Forough-es-SaltanehHekmat

HIPPOCRENEBOOKS

ThisbookisdedicatedtoDr.AlbertH.Domm,ofLosAngeles,whorestoredmetohealth;tothemanyAmericanfriendswhourgedmetowriteit,andtomycountry,Iran,whichinspiredtheuniquecuisineandpoetrypresentedherewith.

Preface9

PARTONE

ChapterI-TheHistoryofPersianCooking15

APersianHoine19

TheMarriageCeremonyinIran20

TheBirthofaBaby25

TheNewYear26

Death31

PublicReligiousOfferings32

OfferingstoAllah36

ChapterII-FoodandEntertainmentwithinthePersianHome39

PrivateParties43

MannersandCustomsofthePersians44

ChapterIII-TheFundamentalsofClassicPersianCooking47

Utensils49

BasicIngredients50

PARTTWO

ChelouandPolou(TraditionalRiceDishes)59

Abgushtes(Soups)78

Khoreshes(Stews)go

Kababs(BroiledMeatsandVegetables)107

Kuftehs(MeatBalls)120

Dolmehs(StuffedDishes)124

Kukus(EggDishes)130

Boranis(PersianSalads)133

Desserts136

PastriesandConfections144

PreservesandBeverages159

AncientHealthNotesfromPersia175

EnglishIndexj81

PersianIndex187

DuringthenineyearsthatI livedintheUnitedStatesofAmericaIwatchedwithpleasurethecuriosityandinterestofmyfriendsinBerkeley,SanFrancisco,Los Angeles, and New York as they enjoyed the exotic and delicate Persiandishes I served to them. Itwas their urging that persuadedme to commitmyknowledgeofPersiancookingtopaper.

Increased communications and extensive travel fromone country to anotherhavemadeapygmyofourworldtoapointwhereallmenareneighbors.Todaythere ismore need than ever before for all people towork together toward amutual understanding of the customs,manners, andmorals of other lands andcultures.

Certainly one fundamental of life that all men have in common is food.Everyone must eat to survive, but different people have different foodpreferences and various methods of preparing their dishes. To understand thefoodhabitsand tastesofanothercountryenablesone tounderstandmorefullythatpeople'swayoflife.

Since food is generally based on tradition, I believe that to learn only therecipes of a country's classic dishes is not sufficient. Some knowledge of thetraditions behind the dishes, or at least some details of their historical andculturalorigins,seemsdesirable.However,tocompressthetraditionsofanationlike Persia, whose customs have changed constantly throughout the ages, isbeyondthecapacityofanyonebook.DespitethedifficultiesIhaveattemptedinthis book to depict typical customs of Iranian life, alongwith descriptions oftraditionalconceptsofculinaryartwhich, thoughdatingbacktoancient times,arestillinexistencetoday.

Formanycenturies the Iranianshave lookedupon food from threedifferent

points of view-the medicinal, the philosophical, and the cultural. Theirphysiciansandphilosophersconsideredfoodanddrinkastheprincipalfactorsinreviving the body and as an effective means to strengthen or weaken man'scharacter.Consuminganexcessofrichandluxuriousfoods,suchasenormousquantities of redmeats, fats, starch, or alcoholic beverages,was considered toprovoke evil thoughts and to convert a man into a greedy, selfish beast. Ahealthfuldietofvegetables,fruits,fish,fowl,andcertaindelicaciescomposedofmixedpetals andblossomsof roseswasbelieved to haveunusual powers thatcouldtransformmanintoagentleandnoblecreature.

ThisbitofwisdomwaspennedbyanancientPersianphilosopher.

Shortexplanationsofsomeofthefoodsandbeveragesbelievedtobethemostconstructive to health, because of theirmedicinal values, are given in the lastchapterofthisbook.

Thethirdpointofviewistheculturalandartistic.Foodwasconsideredanart,furnishingenjoymenttobothbodyandmind.AndsotheIranianscultivatednotonly the taste and flavor of their dishes, but the manner in which they werepresented.UnfortunatelymostoftheelaboratelyartisticandoutstandingdishesinPersianclassicalcookinghaveneverbeenrecorded.Inthecourseoftheagesthey have been passed down orally or visually from generation to generationand, as usual, each family proudly cooks its inherited recipes for its ownenjoyment.

NotonlydoPersiandishesvaryfromonesectionof thecountry toanother-justas,inChina,CantonesecuisinediffersfromPekingcooking-butfromfamilytofamily.Ingeneral thepeerageofShirazhasalwaysbeenfamousthroughoutPersiaforexceptionalskill in theculinaryarts,andmanyof therecipes in thisbookarefromShiraz,handeddowntomebymygrandmothersandmembersofmyfamilyonbothsideswho,generationaftergeneration,producedthesesamedishesintheirkitchensforvariouspublicofferingsandforprivateparties.ItwasinShiraz,athirteenth-centurycityinsouthernIran,whereIwasborn.ItisclosetoPersepolis,theancientcapitalofPersia.

Tosupplementtheserecipes,IhavetranslatedandtestedmanyotherswhichIhavegatheredforyearsfrommyfriendsofbig,oldfamilieslivinginthegreatestcitiesinthenorth,east,andwestofthecountry.

Nownothingmoreof importance remains forme to say except tooffermysincerethankstomydearfriend,MissFransesRichardsonofLosAngeles,theintelligent and learned head of the library of Twentieth Century Fox, whofavoredmebyreadingandcommentinguponthecompositionofthisbookwithgreat honesty; to His Excellency, Mr. Pahlbod, General Director of GeneralAdministration of Fine Arts of Iran and to Dr. Simin Daneshvar, Editor ofNagshoNegar,theperiodicalbytheAdministrationofFineArts,whograntedmepermission to reproduce theoldpaintingsandpictures in thisbook.Theirhelpwasindispensable.

F.H.

April,1959

LosAngeles

Haft Seen-Seven S'es, in amiddle class family at the time ofNewYear. TheitemsIhavetalkedaboutinthebook-especiallythegreengrassinthecenter-areshownhere.Theyoungmanislookingathiswatch,heraldingthearrivaloftheNewYear.TheothermanisrecitingfromtheQoranatthatparticularmoment.

asReflectedinPersianFeastsandSpecialOccasions.

Bos-hac-Thirteenthcentury

Persian literature is as richly beautiful as her hand-woven rugs, silks,brocades,delicatelyworkedjewelry,miniatures,andmagnificentarchitecture.Itis equally enriched by poetic references to Persia's culinary art, which theIranians, bymeans of their artistic skill, elevated to a high degree, producingmanymasterpiecesanddelicacies.

Therearemanyothersuchstoriesinwhichfoodordrinkplaysanimportantrole.

About 700 years ago a poet, Bos-hac of Shiraz, wrote a book of satiricallyrics,callinghischaractersbythenamesofdifferentfoodsandbeverages.Bymeans of these symbolic characters he narrated critical observations on the

politicalsituationofhistime.Usingthesamefood-namedcharacters,hewentontopenmanyofhisownphilosophicalideas.Inonehesays:

ArtisticallycombinedfoodshaveplayedamajorroleinthelifeofthePersianpeople.History has preserved numerous records of social and political eventswhereinfoodplayedapart.Theytellhowcrimeswerecommittedbymeansofdeliciousfoods, temptinglydisplayed.Manykings,amirs,andotherdignitarieswerepoisonedbyahalvapreparedbyaqueenoraslavemaid.Butmoreoftenhalvaplayedapeacefulroleinsettlingdifferencesbetweentwoormorepeople.Bos-hacwrotewisely:

Asmightbeexpected,womenhavehadagreat influenceon thecookeryofIran.ThousandsofrecipeshavebeendevisedbyPersianwomen.InthepalacesofPersiankings therehave alwaysbeenwomenwho, thoughplainof feature,have been held in highest esteem, frequently displacing in favor the mostravishing court beauties because of their incredible skill in the preparation offood.Even the averagehousewifewasaware that carefullyprepared foodwasappreciated,andshetookprideinherwork.

Consequently,home-cookedfoodinIranfaroutclassesindelicacyandflavoranydishespreparedintheinnsoreatingplaces.

Throughout the ages the influence of Persian culinary art spread to all theMiddleEasterncountries-toTurkey,Iraq,Armenia,andSyria-wheretodaythesesame dishes are prepared, but they all have their origin deeply rooted in theculinaryhistoryofPersia.

As in other countries, the people of Iran have special dishes for specialoccasions. Through the ages their culinary traditions have been faithfullyobservedatweddings,birthdays,andfunerals;at religiousandhistorical feastsaswellasatmanyformalandstategatherings.

APERSIANHOME

AtatraditionalPersianbanquetinaprivatehomeorinthemosques,thebestof foods and refreshments is set aside to be served to the public and the poorwith the compliments of the host. This custom from olden times is observedtodayeveninsmalltownsbythearistocracyandthewell-to-do-merchantclass,manyofwhomstillmaintain twoseparatehouses,eachclose to theother.Thefirst,calledtheandarooni(innerhouse),wassetasideespeciallyforthewomenofthefamily.Thesecond,thebirooni(outsidehouse)wasdedicatedtotheheadofthefamily,theaga,andhissonsandmenservants.Mostoftheaga'stime,untillate at night,was passed in the birooni,while he attended to his business andreceivedfriends,oftenservinglunchtothem.Ifguestswerepresentatnoontime,it was considered mandatory for the aga to offer food. Letting a friend oracquaintance leave one's house hungry is still considered the height ofdiscourtesy.

Atthesametimethewomen,togetherwiththeirmaidservants,hadtheirownfriends in to lunch in the andarooni.But preparingmeals for bothhouseswas

andstillistheresponsibilityofthematriarch,orkhanomofthehouse,whogivestheorderstothecook.

Both houses were completely walled, and the flower gardens, the carefullytendedtrees,andapooloffreshwaterwereallpartof theenclosedcourtyard.Betweenthepoolandtheflowerbeds thegroundwaspavedwith largebricks,andon summer afternoons carpetswere spreadon thesebricks and chairs andtablessetoutfortheheadsofthetwohousesandtheirfriends.Suchisstillthegeneral style of the houses, either large or small, rich or poor.But it is in themore sumptuous dwellings that many of the public feasts always have takenplace.

THEMARRIAGECEREMONYINIRAN

One of the most important social functions, even among the lesser-knownfamilies,istheweddingreception.Accordingtohistoricalrecords,manyancientweddingcustomsremainedalloverthecountryasthemostimportantpartofthemarriageuntilalmosttwentyyearsago.TheseceremoniesstillexistinallpartsofIran,eitherastheywereinoldentimesorwithslightmodifications.

Oneoftheoldesttraditionsisthatallthedelicaciesfortheweddingmustbepreparedbythewomenathome,somanyofthewomenwhoarecloserelativesandfriendsoftheengagedcouplegathertogetherinthehousesofboththebrideandthegroomduringthemonthprecedingtheceremonialdaysofthewedding.There they make a large number of special and elaborate pastries andsweetmeats. The quantity, of course, depends on the number of guestsanticipated,butgenerallymore sweets thanare requiredaremade so that theymaybesenttofriendsandrelativeswhoareunabletoattendthefeastandgiventotheservantswhohelppreparethefeast.

TheEngagementDay

Informerdaysallthewomenrelativesandfriendsofthecouplewereinvitedto lunch at the bride's home by her mother, to announce the engagement. Adiamond ring,a largeCashmereshawl, large traysofa specialweddingcandycallednogle,andabowlmadeofsugarcandywerepresentedtothebridebythegroom'smotherorsisters.Allsortsofcookies,candies,nutsnamedajeel,fruit,tea,andotherrefreshingbeveragesorsherbetswereservedbythebride'smother.

Today the engagement celebration is limited to an afternoon party and the

guestslimitedtothecloserelativesandfriendsofbothfamilies.Nogleandajeel,however,arespecialtreatsforthishappyoccasion,andtheirrecipesaregiveninalaterchapter.

