1C0T5(B5!:.B80(.<)C5+-E0D5./*E)1/*E5:j)157!)5_+:".)b5&/7!53:7)1/:.05:*C5C):C./*)057(5+-/.C57!)5C/E/7:.5:17)B:27'5In a similar manner, the monuments of textual, philological, and historical 02!(.:10!/#5:1)5(j)*5:00(2/:7)C5&/7!5&!:75W1:03-052:..05_C/02(3B(17b5:*C5_7)C/-3b5 /*5 7!)/15#1(C-27/(*D5:05 /05 7!)5Y27/(*:.5WC&:1C54:0:-+(*b053/0)1-able Key to All Mythologies in Middlemarch, or sometimes even spring from 7)11/+.)571:-3:5:*C5.(00D5:05/*57!)52:0)5(B56.B1)C5R(..:1Cb05_#-*/0!/*E5&(1,502!)C-.)b5 Sg:E-/1)5 NKKO$5 >MT5&!/.)5 !)5 E1/)<)C5 7!)5 C):7!05 (B5 !/05 0(*05 /*5

>h5`*53)C/:80#)2/Y25:*:.F0/0D50))5J:F.)05>??P'5

4. The Human Presence in Digital Artefacts KQ=(1.C5=:15G'5I:".)Y).C5(152.):1)C5.:*C$5+(7!53)7:#!(105B(157!)5)C/7)C57)]75are present in Erasmus’s picture of textual labour, positing a substratum of textual remains beneath the reader’s feet.U5=!:757!)*5/05_7!)5#1/2)bD5:05W1:0-mus puts it, to be paid for the illusion of digital texts and environments as _03/./*E5Y).C0b5&!)1)5 7!)5-0)15*)<)1507-3+.)0n5\!)5 B(..(&/*E5C/02-00/(*5approaches that question by examining some theoretical assumptions that shape the digital tools of Erasmus’s inheritors.

As Erasmus implies, we cannot detach technical concerns from the aes-thetic, symbolic, and hermeneutic dimensions of textual work, and his preoccupation with unseen complexity takes visual form in Figure 1. This image shows what lies beneath the main reading room in the New York Public Library’s Central Building at 5th Avenue and 42nd Street, an icon of cultural heritage. The illustration comes from the cover of an issue of ./0-(102/&34-%0/$(5#-+./0!)C5Y<)5C:F05:j)15 7!)5*)&5+-/.C/*E5(#)*)C5 7(57!)5#-+./25/*5NKNN'5\!)5E)*1)50!(-.C5+)5B:3/./:15k5:51)#1)0)*7:7/(*5(B57!)5inner workings of an interface between readers and a massive collection of texts, using a visualization technique (the cutaway view) to make the unseen mechanism intelligible to non-specialists. In the reading room at the top, patrons and librarians use a system of catalogues, request slips, and pneumatic tubes to order books housed in the stacks below. The books, once located, ascend to the reading room via mini-elevator. We can also read a foreshadowing of the digital humanities’ open-access ethos here, too, since this union of aesthetics and machinery serves a public library.

But ./0-(102/&34-%0/$(’s tribute to 2(&"-&506/7- design and engineering also illuminates anxieties about what lies beneath it. The image embodies the kind of metaphor for archiving that Thomas Richards uses to describe the symbolic importance of the British Museum at the data-collecting height of the British Empire, and especially its basement as a chaotic space that was symptomatic of the material pressures of data overload SZ/2!:1C05 NKKU$5 P8NOT'5 \!)5 07:2,05 +)*):7!5 7!)59)&5o(1,5R-+./25^/+1:1F5reading room emphasize a volume of information that, as a totality, goes unseen by its users. As in Richards’ metaphor, there is even a basement :757!)5<)1F5+("(35(B57!)59)&5o(1,5R-+./25^/+1:1Fb0507:2,0D5&!)1)5+(])05appear in disordered contrast to the stacks and retrieval system above. Such are the pressures felt by structures that must be at once monument and infrastructure.

Uh5`*57)]7-:.502!(.:10!/#5/*5Middlemarch, see Lerer 2002. On Pollard, see Maguire NKKO$5>MD5:*C5\:F.(15NKMM$5Q?8N'

Alan GaleyKO

\!)5/3:E)5:.0(5C/0#.:F05:5Y]:7/(*5&/7!5!-3:*5#1)0)*2)5/*57!)5B(135(B57!)57/*F5YE-1)057!:75#(#-.:7)57!)507:2,05SB(17F80)<)*5(B57!)3T'5=!)1)5W1:0-mus claimed to feel alone in his task of textual management, no such isola-tion seems possible in this system. One could imagine this image without 7!)5YE-1)0D5:05:5071/27.F57)2!*/2:.5+.-)#1/*7D5+-757!)5#-1#(0)B-.5C/071/+-7/(*5of humans throughout makes this a representation not just of mechanical automation but also of human labour. The book is a text on a human scale,

X/E-1)5N'565H)27/(*:.5m/)&5(B57!)59)&5o(1,5R-+./25^/+1:1FD54)*71:.5I-/.C/*ED5g:/*5Reading Room. Cover issue of ./0-(102/&34-%0/$(D5>L5g:F5NKNN5SR/27-1)52(..)27/(*D5

The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations).

4. The Human Presence in Digital Artefacts KLand this image goes out of its way at least forty-seven times to reassert a human presence in a system that holds books, readers, and machines within its compass. Yet none of the humans or books are individuated anywhere /*5 7!)5 /3:E)c5&)5:1)5 0!(&*5*)/7!)15 /*C/</C-:.5 1):C)105*(15 1)2(E*/p:+.)5+((,05 7!:753:")15 /*5 7!)/15 0#)2/Y2/7F'5605 7!)5:22(3#:*F/*E5:17/2.)5 07:7)05:##1(</*E.FD57!)50F07)35_C/071/+-7)d0f57!)51):C)151:7!)157!:*57!)5<(.-3)05&!/2!5!)51):C0bD5:*C5_:-7(3:7/2:..F5def5C/</C)057!)57!(-0:*C05(B51):C)105who wish to consult the books into the intellectual classes in which they +).(*Eb5S6*(*'5NKNN$5Q>LT'5W<)*5&/7!57!)5B(2-05(*57!)502:.)5(B5_7!(-0:*C05(B5readers’ and their intellectual subclasses, this representation of the library 0))3057(5B(1E)751(-E!.F5!:.B5(B57!)5./+1:1Fb05#(7)*7/:.5-0)10$5(*.F53:.)51):C-ers are represented. The living moments of encounter between individual readers and texts, in all their diversity and idiosyncrasy, remain deferred in this representation, implicit in the image but inscrutable to our eyes. The .(E/25(B57!)5/3:E)D57!)*D5/05:053-2!57)3#(1:.5:050#:7/:.$52).)+1:7)51)0(-12)8+-/.C/*E5*(&c5-*C)107:*C57!)5#:17/2-.:1/7/)05(B53:7)1/:.5.:7)1'

This large-scale mode of representing reading stands in contrast to humanist depictions of individual reading and writing in Erasmus’s time. That instinctive humanist desire to draw closer, like Tantalus, to some ide-:./p)C5+-75).-0/<)57)]7-:.5)*2(-*7)15Y*C05#(&)1B-.5)]#1)00/(*5/*5m/"(1)54:1#:22/(b05NQ?>8U5#:/*7/*E5The Vision of Saint Augustine (Figure 2, below).

4:1#:22/(b05#:/*7/*E5C)#/27056-E-07/*)5#)**/*E5:5.)")157(5q)1(3)5:757!)5#1)2/0)53(3)*75(B57!)5.:")1b05C):7!D5:057!)5E!(07.F5#1)0)*2)5(B57!)5.)")1b05:CC1)00))5Y..057!)51((3'5G*54:1#:22/(b05#1(+:+.)50(-12)D5:5NPMQ5m)*)7/:*5)C/7/(*5(B57!)5./B)5(B5q)1(3)D56-E-07/*)5/*5!/052)..5:75J/##(5/05:")3#7/*E57(5l-:*7/BF57!)5r(F5(B50(-.05/*57!)5#1)0)*2)5(B5V(CD5:*C5/05r-075#-"/*E5#)*5to paper to ask Jerome in Bethlehem for his thoughts.4 The information Augustine seeks comes to him in a moment of miraculously instant commu-nication that accords more with our present than with the epistolary of the ancient world. Jerome, the archetype of textual scholars, rebukes Augus-7/*)b051)C-27/(*5(B5,*(&.)CE)57(5!-3:*5*-3+)10$5_6-E-07/*)D56-E-07/*)D5&!:75:1)5F(-50)),/*En5;(5F(-57!/*,57!:75F(-52:*5#-757!)5&!(.)50):5/*5:5./7-7.)5<:0)n5d'''f5=/..5F(-15)F)50))5&!:757!)5)F)5(B5*(53:*52:*50))n5d'''f5IF5&!:753):0-1)5&/..5F(-53):0-1)57!)5 /33)*0)nb5 Sl-(7)C5/*5Z(+)1705NKQK$5>K>T'5

Ph5`*57!)5#:/*7/*Eb05#1(+:+.)50(-12)5:*C57!)53/0/C)*7/Y2:7/(*5(B57!)5#:/*7/*E5:05:5C)#/27/(*5(B5q)1(3)5!/30).BD50))5Z(+)1705NKQK'Qh5 \!)5 71:*0.:7/(*5 /05 Z(+)170b05 B1(35 Hieronymus. Vita et transitusD5 m)*/2)5 NPMQ5SJ-*7/*E7(*5^/+1:1FD571:*021/+)C5+F5W-E)*)5I1-*)..)T$5_6-E-07/*)D56-E-07/*)D5l-/C5l-)1/0$5#-7:0*)5+1)</5 /33/")1)5<:02-.(53:1)5 7(7-35d'''f5s-)5(2-.-05*-..-05!(3-

Alan GaleyKM

J-3:*57)]75E/<)05&:F57(5C/</*)5<(/2)D5:*C57!)5.)")157(5q)1(3)5+)2(3)057!)5perfect interface, instantly receding before an unmediated presence. Where the ./0-(102/&34-%0/$(&image shows a perfectly synchronic system, outside of time and history, Carpaccio shows us an instant of collaborative intel-lectual work deeply embedded in history. In Alexander Nagel and Chris-7(#!)15H'5=((Cb051):C/*ED5_\!)5[-")1/*E5#:E)05(B57!)5(#)*52(C/2)0D57!)5B:..5of shadows, the alerted dog, the poised pen all suggest the momentariness of that moment, the evening hour of compline, as Augustine tells us. This is secular time, the time of lived experience, whose each moment repeats +-75C/i)105B1(357!)5#1)</(-053(3)*7b5S>??Q$5P?UT'6 Most importantly, The Vision of Saint Augustine is not our vision, and the miraculous text Augus-tine receives from Jerome lies beyond the limits of human representation.

