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The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion Division of Adolescent and School Health

www.cdc.gov/HealthyYouth

Revised Version — July 2010 (Replaces April 2010 Early Release)

Acknowledgments: This publication was developed for the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s (CDC) Division of Adolescent and School Health (DASH) under contract #200 2002-00800 with ETR Associates.

Suggested Citation: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The association between school based physical activity, including physical education, and academic performance. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 2010.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Executive Summary . 5

Introduction . 8

Methods 10

Conceptual Definitions . 10

Inclusion Criteria . 10

Identification of Studies that Met the Inclusion Criteria . 11

Classification of Studies . 11

Study Coding Process . 12

Data Analysis . 13

Results . 14

School-Based Physical Education Studies . 16

Recess Studies . 19

Classroom Physical Activity Studies . 21

Extracurricular Physical Activity Studies . 24

Summary . 28

Overall Findings . 28

Findings for Physical Activity by Context . 29

Findings by Gender, Other Demographic Characteristics, and Research Design . 30

Strengths and Limitations of Review . 30

Implications for Future Research or Evaluation . 31

Implications for Schools . 32

References . 34

Appendices . 39

Appendix A: Database Search Terms . 39

Appendix B: Coding Sheet . 41

Appendix C: Glossary of Research Design Terms . 51

Appendix D: School-Based Physical Education Summary Matrix . 52

Appendix E: Recess Summary Matrix . 62

Appendix F: Classroom Physical Activity Summary Matrix . 67

Appendix G: Extracurricular Physical Activity Summary Matrix . 73

The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance | 3

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY When children and adolescents participate in the recommended level of physical activity—at least 60 minutes daily—multiple health benefits accrue. Most youth, however, do not engage in recommended levels of physical activity. Schools provide a unique venue for youth to meet the activity recommendations, as they serve nearly 56 million youth. At the same time, schools face increasing challenges in allocating time for physical education and physical activity during the school day.

There is a growing body of research focused on the association between school-based physical activity, including physical education, and academic performance among school-aged youth. To better understand these connections, this review includes studies from a range of physical activity contexts, including school-based physical education, recess, classroom-based physical activity (outside of physical education and recess), and extracurricular physical activity. The purpose of this report is to synthesize the scientific literature that has examined the association between school-based physical activity, including physical education, and academic performance, including indicators of cognitive skills and attitudes, academic behaviors, and academic achievement.

Methods For this review, relevant research articles and reports were identified through a search of nine electronic databases, using both physical activity and academic-related search terms. The search yielded a total of 406 articles that were examined to determine their match with the inclusion criteria. Forty-three articles (reporting a total of 50 unique studies) met the inclusion criteria and were read, abstracted, and coded for this synthesis.

Coded data from the articles were used to categorize and organize studies first by their physical activity context (i.e., physical education, recess, classroom-based physical activity, and extracurricular physical activities), and then by type of academic performance outcome. Academic performance outcomes were grouped into three categories: 1) academic achievement (e.g.,

grades, test scores); 2) academic behavior (e.g., on-task behavior, attendance); and 3) cognitive skills and attitudes (e.g., attention/concentration, memory, mood). Findings of the 43 articles that explored the relationship between indicators of physical activity and academic performance were then summarized.

Results Across all 50 studies (reported in 43 articles), there were a total of 251 associations between physical activity and academic performance, representing measures of academic achievement, academic behavior, and cognitive skills and attitudes. Measures of cognitive skills and attitudes were used most frequently (112 of the 251 associations tested). Of all the associations examined, slightly more than half (50.5%) were positive, 48% were not significant, and only 1.5% were negative. Examination of the findings by each physical activity context provided insights regarding specific relationships.

1) School-Based Physical Education Studies

School-based physical education as a context category encompassed 14 studies (reported in 14 articles) that examined physical education courses or physical activity conducted in physical education class. Typically, these studies examined the impact of increasing the amount of time students spent in physical education class or manipulating the activities during physical education class. Overall, increased time in physical education appears to have a positive relationship or no relationship with academic achievement. Increased time in physical education does not appear to have a negative relationship with academic achievement. Eleven of the 14 studies found one or more positive associations between school-based physical education and indicators of academic performance; the remaining three studies found no significant associations.

2) Recess Studies

Eight recess studies (reported in six articles) explored the relationship between academic performance and recess during the school day in elementary schools. Six studies tested an intervention to examine how recess impacts indicators of academic performance;


the other two studies explored the relationships between recess and school adjustment or classroom behavior. Time spent in recess appears to have a positive relationship with, or no relationship with, children’s attention, concentration, and/or on-task classroom behavior. All eight studies found one or more positive associations between recess and indicators of cognitive skills, attitudes, and academic behavior; none of the studies found negative associations.

