the animal body: introduction to structure and function achadiah rachmawati

The Animal Body: The Animal Body: Introduction to Structure Introduction to Structure

and Functionand Function

Achadiah RachmawatiAchadiah Rachmawati

The Animal BodyThe Animal Body 22

MulticellularityMulticellularity

Multicellularity Multicellularity and cell specialization enabled and cell specialization enabled organisms to evolve and adapt to many organisms to evolve and adapt to many environments. environments. UnicellularUnicellular organisms are limited by size and all organisms are limited by size and all

functions must be performed by the one cell.functions must be performed by the one cell.Cells Cells Tissues Tissues Organs Organs Organ systems Organ systems

Kingdoms

worms, insects, sponges, birds,

mammalsmulticellulareukaryoteAnimalia

mosses, ferns, trees, shrubs, plantsmulticellulareukaryotePlantae

yeasts, molds, mildews,

mushrooms, rustmulticellulareukaryoteFungi

algae, seaweed, protozoans, water

molds unicellulareukaryoteProtista

bacteriaunicellularprokaryoteMonera

ExamplesUni- / Multi-

cellular?Pro- / Eu- karyote?

Name


Organization of the BodyOrganization of the Body

Bodies of all vertebrates are basically a tube Bodies of all vertebrates are basically a tube within a tube.within a tube.all vertebrate bodies supported by internal all vertebrate bodies supported by internal

skeletonskeletonFour levels of organization:Four levels of organization:

cellscells tissuestissuesorgansorgansorgan systemsorgan systems



TissuesTissuesGroups of cells similar in structure and function Groups of cells similar in structure and function

are organized into tissues.are organized into tissues.Early in development, embryo cells differentiate into Early in development, embryo cells differentiate into

three germ layers.three germ layers. endodermendoderm mesodermmesoderm ectodermectoderm


Stem CellsStem Cells

Undifferentiated cells with Undifferentiated cells with potential to develop into potential to develop into many cell typesmany cell typesEmbryonic stem cells, more Embryonic stem cells, more

versatileversatileAdult stem cells, less Adult stem cells, less

versatileversatile

The Animal Body 7

Embryonic Tissues – all adult tissues are derived from one of three embryonic tissues

gut

Ectoderm = “outside skin”

Endoderm = “inside skin”

Mesoderm = “middle skin”

Cross section through embryo

Animal embryo

The Animal Body 8


5 Major Body Cavities5 Major Body Cavities

Cranial cavityCranial cavity

Spinal cavitySpinal cavity

Thoracic cavityThoracic cavity

Abdominal cavityAbdominal cavity

Pelvic cavityPelvic cavity


Fate of Embryonic TissuesFate of Embryonic Tissues

EctodermEctoderm will become the outer covering of will become the outer covering of the body and the nervous systemthe body and the nervous system

MesodermMesoderm will become the muscles and will become the muscles and internal skeletonsinternal skeletons

EndodermEndoderm will become the lining of the will become the lining of the gastrointestinal tract, lungs, vessels and ductsgastrointestinal tract, lungs, vessels and ducts


TissuesTissuesTissue consists of a group of closely associated, Tissue consists of a group of closely associated,

similar cells that carry out specific functionssimilar cells that carry out specific functionsTissues associate to form organs, such as the Tissues associate to form organs, such as the

heartheartGroups of tissues and organs form organ systemsGroups of tissues and organs form organ systems




Organs and organ systemsOrgans and organ systemsOrgansOrgans are body structures composed of several are body structures composed of several

different tissues that form a structural and different tissues that form a structural and functional unit.functional unit.

AnAn organ system organ system is a group of organs that operate is a group of organs that operate to perform the major activities of the body.to perform the major activities of the body.