TheMatrimonialCeremony

Theweddingday is themost importantonefor theIranianMoslemwomen.Prominent personalities known to the family are invited to sign the marriagecertificate,orgabaaleh,whichistheagreementofthedowry,ormahr.Themahroutlinestheamountofmoney,villages,houses,andgardens,oranyothersuchpropertywhichissettledonthebridebythegroom.InsomeMoslemcountriestheamountisinsignificant,butinIranitisaverycostlybusiness.ItisaformofprotectionforMoslemwomenagainstdivorce,therightofwhichisgiventotheman.Ifhewantstodivorcehiswife,heisobligedtopaythewholeamountofthe property agreed upon according to the gabaaleh. In cases where the wifewishesadivorce,shemayabsolveherhusbandfrompaymentofherdowry.

Thefollowingbeautiful traditionsandcustomsarestillfollowedeverywhereamongIranianMoslemfamilies:

At the time arranged for the actualmatrimonial ceremony,which is almostalwaysintheafternoon, thebridesits infrontofa largegold-orsilver-framedmirror.At the sides of themirror are two gold, silver, or crystal candlesticks,lightedwithcoloredcandles.Themirrorandcandlesticksarepresentsfromthegroom,symbolizingthehappinessandpurityawaitingthebride'sfuturelifewithhim. On her knee is an open volume of the sacred Qoran, while masses ofbeautifully colored and fragrant flowers surroundher.Fromhead to toe she iscovered with a gold-embroidered net veil, and a square of Cashmere shawl,embroideredwithgoldandrealpearls,calledaprayerrug,isspreadinfrontofher.Largegildedtraysareplacedoneachsideof therug,andonthe traysarearrangedlargepiecesofwhitecheese,fresh,green,aromaticherbs,andaspecialflat bread on which a poem of blessing and prosperity is written in coloredsesameseeds.Thecheese,greens,andbreadaresharedwiththeguestsaftertheceremonyasasymbolofprosperity.

The air is scented by burning incense, and the bride sits silentlywhile twoMoslempriests,representingboththebrideandthegroom,reciteprayers.Thenthepriestrepresentingthebrideasksherconsent.

"Young, noble, honest, and matured lady, are you willing to marry thishonorableman?"

Thenhementionstheamountofthemahr.

Threetimesheasksthesamequestion,butthereisnoanswerfromthebrideuntil the third time. It is at themomentwhen she says "yes" that she and thegroombecomelegallymanandwife.

During thisceremony threehappilymarriedwomenplayapart.Twoholdasquareofwhitesilkoverthebride'shead,whiletheotherrubstwolargepiecesof lump sugar together, making a shower of sugar on the silk. This actionsymbolizes thehappinessand sweetness thatwillbe thebride's inhermarriedlife.

After saying "yes," thebride is kissedon the foreheadby thegroomand ispresentedwithagoldringandaweddinggiftconsistingofapieceof jewelry.Thensheiskissedbyherparentsandthegroom'sparentsandisshoweredwithnoglemixedwithpearlsandwithgoldorsilvercoins.Thepearlsandcoinsaregatheredbytheguestsassouvenirs.

Asa rule thematrimonial ceremonies areheld in thebride'shome, and tea,otherbeverages,fruit,ajeel,andnogleandotherhomemadepastriesareserved.Then comes a happy interval between the wedding ceremony and the actualwedding night, during which time traditions important to the Iranians arediligentlyobservedbyallfamilies,richorpoor.

Oneoftheseisthedowry,orjahiz,presentedtothebridebyherparents.Theamountofthejahizgenerallydependsontheamountofthemahr-themorethemahr agreed upon by the groom, themore the jahiz,which consists of all thenecessities foranewhome, includingfurniture,carpets,draperies,chandeliers,mirrors,kitchenappliances,etcetera.Informerdayssuchitemsas largesilverbowls and jugswere given to the groom forwashing his face and hands, andbrooms, the handles embroidered with gold and real pearls, were includedamongthegiftsforsweepingthebride'srooms.Otherexpensivegiftsofclothingandjewelryforthebridegroom,hisparentsandbrothersandsistersandfabricsormoneyfortheservantswerealsopartofthejahiz,whichoftenrequiredfromtwotosixmonthstocomplete.

Anothertradition,whichisstillcustomaryinmanypartsofIran,isashower

for thegroom,but not, as inAmerica, for thebride.About aweekbefore theweddingtheeldersofthetownorvillagegathertogether,andeachpresentstheyounggroomwithmoney,orifthegroomisafarmer,thegiftsmayconsistofacoupleofcows,mules,orseedsforcultivation.

Takingthecoupletothepublicbathwasanotherhappyandpopularceremony.The custom still exists in some parts of the country. On the day before thewedding night the bride and groom, riding on horseback, were each taken toseparate public baths by their relatives. At the head of this happy processionweremusiciansandmencarrying torchesflamingwithperfumedoil.After thewashingwasover,thehappycaravanreturnedhome.

On the afternoon of the actual wedding night the bride's mother againentertained thewomen relatives and friends of both families at her home, andagainsherbets,nogle,ajeel,andfruitswereserved.Aftertherepastalltheguestsfollowedthebridetohernewhomeforthenuptialnight.Thebriderodeeitheronhorsebackorinadecoratedcarriagecalleda"movingthrone,"carriedbyfourhorses or mules. The interior of the carriage was decorated with puffed satincushions and draperies. Oncemore groups of musicians led the parade whileservants carrying flaming, musk-perfumed torches and jingling crystalcandlesticksilluminatedthepath.Thebrideenteredhernewhomeviaapathwaypavedwithflowers,symbolizinghernewlifeoffreshnessandbeauty.

For a specified three to sevendayswomenguests stayed at the inner housewiththebride,andtheirmealsincludedbreakfastsofpastries,whitecheese,tea,andfruit,aswellasmanyelaborateandcostlyspecialdishesforluncheonsanddinners.

Men friends and relatives stayed at the outer housewith the groomand hisfather,only for theweddingevening.Afterdinnerandbeverages, served fromteno'clockuntilmidnight,everyonewenthome.

Publicwedding feasts took place at the groom's home either three to sevendays before or after thewedding night. The number of these feasts dependeduponthewealth,socialposition,or importanceofthefamiliesof thebrideandgroom.

Onthemorningaftertheweddingnightagreatshowerofgiftspouredinfromparents,friends,andacquaintances.Thegiftsfromthemothersandfatherswere

always very specialbracelets, necklaces, rings and brooches of diamonds,emeralds,rubies,andpearls,andawrittendeedtoahouseorgardenorpartofsomeproperty.Thiscustomstillexistsalloverthecountry.

Whenmysister and Iweremarried, eachofuswasgivenhalfof avillage.Formerlygiftsweredeliveredbyservantsandweretakenfirstintothepresenceofthegroom'smother.Afterthattheyweretakentotheroomofthebride,inthehouseofthegroom'sfather.

SinceIranianwomenofficiallysetasidetheveil,overtwentyyearsago,andtook their place besidemen in the social world,many of these customs havebeen gradually changing. The younger generation has becomeWesternized tosomeextent,andfamiliesarenotaswealthyastheyoncewere.Noonestaysforaweek at thewedding house, as in former days, and often a party given at ahoteltakestheplaceofallthefeastingsandcelebrationsofold.

THEBIRTHOFABABY

Nextinimportancetoaweddingasareasonforcelebrationisthebirthofachild.WhilestillanimportantoccasioninIrantoday,theceremoniesaregreatlychanged.

Formerlydinnersandluncheonswereservedtorelativesandfriends.Womenwereentertainedintheandaroonibytheladiesofthehousehold,andmenwereentertainedinthebiroonibythefather.Ontheseventhnightafterthebirthofthebabyalargedinnerandreceptionweregiventoall.Onthatnight,forabouttwohoursbeforedinner, thebaby,dressed in itsbestclothes,waspassedfromoneelderlyandimportantladyofrankoragetoanother,sittingsidebysideonthesofas,chantingthefollowinghymn:

"Holdthebaby;passthebaby;Godprotectsthebaby."

Afterthatthemullah(priest)whohadbeeninvitedtoofficiatewouldcomeinto recite the prayer and name the child. Plenty of cookies, special candies,pastries, fruit, and nutsalmonds, pistachios, and fruit seeds-were served bothbeforeandafterdinner.Inmanyfamiliestheguestswereentertainedwithmusicand singing which continued through the night. On the following day all theleftover food was distributed to the servants and others who had labored topreparethefeast.Aconsiderablenumberofpoorfamilies,too,wereservedtheelaboratedishesspecialtosuchoccasions.Atthepresenttimetheseceremonies

are reduced to oneor two largedinners, given sometime after thebirth of thechild.

THENEWYEAR(Nowrooze)

Since8699yearsago,asshownintheZoroastriancalendar,Iranianshavehadtheirnationalfestivitiesonthearrivalofeachofthefourseasonsoftheyear,butthegreatestoftheseisthebeginningofspring,March21to22.ThisisourNewYear,anditisasoldandmagnificentasthehistoryofIranitself.

Nowrooze, as it is called,means "NewDay." It begins themoment the sunpassesthesignAriesinthevernalequinoxinMarch.InancienttimestheNewDay celebrations continued for forty days, and the entire time was spent inmusic,dancing,games,andvisiting.Theyweredaysofgreathappinessforallbut thosewhowere inmourning, and everyonewas excused frompaying anytaxesduring thoseholidays.Today the celebration lasts foronly thirteendays,butmanyoftheoldcustomsstillremain.

DuringthemonthprecedingNowroozeathoroughcleaningtakesplaceinsideandoutsidethehouse.Thefurnitureisrearrangedandallthecarpetsarewashedandcleaned.Gardenpoolsarecleaned,andnewflowersandplantsreplenishtheflowerbeds. In thekitchen, too, there isgreatactivity.The ladiesattend to themaking of a multitude of sweetmeats appropriate for the occasion, and aparticularsweetbreadfortheNewDayispreparedbywomenspecialists,whocometostayinthehousesforseveraldaysandnightstomakeit.

History relates that inancientPersia,at the firstmomentof the transition tothe new year, all the products of the earth available in the country had to bepresentedtotheshah,(king)byallthedifferentclassesofthepeopleinaspecialceremony.

Themost beautiful girl of the court,magnificently costumed, presented theshah with a large tray of gold on which was placed a token of all thecommoditiesofthecountry.

"Whathaveyoubroughttome?"theshahasked.

"Ihavebroughtyouhappiness,"thegirlreplied.

"Wherehaveyoucomefrom?"hequeried.

"Fromthelandofhappiness,"sheanswered.

"Whatdoyouwant?"hequestioned.

"Prosperityandjoyforall,uptotheEnd."

At thatmoment, by theorder of the shah, the rubies, pearls, diamonds, andotherpreciousgemswhichhadbeenhunginhugebuncheson thecypressanddatetreessurroundingthereceptionchamberwerepresentedtothepeople.Thetreesthemselveshadbeencoveredfromtoptobottomwithlargeleavesofgold.

By the same token, presentations were made to the grandees, nobles, andlandowners by their subjects. This official royal checking of the economicsituation of the country became a national ceremony of Nowrooze and iscontinuedtodayinallfamilies.

InthehousesofbothlargeandsmallfamiliesthetableisthehighlightofthehappymomentwhenthesunpassestothesignAriesinMarch.Thetable,calledhaftseen,meaning"thesevenS's,"isspreadwithawhiteclothcalledasofrehanddecoratedwiththeproductsofmanandnature-allsortsofvegetables,meats,fowl,fish,dairyproducts,eggs,bothrawandcooked,sweetmeatsandpastries,allmannerofnuts,grains,andcereals.Alsoputuponthetablearefreshwater,salt,flowers,amirror,andlightedcandles.Eachoftheseitemsissymbolic.Thespecialflowersforthetableareviolets,hyacinths,andnarcissuses.Young,greenbladesofwheatandlentilsareotherimportantandtraditionalitemsplaceduponthetable.AbouttwentydaysbeforeNowroozerawwheatandlentilsaresoakedand left to grow into amass of greenery. Then a clay jar coveredwith thesegreenshootsmustbe there foreachmemberof the family,asa symbolof therootsofhislife.

Theseverdant jarsaremostattractiveat the table.On topofeach is fixedalighted white wax candle, decorated with red, green, and gold designs. Thechildren'snursesandtheservantsusedtopreparethejars,thedecorativecandles,alsoorangesdecoratedwithartificialgoldleaf,andwouldbringthemaspresentsto the lady of the housewhowould, in turn, present themwith other gifts ofmoneyorexpensivefabricsandplentyofsweetmeats.