Both of these scenes depict technologies for managing multiple texts — Carpaccio places numerous writing implements, books, and a horizontal reading wheel in Augustine’s study — but his painting meditates on the partialness of human knowledge, while the ./0-(102/&34-%0/$( image cel-ebrates the abstraction of a mechanical system. Both use encounters with /*-35</C)1)5#(7-/75 7--05</C)+/7n5 d'''f5 G33)*0:D5 l-:53)*0-1:53)7/)1/0nb5 SZ(+)1705NKQK$5>KLT'OhOn Carpaccio’s depiction of temporality and its relation to the history and na-ture of reading, see Bringhurst 2006.

X/E-1)5 >'5 5 m/"(1)5 4:1#:22/(5 SNPQQ8NQ>QTD5 Vision of Saint Augustine (Alinari/Art Resource, New York).

4. The Human Presence in Digital Artefacts KKC(2-3)*7057(51)[)275(*5(1C)105(B5)]#)1/)*2)57!:75)]2))C5!-3:*52:#:2/7/)0'5Z)[)27/*E5(*5:52(#F5(B57!)54:1#:22/(5#:/*7/*E5E/<)*57(5!/35:05:507-C)*7D5A'56*7!(*F56##/:!52(33)*7057!:75_7!)50!).B5(B5+((,05+)!/*C57!)50:/*75k5!/05library — contained most of the works he would have thought worth read-/*Ebc5 _!)5&(-.C5:.3(0752)17:/*.F5!:<)51):C5:..5(B5 7!)3b5S>??Q$5PQT'L Today, Appiah notes, more is printed in a single city in a week than Augustine or q)1(3)52(-.C5!:<)51):C5/*57!)/15./B)7/3)0$5_&)5:1)D5/*50!(17D5C1(&*/*E5/*57!)5particulars we humanists study’. In essence, the ./0-(102/&34-%0/$(&image /05NKNNb05:*0&)157(56##/:!b05B):10D5:*C57(57!)5l-)07/(*5#(0)C5/*57!)57/7.)5(B5:52(..(l-/-35:*C5:17/2.)5+F5V1)E(1F541:*)$5_=!:75;(5o(-5;(5&/7!5:5g/.-./(*5I((,0nb5S>??OT'M One could read the Carpaccio and ./0-(102/&34-%0/$( /3:E)0b5C/i)1)*2)05:05)3+.)3:7/25(B57!)5C/E/7:.5!-3:*/7/)05/*5/705#1)0)*75state, which emphasizes abstract, large-scale approaches such as linguis-tic corpora and data mining, the social-science version of literary history #1:27/2)C5+F5X1:*2(5g(1)"/5S0(82:..)C5C/07:*751):C/*ETD5:*C57)]75:*:.F0/057)2!*/l-)057!:75C)1/<)5#:")1*05B1(353-.7/7-C/*(-05.(&8.)<).5(+0)1<:7/(*05rather than situated acts of subjective interpretation.K These approaches represent a movement away from the humanities’ traditionally idiographic 7)*C)*2F5 S7(5 0)),5 .(2:.5 ,*(&.)CE)5 :+(-75 0#)2/Y25 2:0)0T5 :*C5 7(&:1C5 7!)5*:7-1:.5:*C50(2/:.502/)*2)0b5*(3(7!)7/257)*C)*2F5S7(50)),5:+071:275#:")1*05and general laws).10 These approaches also share something in common with the ./0-(102/&34-%0/$(&image in that they place the viewer or critic in a superhuman position, showing systems of words and texts from a per-0#)27/<)57!:75*(50/*E.)5!-3:*52(-.C5(22-#F5/*51):.50#:2)5:*C57/3)'5g(1)"/5071)00)057!:75C/07:*2)52:*5+)5_:52(*C/7/(*5(B5,*(&.)CE)b5S>???$5QLc5)3#!:0/05

Lh56##/:!5:27-:..F51)B)1057(5_(*)5(B54:1#:22/(b05E1):753-1:.05(B5H:/*75q)1(3)b55+-75/75is more likely that he has the Augustine image in mind. Carpaccio’s other paintings (B5q)1(3)5C(5*(75B):7-1)5./+1:1/)0D5:*C57!/05/3:E)5&:05(j)*53/07:,)*5:05:5C)#/27/(*5of Jerome (see note 4 above).Mh5\!)52(..(l-/-35&:052(80#(*0(1)C5+F57!)5@*/<)10/7F5(B54!/2:E(5:*C57!)5G../*(/05G*07/7-7)5(B5\)2!*(.(EFc50))541:*)5>??O5:*C57!)5g/../(*5I((,05R1(r)27D5:52(..:+(1:-7/(*5+)7&))*54:1*)E/)5g)..(*5@*/<)10/7F5^/+1:1/)05:*C57!)5G*7)1*)75612!/<)$5!"#$%%&&&':12!/<)'(1E%C)7:/.0%3/../(*+((,05d:22)00)C5NK%N?%>??Mf'Kh5X(15:*5):1.FD5/*[-)*7/:.521/7/l-)5(B5l-:*7/7:7/<)53)7!(C05/*5./7)1:1F507-C/)0D50))5H7:*.)F5X/0!b05_=!:75G05H7F./07/205:*C5=!F561)5\!)F5H:F/*E5H-2!5\)11/+.)5\!/*E056+(-75G7nb5SNKM?%NKLUT'5\!)57)135_5C/07:*751):C/*Eb552(3)05B1(35g(1)"/5>???$5QO8Mc5the opening to his more recent book, Graphs, Maps, Trees, suggests a movement be-F(*C57!/057)135Sg(1)"/5>??Q$5NT'N?h5\!)5 7)1305 idiographic and nomothetic originate with the neo-Kantian philos-(#!)15=/.!).35=/*C).+:*C5 SNKKM%NMKP$5NUTD5 :*C5 7(C:F50))53(1)5 B1)l-)*75-0)5 /*5anthropology and psychology than in literary studies. On the tradition of thought :+(-757!)5C/07/*27/(*57!)F5*:3)D5/*2.-C/*E5g:]5=)+)1D50))5g:*/2:05NKKM'

Alan Galey100removed), but The Vision of Saint Augustine complicates the metaphors we -0)5 7(5 1)#1)0)*75C/07:*2)D5#1(]/3/7FD5:*C5 7!)5l-:*7/Y:+.)'5\!)5</)&)15(B5that painting remains all too human. Carpaccio invites his viewers just to the threshold of human experience, inviting us to cast our eyes, like Augus-tine in the painting, beyond the frame of human perception even as we accept its limits. The scale of the human is the preoccupation of both images.

H-2!5/057!)5#(&)15(B57((.05:*C51)#1)0)*7:7/(*05:./,)$57(50!:#)57!/*,/*ED5both through the conclusions they enable and the metaphors they deploy. The concerns this essay advances have tended to remain tacit in the dig-/7:.5 !-3:*/7/)0D5 :5 Y).C5&!(0)5 0-07:/*/*E5 #1(E1)005 *:11:7/<)05 :*C5 /*<)07-ments in fundable projects foster a sense of itself as an onward march into the future — an avant garde57!:75&:057!)5Y10757(5)3+1:2)52(3#-7/*E5:05:5tool for humanities scholarship. Yet the tool-building enterprise risks fall-ing into a binary in which digital tools represent innovation, dynamism, and provocative instability, while the materials they operate upon — very (j)*5./7)1:1F57)]705k51)#1)0)*75:<:/.:+/./7FD52(*7/*-/7FD5:*C5-*#1(+.)3:7/25stability. This binary makes it easy to forget textual work always has an interpretive dimension that depends upon the complexity of humanities 3:7)1/:.0D5 )0#)2/:..F5 :j)15 +/+./(E1:#!/2:..F5 :&:1)5 ./7)1:1F5 02!(.:10!/#5 /*57!)5&:,)5(B5;'X'5g2A)*p/)5:*C5q)1(3)5g2V:**5!:05)07:+./0!)C57!)5<:.-)5of joining interpretation with the materiality of texts. Our understanding (B57!:751).:7/(*0!/#5!:05+)2(3)5/*7)17&/*)C5&/7!5:*(7!)1D5.)005(+</(-05(*)$5the tension between tools and materials in the digital humanities.

2. Digital Textual ScholarshipEvery tool is a weapon,

If you hold it right.6*/5;/X1:*2(D5_gF5Gsb5S>??>T

Whenever we ask what new technology can do for textual scholars, we 3-075 *(75 .(0)5 0/E!75 (B5 :5 C))#)15 l-)07/(*$5&!:75 /05 :75 07:,)5 /*5 7!)5&(1,57)]7-:.502!(.:10!/#5C()0D5C/E/7:..F5:*C5(7!)1&/0)n5=!:753:,)057!/05&(1,5&(17!5C(/*En5R1(E1)005*:11:7/<)05:.3(075:.&:F05.):<)50(3)7!/*E5/3#(1-tant behind, and information culture itself has been accused of system-:7/2:..F5B(1E)"/*E5/705(&*5!/07(1F5S;:F5>??N$5UTD5:*C5(B50-22-3+/*E57(5:5_1!)7(1/25(B5*)&*)00b5:*C5_1!)7(1/25(B5:3*)0/:b5SZ:+/*(</7p5:*C5V)/.5>??P$52). Indeed, we have been here before. The digital humanities now occupy

4. The Human Presence in Digital Artefacts 1013-2!5 7!)5 0:3)5 #(0/7/(*5 7!:75='='5V1)E5 :*C5 7!)5 (7!)159)&5 I/+./(E1:-phers did in the era when the New York Public Library’s Central Build-/*E5Y1075(#)*)C5/705C((10'56757!:757/3)D57!)52-.7-1:.5#1)00-1)057!:75&)*75with social and technological change required the assimilation of vast amounts of technical knowledge about the transmission of texts — and by extension, the seemingly transmissible parts of culture itself — into a coherent progress narrative. This narrative had to account not only for the literary documents that had survived, but also for the practical means by which culture could be preserved and disseminated into the future through editing (and through the related activities of historical bibliog-raphy and bibliographic appraisal, enumeration, and preservation). Like digital humanists today, the New Bibliographers lived in a time of new 3)C/:5:*C5/*B(13:7/(*57)2!*(.(EFc57!)F5!:C57(5:17/2-.:7)57!)/15&(1,57(5:52!:*E/*E5:2:C)3F57!:75(j)*5C/C5*(75-*C)107:*C5/7c57!)F5&)1)5(+./E)C5+F5their material to command a detailed knowledge of how texts, humans, :*C53:2!/*)05/*7)1:27c5:*C57!)F5!:C57(51)0#(*C57(57!)5(j)*82(*71:C/27(1F5imperatives of explaining and making.