Main types of animal tissue (adult vertebrates)Main types of animal tissue (adult vertebrates)EpithelialEpithelialConnectiveConnectiveMuscleMuscleNervousNervous

Classification depends on structure and originClassification depends on structure and origin

TissuesTissues


EpitheliumEpithelium tissue forms a continuous layer or tissue forms a continuous layer or sheet covering a body surface or lining a body sheet covering a body surface or lining a body cavity or every major surface of the vertebrate cavity or every major surface of the vertebrate bodybodyderived from all three germ layersderived from all three germ layers

ProtectionProtectionAbsorptionAbsorptionSecretionSecretionSensationSensation

Characteristics ofCharacteristics ofEpithelial TissueEpithelial Tissue



Types of epithelial tissuesTypes of epithelial tissuessimplesimple - one layer thick - one layer thick

squamous - lining of lungssquamous - lining of lungscuboidal - lining of kidney tubulescuboidal - lining of kidney tubulescolumnar - lining of stomachcolumnar - lining of stomach

stratifiedstratified - several cell layers thick and named - several cell layers thick and named according to features of their uppermost layersaccording to features of their uppermost layers

pseudostratifiedpseudostratified

The Animal Body 16

Simple squamous epitheliumSimple squamous epithelium


Simple squamous epitheliumSimple squamous epitheliumLines blood vessels and air sacs in the lungsLines blood vessels and air sacs in the lungsExchange of materials by diffusionExchange of materials by diffusion


The Animal Body 18

Simple cuboidal epitheliumSimple cuboidal epithelium

The Animal Body 19

Simple columnar epitheliumSimple columnar epithelium


Simple cuboidal and columnar epitheliumSimple cuboidal and columnar epitheliumLines passagewaysLines passagewaysSpecialized for secretion and absorptionSpecialized for secretion and absorption



Stratified squamous epitheliumStratified squamous epitheliumOuter layer of skinOuter layer of skinLines passageways into the bodyLines passageways into the bodyProvides protectionProvides protection

Pseudostratified epitheliumPseudostratified epitheliumLines passagewaysLines passagewaysProtects underlying tissueProtects underlying tissue


The Animal Body 22

Stratified squamous epitheliumStratified squamous epithelium

The Animal Body 23

Pseudostratified epitheliumPseudostratified epithelium


Epithelial membraneEpithelial membrane Sheet of epithelial tissueSheet of epithelial tissue A layer of underlying connective tissueA layer of underlying connective tissue

Mucous membraneMucous membrane Lines a cavity that opens to the outside of the bodyLines a cavity that opens to the outside of the body

Serous membraneSerous membrane Lines a cavity that does not open to the outside of the bodyLines a cavity that does not open to the outside of the body




Glands of vertebrates are derived from Glands of vertebrates are derived from invaginated epithelium.invaginated epithelium.exocrine glandsexocrine glands - connection between the gland - connection between the gland

and the epithelial membrane is maintained as a and the epithelial membrane is maintained as a ductduct

endocrine glandsendocrine glands - ductless glands - connections - ductless glands - connections with the epithelium, from which they are derived, with the epithelium, from which they are derived, are lost during developmentare lost during developmentsecrete hormonessecrete hormones

The Animal Body 26

GlandsGlands


Connective Tissue ProperConnective Tissue Proper

Connective tissues are divided into:Connective tissues are divided into:connective tissue connective tissue

divided into loose and dense connective tissuesdivided into loose and dense connective tissues

special connective tissuesspecial connective tissuesinclude cartilage, bone, and bloodinclude cartilage, bone, and blood

extracellular material generically known as extracellular material generically known as matrixmatrix


Connective tissue consists of fewer cells Connective tissue consists of fewer cells separated by intercellular substance, fibers in separated by intercellular substance, fibers in a matrixa matrixCollagen fibersCollagen fibersElastic fibersElastic fibersReticular fibersReticular fibers



Connective tissue contains specialized cellsConnective tissue contains specialized cells FibroblastsFibroblasts MacrophagesMacrophages

Functions of connective tissueFunctions of connective tissue Joins other tissuesJoins other tissues Supports the body and its organsSupports the body and its organs Protects underlying organsProtects underlying organs