As theoldyeargaveway to thenew, themotherof thefamilyextinguishedthecandleswithtwogreenleavesorsmallwhitecandies.

Aspecialsweet,rich,brownhalvacalledsamanie,madewithwheatflourandwaterandcontainingquantitiesofwalnutsandalmonds,istraditionalattheNewDaytable.TherearemanyreferencesinPersianliteraturetothisdelicacy.

FromthefirstmomentoftheNewYearallthemembersofthefamilygatheraroundthehaftseen,waitingfortheoldyeartogivewaytothenew.If,foranyreason,amemberofthefamilyisabsent,hisorherpictureisthereinstead.Pastunhappinesses, anxieties, and conflicts are forgotten; if not, the person mustcarrytheburdenoftheseunfriendlyfeelingsforanotherentireyear.

ThearrivalofNowroozeissymbolizedbyanancientsuperstitionwherebyafeweggsplacedonamirroron the table seem tomove slightly.According toPersianmythology,theearthwasplacedononehornofamythologicalbullwholivesonthebackofanenormouswhaleintheseabeneaththeseventhstratumoftheearth.Onceayear,atthemomentoftheNewYear,thebull,tiredofcarryingweight on one horn, moves the earth from one horn to the other. The eggs,symbolicof theearth, supposedlymove to indicate themovementof theearthbeingtransferredtoanewhorn.It isamomentofgreatrejoicing,kissing,andembracing.

An amusing part of theNewYear celebration is that amothermust eat asmanycookedanddyedeggsasshehaschildren.Eventhosemotherswhonevereat eggs at any other time try to manage it. But I cannot remember that mymother evermanaged to eatmore than two eggs, even though she had sevenchildren!

AnotherfolklegendconnectedwiththeNewYear'sactivitiesisaninterestingoneworthrecounting.TraditionrelatesthatNowroozeispersonifiedbyBabaa-Nowrooze, meaning Old-Father-New-Day, and he is represented with a longwhitebeardandahoaryhead.Tendaysbeforehisarrival,whennewlifebeginsto awaken on earth, Mother Old (Nani-Nowrooze), who is waiting for him,prepareseverythingsothatitwillbeclean,fresh,andbeautiful-washes,sweeps,dusts,cooks,andcleansthewholeworld.Then,beingverytired,shetakesanap.Just at thismomentBaba comes andgoes.Waking,MotherOld finds she hasmissedhim.

"Ah,heisgone,gone!Iwilltakeaflameandburnthewholeworld!"

Andshebecomes so furious that shepicksupa flamingpieceofwoodand

throwsitontotheearth.Thewholeworldturnsintoflames!Andthehotsummerbegins.

Thechicken,vegetables,andfishwhichdecoratethehaftseentableareusedtomaketheNowroozepolou,aricedishwhichisservedeitheronthefirstnightor the first day of theNowrooze. The recipewill be given in a later chapter.Relatives,friends,andservantsareallinvitedtothepoloumeal.

Itisalsothecustomthat,aweekbeforeNowrooze,livechickens,eggs,freshfruit, yogurt andother dairyproducts arebrought to thehouseof the landlordfromhisvillages.GreatportionsofthesecommoditiesaredistributedamongtheservantswithpoundsandpoundsofriceandpurifiedbutterforthemtomakeaNowroozepolouintheirownhousesfortheirfamilies.

Alltheoldfamilies,includingmymaternalandpaternalfamilies,weremostparticularaboutcarryingouteveryphaseofthisveryspecialtradition.

On the very firstmorningofNowrooze the festivities begin, and receptionsand visits to friends are continued for thirteen days, during which time allschoolsandpublicofficesareclosedthroughoutthecountry.Itisthecustomforthe youngest and those of inferior station to visit their elders and those ofimportance in thecommunityfirst.Theeldersandimportantcitizensrepay thevisitatalaterdate.Evenslightaquaintancesvisitoneanother,andonthesevisitsgifts,mostlygoldandsilvercoins,aregiventotheyoungbytheadult.

On the thirteenth day, the last day of the Nowrooze festivities, whichtraditionallyissupposedtobeanunluckyday,allpeople,richandpoor,enjoyanall-daypicnic.Thislastdaymustbeobservedawayfromhome,withallsortsoffun, games, music, dancing, and the enjoyment of quantities of food andbeverages.The foodof thisday iskababs servedwithwine, ajeel, and specialsweetmeats.

DEATH

Another important occasionwhen food plays a role in the traditions of ourcountry is at the time of mourning for the dead. Formerly these ceremonieslastedfromthreetosevendays.Atthepresenttimetheyarelimitedtothreedaysonly.

During this timefriendsandrelativesgather in thehouseof thedeceased to

console the family. There are specific foods, desserts, and halvas for theseoccasions.Atthesametimewholemeals,withhalvaandfruits,aredistributedtothepoor.

Ontheafternoonoftheseventhdaythemourners,accompaniedbybothmenandwomen relativesand friends,visit thecemetery.Carpetsare spreadon thegrave and on them are placed crystal candlestickswith lighted candles, chinavases filled with flowers, and large dishes of sweetmeats, fruits, and halvas.Coffee,thebeverageservedonmourningoccasions,isservedtoeveryone.

After sitting for an hour on the carpets and quietly reading prayers, themournersretiretoaroomtolistentothemullah,(priest)whorecitesprayersandrelatesthetragicstoriesoftheProphetandhisfamilywhichofferconsolationtothe bereaved. Then they return home, and the candles, flowers, and foods aredistributedtothepoor.Thesameceremonyisrepeatedonthefortiethdayafterdeath,andfromthenonmourningisoveruntiloneyearhaspassed.Onthisdaytheseventh-dayceremonyisrepeated.

Aspecialkindofhalva,madeofeithersugarordates,isalwaysservedtothepoor during these ceremonies. In olden days, these halvaswere put in a largebowlandcarriedbehindthebierofthedeceased.Bos-hachasthistosay:

PUBLICRELIGIOUSOFFERINGS

The religion of Islamhas developed the natural generosity of the people ofIran.Theofferingoffoodandrefreshmentstothepublic,andespeciallytothepoor,isanexpressionofthatgenerosity.Publicfeasts,servedinprivatehousesorinthemosques,arepaidforbywealthyhostsandhostesses.

Therearetwodifferentoccasionswhenfoodisofferedtothepublic.Thefirstispurelyforcharity'ssake,andtheofferingisgivenatanytimeoftheyearbyonepersonor, in thesedays,moreoftenbyagroup.Thesecond isa religiousceremony which takes place on the specific days or nights of the mourningmonthsofMuharramandSafar(thefirstandsecondmonthsoftheArabicyear)andonthefastingmonthofRamadan(theninthmonthoftheArabicyear).

Allcharitydinnersusedtobefree.Nooneeverpaidforthem.Butsincetheinhabitants of the big cities havebecomeWesternized, someof themconsiderfreecharityfeedingsoldfashioned.Nowtheygather ingroups,arrangeaparty,servethefood,butsellticketstohelpthepoor.

Still,freecharityreceptionsarethecustomtosomeextentalloverthecountry.Theymaybeofferedinthankfulnessfortherecoveryofthehealthofabelovedchildorrelative,forthesuccessofadifficultbusinessorfinancialenterprise,ortoexpressgratitudeforthebirthofalong-wantedchild.Foranyofthesereasonsandmanymore,thebestoffoodisofferedtothepoor,andthefeastslastfromonetothreenights,dependingontheimportanceofthesubjectorthewealthofthebenefactor.

Religiouspublic feastings,on theotherhand,commemorateeitherhappyorsad events in the life of the prophet Mohammed and his family, such as hisbirthday, thebirthdayofanyofhis twelvedescendants (Imams),or thedayhewaselectedbyGodasHisApostleMessenger(Payghambar),whichisahappyoccasion forMoslems.Among the faithfulobserversof theseeventsaremanyaristocratsandwealthybusinessmen,whoholdthecelebrationsattheirhouses,as well as at the bazaars, mosques or at Hosainiyehs. Hosainiyehs are largehousesdedicatedtoImanHusseinbywealthymenandwomenforpublicfeasts.Theyhavevastgroundsandgardenswherethepeoplesitandareserved.

When there is a happy occasion, the head of the house, the Aga, receivespeopleofallclassesathisbirooni.Everypartof thehouseorof thebazaar iscleaned and carpeted and decorated with fresh flowers andmirrors and otherarticles of beauty. In the bazaars both men and women come and go, sittingawhileoncouchesplacedonlargecarpets toenjoyteaorsherbetwithcookiesandcandies.Onlymenareallowedinprivatehouses.

The sad religiousoccasions forpublic feasts are in themourningmonthsofMuharram, Safar, and Ramadan. Thirteen centuries ago, on the tenth ofMuharram, the martyrdom of Iman Hussein (Mohammed's grandson) and hiscloserelativestookplaceinthecourseofabattlewithacaliphonaplaininthesouthwestofBaghdad.TheplainisnowacitynamedKarbala.Thiscityaswellas Najaf and several other cities of Iraq near Baghdad are sacred cities forIranians, becauseAli, theProphet's son-in-law, andhis descendants are buriedthere.

Formanyages the Iranianshave expended enormouswealth in those cities,building magnificent tombs and marvelous shrines. They have presented themost precious jewelry, carpets, and valuableworks of art for their adornment.ThousandsofIraniansgoonpilgrimageseachyeartovisittheshrines,andmanyoftheextremelyfaithful,whentheyareold,emigratetoKarbalaorNajaftobeburiedneartheImam'sshrinewhentheydie.

During the twomonthsofMuharramandSafarpeople clothe themselves inblack. No marriage takes place in Iran during these sixty days, and in manyhouses of wealthy men and women mourning assemblies are arranged in themorning,afternoon,orearlyevenings.

Men,women,andchildrengathertogetherandsitonlarge,beautifulcarpetsspread over the brick-paved grounds between the pool and the flower beds.TheretheylistentoprofessionalnarratorswhoeulogizethedeedsofthemartyrsofKarbala.This traditional commemoration is calledRowzeKhani.When thenarrationsareoverandthepeopleare trulyaffectedwithgrief, teaorcoffee isserved by men, who walk among the seated guests offering to each a cup.Formerly,insteadoftea,theyservedrosewaterwithrockcandydissolvedinit-hotinwinterandicycoldinsummer.Infact thisisstillservedinmanycities.TheRowzeKhanilastsfromthreetotwentydays.

Butthemostimportantpartofthemourningisthedistributionoffoodtothepublic in theeveningsof these twomonths.Sofreh is thenamegiven to thesepublicdinners,andtheyareservedinthebirooniofwealthymenorwomenorinthemosques.Menofallclasses,butnowomen,arewelcometoeatofthespecialdishes for these occasions. Relatives of the benefactors, neighbors, friends,priests,businessmen,andthepoor,allgathertogetheroncarpetsspreadoverthegrounds. Tea is served first, then dinner. After the tea is sipped, a fewprofessionalnarratorsrelatethetragicstoryofKarbalaandotherunhappyeventsinthelivesoftheProphetandhisrelatives.Peoplelisten,shedtearsofgrief,andadmirethebraveryandunselfishnessofthosewhosacrificedtheirlivesaswellas their possessions to establish the religion of Islam. Then dinner follows,served on large wooden trays placed in front of the followers. The dinnerscontinuefromthreetotennights.

Eachnightatrayoffoods-halva,salads,andsherbets-issenttothehousesofthe variousmembers of the family and to the home of each neighbor for thewomen.Theexclusionofwomenfromtheseceremoniesisatraditionandeven

now,whenthewomenofIranareno longersecludedfromtheworld, theyarenot invited toattend.Afterdinnereachpoormancarrieshome tohis familyalargecopperbowlfilledwithrice,chickenandmeatdishesand,ofcourse,halva.

In Ramadan another public offering of food takes place. It is traditional tofeed the people at night, especially the poor, since they fast all day.Wealthybenefactors serve the very best of dishes at a feast called Eftari,meaning the"breakingofthefast."TheseceremoniesarelikethoseofMuharram,exceptforspecialdishes,recipesforwhicharegivenfartheralonginthebook.