\(C:FD57)]7-:.507-C/)0507:*C05*(75(*.F5:05:5+)*)Y2/:1F5(B5*)&57((.057(50(.<)5(.C5#1(+.)305k5:*CD5.)75-05!(#)D57(5Y*C5*)&5#1(+.)305k5+-75:.0(5:05a well-developed perspective on new kinds of cultural artefacts. Through-out this essay, the term artefact5 )*2(3#:00)05#1(C-2705 (B5 !-3:*5 :17/Y2)5that can be studied for interpretative purposes, like books, but also what g2A)*p/)50(3)&!:75:&,&:1C.F52:..)C5_*(*8+((,57)]70b'11 (Digital artefact can also mean an instance of visual noise in a digital image, but that usage C()05*(75)*7)15 7!/05C/02-00/(*'T5\!)5 7)13/*(.(E/2:.5 2!:..)*E)5 /05 7(5Y*C5:5noun that includes books as easily as cultural productions like video games, Y.30D5:*C5#:/*7/*E0D5+-75:<(/C057!)502/)*7/Y25:*C5#1(E1:33/*E52(**(7:-tions of the term object. Anthropologists and archaeologists have also thought about this problem. For example, Anders Andrén makes a distinc-7/(*5+)7&))*5:17)B:2705:*C57)]70D57!(-E!5*(75:51/E/C5(*)5SNKKM$5NPO8QUTD5:*C5Karin Barber takes text57(5/*2.-C)5:17)B:2705:*C5<)1+:.5#)1B(13:*2)05S>??L$5N8>KT'5I((,5!/07(1/:*5g:"!)&5I1(&*5!).#057(5B(2-057!)52(*2)#75+F5C)021/+-ing artefact5 :05 _:5 7)135&!/2!5 0-EE)0705 :*5 :-7!)*7/2D5 )]7:*75 0(-12)D5 *(75 :52(#/)CD5 71:*021/+)CD5 :*C5)C/7)C5<)10/(*b5 S>??P$5 L?>8UT'5J(&)<)1D5I1(&*b05description becomes complicated when we consider whether a copy of a video game can be an artefact, since there are no instances of, say, the

NNh5H))5g2A)*p/)5NKKK%NKMQ$5NUD5:05&)..5:05!/052!:#7)15(*5_\!)5I1(,)*5R!/:.$59(*8I((,5\)]70b5SUN8QUT'

Alan Galey102game Myst in the world that are not copies — or can such cultural works *)<)15:":/*5:17)B:27-:.507:7-0n5=!:757!)*5(B5:52(#F5(B57!)5H!:,)0#):1)5X/1075Folio, itself an edited text created in part from scribal transcriptions, but &!/2!5:C<)17/0)05/70).B5:05_R-+./0!)C5:22(1C/*E57(57!)5\1-)5`1/E/*:..54(#/)0b5SI.:F*)F5NKKO$5UTn5657!(1(-E!5C)Y*/7/(*5(B5artefact is beyond the scope of 7!/05)00:Fc5/*07):CD5/753:F5+)53(1)5-0)B-.57(52(*0/C)157!)5/*7)..)27-:.52(*-7)]705/*5&!/2!5&)5C)Y*)5:57)135./,)5digital artefact.

On its present course, digital textual scholarship may well turn out to be a continuation of the project of D.F. McKenzie. By the time of his death /*5 NKKKD5 !/05&(1,5 :*C5 /*[-)*2)5 !:C5 E(*)5 :5 .(*E5&:F5 7(&:1C5 C/0)*7:*-E./*E5 7!)5 Y).C5 B1(35 7!)5 (17!(C(]/)05 (B5 7!)59)&5I/+./(E1:#!FD5 :*C5 !:C5reintroduced historical and interpretive perspectives into editorial theory, &!/2!5#1)C)2)00(1050-2!5:05='='5V1)E5!:C57)*C)C57(51)E:1C5:05:52.(0)C5system of transmissible texts, human agents, and mechanical constraints.12 This essay takes its title from a phrase of McKenzie’s, for whom bibliog-1:#!Fb05E1):75</17-)5&:05 7!:75 /752(-.C5 _0!(&57!)5!-3:*5#1)0)*2)5 /*5:*F51)2(1C)C57)]7b5SNKKK%NKMQ$5>KT'5\!)0)5:1)5&(1C057(52(*r-1)5&/7!$57!)5#!1:0)5_any recorded text’ opens the scope of textual scholarship’s materials to :..5 3:**)15 (B5 &!:75g2A)*p/)5 2:..)C5 _*(*8+((,5 7)]70bD5 /*2.-C/*E5 _Y.30D51)2(1C)C5 0(-*CD5 07:7/25 /3:E)0D5 2(3#-7)18E)*)1:7)C5 Y.)0D5 :*C5 )<)*5 (1:.57)]70b5SNKKK%NKMQ$5PTD57(5&!/2!5&)52(-.C5:CC50(j&:1)D5+(1*8C/E/7:.5Y27/(*5and poetry, and now blogs, wikis, and social networking websites — the kinds of intensely socialized digital texts whose existence in a Web 2.0 world would likely have fascinated McKenzie had he lived to see it.NU It is worth noting that he tended not to describe computers simply as new tools for the textual scholar’s toolbox, but rather as a welcome challenge in a continuing professional obligation to account for new forms of com-munication. As McKenzie suggested in his centenary lecture for the Bib-./(E1:#!/2:.5H(2/)7F5/*5NKK>D5

N>h5\!)0)52-11)*7051-*57!1(-E!(-753(075(B5g2A)*p/)b05&(1,D5+-750))5/*5#:17/2-.:15!/052!:#7)15_\!)5I((,5:05:*5W]#1)00/<)5X(13b5SNKKK%NKMQ$5K8U?T'5X(15:*5(<)1</)&5(B51)0#(*0)057(5g2A)*p/)b05#(0/7/(*50))5<:*5C)15=)).5>??Qc57!)53(075#(/*7)C521/7/2/03053:F5+)5B(-*C5/*5\:*0)..)5NKKN'NUh5H))5:.0(5g2A)*p/)5NKKK%NKMQ$5NU5:*C5UK'5\!/05+1(:C502(#)5!:05#1(<)*5):0/)157(5)3+1:2)5/*57!)(1F57!:*5/*521/7/2:.5#1:27/2)'5X(15)]:3#.)D5;:</C5V1))7!:3b051)</)&5(B5I-1*:1CD5`bI1/)*5`bA))i)D5 :*C5@*0&(17!5 S>??OT5 !/E!./E!705 0)<)1:.5 #1(+.)305&/7!57!)52(..)27/(*b05(<)1:..52(*2)#7/(*D5#:17/2-.:1.F57!:75 _7!)5:+0)*2)5(B5#:/*7/*ED5C:*2)D5Y.3D57).)</0/(*D5</C)(5E:3)0D53-0/25S:+(-75:..5(B5&!/2!57!)1)5!:05+))*50(3)5very challenging discussion of late) makes the collection almost relentlessly text- (or ./*E-/07/208T5+:0)Cb5S>??L$5NUQT'

4. The Human Presence in Digital Artefacts N?UThat obligation has acquired a new urgency with the arrival of computer-gen-erated texts. The demands made of bibliography and textual criticism by the evolution of texts in such forms, the speed with which versions are displaced one by another, and the question of their authority, are no less compelling than those we accept for printed books. By the logic of our discipline, we’re )l-:..F52(33/")C57(5:2,*(&.)CE)57!:757!)0)57)]7-:.5:17)B:2705:.0(5)3+(CF57!)52(*C/7/(*05(B57!)/152(*071-27/(*'5Sg2A)*p/)5>??>%NKK>$5>L>8UT

This is a remarkable statement for being both progressive and conserva-tive at once. In the progressive sense, McKenzie naturalizes the expansion of textual scholarship’s circle of knowledge to encompass the digital, such 7!:757!)53(C/Y)15digital becomes redundant in digital textual studies. By his logic, to reject inquiry into digital artefacts is to reject the very essence of textual scholarship. But this vision of textual studies also conservatively extends the traditional concerns of print and manuscript bibliography to C/E/7:.5 :17)B:270D5&/7!5g2A)*p/)b05Y1075 7!(-E!705 7)*C/*E5 7(&:1C5 7!)5 )*--meration of versions and the establishment of authority among them.

Does digital textual scholarship then consist of applying existing C)021/#7/<)5:*C5:*:.F7/253)7!(C057(5C/E/7:.5:17)B:270n5\(5:*5)]7)*7D57!/052(*-servative approach works, and the single most edifying example so far may +)5A/102!)*+:-3b05:17/2.)5_WC/7/*E57!)5G*7)1B:2)$5\)]7-:.5H7-C/)05:*C5X/1075V)*)1:7/(*5W.)271(*/25`+r)270b'14 Taking as his subject canonical electronic literature such as Michael Joyce’s $8-%(**(5 A/102!)*+:-35C)j.F5 :##./)05:5g2V:**/:*5 :&:1)*)005 (B5 +/+./(E1:#!/25 2(C)05 /*5 1):C/*E5 7!)5 3:7)1/:.5nuances of born-digital objects. This mode of reading raises a question the Y).C5 /05 07/..5&(1,/*E5 7(5:*0&)1$5 _&!:75 /B5:5 7)]7-:.5 02!(.:1D5&)..8<)10)C5 /*5theories of textual editing, were […] to be given the task of preserving the original text of $8-%(**( in some stable and standardized electronic for-3:75B(157!)50:,)5(B57!)502!(.:1.F51)2(1Cn5J(&5&(-.C5(-1502!(.:15E(5:+(-75/7nb5SA/102!)*+:-35>??>$5UUT'5\!/05/057!)5,/*C5(B5l-)07/(*57!:750!(-.C5,))#5textual scholars awake at night, not to mention librarians, archivists, and literary scholars.

