The 1960’s

Leadership of the 1960’s

Kennedy, Johnson, Nixon

The Election of 1960

• Kennedy-problems of age, father, religion

• runs a skillful campaign-”New Frontier”

• The debates against Nixon-race closest since 1884-1st debate is key-image-strong tanned and wore a blue suit-<Nixon sick, just out of hospital, gray suit, sweating

Election of 1960

• another issue-Martin Luther King arrested with 52 others for sitting at a lunch counter reserved for whites in Atlanta-all were released except for King-sentenced to 4 months of hard labor

• Nixon-no opinion when asked-privately-called Justice Dept. to check Civil Rights

• Kennedy-phoned King’s wife, Robert Kennedy called a Georgia judge and got King released

• Kennedy wins by fewer than 113,000 votes-that’s a change of 1 vote in half of all the precincts in America

Cuba

• From 1933-1959-run by a dictator named <Fulgencio Batista

• 1956-Fidel Castro led guerillas begin revolt

• 1959-overthrows Battista-US recognizes Castro

• the deterioration of relations between Castro and US:

• 1. He holds mass public trials, executions-US denounces Cuba in the UN-accepts 1000s of refugees to Florida

Cuba

• 2. <Castro seizes business properties-US cuts off imports of sugar-Castro accepts Soviet advisor

• 3. January 1961-US breaks relations with Cuba

• plan: Cuban refugees would be trained by the CIA for an invasion. This action would set off a general uprising

• Eisenhower approves, Kennedy gives reluctant consent

Cuba and the Bay of Pigs

• April 17, 1961-1400 Cuban exiles landed at the Bay of Pigs

• only 135 were trained soldiers-rest were overage lawyers and professionals

• Air strike failed to knock out Cuban air force

• no ammo or supply ships are available to invading force

• distraction landing never went ashore

• Kennedy backs off invasion by US

• <Castro declares Cuba Communist and a member of the Warsaw Pact

Cuban Missile Crisis

• Summer of 1962-CIA reports that the Soviets are up to something in Cuba

• October 16-U-2 find 65 sites-offensive medium range ballistic missiles-reach Washington in less than 3 minutes

• Kennedy reaction:

• 1. Naval blockade (quarantine) the island

• 2. Missile attack by Cuba on any other nation is an attack on US-Monroe Doctrine

• Film and tape of crisis

Cuban Missile Crisis

• 3. Soviets dismantle or American planes would bomb them

• Soviets back down-US would not invade Cuba

Berlin Crisis

• Summer of 1961-Nikita Kruschev discusses situation in Berlin

• 15 years Soviets are unhappy with allied troops in the area

• West Berlin is thriving and East Berliners are exiting to West

• difficult to convince people of the virtues of Communism over Capitalism

• Kruschev threatens with firm measures if troops not removed

• Kennedy answers-US would not abandon West Berlin

• 4000 East Germans are moving West per day

• August 13-Soviets tanks and East Germans along the 25 mile border

• 4 days later a stone wall topped with barbed wire is built-The Berlin Wall

• The Berlin Wall webpage

Cold War Cools down

• Set up:

• 1. Hotline

• 2. US suspends Nuclear testing

• 3. Talks with British and Soviets in Moscow-Nuclear test ban treaty-ban testing nuclear weapons in the ocean, atmosphere, and outer space-113 sign

• 4. $250m worth of wheat to Soviets (surplus)

• <Sign at the Berlin Wall

Programs for peace

• March 1961-extend program of peace to Latin America-(Marshall Plan)

• Alliance for Progress-prevent Castro from exporting revolutionary ideas

• called for-$20b over 10 years to build schools, houses, sanitation facilities

• reform of tax laws

• break up large estates

• give farm workers land of their own

• 1961-1969-$12b to Latin America

Peace Corps

• March 1961

• volunteer working for 2 years in underdeveloped nations in Asia, Africa, Latin America

• agricultural advisors, teachers, health aids

• 1968-35,000 volunteers in 60 countries

Civil Rights

• February 1, 1960-sit-in at Woolworths in Greensboro, North Carolina-6 months later it is desegregated

• Freedom Rides-set up by the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)-groups of blacks and whites rode buses throughout the deep south to see if interstate travel was desegregated (Morgan v. Virginia)

• <Alabama-mobs beat many and firebombed buses-Robert Kennedy sends federal marshals into Montgomery

The March on Washington

• August 28, 1963-

• 200,000 people gathered in Washington DC to advance the federal civil rights legislation

• Martin Luther King delivers the “I have a dream” speech

• Photos from March on Washington

• More Photos of March

• “I have a dream” Speech

Civil Rights

• In the Universities:

• University of Mississippi-admit <James Meredith-qualified black air force veteran-Governor Ross Barnett refuses to allow admittance

• cited the Doctrine of Interposition-putting himself between the federal government and the people of Mississippi

• state laws on segregation were superior to federal law

• Robert Kennedy sends in federal marshals-rioting occurs-most are members of the K.K.K.