During Ramadan parties and gatherings are held in the evening, becauseduring the day the people who are eligible to fast must devote their time toprayingtoAllah.Theyrelax,sleep,andpray,andsetasideall theproblemsofmateriallifeandworldlylust.Afterthesunsetstheyarepermittedtobreaktheirfast and again to enjoy living until two hours before the dawn. At that time,accordingtoreligiouslaws,theytakethelastoffood,andfastingbeginsagain.

A special dessert named "halva of milk" (halvaye shir) and a confectionknown as zolobiya are served at the evening parties during Ramadan. Thesesweets used to be made and sold only during that month, but today they aremadeandenjoyedatalltimesoftheyear.

OFFERINGSTOALLAH-NAZR

SometimesamotherdesiresGod'sprotection forherchild, andwillmakeavowtogiveamostvaluableanddeliciousfoodorhalvatothepoorinordertopleaseAllah.Thisisanancientceremony,whichstilltakesplaceinIran.SpecialkindsofhalvasarecharacteristicofthedifferenttypesofNazrofferings.

Afewdaysbeforetheanticipatedcelebrationtheservantsbegintopreparetheparticularpuddingorfoodwhichistobeserved.Therecipientsofthefoodarepleased,naturally,andthehonoredchildgrowsuptobeahappyadult,embracedinthelovewhichpromptedhisparentstosufferthelaborofmakingaNazrinhisbehalf.ANazrhasan importantpsychologicaleffectonachild'sheartandmind.

I have never forgotten two particular holy days-the twentyseventh of Safarand,sevenmonthslater,thelastFridayofRamadan.Mymotherhadlosttwoofherchildren,whodiedbeforemybirth.So,asanofferingformyprotection,shemadehervowtoAllahtoprepareaspecialsoup(aashereshte)ononeday,anda

halva(ardehkhorma)ontheother.

Thewholehousestirredwithactivityonthosedays.AndIfeltveryimportantto be the center of so much loving attention from the older members of thefamily, and to be treated with respect and awe by my younger brothers andsistersandourfriends.Eachofmybrothersandsisters,excepttheeldestbrother,hadonlyoneNazr,while the first sonof the familyand Ihad theprivilegeoftwo!

ThereisanotherNazrofferingwhichcausesmuchamusementforthechildrenof Persia.Once a year,when the figs are ripe, each child isweighed and theequivalentofhisorherweight, infreshredorwhitefigs, isgiventothepoor.Thisisrepeatedeachyearuntilthechildisaboutsevenyearsold.

Largescales,withapairofroundpanshungoneitherendofthehandle,areused.Itwasgreatfun tosit inonepanwhilefigswerepiledhighin theother.Oneatatimewewouldbehoistedupintotheairbyastrongmanservant,tobeweighed. Such excitement to be swinging up there!Andwe always protestedthatwewerenotweighedcorrectly,sothatthepoormanwouldhavetoweighusagainandagainandkeepusintheairaslongashisstrengthwouldpermit.Thefigsweredividedamongtheservantsandthepoor,buttheweigher'sportionwasalmostcertaintobemuchmorethanthatofanyother.

Sadi,thePersianpoet-Twelfthcentury

Throughout Persia the times for serving themainmeals of the day are thesameeverywhere, regardlessof thevariations inclimate.Breakfast isany timefrom6A.M.to9A.M.,dependingonthepreferenceofthefamily.Midday,fromnoontoiP.M.,istheluncheonhour,whiledinneroccursbetweenthehoursof9P.M.andmidnight.

In addition to these main meals, everyone partakes of fruits or sherbets inmidmorning,andafternoonteaisfrom4to5P.M.

The classic breakfast consists of hot tea and milk; bread, butter, fruitpreserves, honey; white Iranian cheese, either plain or mixed with crushedwalnutmeats;eggs,hard, soft,or scrambled;andapplesorgrapes in summer-orangesortangerinesinwinter.Bread,tea,andcheesearethesimplebreakfastof thewholenation. In theEasterncitiesofIran,during thehot,drysummers,the standard breakfast consists only of fresh fruits, and in the coldwinters inotherpartsof thecountryakindofhotcerealcalledhaleemandasoupcalledgipaareenjoyed.

Themidmorningrefreshmentsinwinterconsistoforangesandpomegranatesand, in summer, all sorts of watermelons, cantaloupes, peaches, cucumbers,romaine,andsherbets.

Thefoodsforlunchanddinnerarepracticallythesame.Onekindofpolouor

chelou(ricedishes)andadishofmeat(khoresh)isalwaysonthetable.EveniftheAgaandhisladydonotcareforthemtheymust,nevertheless,bemadeforthe servants. Other kinds of meat dishes, fish, soups, desserts, yogurt, andseasonalfruitsarethechiefitemsservedforbothlunchanddinner.

From ancient days until the Iranians came into close contact with first theArabs and then the Mongols, who temporarily ruled Iran, they sat on short-leggedchairs,namedkorsi,andusedverylowtablesfordining.Butsincethosetribal rulersusedno tablenorchairs,butsaton theground toeat, the Iraniansgradually changed their habits. Beautifully designed, thick carpets and thickplushcushionsandmattressesmadethecustomgraciousandcomfortable,anditisstill,onmanyoccasions,adelightfulcustom,eveninhousesthatarefurnishedwiththelatestfurniture,tositonthefloor.Ofcoursenoonewouldeverthinkofstepping intoa roomoroveracarpetwith shoeson; shoeswere,andstill are,removedattheentrancetosucharoom.

The food was placed on a clean, white cloth, or which was placed over aleathersofrehofthesamesizespreadonthefloor.Sittingatthesofreh,membersof the family and their guests ate everything but soup and dessert with thefingersoftheirrighthands.Forsoupsanddesserts,ashorthandledChinesesilverorwoodenspoonwasused.

Washing thehandscarefullybeforeeachmealwasadhered to strictly. I stillremembervividlywhenthetall,slenderNegromaidwhosejobitwastoattendto the water pipe for my father, and to the hot water for washing the hands,would come into the dining room atmealtime. She had a large, shining brassbowlinonehandandalargebrassjarofhotwaterandsometowelsintheother.She would kneel first in front of the guests and wash their hands, then myfather's, mother's, eldest brother's, and the other children's hands followedrespectively.

Although the fork and spoon are gradually replacing the fingers among allclassesofPersians,youwillstillfindthesetraditionaleatinghabitsandmannersinvoguemoreorlesseverywherethroughoutIran.

PRIVATEPARTIES

Iranianwomen,secludedintheandarooniformanycenturies,foundwaysandmeans of entertaining among themselves, and different kinds of social affairs

developed.ThesebasicsocialfunctionsofPersiaarestillenjoyedtoday.

Afternoonteapartiesarealwayspopularandusuallybeginaboutfouro'clock.Friendsandrelativesareinvitedtothehouse,butitisalsousualforthemtodropinontheladyof thehousewithoutaformal invitation.Cookies,candies,nuts,fruits, romaine lettuce-either with vinegar, which is often mixed with finelymincedfreshchervil,orwithpicklesofeggplant-toastedcorn,andboiledfreshlimabeansarethefoodsmostfrequentlyservedatsuchparties.Theladieschat,laugh, talkofserioussubjects-evenpolitics-andsocialaffairs.Insomefamiliesmusic isplayedandtheguestsdanceandsing.Nowadaysmenare included intheseparties,andgamblingistheiramusement.

All-dayparties,whichdate'waybackintothehistoryofthelifeoftheIranianwomen, are still carried on by the old families.The party begins at the houseabout roA.M. andcontinuesuntil sunsetwhen, inoldendays, Iranianwomenhadtobeintheirhomes.

Theguestsareusuallycomprisedofrelativesandclosefriendsfromfamiliesofequalprominence.Uponthearrivaloftheguests,sherbets,insummer,ortea,inwinter,areserved.Thesherbetsinlargeglasses,theteainsmallerones,eachonasilverstand,areplacedonsilvertrays.

Aboutanhour latercookies, sweetbreads,and fruits suchaspomegranates,oranges, tangerines, apples, and pears in winter, and other seasonal fruits insummer, are passed. Luncheon occurs between I and 2 P.M., and the hostessalways outdoes herself to serve unusually delectable foods, halvas, and otherdelicacies,arrangedinthemostattractivemanner.

Atteatimeintheafternoonthesamefoodsthatwereservedinthemorningareagainoffered.Atsomeoftheseall-claypartiesagroupofmusicianswouldplayoldclassicalsongsfortheenjoymentoftheguests.

A third kind of party, and perhaps the most popular in Persia, reflects thepoeticalnatureoftheIranians.Tovisitaninformalgardeninsummeroragreenfieldonasunnydayinwinter;topicnicbesidethefresh,murmuringwaterofabrook,where theair is filledwith the fragranceofblossomsandflowers, is tothePersiansoneofthemostenchantingwaystorelaxwithfriends.Bysharingfine food and wine and music, by reciting spirited and poetic anecdotes andpoems in the great outdoors, they feel and enjoy nature more deeply. These

picnics,therefore,areaformofentertainmentindulgedinwithgreatfrequencyall over the country. Formerly they lasted until sunset and sometimes, on amoonlit night, until early evening.But in thismodern day and age, they veryoften lastuntilmidnightor the followingmorning!Kababsandpolousare thetraditionalfare,servedwithwine.

MANNERSANDCUSTOMSOFTHEPERSIANS

Gracious hospitality is inherent in the character of the Persian people-acharacteristicasancientandreveredashistoryitself.

TothePersians,aguestis"agiftofGod"andis,therefore,profferedthebestthat the host has to offer-the best food, themost comfortable chair. The hostnever sits at the head of the table, but stays in the background, and it is notunfrequentforhimtogohungry,soengrossedisheinattendingtheneedsandpleasuresofhisguests.Eveniftheguestshouldbeanenemy,nodiscourtesyiseverdreamedof.

Whenavisitorispresentinthehome,nohostsitswhilehisguestisstanding,nordoesheeverturnhisbackorspeakharshly.Asamatteroffact,inthecodeofIraniangoodmannerssuchactionsoneithersideareconsideredinsulting.

TherearestoriesinthehistoryofIranconcerningdefeatedwarriorswho,bysimplygoing to thehouseof theirconquerors,weregenerouslyandgraciouslyreceived.

An old folk tale illustrates the emphasis put on the host-guest relationship:Onenightaking,whohadlosthiswaywhilehunting,reachedthesmalltentofanoldwomenwho livedfarouton the lonelyplains.Heronlysourceof foodwasthemilkofthegoatshepossessed.

Thekingaskedherifhecouldstayforthenightandwascheerfullywelcomedbytheoldwoman,whoneversuspectedshewasentertainingroyalty.Fordinnerhewasservedanespeciallydeliciouskababoffreshmeat.Thenextmorning,asthekingwaspreparingtodepart,heasked:

"Wheredidyougetfreshmeatinsuchadesertedplaceasthis?"

"Ihadagoat,brother,"shehumblyreplied.

"Ah,youronlysourceof life,"heaskedinamazement,"andyoukilledit tofeedme?"

"Sourceornosource,"shesaid,"Icouldnotletmyguestsleephungry."Andshesmiled.

Thenthekingaskedhertogowithhimtohispalace,whereshewasblessedwithmanykindnesses.

T.B.Aldrich-"WhentheSultanGoestoIspahan."

Most of the ingredients used in Persian cooking are available in theUnitedStatestoday.Riceflour,puffedpeas,saffron,andIraniancheesescanbefoundinItalian,Armenian,andGreekmarkets.Thefreshvegetables,thedryvegetables,seeds,andspicesusedinPersianfoodsareathandinmostofthechainstoresinAmerica. And the necessary kitchen equipment can be found in almost everyhome.

The techniques forpreparing the ingredients listedherebrieflyare thebasicprinciplesofPersiancooking.Andthemethodsforpreparinghalva,sweets,andsherbetsaredescribedintherecipesinthelatterpartofthisbook.

UTENSILS

Of first importance in Persian cooking are the pots, pans, skillets, and

saucepans, and thematerials ofwhich they aremade. The shapes of some oftheseutensilsoftendifferfromtheshapesofthoseusedinAmerica,especiallythoseusedforthecookingofrice.Butsubstitutescaneasilybemade.