\&(5&:F05(B5:##1(:2!/*E57!)5:*0&)15)3)1E)$5Y10757!1(-E!5/*7)1#1)7:-tion, by showing how interface elements such as icons and windows in dif-B)1)*75(#)1:7/*E50F07)305:*C5<)10/(*053:F5:i)275!(&5&)5-*C)107:*C57!)5&(1,c5:*C50)2(*C57!1(-E!5C)021/#7/(*D5:CC/*E57(5(-15<(2:+-.:1F57)13050-2!5NPh5=!)*5 /75 :##):1)C5 /*5 >??>D5 7!/05 :17/2.)5 !:C5 :5 2:7:.Fp/*E5 )i)275 (*53:*F5 7)]-tual scholars, especially those of the generation that had grown up with personal computers in the home. Its importance was recognized with the Society for Textual H2!(.:10!/#b05#1)07/E/(-05X1)C0(*5I(&)105g)3(1/:.5R1/p)5 /*5>??U'5\!)5 /C):05#1)-0)*7)C5/*57!)5:17/2.)5&)1)5C)<).(#)C5/*5A/102!)*+:-35>??M'

Alan Galey104as layer, version, release, object, state, instance, and copy. These terms bridge the formalized languages of programming and descriptive bibliography, two worlds that make remarkably similar investments in precise language and meaningful distinctions. The bibliographical edge to Kirschenbaum’s approach allows him to delve beneath the surfaces of digital artefacts, illu-3/*:7/*E57!)5B:2)705(B53:7)1/:.52(*071-27/(*5:*C50(j&:1)5C)0/E*57!:753:*F5literary hypertext enthusiasts and cyberculturalists have tended to pass (<)15(15_3F07/BFb5SA/102!)*+:-3b05&(1CT5&/7!5&):,D5(i87!)80!).B5/*7)1#1)-7:7/(*05(B5#(07071-27-1:./0757!)(1F5S>??>$5>QT'5H):12!/*E5B(15:*5)])3#.:15(B5digital textual scholarship, Kirschenbaum’s article hearkens back to two recognizable strengths of the past century’s bibliographical tradition, one +)/*E5g2V:**b053:7)1/:./075!)13)*)-7/20D5:*C57!)5(7!)1D57!)59)&5I/+./(E-raphy’s rigour in accounting for the physical features of books.15

Yet for all its innovation, this early example of digital textual scholarship also relies upon a conservative view of scholarly editing as fundamentally #1)0)1<:7/(*:.5k5:*5-#C:7)C5<)10/(*5(B5V1)Eb05 NKU>5C/27-35 7!:75 _I((,05:1)5(B5<:.-)5/*5#1(#(17/(*5:057!)F5#1)0)1<)57!)5#:07b5 SNKKM%NKU>$5NUOT'5605textual scholarship extends its scope to include digital artefacts, it must do so while itself changing from within. In seeking to avoid the weak ver-sion of poststructural criticism, with its ill-informed descriptions of digital texts as inherently unstable and non-physical, Kirschenbaum’s analysis 1/0,05r)"/0(*/*E5&!:75&)53/E!752:..5071(*E5#(07071-27-1:./03D5&!(0)5/*[--ence on textual studies has prompted resistance to the idea of stable origins, interest in texts as mediators of power and not just as bearers of aesthetic worth, questioning of the construction and uses of canons, and valuing of multiple authority as richness.16 If hypertext theory in the nineties failed to understand how digital texts work beneath the surface, the computing humanists who did understand tended to underestimate poststructural-/03b05:+/C/*E5/*[-)*2)'5H-0:*5J(2,)FD5B(15)]:3#.)D53/02!:1:27)1/p)057!)51).:7/(*0!/#5+)7&))*57)]7-:.507-C/)05:*C5).)271(*/25)C/7/*E$5_7!)53:r(15C/B-ference between a printed and an electronic edition is that a fairly standard and well-documented model has developed for a printed edition, but no 0-2!57!/*E5)]/0705B(15:*5).)271(*/25)C/7/(*b5S>???$5NUUT'5W<)*5)/E!75F):105.:7)15this remains an insightful statement about electronic editions, but it over-.((,057!)5#1(B(-*C52!:*E)057!)5#1/*75_3(C).b5-*C)1&)*75/*57!)5&:,)5(B57!)5

NQh5\!)5:##)*C/]5 7(5A/102!)*+:-3b05:17/2.)D5 7/7.)C5 _\(&:1C05H(3)5R1/*2/#.)05(B5Computational Description’, is a deliberate echo of Fredson Bowers’s landmark NKPK5+((,D5Principles of Bibliographical Description.NOh5\!)5#!1:0)5_3-.7/#.)5:-7!(1/7F5/051/2!*)00b52(3)05B1(35g2^)(C5NKM>$5P>N'

4. The Human Presence in Digital Artefacts 105New Bibliography’s dethroning through the eighties and nineties, which C1)&5 B(12)5 B1(35 7!)5 /*[-]5(B5#(07071-27-1:./075 7!)(1F5 /*5 ./7)1:1F5 07-C/)0'56.7!(-E!5 7)]7-:.5 02!(.:10!/#5 (j)*5#1)0)*705 /70).B5 /*5 :5 2(*0)1<:7/<)5 ./E!75as a conduit of tradition and guardian of cultural heritage, its own future depends upon recognizing, pace5V1)ED5 7!:75 :..5 1)2(1C)C5 7)]705 :1)5 :.0(5(B5value in proportion as they provoke thought and change in the present.

U'5G*7)1B:2)5:*C57!)5H7:,)05(B5;)0/E*

Long-term preservation of digital heritage begins with the design of reliable systems and procedures which will produce authentic and stable digital objects.

UNESCO Charter on the Preservation of Digital Heritage, article 5

Tensions between tools and materials in the digital humanities manifest themselves in both the design and analysis of digital artefacts. In particu-lar, the preservation imperative described above brings cultural pressures 7(5+):15-#(*5:..57)]7-:.502!(.:10!/#D5C/E/7:.5:*C5(7!)1&/0)D50-2!57!:75V1)E5-0)05 .(:C)C5&(1C05&!)*5 !)5 0#):,05 (B5 +((,05 :05 :5 _#1)2/(-05 /*!)1/7:*2)b5SNKMM%NKU>$5NUOT'5;/E/7:.57)]705.:2,57!)50:3)50F3+(./2507:7-05:05C(2-3)*705like the Magna Carta, Shakespeare First Folio, or United States Declaration of Independence, each of which confers a sense of material origin upon master narratives. We can see tensions at work in some of these documents’ C/E/7:.52(-*7)1#:1705(*57!)5=)+D50#)2/Y2:..F5+F51):C/*E57!)/15@Z^05B(152(*-*(7:7/(*05(B507:+/./7F5:*C5:-7!)*7/2/7F'5J)1)5:1)57&(5)]:3#.)0$

Universal Declaration of Human Rightswww.un.org/Overview/rights.html

Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedomslaws.justice.gc.ca/en/charter/

In both cases, human-readability coincides with machine-readability in the B(135(B57!)5=)+5:CC1)00D5&!/2!5/*57-1*52(*Y13057!)507:+/./7F5(B57!)52(*7)*75of these foundational documents. Future stability of such digital artefacts is the concern of UNESCO’s Charter on Preservation of the Digital Herit-:E)D5&!/2!507:7)057!:75_\!)5#-1#(0)5(B5#1)0)1</*E57!)5C/E/7:.5!)1/7:E)5/057(5

Alan Galey106ensure that it remains accessible to the public’ (article 2). But contrast that C(2-3)*7b05(&*5@Z^5&/7!57!)5(*)05:+(<)$

UNESCO Charter on Preservation of the Digital Heritage#(17:.'-*)02('(1E%2/%)*%)<'#!#8@Z^tG;uNUUOLv@Z^t;`u;`t\`RG4v@Z^tHW4\G`9u>?N'!73.

6.7!(-E!5/75/05#(00/+.)57(5Y*C5:50./E!7.F50/3#.)15@Z^57!:75+1/*E05-057(5:5R;X5<)10/(*5(B57!)5C(2-3)*75S@9WH4`5>??UTD57!/05-*&/).CF52!-*,5(B52(C)5/05the closest thing we have to a stable address for the Charter in the native format of the Web. As a digital document, the Charter says one thing but C()05:*(7!)1D5 21):7/*E5:52(*71:C/27/(*5+)7&))*5 /705 2(*7)*75:*C5 B(13$5 7!)5aspirations of cultural heritage pull in one direction while the design of the code pulls in another.