3) Classroom Physical Activity Studies

Nine studies (reported in nine articles) explored physical activity that occurred in classrooms apart from physical education classes and recess. In general, these studies explored short physical activity breaks (5–20 minutes) or ways to introduce physical activity into learning activities that were either designed to promote learning through physical activity or provide students with a pure physical activity break. These studies examined how the introduction of brief physical activities in a classroom setting affected cognitive skills (aptitude, attention, memory) and attitudes (mood); academic behaviors (on-task behavior, concentration); and academic achievement (standardized test scores, reading literacy scores, or math fluency scores). Eight of the nine studies found positive associations between classroom-based physical activity and indicators of cognitive skills and attitudes, academic behavior, and academic achievement; none of the studies found negative associations.

4) Extracurricular Physical Activity Studies

Nineteen studies (reported in 14 articles) focused specifically on the relationship between academic performance and activities organized through school that occur outside of the regular school day. These activities included participation in school sports (interscholastic sports and other team or individual sports) as well as other after-school physical activity programs. All 19 studies examining the relationships between participation in extracurricular physical activities and academic performance found one or more positive associations.

Strengths and Limitations This review has a number of strengths. It involved a systematic process for locating, reviewing, and coding the studies. Studies were obtained using an extensive array of search terms and international databases and were reviewed by multiple trained coders. The studies cover a broad array of contexts in which youth participate in school-based physical activities and span a period of 23 years. Furthermore, a majority (64%) of studies included in the review were intervention studies, and a majority (76%) were longitudinal.

The breadth of the review, however, is a limitation. All studies meeting the established review criteria were included and treated equally, regardless of the study characteristics (e.g., design, sample size). The studies were not ranked, weighted, or grouped according to their strengths and limitations. The breadth of the review, while revealing a variety of study designs, measures, and populations, often made comparisons and summaries difficult. As a result, conclusions are intentionally broad.

Implications for Policy There are a number of policy implications stemming from this review:

• There is substantial evidence that physical activity can help improve academic achievement, including grades and standardized test scores.

• The articles in this review suggest that physical activity can have an impact on cognitive skills and attitudes and academic behavior, all of which are important components of improved academic performance. These include enhanced concentration and attention as well as improved classroom behavior.

• Increasing or maintaining time dedicated to physical education may help, and does not appear to adversely impact, academic performance.

6 | The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance

Implications for Schools The results of this review support several strategies that schools can use to help students meet national physical activity recommendations without detracting from academic performance:

• School-based physical education: To maximize the potential benefits of student participation in physical education class, schools and physical education teachers can consider increasing the amount of time students spend in physical education or adding components to increase the quality of physical education class. Articles in the review examined increased physical education time (achieved by increasing the number of days physical education was provided each week or lengthening class time) and/or improved quality of physical education (achieved through strategies such as using trained instructors and increasing the amount of active time during physical education class).

• Recess: School boards, superintendents, principals, and teachers can feel confident that providing recess to students on a regular basis may benefit academic behaviors, while also facilitating social development and contributing to overall physical activity and its associated health benefits. There was no evidence that time spent in recess had a negative association with cognitive skills, attitudes, or academic behavior.

• Classroom-based physical activity: Classroom teachers can incorporate movement activities and physical activity breaks into the classroom setting that may improve student performance and the classroom environment. Most interventions reviewed here used short breaks (5–20 minutes) that required little or no teacher preparation, special equipment, or resources.

• Extracurricular physical activities: The evidence suggests that superintendents, principals, and athletic directors can develop or continue school-based sports programs without concern that these activities have a detrimental impact on students’ academic performance. School administrators and teachers also can encourage after-school organizations, clubs, student groups, and parent groups to incorporate physical activities into their programs and events.


INTRODUCTION When children and adolescents participate in at least 60 minutes of physical activity every day, multiple health benefits accrue.1,2 Regular physical activity builds healthy bones and muscles, improves muscular strength and endurance, reduces the risk for developing chronic disease risk factors, improves self-esteem, and reduces stress and anxiety.1 Beyond these known health effects, physical activity may also have beneficial influences on academic performance.