All vessels-caldrons, spatulas, ladles, colanders, et ceteraare made only ofcopper,butarealwayslinedorcoatedwithtin.Thetinisrenewedassoonasitbegins towearoff.Recentlyaluminumpanshavecome intouse inPersia,butnothingisevercookedinanironvessel.Butnomatterwhatmetaltheutensilismadeof-brass,copper,aluminum,orenamelit ismostessential that thevesselsbethickandheavy-bottomed.

The Persian saucepan for cooking rice is called deeg, and it has a specialshape, patterned from ancient times. It is deep,with a narrow top and awidebottom.Thesaucepanusedformakinghalva,sherbets,andothersweetmeatshasawide-opentopandaround,smallbottom.Thestrainerforrinsingriceshouldbelargeandshallow.

BASICINGREDIENTS

Oil

ThebestkindoffatforanyPersianfoodisclarifiedbutter.Asecondchoiceisvegetableoil,butinAmericaIhaveusedchickenfatandmargarineforallkindsof ricedishes, andvegetableoils forpastries, and found themsatisfactory.NoporkfatiseverusedinPersia.

Rice

Tomakeafluffyrice,thericeshouldbeveryhard,yellowishincolorwithnobrokengrains, andat least twoyearsold.Theharder the ricegrains, themorefeatherythericedishwillbe.TherearemanyvarietiesofPersianrice,allsuperbinquality. IfyoucanobtainPersian ricedo so,otherwisebe sure tobuy fine-quality,long-grainedrice.

Meat

The Iranians prefer mutton and lamb to beef. Beef is very cheap and isregardedassecond-grademeat.Itisusedchieflybythethirdclassofpeopleandthevillagers.Meatsinorderofpreferenceare:fowl,venison,lamb,mutton,andveal.Porkandporkproductsarenotcommonfoodforthenation.Itisusedbya

small minority of Christians, foreigners, and some of the younger generationfamiliarwithEuropeancustoms.

RiceFlour

FromancienttimesmanypuddingsandsweetmeatsinPersiahavebeenmadewithriceflour,whichyoucanbuyinanymarket.ButinAmericaitcanbefoundonly in fine bakeries and, sometimes, in the health-food stores of large cities.However,itiseasilypreparedathomeasfollows:

Washriceofanykind, threeorfourtimes.Thenspreadit todry.Whilestilldamp, pound it in a deepmortarwith a heavypestle or pass it through a finegrinder. Powder it fine by pounding and sifting alternately until all the rice isconverted intoaverysoftwhitepowder.Spread thepowder todry thoroughly.Placing it in a very warm oven will speed the process. Store in a tightlystopperedglassjarinacool,dryplace.

If you own an electric blender, simply measure ~ cup raw rice into thecontainer,cover,andblendathighspeedforabouttwominutes,oruntilthericeisreducedtoafinepowder.

Verjuice

This is the sour juice of unripe, green grapes which is used in all parts ofPersiainsoupsandmeatdishes.ItisalsoconsideredbyPersianphysiciansasanimportantmedicineforliverdisturbancesandasarelieffromrheumatism.Whenlate spring arrives and the grapes are still green, part of them are sent to themarkets,wherehomemakerswhosejobitistobottlethejuiceforsaleinshopsbuywhattheyneed.Thejuiceisverysourindeed-muchmoresothanthejuiceoflemonsorlimes.Butlimejuicemaybesubstitutedforitinrecipes.

PuffedPeas,orNokhodchi

Peas processed in a way that puffs them and makes them edible, with theflavor of a nut, are used extensively inPersian cooking.They are available atmost ItalianorGreek stores for a reasonable price. (Italians call themchichi.)Flourmadefromthesepeasinthesamewaythatriceflourismadefromriceisusedinpuddingsandcookies.

Ajeel

Thisisacombinationofpuffedpeas,shelledpistachios,almonds,hazelnuts,pumpkin andwatermelon seeds cooked in saltedwater and then roasted. It isservedwithdrinksatPersianparties.Homemadeajeel iscooked inhalf saltedwaterandhalflimejuicebeforebeingroasted.

DriedLimes,orLimuOmani

Freshlimesareboiledinslightlysaltedwaterforfiveminutesandlefttodryin the sunshine.Whendry, theyare stored in tightlyclosedboxesandused insoupsandmeatdishes,towhichtheyaddadeliciousandunusualflavor.

Spices

IngeneralPersianfoodsareonlymildlyspicedincontrasttothehighlyspicedcurries of India and Indonesia. Saffron and turmeric are the most popularseasonings,andbotharealwaysfinelypowderedforuse.

From earliest times saffron, because of its delicate flavor and perfume, hasbeenusedtoflavorriceandmeatdishesaswellaspuddings,halvas,andothersweets.Saffron ismadefromthestamensofsmallyellowflowerswhichgrowabundantlyindifferentpartsofPersia.Theflowersarecollected,dried,andsoldin themarkets.Persian saffron is an important itemof export. Itmust bekepttightlystopperedinaglassorchinacontainer.Whenused,apinchofsaffronispoundedinasmallmortaruntilitturnstoafinepowder.Afteritisground,afewdropsof hotwater are added to forma thick, pungent liquid. If dry saffron isaddedtohotoil,itwilllosecolorandwillnotimpartitsflavortothefood.Soalwaysmixitfirstwithalittlehotwater,thenaddittothehotoilforpolous.

Turmericisusedespeciallyinmeatdishes.Likecurrypowder,itisgenerallycookedinalittleoilwithonionandblackpepperbeforeitisaddedtotheotheringredients.

All kinds of peppers and hot spices are also used in Persian cooking, butalwaysinlimitedquantities,forthefoodofPersiaisdelicate,gentlyseasoned;someofthedishesarefragrantwiththemorearomaticspicessuchascardamom,cinnamon,andclove.

TangerineShreds,orKhelaleNarangi

TangerinepeelplaysalargeroleinflavoringPersianfoods.Thewhite,bitter

layerbeneath the skin iscarefully removedwitha sharpknife, and theyellowpeeliscutintoveryfineshredsaboutoneinchinlength.Theseshredsarethendriedandstoredinatightlycoveredglassjarforfutureuse.Whenitisused,asmuchasisneededisputintocoldwaterandboiledforaboutfiveminutes.Itisthenrinsed,coveredwithfreshwater,andboiledagainfortwominutes.Afinalrinsingremovesanybitterness,andtheshredsarereadyforuse.

EssencesofFlowers

The distillations of flower petals and blossoms are used in various foods-sweets, puddings, and beverages. For many centuries rose and orange flowerwaterhavebeenemployednotonlyasperfume,butasingredientsincooking.

InPersiatheregrowsaspecialkindofrosewhichissmallandpink-asortofwildrose-hutithassuchastrongscentthatonesmallbudwillperfumeanentireroom.Thisistherosethatisusedfordistillation,andthepurescentisextractedandexportedtomanypartsoftheworld.ThenameofthisroseisDamask,butinPersiaitissimplycalledtheRedRose.

TheRedRoseissymbolicofthecolorandfragranceofabeautifulgirl,andinPersianpoetryabelovedisoftencalledGole,meaningtheRedRose.

InPersianliterature,thenightingaleiseverlastinglyfrenziedwithloveforthisrose,andthewholenightlonghesingsonlytheenchantingsongsofloveforhisGole.

Smallwhite roses,orangeandquinceblossoms,pussywillows, thepeelsofcitrus fruits and the seeds of the anise and fennel are also distilled for use incooking.

Herbs

History reveals that the Persianswere one of the first peoples to usemanyvarietiesofherbsaspartsoffood,eitherforthesakeoftheirflavorsorfortheirmedicinal benefits.Most of these herbs and flavorful plants grow inAmerica,butAmericans do not seem to knowhow to use themor realize the extent towhichtheirflavorcanimproveadish.

One particular leaf, common in America, which appears in many Persianrecipes,ismint.Theleavesarepickedfromthestalk,dried,andkeptinatightly

closedboxorjar.Asneeded,theleavesarefinelypowderedbeforeuse.

Anotherdeliciousgreenplant,popularinPersiancooking,growsabundantlyinthespringinthemountainousregionsofPersia.Itisakindofcardoon,calledkangar.Itisthistlelike,relatedtotheartichokefamily,withasoft,small,ediblestalkandatenderheart.Butitisfullofpricklesandmustbehandledwithcare.Ihave not found this vegetable growing in California, but I am sure it growselsewhereintheUnitedStates.InPersiaitiscookedandcombinedwithriceormeat,orservedwithyogurtasasaladwithkababs.

Inthefarmsthroughout thecountryit iscooked,combinedwithyogurt,andstoredinagoatskin.Thisiscalledkangarmast,andafterremainingintheskinforaweekortwoitisparticularlydelicious.

I will always remember the thrill, as a child, when with my brothers andsistersIwaitedimpatientlyforwintertoend,becauseeachyearwiththecomingof spring our farmerswould bring the large goatskins filledwith hangarmastfrom thevillage.Someof itmymotherwouldsend to relativesand friendsasgifts;someshewouldgive to theservants to takehome,butagoodsharewaskeptinthesupplyroomforus.Atanytimewechildrenwishedwewereallowedtoeatallwewantedof it, regardlessofwhether itwasjustbeforemealtimeornot.

In later years I tried making it myself and modernized the procedure bykeepingitinachinabowl.Theresultwasgood,butstillitwasnotthesameasthatbroughtfromthevillageinthegoatskin!

Bos-hac,inhisDivanhasasatiricalanecdoteaboutthehangar.

"Asatokenofgratitudetothecamelwhohasneverhurttheearthbyhissoftfeet,theEarthgrowsprickleswhichthecamel,becauseofhisextremelyaffablenature, leaves as a blessedgift for our lips and teeth.Andwe, sonsofAdam,cookit,mixitwithyogurtandserveitwithkababs.Therefore,itseemsthatthetasteofthecamelandthatofManarealike."

In Persia the camel is symbolic of stupidity and lack of common sense,intelligence,andtalent!

(Persian-StyleRice)

Perhapspolouis themost traditionaldish inallofPersia,andcertainlyrice,which forms the basis of both polou and chelou, is the most important foodcommodity in Persian cuisine. Themethod of cooking both polou and chelouproducesdelicatedisheswhicharedifferentintasteandtexturefromanyofthewell-known Chinese, Arabic, or Spanish rice dishes. The rice is delicatelyperfumed,eachgrainwhite, feathery,andfluffyandapart fromanyother. It isessentialthatthericebecookedinplentyofwater.Asageneralrule,onepoundofriceshouldbecoveredwithhotwatertoadepthof8toioinches.

CHELOU

(Serves3)

Chelouissimplycooked,butteredricewhichisbakedin theoveninsuchawayastoformacrunchycrustinthebottomofthepan.ThiscrustIfondlycallthecrispy-crunchy.

Chelou is always served with meat dishes having a thick sauce, calledkhoreshes(seeIndex).

Wash thoroughly one pound long-grained rice. Fill a 4-quart saucepanwithwaterandbringtoaboil.Whenboilingsteadily,addthericeand3tablespoonssalt and boil, uncovered, for 7 to I o minutes over high heat. Stir the wateroccasionally,beingcarefulnot tobreak thericegrains.Becareful,also,not toovercooktherice.Itisdonewhenitiscookedatthecore.Testagrainbybitingit in half.Remove immediately fromheat, drain in a colander, and rinsewithlukewarmwatertoremoveexcessstarch.Thelargerthepanusedtoboiltherice,themore feathery the grainswill be. If the rice is tasteless after being rinsed,batheitagainwithaboutIpintstrong,lukewarmsaltwater.

Heat a heavy-bottomed saucepan or flameproof casserole over a low flameandadd2tablespoonscookingoilormeltedbuttermixedwith1tablespoonhot

water.Swirlpantocoatitevenlywiththemixture.MixacupcookedricewithIeggyolk,slightlybeaten,andspread itevenlyover thebottomof thepan.Fillthepanwiththeremainingcookedrice,moundingitupinthecenter.Withthehandleof a long-handled spoonmakeadeephole in the centerof themound,cover,andbakeina350°ovenfor15minutes.Removecoverandsprinklericewith2or3tablespoonshotbutteroranygoodoilmixedwith2tablespoonshotwater.Coverandbakefor30minuteslonger.Removefromovenandplacepan,covered, on a cool surface for iominutes. Thismakes it easier to remove thebrowncrust in thebottomof thepan.Uncoverpan and stir ricegentlywith aspatula tomake it fluffy.Turn rice out onto awarm servingdish in amound.Thenremovethebrowncrustandserveitseparately,orheapitoverthericeontheservingplatter.