These tensions become visible in digital objects through the double-</0/(*57!:752!:1:27)1/p)057)]7-:.502!(.:10!/#$57(50))5:75(*2)5+(7!57!)50/E*/-fying surface and what lies beneath. By nature textual scholarship resists the fallacy of screen essentialism, the tendency to essentialize digital text :05_):0/.F5)1:0:+.)5#/]).05(B5./E!75[/2,)1/*E5(*57!)5021))*bD5:05g:1/)8^:-1)5ZF:*5C()05 /*5(*)5(B5 7!)5 2:*(*/2:.5:17/2.)05(B5!F#)17)]75 7!)(1F5 SNKKK$5KQT'5G*5A/102!)*+:-3b05C)Y*/7/(*D5021))*5)00)*7/:./035C)#)*C05-#(*5_7!)5+/:05towards monitors and display devices in new media studies, where the <:075#1)#(*C)1:*2)5(B521/7/2:.5:")*7/(*5!:05+))*5B(2-0)C5(*5&!:75!:##)*05(*57!)5&/*C(&)C5#:*)05(B57!)5.((,/*E5E.:00b5S>??P+$5KQT'5\!)57)1352(3)05B1(359/2,5g(*7B(17b0521/7/l-)5(B52)17:/*5+/:0)05/*5*)&53)C/:507-C/)0$5

=!)*502!(.:1052(*0/C)15).)271(*/25 ./7)1:7-1)D5 7!)5021))*5 /05(j)*5#(171:F)C5:05:*5)00)*7/:.5:0#)275(B5:..521):7/<)5:*C52(33-*/2:7/<)52(3#-7/*E5k5:5Y]-ture, perhaps even a basis, for new media. The screen is relatively new on the scene, however. Early interaction with computers happened largely on #:#)1$5(*5#:#)157:#)D5(*5#-*2!2:1C0D5:*C5(*5#1/*757)13/*:.05:*C57).)7F#)-writers, with their scroll-like supplies of continuous paper for printing out-#-75:*C5/*#-75+(7!'5Sg(*7B(175>??P$5d*'#'fT

Under such conditions there was a more consequential distinction between input and output processes than we generally experience with PCs, some-times involving a gap of days between the submission of input and the receipt of output from a large, shared mainframe. This is not to suggest that screens are unimportant, but rather that critics need to balance their :")*7/(*57(52(3#-7)105:05(+r)2705&/7!5:*5-*C)107:*C/*E5(B52(3#-7/*E5:05process, in which the screen is but one layer of interface. To see the algo-

4. The Human Presence in Digital Artefacts N?Lrithm within the UNESCO document’s cumbersome URL is to understand the contextualizing system, just as the ./0-(102/&34-%0/$( illustration makes a point of revealing the system that humans normally cannot see (at least without a wrecking ball). When reading digital artefacts, textual scholars might question the conventional wisdom that the only good interface is a transparent one.

If textual scholars tend to position themselves at the threshold between the surfaces of texts and their mysterious depths — between Erasmus’s _03/./*E5Y).C0b5 :*C5 7!)59)&5o(1,5R-+./25^/+1:1Fb05 +-1/)C5 07:2,05k5 7!)*5digital materials may lead them to new kinds of thresholds. As in bibliog-raphy, questions about preserving and reading digital artefacts lead inevi-tably to the topic of their design. Reading the human presence in a digital artefact requires knowledge of markup, encoding, and even programming, 1:/0/*E57!)5#1(+.)35(B5*)E(7/:7/*E53-.7/#.)5Y).C0$5(*57!)5(*)5!:*CD57)]7-:.5scholarship (which some take to include book history, or at least to overlap 0-+07:*7/:..F5&/7!5/7Tc5:*C5(*57!)5(7!)1D5interface design as a catch-all term for a practice that brings together human-computer interaction, information design, usability studies, and programming. Textual scholarship’s close ties &/7!5+((,5!/07(1F50/E*/Y2:*7.F52(3#./2:7)5 /705 1).:7/(*0!/#5&/7!5C)0/E*5k5though such complexity can be productive.

\!)5E1):7)0752(*2)#7-:.5C/i)1)*2)5+)7&))*5+((,5!/07(1F5:*C5/*7)1B:2)5design lies in their temporal orientations. If textual scholarship remains focused on the past, interface design is naturally oriented toward the future. Interface design is all about how things should be, how to improve the deliverable yet to be delivered. This temporal orientation manifests itself rhetorically. Design gurus like Jakob Neilsen and Bruce Tognaz-p/*/57)*C57(5/*7(*)57!)/15:C</2)5/*57!)5/3#)1:7/<)D5(j)*50F*7!)0/p/*E5<:075:3(-*705(B5C:7:5/*7(5R(&)1R(/*75+-..)70'5X(15)]:3#.)D59)/.0)*5(i)1057!)50)*0/+.)5 C/27-35 7!:75 _W11(153)00:E)05 0!(-.C5 +)5 )]#1)00)C5 /*5 #.:/*5 .:*-guage (no codes), precisely indicate the problem, and constructively sug-gest a solution’.NL In this sentence Neilson implicitly looks forward to a time &!)*5)11(153)00:E)053:,)50)*0)D5&!)*521F#7/25_P?P$5*(75B(-*Cb5)11(105/*5web browsers no longer lead novice users to wonder if there were really :75.):075P?U5(7!)153/07:,)057!)F52(-.C5!:<)53:C)'5\!/05(1/)*7:7/(*50#:*05the continuum from professional to academic writing on design, including &(1,57!:75/05*(75(<)17.F5#:175(B57!)5_!(&87(b5E)*1)'NM NLh5q:,(+59)/.0)*D5_\)*5@0:+/./7F5J)-1/07/20bD5@0)G7'2(35!"#$%%&&&'-0)/7'2(3%#:-#)10%!)-1/07/2%!)-1/07/2t./07'!73.5S>??QT5d:22)00)C5NK%N?%>??Mf'NMh5X(15)]:3#.)D50))5;/..(*5>??P5:*C5:*F5(B5\-j)b05+((,0D50-2!5:05Visual Explana-

Alan GaleyN?MIF52(*71:07D5+((,5!/07(1F5/05r-0757!:7$5history. It looks back to how things

were, even in the very recent past, and how they came to be as they are. To those ends, its chief products are narratives in the form of scholarly books and articles. Increasingly though, the term history of the book is expand-ing into history and future of the book, generally a positive development but by no means a straightforward one, since the future is not available for study in the same way as the past. The digital humanities’ most produc-7/<)51)0#(*0)5 7(5 7!/05C/w2-.7F5!:05+))*5 7(5:0,5 _&!F50#)2-.:7)5&!)*5&)52:*5#1(7(7F#)nbc57!:75/0D57(51)E:1C57!)5B-7-1)5(B57!)5+((,5:050(3)7!/*E5&)5create, not just observe and comment upon.

\!/05C/i)1)*2)5 /*5 7)3#(1:.5C/0#(0/7/(*05C()0D5!(&)<)1D5 .):C5 7(5 71:C)8(i0'5GB571:C/7/(*:.57)]7-:.502!(.:10!/#52:*50))357((5!/07(1/2:.D5&/7!5/705#1)0-ervation imperative acting as a brake on any experimental tradition from within, then so too can interface design be accused of not being historical enough, sometimes uncritically assuming a synchronic view of readers and texts that ignores cultural, historical, and political contexts. This is not 7(5 0-EE)075 7!:75C)0/E*5 .:2,05:*5!/07(1/2:.5C/02(-10)5(B5 /705(&*c5l-/7)5 7!)5contrary. For example, the history of design is a core component of most C)E1))5#1(E1:305 /*5 7!)5Y).CD5 :*C5WC&:1C5\-j)b05 +((,05 (*5 /*B(13:7/(*5design exemplify a breadth of historical and cultural materials that most textual scholars would admire. However, a substantial part of computer interface design has nonetheless developed in a way that disregards his-torical understanding as central to the knowledge it produces. Similarly, \-j)5!/30).B5C1:&05(*57!)5&(1,5(B5+((,5!/07(1/:*057(5(i)15!/05/*0/E!7B-.51):C/*E05(B5_</0-:.52(*B)27/(*0b5/*50)<)*7))*7!82)*7-1F5W*E./0!5+((,05SNKKL$5N>>8QD5NUP8OTD5:*C56*C1)&5;/..(*5+)E/*05:52!:#7)15(*51):C)1507-C/)05&/7!5:*5)#/E1:#!5B1(35I:2(*b05)00:F05S>??P$5UTD5+-75*)/7!)151):..F52(*7)]7-:./p)05!/05:1E-3)*75&/7!/*57!)50#)2/Y252(*2)1*05(B57!)50)<)*7))*7!52)*7-1FD57!)5way a literary critic or cultural historian would. History here is not even +:2,E1(-*CD5.)75:.(*)52(*7)]7c5/75/05(*.F5:50(-12)5(B53:7)1/:.0'5=1/7/*E5./,)5:52-.7-1:.5!/07(1/:*5/05*(75\-j)b05*(15;/..(*b05#-1#(0)D50/*2)57!)5)#/07)3(-logical context for their approaches is not history but cognitive science, just as it is with the interface design coming from computer science. That is by no means a weakness — both of their works cited here are excellent intro-C-27/(*057(57!)/157(#/205k5+-75/75/05:5C/i)1)*2)57!:753-075+)5:2,*(&.)CE)C'

For digital textual scholars the problem is not that the humanities :*C5 S0(2/:.T5 02/)*2)05 :1)5 C/i)1)*7D5 +-75 7!:75 :5 #0F2!(.(E/2:.5 (15 !/07(1/2:.5

tions5SNKKLT'

4. The Human Presence in Digital Artefacts N?Kperspective may present itself as the only valid one. This essay sides with the historical perspective mainly because it has been neglected in inter-face design, which looks instead to cognitive science for its epistemological B1:3)&(1,'5Z(*:.C5;:F50-EE)07057!:757!)5(1/E/*5(B57!/0571:C)8(i5+)7&))*5disciplines was the constitution of information studies in response to cor-porate and military needs in postwar America, resulting in

&/..B-.5 /E*(1:*2)5(B5g:1]/07D5 *(*l-:*7/7:7/<)D5 *(*8_#1:27/2:.bD5 :*CD5 .:1E).FD5non-American analyses of information — analyses of information and soci-ety and culture have almost totally been given over to so-called informa-tion specialists and public policy planners, mainly from computer science, business and business schools, the government, and the quantitative social 02/)*2)0'5S;:F5>??N$5QT