Children and adolescents engage in different types of physical activity, depending on age and access to programs and equipment in their schools and communities. Elementary school-aged children typically engage in free play, running and chasing games, jumping rope, and age-appropriate sports—activities that are aligned with the development of fundamental motor skills. The development of complex motor skills enables adolescents to engage in active recreation (e.g., canoeing, skiing, rollerblading), resistance exercises with weights or weight machines, individual sports (e.g., running, bicycling), and team sports (e.g., basketball, baseball).1,3 Most youth, however, do not engage in the recommended level of physical activity. For example,

Defining Academic Performance

In this review, academic performance is used broadly to describe different factors that may influence student success in school. These factors fall into three primary areas:

• Cognitive Skills and Attitudes • (e.g., attention/concentration, memory, verbal ability).

• Academic Behaviors (e.g., conduct, • attendance, time on task, homework completion).

• Academic Achievement (e.g., • standardized test scores, grades).

only 17.1% of U.S. high school students meet current recommendations for physical activity (CDC, unpublished data, 2009).

Schools, which serve nearly 56 million youth in the United States, provide a unique venue for youth to meet the physical activity recommendations.4 At the same time, schools face increasing challenges in allocating time for physical education and physical activity during the school day. Many schools are attempting to increase instructional time for mathematics, English, and science in an effort to improve standards-based test scores.5

As a result, physical education classes, recess, and other physical activity breaks often are decreased or eliminated during the school day. This is evidenced by data from both students and schools. For example, in 2007 only 53.6% of U.S. high school students reported that they attended physical education class on 1 or more days in an average week at school, and fewer (30%) reported participating in physical education classes daily.6 Similarly, in 2006 only 4% of elementary schools, 8% of middle schools, and 2% of high schools in the United States provided daily physical education or its equivalent for all students in all grades.7 Furthermore, in 2006 only 57% of all school districts required that elementary schools provide students with regularly scheduled recess. As for physical activity outside of physical education and recess, during the school day, 16% of school districts required elementary schools, 10% required middle schools, and 4% required high schools to provide regular physical activity breaks.7

In addition to school-day opportunities, youth also have opportunities to participate in physical activity through extracurricular physical activities (e.g., school sports, recreation, other teams), which may be available through schools, communities, and/or after-school programs.8

Seventy-six percent of 6- to 12-year-olds reported participating in some sports in 1997,9 and in 2007, 56% of high school students reported playing on one or more sports teams organized by their school or community in the previous 12 months.6

There is a growing body of research focused on the association between school-based physical activity, including physical education, and academic


performance among school-aged youth.3,10-16 This developing literature suggests that physical activity may have an impact on academic performance through a variety of direct and indirect physiological, cognitive, emotional, and learning mechanisms.12,17,18 Research on brain development indicates that cognitive development occurs in tandem with motor ability.19

Several review articles also have examined the connections between physical activity and academic behavior and achievement. Sibley and Etnier12

conducted a meta-analysis of published studies relating physical activity and cognition in youth. Two additional reviews described the evidence for relationships between physical activity, brain physiology, cognition, emotion, and academic achievement among children, drawing from studies of humans and other animals across the lifespan.14,20 Finally, two other reviews summarized select peer-reviewed research on the relationship between physical activity and academic performance, with an emphasis on school settings and policies.15,16

Research also has explored the relationships among physical education and physical activity, fitness levels and motor skill development, and academic performance. For example, several studies have shown a positive relationship between increased physical fitness levels and academic achievement10,21-27 as well as fitness levels and measures of cognitive skills and attitudes.28 In addition, other studies have shown that improved motor skill levels are positively related to improvements in academic achievement29-31 and measures of cognitive skills and attitudes.32-34

To extend the understanding of these connections, this review offers a broad examination of the literature on a range of physical activity contexts, including physical education classes, recess, classroom-based physical activity breaks outside of physical education class and recess, and extracurricular physical activity, thereby providing a tool to inform program and policy efforts for education and health professionals. The purpose of this report is to synthesize the scientific literature that has examined the association between school-based physical activity, including physical education, and academic performance, including indicators of cognitive skills and attitudes, academic behaviors, and academic achievement.

How Physical Activity Affects the Brain16 18

Cognitive skills and motor skills appear to develop through a dynamic interaction. Research has shown that physical movement can affect the brain’s physiology by increasing

• Cerebral capillary growth. •

• Blood flow. •

• Oxygenation. •

• Production of neurotrophins. •

• Growth of nerve cells in the • hippocampus (center of learning and memory).

• Neurotransmitter levels. •

• Development of nerve connections. •

• Density of neural network. •

• Brain tissue volume. •

These physiological changes may be associated with

• Improved attention. •

• Improved information processing, • storage, and retrieval.