Loose connective tissueLoose connective tissuecells scattered within amorphous mass of proteins cells scattered within amorphous mass of proteins

that form a that form a ground substanceground substancestrengthened by collagen, elastin and reticulin - strengthened by collagen, elastin and reticulin -

secreted by fibroblastssecreted by fibroblastsadipose cellsadipose cells found in loose connective tissue found in loose connective tissue

in the subcutaneous tissuein the subcutaneous tissuebetween many body partsbetween many body parts fibers in a semifluid matrixfibers in a semifluid matrix

The Animal Body 31

Loose connective tissueLoose connective tissue


Connective Tissue ProperConnective Tissue ProperDense connective tissue Dense connective tissue

regularregularcollagen fibers lined up in parallelcollagen fibers lined up in parallel

tendons and ligamentstendons and ligaments

irregularirregularcollagen fibers have many orientationscollagen fibers have many orientations

organ coverings - capsulesorgan coverings - capsules muscle coverings - epimysiummuscle coverings - epimysium nerve coverings - perineuriumnerve coverings - perineurium bone covering - periosteumbone covering - periosteum


Special Connective TissuesSpecial Connective Tissues

BoneBoneMany bones are first modeled in cartilage. The Many bones are first modeled in cartilage. The

cartilage matrix calcifies at particular locations, cartilage matrix calcifies at particular locations, thus chondrocytes are no longer able to obtain thus chondrocytes are no longer able to obtain oxygen and nutrients through diffusion.oxygen and nutrients through diffusion.

The Animal Body 34

BoneBone


The Structure of BoneThe Structure of BoneNew bone is formed by osteoblasts that secrete New bone is formed by osteoblasts that secrete

collagen organic matrix in which calcium collagen organic matrix in which calcium phosphate is later depositedphosphate is later deposited..cells then encased in spaces called lacunae in the cells then encased in spaces called lacunae in the

calcified matrixcalcified matrixBone is constructed in thin, concentric layers or Bone is constructed in thin, concentric layers or

lamellae, laid down around Haversian canals that lamellae, laid down around Haversian canals that run parallel to the length of the bone.run parallel to the length of the bone.contain nerve fibers and blood vesselscontain nerve fibers and blood vessels


The Structure of BoneThe Structure of Bone

Bone formationBone formation flat bonesflat bones - Osteoblasts located in a web of dense - Osteoblasts located in a web of dense

connective tissue produce bone within that tissue.connective tissue produce bone within that tissue. long boneslong bones - bone first “modeled” in cartilage - bone first “modeled” in cartilage

ends and interior composed of spongy boneends and interior composed of spongy bone


Secrete and maintain the matrix of boneSecrete and maintain the matrix of boneCompact bone consists of spindle-shaped Compact bone consists of spindle-shaped

units called units called osteonsosteonsCentral blood vessel through a Haversian canal Central blood vessel through a Haversian canal

surrounded by lamellaesurrounded by lamellae

OsteocytesOsteocytes



CartilageCartilagespecialized connective tissue in which fibers are specialized connective tissue in which fibers are

laid down along the lines of stress in long, parallel laid down along the lines of stress in long, parallel arraysarraysfirm and flexiblefirm and flexiblechondrocyteschondrocytes - cartilage cells that live within spaces - cartilage cells that live within spaces

(lacunae) within cartilage matrix(lacunae) within cartilage matrix

The Animal Body 39

CartilageCartilage



BloodBloodclassified as connective tissue because it contains classified as connective tissue because it contains

plasma and plateletsplasma and plateletserythrocytes - contain hemoglobinerythrocytes - contain hemoglobinleukocytes - have nuclei and mitochondria, but lack leukocytes - have nuclei and mitochondria, but lack

hemoglobinhemoglobin neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophilsneutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils lymphocytes and monocyteslymphocytes and monocytes

The Animal Body 41

(Matrix)


Muscle TissueMuscle Tissue

Muscle cells are the motors of the vertebrate Muscle cells are the motors of the vertebrate body.body. three typesthree types: smooth - skeletal - cardiac: smooth - skeletal - cardiacSkeletal and cardiac muscles are Skeletal and cardiac muscles are striated striated because because

their cells have transverse stripes when viewed in their cells have transverse stripes when viewed in longitudinal section.longitudinal section.Contraction of skeletal muscle is under voluntary control, Contraction of skeletal muscle is under voluntary control,

whereas contraction in cardiac and smooth muscle is whereas contraction in cardiac and smooth muscle is generally involuntary.generally involuntary.