\!)52(*0)l-)*2)5B(151).:7)C5Y).C050-2!5:05!-3:*82(3#-7)15/*7)1:27/(*5!:05+))*5&!:75;:F52:..05:5#1(+.)3:7/25_B(2-05(*5l-:*7/7:7/<)53)7!(C05(B5:*:.F-sis, a neglect of critical modes and vocabularies for analysis, a dependence on naive historiographical forms […], and a neglect of art and culture out-0/C)5(B5 2(*2)#7/(*05(B5!/07(1/2:.5 71:*03/00/(*5 S7!:75 /0D5 xcultural heritageyTb5S>??N$5Qc5)3#!:0/05:CC)CT'5\-j)b05&(1,5C)j.F5+1/CE)057!)52(E*/7/<)5:*C57!)5l-:./7:7/<)D5+-757!)5(<)1:..5C/02/#./*:1F571:C)8(i5;:F5C)021/+)053:F5&)..5account for blind spots such as the design of the UNESCO Charter as a digital artefact, as well as problems in other digital projects that lock their materials in a conceptual box labelled cultural heritage. Many of the literary texts which bear that label — Hamlet, Ulysses, The Canterbury Tales, The Prel-ude — have complex histories of transmission intertwined with interpretive concerns, and textual scholars may receive new kinds of illumination from 7!)53:7)1/:.5!/07(1/)05(B5Y.30D5:-C/(51)2(1C/*E0D5E1:#!/25*(<).0D5:*C5</C)(5games. The humanities’ investment in the inner complexity of materials #1(C-27/<).F52(3#./2:7)057!)57:0,D5:05g2V:**5C)021/+)05/7D5_(B51)8)C/7/*E5k5of representing — in digital form the entirety of our received textual and C(2-3)*7:1F5 :12!/<)b5 Sg2V:**5 >??N$5 NKPT'5;/E/7:.5 7)]7-:.5 02!(.:105 !:<)5found themselves charged with building a new humanities archive using someone else’s tools.NK

NKh5\!/050)*7)*2)5#:1:#!1:0)05g2;:F7)15>??Q'5g2V:**53:,)05:50/3/.:15:1E-3)*75/*50)<)1:.5#.:2)0c50))5>??N$5NOK8L?D5>??P:$5P?K8N?D5:*C5>??Q:$5NNP'5X(15:*5:*:.(E(-0521/7/l-)5(B57!)51).:7)C5Y).C5(B5:12!/<:.507-C/)0D50))5I1(7!3:*5NKKK$5OL8M'

Alan Galey110

P'5Z)./E/(-05G00-)0$5X(135:*C54(*7)*7

The sonnets of Shakespeare remain the sonnets of Shakespeare even in the 3(075:+(3/*:+.)5)C/7/(*'59(152:*57!)5Y*)075#1/*7/*E5/3#1(<)57!)/15l-:./7F'

Aldous Huxley, Introduction to Printing of To-Day5SNK>M$5NT5

With a few exceptions, accounts of the intellectual and institutional trans-B(13:7/(*05(B57!)5C/E/7:.5!-3:*/7/)05(j)*5(<)1.((,57!)57)*0/(*57!:751)0-.705B1(35-0/*E5(7!)15C/02/#./*)0b57((.0$5#-../*E5/*5(*)5C/1)27/(*D52(3#-7:7/(*:.5practices mandate the abstraction of content from the details of its presen-7:7/(*c5#-../*E5/*57!)5(7!)15C/1)27/(*D5./7)1:1F507-C/)05*(&5<:.-)057!(0)5<)1F5presentational details as integral to the interpretation of texts. Many of the 0(j&:1)5 7((.05 2(3#-7/*E5!-3:*/0705-0)5 7(C:F5 )3+(CF5 7!)5C)0/E*5#1/*-ciple of treating form and content as not only distinguishable (as literary critics do in order to talk about them), but also as divisible into components ./,)5zg^5 S)z7)*0/+.)5g:1,-#5^:*E-:E)T5Y.)05:*C507F.)0!))70'5 H-2!53:7-7)1051):2!5+)F(*C5#1:E3:7/20c5:056.:*5^/-5:1E-)0D5 7!)5 _2:1C/*:.5*))C05(B5transformability, autonomous mobility, and automation resolve at a more E)*)1:.5 .)<).5 /*7(5&!:753:F5 +)5 /C)*7/Y)C5 :05 d:f5 E(<)1*/*E5 ideology5 def$5the separation of content from material instantiation or formal presenta-7/(*b5S>??P$5QMc5)3#!:0/052!:*E)C5B1(35(1/E/*:.T'5^/-5*:3)057!/05_E(<)1*/*E5ideology’ transcendental data, in which the separability of data from their #1)0)*7:7/(*5</:5 7)2!*(.(E/)05 ./,)5zg^53):*05 7!:75 _(-15 /*7)1B:2)05 7(C:F5are ever more transparently just […] skins or, put technically, templates, schemas, style sheets, and so on, designed to be extricable [from content]’ S>??P$5 O>c5 )3#!:0/05 /*5 (1/E/*:.T'5 \!/05 /C)(.(E/2:.5 B(13:7/(*D5&!)*53:*/-fested in pragmatic terms, confronts digital textual scholars with the kind (B5C/.)33:5,*(&*5:05:5_1)./E/(-05/00-)b5/*5#1(E1:33/*E5r:1E(*$5/05/75C)0/1-able, let alone possible, to divide the content of a text from its material form B(157!)5#-1#(0)05(B53:2!/*)81):C:+/./7F5:*C5.:1E)802:.)52(3#-7:7/(*n20

G753:F5+)5!).#B-.57(52(*0/C)15Y1075:51).:7)C5l-)07/(*$5!(&5C/C57!/05#1(+-.)35(<)17:,)5C/E/7:.57)]7-:.502!(.:10!/#n5\!)5:*0&)15./)05/*5!(&57!)57!)(-retical and practical conversations about digital texts have unfolded in the humanities. The topic of interface arose late in the critical discourse, arriv-/*E5(*.F5:j)15(7!)105./,)5!F#)17)]75:*C53-.7/8./*):15*:11:7/<)5!:C5:00)17)C57!)/152)*71:./7F'5652:0)5/*5#(/*75/057!)5Y*:.5#:1:E1:#!5(B5g2V:**b05/*[-)*-7/:.5_Z:7/(*:.)5(B5JF#)17)]7b5S>??ND5/70).B5:5E)07-1)5+:2,57(5V1)Eb05_Z:7/(*:.)5>?h5`*51)./E/(-05/00-)5:*C51).:7)C57)130D50))57!)5Jargon LexiconD5!"#$%%&&&'r:1E(*'*)7%r:1E(*Y.)%1%1)./E/(-0/00-)0'!73.5d:22)00)C5NK%N?%>??Mf'

4. The Human Presence in Digital Artefacts 111(B54(#F5\)]7bT'5G*5!/052(*2.-0/(*D5g2V:**5#(/*7057(50(3)7!/*E53/00/*E$5

7!/05C/02-00/(*5(B57!)5C)2)*7)1)C57)]75!:05.)j5(-75(B5:22(-*757!)5:27-:.5/3#.)-3)*7:7/(*5(B5 7!)5 7!)(1)7/2:.5C)0/E*'5 G75!:05 .)j5(-75(B5 7!)5:22(-*75 7!)5user interface that organizes and delivers the logical design of the archive to spe-2/Y25#)10(*0'5def5653:r(15#:175(B5(-15B-7-1)5&(1,5&/7!57!)0)5*)&5).)271(*/25environments will be the search for ways to implement, at the interface level, the full dynamic — and decentering — capabilities of these new tools. Sg2V:**52001$5LPc5)3#!:0/05/*5(1/E/*:.T

This frank admission is belated in more ways than one, since the paragraph )]/0705(*.F5/*57!)5.:7)075#-+./0!)C5<)10/(*5(B5g2V:**b05_Z:7/(*:.)b5/*5Radiant Textuality (2001), not in the earlier versions published in the journal TEXT SNKKO:T5:*C57!)5+((,52(..)27/(*5Electronic Text: Investigations in Method and Theory SNKKLT'5\!)57)]7-:.5!/07(1F5(B5g2V:**b05(&*5_Z:7/(*:.)bD5(*)5(B57!)53(075/*[-)*7/:.521/7/2:.5)]:3/*:7/(*05(B5!F#)17)]7D57!-0507:*C05:05:50F*)2-doche for the critical discourse as a whole. 9(5.)0050/E*/Y2:*7D5!(&)<)1D5 /05 7!:75g2V:**5)*C05(*57!)5&(1C5 _7((.0bD5:5term that marks the borderline between the older hypertext theory and *)&)15 C/E/7:.5 !-3:*/7/)0'5JF#)17)]75 7!)(1/0705 (+0)1<)5 7!)5 )i)2705 (B5 C/E-/7:.57)2!*(.(E/)0c5C/E/7:.5!-3:*/0705:27/<).F5C)<).(#57!)3D5)3+(CF/*E57!)5design ethos of thinking through making'5SH(3)D5./,)5g2V:**D5C(5+(7!'T5o)75the no-nonsense pragmatism of digital humanists has not insulated them from repeating the mistakes of their predecessors. The late arrival of inter-face to the theoretical conversation has replicated itself in the lateness of interface design tools native to the humanities.

6.7!(-E!5 7!)5 +).:7)C*)005 (B5 /*7)1B:2)5 !:05 *(75 1)2)/<)C5 C-)5 :")*7/(*D5neither has it gone unremarked.21 Kirschenbaum notes two dangers of C)B)11)C5/*7)1B:2)5C)0/E*5/*5:5C/E/7:.5!-3:*/7/)05#1(r)27$5Y107D57!:75:5!:07FD5-*C)181)0(-12)C5C)0/E*5#!:0)5/05C/0#1(#(17/(*:7)57(57!)5/*[-)*2)5(B57!:75C)0/E*5/*57!)51):C)1b05)]#)1/)*2)c5:*C50)2(*CD57!:75C)B)11/*E57!)5/*7)1B:2)5:00-3)052(*7)*75/05C/07/*275B1(3D5:*C5#1)2)C)0D5B(135S>??P:$5Q>P8QT'5R1)0-)*7.FD57!)5Y1075(B57!)0)57&(5C:*E)105/05C/3/*/0!/*E5:057)]7-:.5#1(r)2705./,)5digital scholarly editions incorporate the lessons of usability studies from Y).C05./,)5!-3:*82(3#-7)15/*7)1:27/(*5SJ4GT'22 The more insidious danger

>Nh5X(15)]:3#.)D5g2V:**5+1/*E05-#5/*7)1B:2)5:05:5&:F5(B5E1(-*C/*E5:51)2)*75)]-2!:*E)5 :+(-75 C:7:+:0)05 :*C5 :12!/<)05 S>??L$5 NQMMT'5 X1(35&/7!/*5 :12!/<:.5 07-C/)0D5J)C071(35S>??>T5(i)105(*)5(B57!)5+)075)]#.(1:7/(*05(B57!)5./*,05+)7&))*5/*7)1B:2)0D5archives, and digital resources.>>h56*5)]:3#.)5/057!)5W.)271(*/259)&5m:1/(1-35H!:,)0#):1)5SC)021/+)C5/*5=)1-07/*)5 >??MTD5&!(0)5#1(7(7F#)5 /*7)1B:2)5&:05 7!)5 0-+r)275 (B5 :5A/..:35\1-078B-*C)C5-0:+/./7F507-CF5/*5>??L8M5Sg((1)D5V:.)FD5:*C5Z-)2,)15>??MT'5H))5:.0(57!)5`1.:*C(5