NOTE:Insteadofmixing thericewitheggyolk to formthecrust,youmayuse1/acupmilkor3tablespoonsyogurt,orimediumfreshtomato,peeledandchopped.

POLOUS-CLASSICALANDSIMPLE

Byron-DonJuan.CantoV,St.47

When rice, cooked and drained, ismixedwith any kind of vegetable, fruit,fowl,meat, or nuts, it is calledpolou.Agenerous amount of butter is used tocoat the rice, and saffron, chopped almonds, pistachios, or spices are usuallyusedforflavoring.Ifchickenforpolouissmall,itmaybesauteedandplacedinthe center of the polou. If large, it is better to boil itwith a littlewater and imediumonionuntiltender,thenplaceitinthecenteroftherice.Thebroththenshouldbemixedwiththebutterinplaceofhotwater,andpouredovertherice.

SWEETPOLOU

(ShecarPolou)

Thisancientpolou, servedwith itsaccompanyingmincedmeatdish (Qa'meh

khoresh),hasalwaysbeenmandatoryatweddings,otherimportantcelebrations,and religious public feedings. It is a great favoritewith thePersians. In oldendaysitwascalled(meaningyellowwithsaffron),oryellowrice.

In a heavy-bottomed saucepan combine sugar and water. Boil rapidly to athick syrup, or until syrup spins a long thread. Prepare tangerine peel (seeIndex),addittotheboilingsyrup,andboilfor3minuteslonger.

Grindtheonionandmixitwiththemeat.Seasonwithsalt,pepper,turmeric,and clove.Form themeat into small balls the sizeof hazelnuts and saute in alittlebutteroroiluntilbrownonallsides.

Cook rice according to directions for cooking chelou and drain thoroughly.Mixthesyrupandmeatballswiththerice,stirringthericeslowlyandcarefullysothateachgrainiscoatedwiththesyrup.Oiltheinsideofadeepcasseroleand

putinthericemixture,moundingitupinthecenter.Bakeinapreheated350°oven for 45 minutes and continue as for chelou. Then place rice on a largeservingdish.

Grindsaffrontoapowderandmixwithalittlehotwatertoformathickpaste.Combinepastewiththehotmeltedbutterorchickenfatandpourovertherice.Stirandmixgentlyuntilall thegrains,especiallythoseontop,becomeyellowwiththesaffron.Sprinklewiththealmondsandpistachios.

Nora:Chickenmaybeusedinplaceofthemeatballs.Sautethechickeninalittlebutteroroiluntilbrownonallsidesandplace it in thecenterof thericebefore it isbaked.To serve:Place chicken in centerof the servingplatter andsurroundbythesaffronrice.WhenthispolouisservedwithQa'meh,chickenormeatballsarenotgenerallyused.

CLASSICALCHERRYPOLOU

Sweetpoloussuchasthisexoticcherrypolouareservedeitherwithtinymeatballs,asinthefollowingrecipe,orwithQa'mehkhoresh(seeIndex).IfQa'mehisserved,themeatballsareomitted.

Cook rice according to directions for chelou and drain. Mix sugar andcherries,bringtoaboil,andboiluntilsyrupisthick.Combinemeatandonion,

season,and formintosmallmeatballs.Saute themeatballs in thebutteruntilbrownedonallsides;mixwiththecherriesandriceandseasontotastewithsalt.Oiltheinsideofaheavysaucepanorflameproofdeepcasseroleasfollows:putinthepan2tablespoonsoilormeltedbuttermixedwithItablespoonhotwaterandswirlpantocoatitwiththemixture.Placepanoverlowheatandfillwiththerice-cherries-meatmixture,moundingitupinthecenter.Withthehandleofalong-handled spoonmake a deep hole in the center of themound, cover, andbakeinapreheated350°ovenfor45minutes.Uncoverpanandstirricegentlywithaspatulaorlargespoon.Turnoutonaservingdishinamoundandsprinklewiththechoppednutsandsaffronpreparedwith2tablespoonsoil.

CLASSICALTURKEYPOLOU

Thispolouispreparedchieflyforlargepartiesandreceptions.Itisfrequentlyservedforweddingdinnersorthecelebrationdinnerofthebirthofababy.

Cookriceaccordingtodirectionsforchelouanddrain.Washinsideofturkey

thoroughlyandmakefourorfiveincisionswithasharpknifeondifferentpartsofthebreast.Sautetheturkeyslightlywiththeonioninicupofthebutterinalarge deep pot until browned on all sides. Add the water, cover closely, andsimmeroververylowheatabout3hours,oruntilturkeyistender.Thenuncoverand cook until browned on all sides.Remove, stuff the insidewith themixeddried fruits, and sprinkle generously with salt, pepper, and cloves. Coat theinside of a large saucepan with a cup butter mixed with ti cup of the turkeybroth. Place the pan over low heat and pour in half the rice. Place turkey incenterandsprinklewithfriedcurrantsandcuminseeds.Coverwithremainderofthe rice.Make ahole in the center of the rice, cover, andbake in apreheated350°oven for 20minutes.Removepan, sprinklewith remainingbuttermixedwith remaining broth, cover, and bake again for 30minutes longer. To serve,placeturkeyonalargeservingplatter.Moistenthesaffronwithalittlehotbrothandaddittotherice,carefullystirringthericewithaspatulatomixitwellwiththecurrantsandseeds.Surround the turkeywith the rice.Thispolou is servedwithQa'mehandpickles.

CLASSICALTOMATOPOLOU

(Serves2to3)

Season themeatwith salt andpepper and form it into tinyballs the sizeofhazelnuts.Sautethemeatballsinadeepcasserolein2tablespoonsofthebutteroroiluntilbrownonallsides.Removemeatandsautetheonionandcurryintheoilremainingin thepan.Whenonionis lightlybrowned,addthericeandthe

remainingbutteroroilandsauteuntil therice isbrown.Addtomatojuiceandenoughwatertocompletelycoverthericebyaboutiinch.Coverthetopofthepotwith a thick towel, then cover closelywith the lid.Simmeroververy lowheatforabout35minutes,oruntilthewateriscompletelyabsorbedbytherice.Mixthemeatballswiththerice.Makeaholeinthecenter.Coverandbakeinapreheated350°ovenfor45minutes.Servehotwithsourpickles.

NoTE: If chicken is preferred tomeat, saute the chickenuntil brownon allsides,thensteamwithalittlewaterorbrothuntiltender.Placethechickeninthecenterof thericeandbakeasusual.Onesmalleggplant,peeled,chopped,andfried, or i cup cooked stringbeansor peasmaybe added to the rice.Chickenmaybesubstitutedforthemeatballs.

TOMATOANDEGGPLANTPOLOU

Wash rice thoroughly. Put it in a large saucepan and add enough water tocoverthericebyadepthofoneinch.Covertopwithatowel,thenwiththelid,

andsimmeroververylowheatfor30minutes,oruntilthereisonlyalittlewaterleft.Addtomatojuice,stirwell,cover,andsimmeroverlowheatforanother20minutes, or until all the moisture has been absorbed. Combine meat, gratedonion,salt,pepper,andturmeric,formintosmallballsandsautein2tablespoonsofthebutteruntilbrownonallsides.Removeballs,add4tablespoonsbutterandfrytheeggplantuntilsoft.

Coata largedeepcasserolewithz tablespoonsof theoilmixedwith thehotwater. Beat the eggwell andmix 2 tablespoons of the rice and sprinkle overbottomof pan.Addhalf the rice, then themeat balls and eggplant, and coverwith remainder of the rice, mounding it up and forming a hole in the center.Coverandbakeinapreheated350°ovenfor45minutes.

Toserve:placethecasseroleoverabasinofcoldwaterforioto15minutes,thenremovecontentsinonepiece,likealargeball.Mixsaffronwithalittlehotwaterandaddtoremainingoil,heated.Pouroverthemoundofrice.

EASYTOMATOPOLOU

Cook the rice according to the recipe for chelou, but not so soft.Rinse anddrain.Cookthemeatwiththeonioninwatertocover.Addbutter,tomatojuice,andsaltandpeppertotaste.Coverandboiluntilthetomatojuiceisreducedtoathickgravy.Coattheinsideofadeepcasserolewiththeoilmixedwiththehotwater.Puthalfthericeinthebottom.Putfirstthemeatandthenhalfthegravy

over thericeandpourover theeggs.Nowcoverwithremainingriceandpourtheremaininggravyovertherice.Makeintoamoundwithaholeinthecenter.Coverandbakeinapreheated350°ovenfor45minutes.Servehotwithpickles.

CLASSICALYOGURTPOLOU

(TahChin)

Thisisa"party"polou,alsoservedforveryspecialguests.

Season cupsof theyogurtwith salt, pepper, and Ih teaspoonof the saffron.Cutthemeatintolargecubesandsoakitintheseasonedyogurtfor5toIohours.Thencookthericeaccordingtothedirectionsforcookingchelou,butcookitfor5minutesonly.Itmustnotbesoft.Rinsericeanddrain.Beattheeggsandmixwith ;, cup of the yogurt and i cup cooked rice. Coat the inside of a deepcasserolewithmeltedbuttermixedwithitablespoonhotwaterandputtherice-yogurtmixtureinthebottomforacrustylayer.Putalayerofmeatoverthisandadd2to3tablespoonsyogurtinwhichmeatwassoaked.Thenaddacupofrice.Repeat the layers of meat, yogurt, and rice, ending with rice, and pour anyremainingyogurtover the top.Makeahole in thecenter,cover,andbake inapreheated350°ovenfor45minutes.

To serve, spoon the soft rice andmeat onto a serving platter and place thecrispy-crunchy layeron top.Sprinklewith the remaining saffronmixedwithalittlewaterandmeltedbutteroroil.Servehotandwithnopickle.

Nom:Ifdesired,/poundfreshspinachmaybewashed,chopped,drained,andfriedinztablespoonbutter.Addthespinachtothemeatandyogurtmixtureand,whenmakingthelayers,putsomeofthespinachoverthemeat,thentheyogurt,andthentherice.

CLASSICALCARROTPOLOU

(Serves3to4)

Mixmeatwith the onion, turmeric, pepper, and salt.Make tinyballs of themeatandsautetheminthebutteroroiluntilbrownedonallsides.Removethemeat, add thegrated carrots, and continue to sauteuntil the carrots are lightlybrowned.Add lemon juice and sugar, cover, and cook over lowheat until thecarrotsaresoftandthegravyisthick.

Cookriceaccordingtothedirectionsforchelou,rinse,anddrain.Mixthericewith the carrots and gravy, put it into an oiled deep casserole and bake in apreheated350°ovenfor45minutes.Mixsaffronwiththehotwaterandcookingoilormeltedbutterandstirlightlyintotherice.ServehotwithQa'mehandanykindofpickles.

EASYLENTILPOLOU

(AdasPolou)

(Serves3to4)

Wash lentils, cover with lightly salted water, and cook until tender. Drain.

Cook the rice according to the directions for chelou andmixwith the cookedlentils.Coatinsideofadeepcasserolewiththe2tablespoonsoilmixedwiththehotwater. Place casserole over low heat and pour in half the rice and lentils.Placemeatontopandsprinklewiththedatesandcurrants.Addremainingrice,mounding itup,andmakeahole in thecenter.Coverandbake inapreheated350°ovenfor45minutes.Justbeforeserving,mixsaffronwithalittlehotwaterandwiththe~cupmeltedbutterormargarineandstirlightlyintothepolou.

Nom:Ifdesired,2or3wholehard-cookedeggsmaybeaddedwiththemeat.ThispoloumayalsobeservedwithQa'mehinsteadofwithmeatorchicken.Inthiscasejustusedates,currants,andeggsforthefilling.Servehotwithpickles.