Muscle tissue consists of cells specialized to Muscle tissue consists of cells specialized to contractcontractEach cell is an elongated muscle fiber containing Each cell is an elongated muscle fiber containing

contractile units called contractile units called myofibrilsmyofibrils




Smooth muscleSmooth muscle - found in organs of internal - found in organs of internal environment (viscera)environment (viscera)Contracts involuntarilyContracts involuntarilyElongated, spindle-shaped fibers lack striationElongated, spindle-shaped fibers lack striationEach fiber has a central nucleusEach fiber has a central nucleusResponsible for movement of food through the Responsible for movement of food through the

digestive tractdigestive tract



Skeletal muscleSkeletal muscle - usually attached to tendons - usually attached to tendons or bones, so when muscles contract causes or bones, so when muscles contract causes bones to move at jointsbones to move at jointsmade up of long muscle fibers that contract by made up of long muscle fibers that contract by

myofibrilsmyofibrilsmade up of highly ordered arrays of actin and made up of highly ordered arrays of actin and

myosin filamentsmyosin filaments



Cardiac musclesCardiac musclescomposed of smaller, interconnected cells, each with composed of smaller, interconnected cells, each with

a single nucleusa single nucleusinterconnections appear as dark lines called intercalated interconnections appear as dark lines called intercalated

disksdisks enable cardiac muscles to form single functioning unit - myocardiumenable cardiac muscles to form single functioning unit - myocardium

The Animal Body 47

Muscle tissuesMuscle tissues


Types of SkeletonsTypes of Skeletons

Hydrostatic skeletons Hydrostatic skeletons - fluid-filled cavity - fluid-filled cavity encircled by muscle fibersencircled by muscle fibersAs the muscles contract, fluid in the cavity moves As the muscles contract, fluid in the cavity moves

and changes cavity shape.and changes cavity shape.ExoskeletonsExoskeletons - surround the body as a rigid, - surround the body as a rigid,

hard casehard casemust be periodically shedmust be periodically shed limits body size as exoskeleton has to grow limits body size as exoskeleton has to grow

increasingly thicker and heavierincreasingly thicker and heavier


Types of SkeletonsTypes of Skeletons

Endoskeletons Endoskeletons - rigid internal skeleton to which - rigid internal skeleton to which muscles are attachedmuscles are attachedcomposed of cartilage or bonecomposed of cartilage or bonevertebrate skeletonvertebrate skeleton

axial skeletonaxial skeleton - forms axis of body and supports organs of - forms axis of body and supports organs of the head, neck, and chestthe head, neck, and chest

appendicular skeletonappendicular skeleton - includes bones of the limbs, - includes bones of the limbs, pectoral and pelvic girdlespectoral and pelvic girdles


Actions of Skeletal MusclesActions of Skeletal Muscles

Skeletal muscles produce movement of the Skeletal muscles produce movement of the skeleton when they contract.skeleton when they contract.attachment to bones made by attachment to bones made by tendonstendons

origin origin remains stationary during contractionremains stationary during contractioninsertioninsertion attached to bone that moves during contraction attached to bone that moves during contraction


Actions of Skeletal MusclesActions of Skeletal Muscles

Synergists Synergists - muscles that cause same action - muscles that cause same action at a jointat a joint

AntagonistsAntagonists - muscles that produce opposing - muscles that produce opposing actionsactions

Isotonic contractionIsotonic contraction - muscle and all fibers - muscle and all fibers shorten in length thus force of contraction shorten in length thus force of contraction remains relatively constantremains relatively constant

Isometric contractionIsometric contraction - tension is absorbed by - tension is absorbed by tendons and other elastic tissue, and muscle tendons and other elastic tissue, and muscle does not change in lengthdoes not change in length


Nerve TissueNerve Tissue

Cells include neurons and neuroglia Cells include neurons and neuroglia (supporting cells)(supporting cells)Neurons are specialized to produce and conduct Neurons are specialized to produce and conduct

electrochemical impulses.electrochemical impulses.