Alan Galey112is the methodological creep toward the separation of form and content, which runs counter to the humanist tendency to see the two as distinguish-:+.)5+-75B-*C:3)*7:..F5/*C/</0/+.)'5X(15)]:3#.)D5g2V:**5#(/*7057(5H7)<)*5DeRose’s proposition that a book is the same regardless of variables such as B(13:75Sl-:17(5<)10-05(27:<(T5:*C5B(*75SV:1:3(*C5>P8#(/*75<)10-05\/3)05N>8#(/*7T$5_H(5B:15:05G52:*50))D5*):1.F5:..57!)5.):C/*E5C)0/E*53(C).05B(157!)5scholarly treatment of imaginative works operate from a naive distinction +)7&))*5 :5 7)]7b05 xB(13y5 :*C5 x2(*7)*7yb5 Sg2V:**5 >??N$5 NMQT'>U Kirschen-+:-35).:+(1:7)05(*5&!F5g2V:**b05&(1C5_*:{<)b53/E!75+)5&:11:*7)C$

7!)5&)/E!75(B5 )07:+./0!)C5&/0C(35 /*5:5Y).C5 ./,)5 /*7)1B:2)5C)0/E*5 1)0705(*5a fundamental disconnect with the prevailing intellectual assumptions of 3(075!-3:*/0705k57!:75:*5_/*7)1B:2)bD5&!)7!)157!)5&/*C(&05:*C5/2(*05(B5:5website or the placement of a poem on a page, can somehow be ontologically C)2(-#.)C5B1(35&!:7)<)15 _2(*7)*7b5 /75!:##)*057(5)3+(CF'5SA/102!)*+:-35>??P:$5Q>PT

J(&)<)1D5&!:75g2V:**5 :*C5A/102!)*+:-35C)021/+)5 !)1)5 /05 *(753)1).F5.((0)57!/*,/*E5(*57!)5#:175(B5C)0/E*)10D5*(15:53:")15(B521/7/2:.5/*:")*7/(*57(5C/02/#./*)80#)2/Y25 7!)(1)7/2:.5C/02(-10)0D5+-75:5+:0/25 2(*[/275(B5<:.-)05between the text-oriented humanities and other, data-oriented disciplines. g)7!(C(.(EF51)[)2705)#/07)3(.(EFD5:*C57((.052:*5/*</0/+.F5/3#(175:00-3#-7/(*05B1(35(7!)15Y).C05/*7(57!)5!-3:*/7/)0'

=!:75 3:,)05 7!)5 _1)./E/(-05 /00-)b5 (B5 B(135 :*C5 2(*7)*75 0(5 B1:-E!75 /05that non-textual scholars like DeRose have only been repeating what had become conventional wisdom in their knowledge domains.24 That con-

R1(r)27b05-0:+/./7F51)0):12!5/*5I1(&*5)75:.'5>??O$5NL8>N'>Uh5g2V:**52/7)05;)Z(0)5/*5:5#1)0)*7:7/(*57/7.)C5_5H71-27-1)C5G*B(13:7/(*$59:</-E:7/(*D5622)00D5 :*C54(*71(.Db5 5 E/<)*5 :75 :5 NKKQ5 2(*B)1)*2)5 :*C5 :<:/.:+.)5 :75 !"#$%%0-*0/7)'+)1,).)F')C-%X/*C/*E6/C0%W6;%C)1(0)'!73.5 d:22)00)C5 NM%N?%>??Mf'5 X(15 :53(1)57!(1(-E!5)]#.:*:7/(*5(B5;)Z(0)b05#(0/7/(*D50))5;)Z(0)5)75:.'5NKK?D5(*)5(B57!)5(#)*/*E50:.<(05/*57!)5`J4`5C)+:7)5S0))5*(7)5>U5+).(&T'>Ph5H#)2/Y2:..FD5;)Z(0)5/*<(,)057!)5/C):57!:75:..57)]705!:<)5:*5)00)*7/:.5071-27-1)5in the form of an Ordered Hierarchy of Content Objects (OHCO), a tree structure of non-overlapping nodes that conveniently matches the structure of all XML docu-ments. The debate over the OHCO theory of text divided critics along the ques-tion of the materiality of texts — though some participants might characterize the C)+:7)5C/i)1)*7.F5k5&/7!5;)Z(0)D56..)*5Z)*):1D5:*C57!)/152(8:-7!(105(*57!)5#1(8`J4`50/C)D5:*C5(##(0/*E57!)35g2V:**D5J:F.)0D5:*C5(7!)105&/7!5./*,057(57)]7-:.5scholarship. From a textual studies perspective, the OHCO thesis lost in theory but &(*5 /*5#1:27/2)'5\!)53:7)1/:./075!)13)*)-7/205:*C53)C/:80#)2/Y25:*:.F0/05(B5g2-V:**5:*C5J:F.)0D51)0#)27/<).FD5!:<)5.(075*(5E1(-*C5/*5./7)1:1F5:*C57)]7-:.507-C/)0D5but the OHCO model is everywhere in our digital tools, from the structure of XML documents, to the historical core of the TEI guidelines (see !"#$%%&&&'7)/82'(1E%

4. The Human Presence in Digital Artefacts NNUventional wisdom has made its way into the humanities, for example in James Cummings’s explanation of XML’s usefulness to the Records of Early W*E./0!5;1:3:5 #1(r)27$5 _\!)5 /*21):0/*E5 0)#:1:7/(*5 (B5 2(*7)*75 B1(35 #1)0-)*7:7/(*:.5:0#)2705!:05+))*5B-*C:3)*7:.5B(157!)5/*7)1(#)1:+/./7F5:*C5[)]-/+/./7F57!:753:,)05zg^50(5<:.-:+.)b5S>??O$5NMNT'5I-75!(&5C(5&)5C)7)13/*)5<:.-)n5 R1:27/2:..FD5 0-2!5 0)#:1:7/(*5 /05 :5 &).2(3)5 2(*<)*/)*2)c5 /*7)..)27--ally, its value is suspect since it impairs textual scholars’ ability to use text encoding to model the complexity latent in their materials. Although Cum-mings accurately describes XML’s advantages over HTML for the encoding of born-digital documents like academic articles, his description becomes deeply problematic when applied to the encoding of non-digital materi-als like manuscript poems (he takes many of his examples from Chaucer). Cummings’s explanation overlooks the crucial distinction between pre-scribing presentational details and recording them — a non-trivial distinc-7/(*5/*57)]7-:.502!(.:10!/#D5&!/2!50):12!)05B(157!)5!-3:*571:2)05.)j5-#(*5material artefacts.25

The seductiveness of form-content abstraction derives from its ability to simplify the task of encoding, even for those trained to appreciate com-#.)]/7F5 /*5 7)]70'5=)52:*50))5 7!)5C/i)1)*75 7)3#(1:.5(1/)*7:7/(*05(B5C)0/E*5and book history mirrored here, as the conventional wisdom governing the design of new digital documents extends, anachronistically, to the read-ing of textual materials from the past. Cummings and DeRose represent a tradition which, in the spirit of the Huxley epigraph above, regards content as literally that — meaning contained in the language of a text. (Tom Davis, /*5:57(*E-)8/*82!)),5#:1:#!1:0)5(B5A:1.5R(##)1D57)13057!/05:"/7-C)57(&:1C5/*B(13:7/(*5:057!)5_+-2,)757!)(1Fb5(B52(33-*/2:7/(*5dNKKM$5N?Of'T26 On the other side of the doctrinal divide, McKenzie’s simple dictum stands in con-71:07$5_B(1305)i)2753):*/*Eb5SNKKK%NKMQ$5NUT'>L

V-/C)./*)0% [accessed 11/2/2010]), to the Document Object Model that underpins browsers and other Web technologies. See Schreibman 2002 for a balanced over-</)&5(B57!)5#(0/7/(*0c5B(15,)F5)*71/)05/*57!)5C)+:7)D50))5;)Z(0)5)75:.'5NKK?c5Z)*):15NKKLc5Z)*):1D5g2V:**D5:*C5J(2,)F5NKKKc5g2V:**5>??ND5:052/7)C5).0)&!)1)5!)1)c5J:F.)0b052!:#7)15(*5_\1:*0.:7/*E5g)C/:b5S>??QTc5:*C5Z(+/*0(*5>??K:'>Qh5R)7)15Z(+/*0(*D5B(15)]:3#.)D5:1E-)05B(157!)5<:.-)5(B5)*2(C/*E57!)53/*-7)075C)-7:/.05(B5#1)0)*7:7/(*:.5/*B(13:7/(*5/*54!:-2)1b053:*-021/#705SNKKO:T'5\!)5#1(+.)35/05*(757!:754-33/*E05/05-*:&:1)5(B5)C/7(1/:.57!)(1Fc5)</C)*2)57(57!)52(*71:1F53:F5+)5B(-*C5/*54-33/*E05>??L'>Oh5\!)5!/07(1F5(B57!)57)135information5/05:.0(51).)<:*75!)1)c50))59-*+)1E5NKKO5:*C54:#-11(5:*C5Jr|1.:*C5>??U'5X(15:5C/02-00/(*5(B57!)52(*2)#75(B5/*B(13:7/(*5&/7!/*57!)52(*7)]75(B57!)(1/p/*E57((.0D50))5g24:17F5>??>$5UM>8U5:*C5>??Q$5NN?'>Lh5605/B57(5#1(<)5g2A)*p/)b05#(/*75+F5:22/C)*7D5:51)2)*75+((,5!/07(1F5:*7!(.(EF5