EASYCHICKENPOLOU

(MorghPolou)

This is the chicken polou generally served at the Persian New Year in thesouthern region of Persia,with the chicken placed on the haft seen table (the"table of the seven S's"). The amount of rice and number of chickens neededdepend upon the size of the family or the number of guests. The followingquantitiesaredesignedtoserve5.

Thispolouismadeinexactlythesamewayastheturkeypolouonpage64.Thechickenissauteedandsteamed,butitisnotstuffed.ServehotwithQa'mehandpickles.

VEGETABLEPOLOU

(SabziPolou)

In the north of Persia the Nowrooze polou is served with the fish andvegetablesplacedonthehaftseentable,insteadofthechicken.

(Serves6)

Preparethericeaccordingtodirectionsforchelouanddrain.Washthegreens,chopfine,andcookinthewateradheringtotheleavesuntilwilted.Mixgreenswith therice.Saute thefish in the1/4cupshorteninguntil lightlybrownedonboth sides. Put half the rice in an oiled deep saucepan or casserole. Arrangepiecesof fishover the riceandcoverwith remaining rice.Makeahole in thecenter,coverthepottightly,andbakeinapreheated350°ovenfor1hour.Justbeforeserving,mixsaffronwiththewaterandthe3tablespoonsoilandsprinkleovertherice.

No'rE: If desired, youmay omit the vegetables,mix the ricewith 3 ouncescuminseeds, 1,h teaspoon saffron, and 1/ pound currants and serve with friedfish.Thisiscalledfishpolouormahipolou.EitherkindoffishpolouisservedwithQa'mehandeggplant,orpickles.

LIMABEANandDILLPOLOU

(ShevedBagla)

(Serves3to4)

Cookriceaccordingtodirectionsforcookingchelouanddrain.Mincethedillveryfineandmixwiththelimabeansandrice.Stewthemeatinonepiece,withsalt and pepper to taste, the onion, turmeric, and a littlewater for 2 hours, oruntilverytender.Thenoiltheinsideofalargesaucepanorcasserolewiththe3tablespoonsoilandputinhalftherice.Placethemeatinthecenteroftherice,coverwith remaining rice, andmakeahole in thecenter.Covercasseroleandhake inapreheated350°oven for20minutes.Thenmixhalf thebutteroroilwithacupofthebrothinwhichthemeatwascooked,pourovertherice,cover,andcontinuetobakefor35minuteslonger.Placepotonacoolsurfaceforiominutes,thenturnoutriceontoalarge,hotservingplatter.Mixsaffronwiththehot water and the remaining oil or butter and sprinkle over the rice. Stir ricegentlywithaspatulatocoatthegrainswiththeyellowsaffron.Placethemeatina separatedishand thecrispy-crunchy,orbottomcrust, inanother.ServewithQa'meh and any pickle or yogurt, and serve buttermilk for a beverage. Butyogurtmixedwithwater,salt,pepper,andpowderedmint leaves,calleddoogh

(seeIndex)isbestwiththispolou.

Nom:Achickenmaybesubstitutedforthemeat.

LAMBPOLOU

(BarrehPolou)

This is a very popular polou which is served at both formal and informalreceptions, privateparties, anddinners aswell as luncheonsgiven inhonorofoneormorespecialguests.Boshacspeakshighlyofit.

Braisehalfababylamborasaddleofspringlambinalargedeeppanwithiteaspoonpepper, t teaspoon turmeric, i largeonion, chopped, and I cupwater.Whenwelldone,sprinklewithsaltandplaceinthecenterofalargecasseroleofriceasforchelou.Bakeinapreheated350°ovenfor45minutesandsprinkletherice generously with melted butter or oil. Prepare saffron (see index), friedcarawayseeds,andcurrantsandmixwellwithrice.Theamountofriceforthispolou depends on the number of guests.When serving, place themeat in thecenterofthericeonalargewarmservingdish.ServewithpicklesandQa'meh.

KATEHPOLOU

ThispoloubelongstonorthernPersia.ThepeopleofRasht,alargecityontheshoresoftheCaspianSea,arefamousforit.Itdoesn'tneedanyoilorbutterandismade in theshapeofacake. It isservedcoldwithanykindofkhoreshandpickles,andisaperfectdishforhotsummerdays.

Cook ipound riceaccording todirections forcookingchelou,only increasethecooking timebyabout15minutes,until rice isvery soft.Rinseonlyonceandputitintoanoiledcasserole.Bake,tightlycovered,inapreheated350°ovenfor45minutes,without takingitout tosprinklewithbutteras inotherpolous.Removepanfromovenanduncover.Letcoolforiominutes,thenspreadaverywhitecottonclothovertherice,stillinthepan.Pressithardagainstthebottomandsideswiththepalmsofthehandstocrushthericekernelstogethertoforma

cake.Placecasseroleoverabowlofcoldwaterfor1hhourtocool.Thencutintosquaresoroblongsandarrangethepiecesupsidedownonaservingdish,withthebrown,crispylayerontop.

Dami

Thisisakindofquickchelouwhichisnotrinsedordrained.Itisricherthantheaveragechelouandveryeasytomake.Whendamiisservedwithanykindofkhoresh,itismadeplain,otherwiseitismixedwithmanyotheringredientssuchasthoseusedinpolous.

PLAINDAMI

Wash i pound long-grained rice thoroughly in cold water. Put into a deepsaucepanandaddenoughwatertocoverthericebyaboutIinch.Additeaspoonsaltand3tablespoonsbutteroroil.Covertightly,firstwithatowelandthenwithalid,andsimmeroveraverylowheatabout30minutes,oruntilallthewaterisgone.Checkitoncetoseeifthewaterhasboiledaway.Checkakernelwiththeteeth,andifstillratherhard,addhalfacupofhotwaterbysprinklingitoverandaround the rice, stirgently,coveragain,andsimmer fora fewminutes longer.Thentakeoff thecloth,add4 tablespoonsofmeltedbutteroroil,coveragain,thistimeonlywiththelidofthepan,andbakeinapreheated350°ovenfor20to30minutes.Removeandservelikeotherchelouswithkhoreshandpickles.

CURRANTDAMI

(Serves3to4)

Saute Ih onion, finely chopped, 3 ounces crushed walnuts, and I poundcurrants in a little butter until onion is transparent. Stir in% teaspoon clove,nutmeg,orcurrypowder.Steamriceinthesamewayasforplaindami.Whenallthewaterhasboiledaway,placethecurrant-nutmixtureincenterofriceinsamecasserole.Coverwith rice andbake, covered, in apreheated350°oven for zominutes. Remove, mix all together, and sprinkle with prepared saffron (seeIndex)andmeltedbutteroroil.ServewithQa'mehandanykindofpickle.

SOUR-CHERRYDAMI

Pitioouncesofsourblackcherries.GrindIhpoundmeatandmakeintotinymeatballs,orsimplycut3hpoundmeatintosmallpieces.Sautethemeatwith

halfanonion,finelygrated,inalittlebutteruntilmeatisbrowned.Add~poundchoppedwalnuts, 2 ounces currants, the cherries, and 2 ounces chopped driedapricots.Mixalltogetherwiththewell-washedrice.Addwatertocoverthericebyoneinch.Coverwithatowelandalidandproceedasforotherdami.

(Soups)

There are many ancient, classic soups in Persian cuisine. Althoughinexpensive tomake,anda favoriteofallclasses,bothrichandpoor, theyarelooked upon as humble food.Made ofmeats, vegetables, legumes, and fruits,soupsfrequentlymakeamealinthemselves,orprecedeapolouattheluncheontable.Theyareservedwithchoppedfreshherbs,radishes,choppedonion,freshmint leaves, bread, and pickles. Being modest in manner, the Persians, wheninvitingtheirfriendstolunchordinner,useasexpressionofmodestymeaning,"Pleasegivemethepleasureoftakingahumblemorselofmysoupandbread."

LENTILSOUP

(AbgushteAdas)

(Serves6)

Putmeatandlentilsintoadeepsaucepanandaddonion,spices,limes,andhotwater.Cover tightly and stewover lowheat for i hour.Add cabbage and salt.Coverandsimmeragainforanotherhour,oruntilmeatisverytender.Strainoffliquidtoserveseparately.Removebonesandpoundremainingingredientsinthepan with a heavy wooden pestle or potato masher. Shape into a mound in aservingdishanddecoratewithslicedonions.Redbeansmaybeusedinsteadoflentils,inwhichcasecabbageisnotused.Servehotorcoldwithbread,pickles,herbs,andradishes.

POUNDEDMEATSOUP

(GushteKubideh)

This favorite dish is frequently served at picnics and as a snack withbeverages. It is spreadonbread and servedwithwhite and red radishes, freshonionandherbs,picklesorcucumberborani(seeIndex).

(Serves4)

Trimandwipemeat.Putall ingredients intoadeep saucepan,cover tightly,andsimmeroverlowheataboutihour.Uncoverandcontinuecooking,stirringvigorously, until liquid is partially cooked away. Strain off soup to serveseparately. Then pound the remainingmixturewith a heavywooden pestle orpotatomasher until blended to a paste, removing any bones and skin. Put themixtureintoaservingdish,formingitintoamound,anddecoratewithslicedredandwhiteonionsandredradishes.Itisreadyforsandwichesorforsnacksandcanbe servedhotor cold. If decorated andkept in the refrigerator for severaldays,theonionflavorwillpermeatethemeat,andifasmallpeeledeggplantiscookedwiththeotheringredients,itmakesthedishevenmoredelicious.

QUINCESOUP

(AbgushteBeh)

(Serves4)

Putmeat,onion,beans,water,andseasoningsintoasaucepan,cover tightly,and simmerover lowheat about Ihour.Peel andchop thequinceand saute itlightly in the oil, until partially cooked. Add to the soup alongwith the fruitjuice.Stirinsugartotaste.CovertightlyandsimmeraboutIhourlonger.Strainsoup, discard bones, and pound the meat. Form the meat into a mound in aserving dish, decorate with sliced onions and radishes, and serve with bread,pickles,andherbs.Servesoupseparately.

DRIED-FRUITSOUP

(AbgushteMiveh)

Putmeatinasaucepanwiththebeansandpeas,beet,onion,spices,andsalt.Addhotwater,covertightly,andsimmeroverlowheataboutihour.Adddriedfruit,cover,andsimmerforihourlonger.Tasteforflavorandiftoosweetaddito 2 tablespoons lemon juice or verjuice or 3 to 4 crushed dried limes (limuomani-seeIndex).

APPLEANDSOURCHERRYSOUP

(AbgushteSib)

Putmeatinasaucepanwiththeonion,peas,andwheat.Addwaterandspices,covertightly,andsimmeroverlowheataboutIhour.Sautetheapplesinhalftheshorteningwiththecherriesandsaltforafewminutes,oruntilappleispartiallytender.Addtothesimmeringmeat,cover,andsimmeraboutIhourlonger.Justbefore serving, saute themint in the remainingoil and add to soup in servingbowl.Servewithherbs,radishes,andbread.

GIPA

This is a soupmadeofhead, stomach, and trottersof lamb. It isoneof theoldestsoupsinthehistoryofPersiancuisine,datingbacktothedaysofBos-hac,whoadmireditrepeatedly:

ThetraditionofservingGipafrom6to7A.M.asanearly,richbreakfastisstill

practicedamongthepeoplesofsmalltownsandvillages,asitwasinBos-hac'sdays.

Thereare twokindsofgipa-oneplain, theotherelaborate.At thepresent timetheyareservedasluncheondishes.

PLAINGIPA

(Serves6)

Prepareonelamb'shead,stomach,breast,and2to4trotters.Washandcleanthoroughly.Putallinalargedeepsaucepanwith2largeonions,chopped,andapieceoflambfat.Additeaspoonturmeric,apinchofcloves,abunchoffreshcelery leaves,pepper,andsufficientwater tocover.Thenadd5choppeddriedlimes(seeIndex),butnosalt.Coververytightly,firstwithacleantowel, thenwiththelid.Simmeroververylowheatfor5to6hours.Whenreadytoserve,add salt to taste. A few pieces of chopped carrotmay be added for flavor, ifdesired. Serving gipa with aromatic herbs, onions, radishes, and pickles ismandatory.Grapesservedaftergipaaretraditional.