• John Kennedy sends in Federal troops

Civil Rights

• University of Alabama: admits Vivian Hood and Jimmy Hood

• George Wallace stands in the way

• that night-Medgar Evers NAACP shot by a sniper

• Birmingham-Evers’ murder charges blacks to go from nonviolent to militancy

• 1963-Eugene “Bull” Connors-gets an injunction forbidding King marches-let loose the police dogs and fire hoses-TV carries it

• Timeline of Civil Rights

• Audio and Video of Civil Rights

Civil Rights

• Federal Actions: 1961-set up committee on Equal Employment Opportunity

• 1962-Amendment 24-forbids Poll Tax

• November 1962-no discrimination in Federally funded housing

Kennedy Assassinated

• 1963-Kennedy and Jackie are headed to Texas to clear a riff in the Democratic Party

• November 22, 1963-12:30 pm, rode in an open motorcade with Governor John Connally and their wives

• as they passed the Book Depository-3 shots rang out

• an hour later-JFK pronounced dead

• later that afternoon-police capture-Lee Harvey Oswald

• 2 days later Oswald shot by Jack Ruby before millions watching TV

• too bizarre-Warren Commission-investigate-Oswald is lone gunman

• 1978-conspiracy likely although no evidence

• More on the Conspiracy

Lyndon Baines Johnson

• What problems face after an assassination?

• Gain trust, heal mourning nation, heal mourning nation, couple his programs with those that already exist, “fill the shoes”

• <LBJ-Great Society-Civil Rights Act of 1964-War on Poverty are cornerstones designed Americans “on the outskirts of hope”

Civil Rights

• Race Riots begin-1964-for three years more than 100 race riots will occur

• <Watts district to Washington

• 1967-67 separate riots-Newark NJ took 25 lives

• sparked by relatively minor incidences-white officers and black youths

• new leaders and “Black Power”

• Malcolm X-minister in the Nation of Islam

Black Power

• 1. Blacked owned businesses in black communities

• 2. Local control of schools in black communities

• 3. The use of black police officers in black communities

• 4. bloc voting to elect black representatives who would give priority to to the needs of black community

• 5. The development of a sense of pride in being black

• <Malcolm X

Women

• Women are in Low-paying jobs even though 1 of 3 women are working and 1/2 of those are supporting themselves

• colleges are pressuring not to study Unfeminine careers

• 1963-The Feminine Mystique-by <Betty Friedan

• report published that year stated women-discriminated against-recommended federal action to change this

• Congress passes Equal Pay Act-not effective-can’t enforce it

Women

• Women use the Civil Rights Act of 1964 as the legislation to help their cause

• founded the National Organization for Women (NOW)-Friedan first President

• Equal Rights Amendment-pushed by NOW

• <Brenda Berkman-one of the women at Ground Zero

Seeking Change

• <Hippie Movement-most cities in America such as Haight-Ashbury section of San Francisco-bushy haired people wearing jeans and fringed vests

• young and alienated from American Society

• found it difficult to understand poverty and unemployment in America

• most are from middle class white families

• resented and distrusted everyone over 30

Seeking Change

• Hippies worked at odd jobs-lived in inexpensive quarters they called pads-listened to:

• Bob Dylan, Simon and Garfunkel, Judy Collins, Joan Baez, Janis Joplin, Jimi Hendrix, the Rolling Stones, and the Beatles

• Also called themselves Flower Children-most social problems can be cured with love and community

• doing their own thing-some followed Timothy Leary-enjoy the here and now-don’t worry about the future

• Nothing bigger than <Woodstock in 1969

1960’s timeline

• 1960’s timeline• <Newark, NJ

Seeking Change

• Environmental Movement

• 1962-Silent Spring by Ralph Carson-regulate pesticide use

• smog, water, solid waste

• environmentalist causing alarm

• National Environmental Policy Act of 1970-must study effects on the environment on any federally funded project

• 1970-Nixon established the Environmental Protection Agency-control storage of toxic waste, force companies to clean up pollution damage and animal protection codes

• <Acid Rain Results

Seeking Change

• Older Americans:

• many more of these-life expectancy was 75 for women and 67 for men

• concentrated in certain states

• living in retirement towns

• continued to increase

• more and more as Baby Boomers reach 50’s