Alan Galey114Paradoxically, the digital humanities have produced valuable practical

venues for thinking through such religious issues (for example, the Text Encoding Initiative), but also communities of practice whose theoretical :00-3#7/(*05 :1)5 *(&5 C/w2-.75 7(5 C/0.(CE)5 SB(15 )]:3#.)D5 :E:/*D5 7!)5 \)]75Encoding Initiative).>M5g2V:**b05 2.(0/*E5:1E-3)*75:+(-75 /*7)1B:2)5 /*5 7!)5_Z:7/(*:.)b5S>??NTD5!(&)<)15+).:7)CD5&:05:..57!)53(1)5<:.-:+.)5B(15#(/*7/*E5:5&:F5(-75(B5!F#)17)]757!)(1Fb052.(0)C52/12.)5(B50).B82(*Y13:7/(*'5G*51)71(-spect, hypertext theory now seems like a part of the conversation about digital textuality that mistook itself for the whole conversation, but the dig-ital humanities’ practical orientation should not mean a dismissal of theory. _\!)5/3#.)3)*7:7/(*5(B57!)57!)(1)7/2:.5C)0/E*bD5:05g2V:**5S>??N$5LPT52:..05it, has become no less a moment of theoria for the digital humanities, in the 0)*0)5 (B5J:*08V)(1E5V:C:3)1b05 C/07/*27/(*5 (B5 theoria as more than pas-0/<)5(+0)1<:7/(*$5_G75C()05*(753):*5:53)1)5x0))/*Ey57!:75)07:+./0!)05&!:75/05present or stores up information. […] Theoria is not so much the individual momentary act as a way of comporting oneself, a position and condition. G75 /05x+)/*E5#1)0)*7y5 /*57!)5 .(<).F5C(-+.)50)*0)57!:753):*057!)5#)10(*5/05not only present but completely present’, as when one is present in an :-C/)*2)5 7!:75 /05 B-..F5 _)*E1(00)C5 /*5 7!)/15#:17/2/#:7/(*5:05 0-2!b5:*C5 B-..F5:&:1)5(B5):2!5(7!)15SNKKM$5UNT'5G*57!/050)*0)5(B5theoria and presence as syno-nyms, the modelling of human presence in interface design becomes not just the implementation of a theory, but an act of theoria that enables one to think through these complex relationships. Textual scholarship has long )])3#./Y)C57!/05#!/.(0(#!FD5:05/*5I)1*:1C54)1l-/E./*/b05#/7!F5B(13-.:7/(*D5_)<)1F5)C/7/(*5/05:57!)(1Fb5SNKKK$5LKT'5@*B(17-*:7).FD5!-3:*/7/)052(3#-7/*E5practice has bypassed such moments of theoria in its tendency to think of interface design and text encoding as separate activities, each happening at opposite ends of the research plan. As Kirschenbaum points out, interface C)0/E*57((5(j)*52(3)05:05:*5:j)17!(-E!7D5.:7)5/*57!)5#1(r)27502!)C-.)5:05time and resources run out.>K The deferral of interface thus represents not 0(53-2!5&(1,5.)j5-*C(*)5:05:53/00)C5(##(17-*/7F57(5:17/2-.:7)5&!:7b05:75stake in how the humanities understand texts.

subtly changes the meaning of this statement by altering its orthographical form to _B(1305:i)2753):*/*Ebc50))5X/*,).07)/*5:*C5g24.))1F5>??O$5UO'>Mh5X(15C/02-00/(*05(B57!)5071-27-1:.5/3#(0/7/(*05(B57!)5\WG57:E0)7D5&/7!5#:17/2-.:151)B)1)*2)57(57!)50(3)7/3)08<)]/*E5}B&~5SB(13)8&(1,T57:ED50))5^:*2:0!/1)5NKKO$5N>U8PD5:*C5Ir)..:*C5>???$5>P8O'>Kh5H))5A/102!)*+:-35>??P:$5Q>P8Q'

4. The Human Presence in Digital Artefacts 115

5. Serving the Particular

[T]he universal in the humanities is in the service of the particular.A'56*7!(*F56##/:!D5_J-3:*)D56..5\((5J-3:*)b5S>??QT$5P>

The search for human presence in digital artefacts is also the search for the humanities’ place in digital scholarship. Both searches are underway even as the design of digital tools is moving in one direction while the theo-ries of textual scholarship are moving in another. Digital humanists caught between the tensions described in this essay should be wary of two species (B57!)50:3)5)00)*7/:./075B:..:2F$5(*)D5#)1#)7-:7)C5+F57!)(1/0705&/7!5(*.F5:5021))*8C))#5-*C)107:*C/*E5(B5 7)2!*/2:.53:")10D5:00)1705 7!:75C/E/7:.5 7)]705:1)5/*!)1)*7.F5-*07:+.)5S#1(C-27/<).F5(15(7!)1&/0)Tc57!)5(7!)1D5#)1#)7-:7)C5by computing practitioners who neglect theory, asserts that that the only aspects of texts worth knowing are those which may be modelled digitally. Screen essentialism thus has its counterpart in computational essentialism, and digital textual scholars must somehow navigate between the two. The challenge is to design interface tools that do not force business or (social) science models upon humanists. This step involves developing traditions of programming native to the humanities, and recognizing that program-ming and computer science are not the same thing.U? A further challenge is to determine how designing and prototyping, as keystones of the experi-mental tradition within the digital humanities, should relate to the archival and historical strengths of textual scholarship.

To put all this another way, what does the conjunction and signify in a term like history and future of the bookn5G05/753)1).F5:5!:07F50#./2)5+)7&))*5C/02/#./*)0D5(15:*5)]#:*0/(*5(B5:*5)07:+./0!)C5Y).C5/*7(5*)&57)11/7(1Fn5G*5the most optimistic light, the and51)#1)0)*7057!)5/3#)1:7/<)57(5Y*C5:50F*-thesis between reading historical artefacts and designing for the future. Although interface is by no means the only important aspect of digital tex-tuality, it is the area where such a synthesis is most needed. The response of textual studies should therefore be more strategic than simply pointing out when computing practitioners do not understand humanities materi-als. For a text encoder working under a computer science model to treat data as extricable from their presentation is consistent with best practice. For a literary scholar to treat texts as inextricable from their presentation

U?h5`*57!)5/3#(17:*2)5(B5C)2(-#./*E5#1(E1:33/*E5B1(352(3#-7)1502/)*2)5/*57!)5C/E/7:.5!-3:*/7/)0D50))541:*)5)75:.'5>??L$5QPc5B(15:5#)C:E(E/2:.5#)10#)27/<)5(*5#1(-E1:33/*E5/*57!)5!-3:*/7/)0D50))5Z(2,&)..5>??U'

Alan Galey116is also consistent with best practice. This is the methodological crux facing digital textual scholars of the present and future.

The solution lies partly in rearticulating a simple but fundamental idea 7(5:..50/C)0$5)<)*5:05&)5C)0/E*5*)&5C/E/7:.5:17)B:270D5&)5:1)507/..5 .):1*/*E5how books work, as well as manuscripts and other textual materials. By looking for something more than the authorial genius loci in texts, McKen-zie introduced new ways to answer the question of what is at stake in 7)]7-:.502!(.:10!/#b050):12!5B(15_7!)5!-3:*5#1)0)*2)5/*5:*F51)2(1C)C57)]7b5SNKKK%NKMQ$5>KT'5\!)5#!1:0)5human presence implies no less complexity than any recorded text, and digital artefacts, like any other kind, bear traces of the social worlds they occupy, not just of their creators. Just as Kirschenbaum rightly questions the easy binary that produces digital texts as unstable, so must we also be vigilant against the myth that, with the rise of digital technology, the human record is now moving from a period of fundamen-tal stability to one of instability. As print- and manuscript-oriented textual scholars have long argued, past textual forms were never so immutable to begin with.UN Textual scholarship may be the contrarian voice within the digital humanities, resisting those progress narratives which, in order to justify investments in tool-building, make texts computationally tractable +F50:21/Y2/*E57!)/152(3#.)]/7F5(*57!)5:.7:15(B5)]#)C/)*2F'5\!)50)1/(-0507-CF5(B5C/E/7:.5:17)B:2705C()05*(751)#.:2)57!:75(B5#1)8C/E/7:.53:7)1/:.0c51:7!)1D57!)5two must progress together or not at all.

Z):C)105(B57!)5g:F5>L7!D5NKNN5/00-)5(B5./0-(102/&34-%0/$( were shown :5YE-1)5(B57!)59)&5o(1,5R-+./25^/+1:1F57!:751)<):.)C57(57!)357!)57)]7-:.5C)#7!05+)*):7!57!)/15B))7'5G*57!)50:3)5E)07-1)D57!)5YE-1)5:00)17)C5:50)*0)5(B5mastery over the space of the archive, rationalizing it by means both of the retrieval mechanism and of the image’s power to depict it. Digital human-ists today are presented with similar representational systems promis-/*E5:50/3/.:153:07)1F'5 _=!:75C(5F(-5C(5&/7!5:53/../(*5+((,0nb51)3:/*05:5worthwhile question, but only if we remember that the humanities’ great advantage is the power to produce new knowledge using only a few books

— sometimes even one text. That uniquely powerful economy of scale C)Y*)05&!:756##/:!52:..057!)5!-3:*/7/)0b5_C))#.F5/C/(E1:#!/252!:1:27)1b$5C/02(<)1F52(3)05B1(35_:5#:17/2-.:15#()3D5:5#:17/2-.:15#:/*7/*ED5:5#:17/2-.:150(*:7:b5S>??Q$5P>T'U> For digital tools and methods to share in that distinctly qualitative power, they must be able to serve the particulars of texts with-UNh5X(15)]:3#.)D50))57!)51)2)*75C)+:7)5+)7&))*5W./p:+)7!5W/0)*07)/*5:*C56C1/:*5Johns in American Historical ReviewD53)C/:7)C5+F56*7!(*F5V1:j(*5SV1:j(*5>??>T'U>h5`*57!)57)135idiographic as opposed to nomotheticD50))5*(7)5K5:+(<)'55

NNL4. The Human Presence in Digital Artefacts(-750:21/Y2/*E57!)357(57!)5)]/E)*2/)05(B57!)5-*/<)10:.'5\!)5C/E/7:.5!-3:*/-7/)05*(&5B:2)5:5#:1:C(]/2:.52!:..)*E)$5+)/*E5C/E/7:.52(3)05*:7-1:..Fc5/7b057!)5humanities we have to earn.

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