ELABORATEGIPA

(Serves4)

Cleanaheadoflambandputitinadeeppotwith2onions,chopped,afewceleryleaves,andl teaspooneachofpepperandturmeric.Addwatertocover,coverpot,andsimmeroverlowheatfor3hours.

Meanwhilecleanthestomachofalambandcutitinto2parts,eachaslargeasthepalmofthehand.Sewthreesidesofthepiecestogethertoformasmallbag,leavingopenabout3inchesatthetopforthemouthofthebag.

Wash/poundriceandsoakin/cupwarmwaterfor30minutes.Add/poundground meat, 2 tablespoons sweetened tangerine- or orange-peel shreds (seeIndex),4tablespoonseachchoppedblanchedalmondsandshelledpistachiosor

walnuts,3hteaspoonsaffron,5to6driedchoppedprunesorplums,andsaltandpepper.Mixalltogetherandstuffthebagwiththemixture,leavingroomatthetopofthebagforthericetoexpandasitcooks.Pour2tablespoonsmeltedbutterintothebagandsewmouthofbagclosed.

Putbaginsouppotwiththehead,coverwithatowel,thenwiththelid,andcontinue to simmer for 3 hours longer.When well cooked and the water hasboileddowntoarichbrothandthebagissoftandpuffed,removebothheadandbagfrompantoaservingdish.Servehot,andservethebrothseparately.Herbs,radishes,andpicklearemandatory.

MEATLESSSOUP

(Eshkaneh)

(Serves4)

Eachpartofthecountryhasitsfavoriterecipeformakingeshkaneh.Thebasicingredients are onion, flour, walnuts, and any kind of fruits, or fruit juice oryogurtasfollows:

Sauteionion,chopped,in6tablespoonscookingoiluntilonionistransparent.Stir in2 tablespoons flourandcook, stirring,until flour isgoldenbrown.AddUfatablespoonpowderedmintleaves,Ihteaspooneachofsaltandpepper,and;cupcoarselychoppedwalnutmeatsandsauteforafewminuteslonger.Thenaddanyofthefollowingingredients:2cupspomegranatejuiceoricupverjuicewith3cupwater,or icuphotwaterand ipoundpitted freshsourblackcherriesorapricotsand3hcupsugar,orsugar to taste.Bring toaboilandsimmerfor15minutes.Drop in4eggs,oneata time,andsimmeruntil theeggsarecooked.Servehotwithbread.

Yogurtmaybeusedinsteadoffruitorjuices.Stirinicupyogurtandislicedclovegarlic,justbeforeaddingtheeggs.Dropineggsandstirverygentlyoverlowheatfor3to4minutes.

HEAVYSOUPS

(Aashes)

Thick soups, similar to stews, are classic cold-weatherdishes in all parts of

Persia.Theyareancientandheartydishes,andaregenerallyservedforlunch.

ThevarietiesofAashes arenumerous in Iran, but here are a fewwhich arepopularwithall.

YOGURTASH

(AasheMast)

Bringwatertoaboilinadeepsaucepan.Addmeat,onion,peas,vegetables,spices, and salt.Cover tightly and simmer over lowheat for 30minutes.Add

rice and cook, covered, for 30minutes longer, stirringoccasionally to preventthe rice from sticking to the bottom of the pan, until all ingredients are wellcooked. Stir in yogurt and heat, but be careful not to let the soup boil. Poursteamingsoupintoatureen.Sautetheifinelychoppedonioninthecookingoiluntilgoldenbrown.Removeonionandsautethemintforafewminutesintheoilremaininginthepan.Whenmintandoilturngreen,sprinklebothfriedonionandmintontopofthesoupandservehot.

POMEGRANATEASH

(AasheAnar)

Putmincedvegetablesandchoppedbeet inadeepsaucepanwith thewater.Addmeat. Ifgroundmeat isused, form it intoballs thesizeofsmallwalnuts.Add peas, spices, and salt, cover tightly, and stir over medium heat for 15minutes.Addriceandfruit juice,cover,andsimmerforabout2hours,stirring

occasionally, until all ingredients are well cooked. If more liquid is neededduringthecookingperiod,addicuphotwaterormorefruitjuice.

SOURAASH

(AasheTorsh)

Theoldest recipes for themanyvarietiesofaasharemadewith the juiceofsourfruitsandareconsideredtoberemarkablyeffectivehealthfoods.Basicallytheyaremadeinthesamewayasthepomegranateaash,but2poundsoffreshsourplums,prunes,orbarberriesor2cupsoflemonjuicearesubstitutedforthepomegranatejuice.

AASHESAK

This is a refreshing thick soup which originated in the northern section ofPersiaandwhichisservedinbothsummerandwinter.

Cooklentils,beansandchoppedonionwiththehotwaterinadeepsaucepanfor15minutes.Formthemeatintoballsandaddtotheboilingingredientsalongwith the spinach, beet, and spices. Cover tightly and simmer for 30 minutes.Combineflourandcoldwater,beatingtoasmoothpaste,andstirintotheboilingingredients. Add the fruit juice and continue to cook for 30 minutes longer.Whenthemixtureisratherthick,removefromfireandstirintheeggs.Pourintoatureenandgarnishwiththemincedonionsauteedintheoiluntilgolden.

WHEATPORRIDGE

(HaleemeGusht)

(Serves4)

This ancient dish, made only of wheat andmeat, is indigenous to the coldpartsofPersia.Themeatmustbeof theverybestand, inorderofpreference,goose,duck,orchickenfirst,venisonsecond,andlamblast.Haleemoriginallywasservedasabreakfastfoodandeventodayentertainingata'haleembreakfaston cold winter mornings is a popular custom throughout Persia. It is alsofrequently served inwinter for lunch, but never for dinner. Haleem is alwayssprinkledwithhotbutterandsugarorhoneyandisservedwithbread.

Trimoffallfibersandskinfrom2poundsbonelessshoulderofdeerorlambandcutintopieces.Putthemeatinaheavy,deepsaucepanwithiwholeonionandaddenoughhotwatertocoverthemeatbyadepthofiinch.Coverandbringtoaboil,thensimmeroverlowheatforito2hours,oruntilmeatisverytender.Inanothersaucepancookitpoundsbleachedwheatinwatertocoverbyadepthof i inchuntil tender.Whenwheat is soft, run it through the finest blade of ameat grinder. Discard onion from meat and run the meat through the meatgrinder.Mixwheatandmeatandgrindoncemore.Returnmixturetothekettleandcookoverlowheat,stirringconstantly,untilcookedtoathickporridge.

If poultry is used, cook it whole, discard bones, and grind the meat. Theamountofwheatshouldbeequaltotheweightofthefowlbeforeitiscooked.

Whenreadytoserve,turnmixtureintoabowl.Heatagoodquantityofbutter,pouritoverthehaleem,andsprinklewithsugarorhoneyandlotsofcinnamon.Servewithtoastedbread.Itisimportantthatboththehaleemandthebutterbeveryhot.Pomegranatesaretraditionallyservedafterhaleem.

(Stews)

CLASSICALANDSIMPLEKHORESHES

(Stews)

InPersia it is customary to servepolous and chelouswithoneof themanyvariety of khoreshes. The ones preferred, which are served at all importantoccasions, are: Qa'meh, Qormeh Sabzi, Fesenjan, and Mosamma Bademjan,whicharecenturiesold.

Allkhoreshesaremodestly spiced,but flavoredwith sour juices.The juiceswhichmaybeusedareeitherlime,lemon,sourorange,orverjuice.Sometimesdriedpomegranateseedsarealsousedforflavoring.

Themeatsmost often used for khoreshes are lamb, chicken, duck, or otherfowlrichinfat.

There are also many varieties of khoreshes which are meatless, and I amgivingsomeofthebestonesinthisbook.

Theusual spices used are saffron, blackpepper, and turmeric, but for somekhoresheshotspicesarerequired.

QA'MEH

(FinelyMincedMeat)

Thisdishismandatoryatweddings,funerals,birthdays,atlargedinnerpartiesandreligiouspublicfeasts.Itisservedwithasweetpolouorchelou.

Anyofthefollowingingredients:

Sautetheonioninthebutteroroilinadeeppotuntilwellbrowned.Removeonionanddrain.Inthebutterremaininginthepotcookthemeat,mixedwiththepepper and turmeric. Stir well until all ingredients are smoothly mixed. Addtomato juiceandhotwaterandcookovermediumheat,covered,untilmeat iswelldone.Addsplitpeasandlimejuiceordriedlimes,andseasontotastewithsalt.Partiallycoverandsimmeroverlowheatfor45minutes.Thenaddthefriedonionandanyoftheotheringredientsdesired.Againpartiallycoverandsimmeruntilallingredientsarecookedandblendedandarich,colorfulgravyrisestothesurface.Whenreadytoserve,pourintoaservingbowlandtopwithateaspoonsaffronmixedwithalittlehotwater.One-halfteaspoonofcloveorcurrypowdermaybeaddedwiththeturmeric.Inthiscasesaffronisnotused.

FESENJAN

This khoresh is also a very old and popular dish with all Iranians. It ismandatory at all festival dinners and the public food servings of the religiousnightsofRamadanandMuharram.Itmaybemadeofduck,partridge,chicken,lamborvealhindshin,shoulder,orgroundmeat.

Sautetheonionwiththepepperandturmericinthebutterortheoiluntilwellbrowned.Removeonionanddrain.Ifgroundmeatisused,makesmallballsandbrownslightlyintheoilremaininginthepan.Ifbirdsareused,brownthemonallsides.

Sprinklemeatorbirdswiththeflourandthechoppedwalnutsandsauteforafewminuteslonger.Addwater,pomegranatejuice,andsalttotasteand,ifyoulikeasourerdish,thelemonjuice.Coverandsimmeroverlowheatfor3ominutes.

Peeleggplant,cutlengthwiseinto6or8pieces,sprinkleeachpiecewithsalt,andstackoneontopoftheotherforafewminutestodrain.Thenrinseincoldwater,dry,andsauteinhotoiluntillightlybrownedonbothsides.Arrangetheeggplantontopofthemeatorpoultry,partiallycover,andsimmeroverlowheat

until the eggplant is tender and a rich, brown gravy rises to the top. Addpowdered cardamom, stir well but gently, and cook about 5 minutes longer.Servewithchelo.

NoTE:tpoundwhitefishorsalmonmaybeusedinsteadofmeatorpoultry.In thiscase thecooking timewillbeabout15minutes less.Alsoeitherof thefollowing vegetables may be substituted for the eggplant: one pound freshpumpkin meat, minced and sauteed, or one pound Italian squash, halved andsauteed.

"SometimesIuselemonorlimejuice,brownsugar,and1hcuptomatojuicewhenpomegranatejuiceisnotavailable.

VEGETABLEKHORESHE

(QormehSabzi)

Thiskhoreshisservedwithchelouorkateh,damiandsweetpolou.Itisverymuch favored for picnics, and is humorously titled say-yed-ul-qava-mire,meaningthemasterofallmincedones.

Cutmeatintolargepiecesandsauteitwiththeonioninthe2tablespoonsoiluntilbrowned.Addturmericandpepper,thehotwater,andlemonjuice.CoverandcookoverlowheatforIominutes.

Meanwhilewash andmince all vegetable leaves and,without addingwater,cooktheminalargefryingpanoverlowheat,foldingconstantlyuntilwiltedanddry. Add the 'A cup oil and mix and saute about 5 minutes longer. Addvegetables to the simmeringmeat. If driedbeansare tobeused, theymustbeaddednow.Covertoppartiallyandsimmeroverlowheatfor30minuteslonger.Ifpotatoesareused,theyshouldbesauteedslightlyinalittleoilandthenaddedto themeat.Letsimmeragain,partiallycovered,untila richgravyrises to thetop.

Nom:Sour fruit such as unripe sour plumsor dried limesmaybe added inplaceofthelemonjuice.

EGGPLANTKHORESHE

(MosammaBademjan)

EggplantisanimportantvegetableinPersiancuisine,andPersiancooksknowhowtomake itappetizing. It isprepared for the table inmanydifferentways.Themostfavoriteiscalledmosamma,butitisalsoreferredtoasthe"khoreshofkings andmullas," for it is believed thatkings andMoslempriests always areservedthechoicedishes.

Formanycenturiesmosammahasbeenthemostpopularofdishes