Neuroglia do not conduct electrical impulses but Neuroglia do not conduct electrical impulses but instead support and insulate neurons and instead support and insulate neurons and eliminate foreign materials in and around neurons.eliminate foreign materials in and around neurons.myelin sheath - insulating covering of neuroglia cells myelin sheath - insulating covering of neuroglia cells

wrapped around axonswrapped around axonsnodes of Ranvier separate adjacent neuroglia cellsnodes of Ranvier separate adjacent neuroglia cells



Nervous system is divided in the central nervous Nervous system is divided in the central nervous system (CNS) which includes the brain and spinal system (CNS) which includes the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) which includes nerves and ganglia.which includes nerves and ganglia.Nerves consist of axons in the PNS bundled together.Nerves consist of axons in the PNS bundled together.Ganglia are collections of neuron cell bodies.Ganglia are collections of neuron cell bodies.

The Animal Body 55


Elongated neurons receive and transmit Elongated neurons receive and transmit informationinformationDendrites receive signals and transmit them to the Dendrites receive signals and transmit them to the

cell bodycell bodyAxon transmits signal to other neurons, a muscle, or Axon transmits signal to other neurons, a muscle, or

a glanda glandSynapse is a junction between neuronsSynapse is a junction between neurons


The Animal Body 57

Nervous TissueNervous Tissue


Skin: An Organ SystemSkin: An Organ SystemIntegumentaryIntegumentary

EpidermisEpidermis: Stratified : Stratified epitheliumepithelium

DermisDermis: Dense : Dense connective tissuesconnective tissues

HypodermisHypodermis: Loose : Loose connective tissue and connective tissue and adipose tissueadipose tissue


Functions of Human SkinFunctions of Human Skin

Protects body from injury, dehydration, Protects body from injury, dehydration, UV radiation, and some pathogens UV radiation, and some pathogens

Helps control temperatureHelps control temperatureReceives external stimuliReceives external stimuli Involved in vitamin D productionInvolved in vitamin D production

Important stuff, this


Sun Damages SkinSun Damages Skin

UV light stimulates melanin productionUV light stimulates melanin production tans skintans skin

Tan protects inner layers against UV Tan protects inner layers against UV damagedamage

UV exposure causesUV exposure causeselastin fibers to clumpelastin fibers to clumpskin to age prematurelyskin to age prematurelyskin cancerskin cancer

The Animal Body 61

Nervous System

Muscular System

Skeletal System

Circulatory System

Endocrine System

Integumentary System

11 Major Organ Systems

The Animal Body 62

Lymphatic System

Respiratory System

Digestive System

Urinary System

Reproductive System

11 Major Organ Systems


Animal Organ SystemsAnimal Organ Systems

FunctionMajor

ComponentSystem

MovementSkeletal Muscles

Muscular

SupportBonesSkeletal

External Protection

SkinIntegumentary


Animal Organ Systems - continuedAnimal Organ Systems - continued

FunctionMajor

ComponentSystem

TransportHeart and Blood Vessels

Circulatory

IntegrationEndocrine Glands

Endocrine

IntegrationBrain and Nerves

Nervous



FunctionMajor

ComponentSystem

Waste Elimination

KidneysUrinary

Nutrient Acquisition

Gastrointestinal Tract

Digestive

Gas ExchangeLungs or GillsRespiratory



FunctionMajor

ComponentSystem

Internal Protection

White Blood Cells and Lymph Glands

Immune

Production of New Individuals

Ovaries and Testes

Reproductive

the animal body: introduction to structure and function achadiah rachmawati

Documents

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embryo cells

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