• Enhanced coping. •

• Enhanced positive affect. •

• Reduced sensations of cravings and • pain.


METHODS

Conceptual Definitions The research on this topic suggests that physical activity can be related to many different aspects of academic performance (e.g., attention, on-task behavior, grade-point average [GPA]), and as a result, the existing literature examines a wide range of variables. In this report, those variables are organized into three categories: 1) cognitive skills and attitudes, 2) academic behaviors, and 3) academic achievement. The three categories, as well as other important terms used in this report, are defined below.

Academic Performance: In this review, academic performance is used broadly to describe different factors that may influence student success in school. These factors are grouped into three primary areas:

1) Cognitive Skills and Attitudes

Cognitive skills and attitudes include both basic cognitive abilities, such as executive functioning, attention, memory, verbal comprehension, and information processing, as well as attitudes and beliefs that influence academic performance, such as motivation, self-concept, satisfaction, and school connectedness. Studies used a range of measures to define and describe these constructs.

2) Academic Behaviors

Academic behaviors include a range of behaviors that may have an impact on students’ academic performance. Common indicators include on-task behavior, organization, planning, attendance, scheduling, and impulse control. Studies used a range of measures to define and describe these constructs.

3) Academic Achievement

Academic achievement includes standardized test scores in subject areas such as reading, math, and language arts; GPAs; classroom test scores; and other formal assessments.

Physical Education: Physical education, as defined by the National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE), is a curricular area offered in K–12 schools that provides students with instruction on physical activity, health-related fitness, physical competence, and cognitive understanding about physical activity, thereby enabling students to adopt healthy and physically active lifestyles.35 A high-quality physical education program enables students to develop motor skills, understand movement concepts, participate in regular physical activity, maintain healthy fitness levels, develop responsible personal and social behavior, and value physical activity.35

Recess: Recess is a time during the school day that provides children with the opportunity for active, unstructured or structured, free play.

Physical Activity: Physical activity is defined as any bodily movement produced by the contraction of skeletal muscle that increases energy expenditure above a resting level.1 Physical activity can be repetitive, structured, and planned movement (e.g., a fitness class or recreational activity such as hiking); leisurely (e.g., gardening); sports-focused (e.g., basketball, volleyball); work-related (e.g., lifting and moving boxes); or transportation-related (e.g., walking to school). The studies in this review included a range of ways to capture the frequency, intensity, duration, and type of students’ physical activity.

Physiology: In this report, physiology includes indicators of structural or functional changes in the brain and body. Studies most often reported measures of physical fitness, motor skills, and body composition from this construct.

Inclusion Criteria The following criteria were used to identify published studies for inclusion in this review. Studies had to

• Be published in English.

• Present original data.


• Be published between 1985 and October 2008.*

• Focus on school-aged children aged 5–18 years.

• Include clear measures of physical education and/or physical activity, such as – Physical education class. – Recess. – Classroom-based physical activity (outside of

physical education and recess). – Extracurricular physical activities (including school

sports and other teams).

• Measure academic performance (cognitive skills and attitudes, academic behaviors, and academic achievement) using one or more educational or behavioral outcomes. Examples include – Graduation or dropout rates (n=2). – Performance on standardized tests (n=17). – Academic grades/GPA (n=9). – Years of school completed (n=1). – Time on task (n=3). – Concentration or attentiveness in educational

settings (n=7). – Attendance (n=3). – Disciplinary problems (n=6). – School connectedness † (n=2).

Studies were excluded if they did not meet the above criteria or if they focused solely on sedentary lifestyle variables, overweight status, or media use rather than physical activity. Studies also were excluded if they focused exclusively on the relationship between academic performance and fitness test scores rather than physical activity itself. Review articles, meta-analyses, and unpublished studies were excluded from the coding and analysis portion of this review, although their reference lists were used to identify original research to be reviewed for inclusion.

* Articles published between October 2008 and the publication date that met the inclusion criteria and made a notable contribution to the field may have been included in the review based on expert recommendations.

† School connectedness refers to students’ belief that adults and peers in the school care about their learning as well as about them as individuals.36

Identification of Studies that Met the Inclusion Criteria Studies were identified through a search of nine electronic databases (ERIC, Expanded Academic Index ASAP, Google Scholar, PsycNET®, PubMed, ScienceDirect®, Sociological Abstracts, SportDiscus™), and the Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL®) using a pre-established set of search terms that included both physical activity and academic-related terms (see Appendix A). Additional studies also were located from reference lists of the identified articles.

Classification of Studies The search yielded 406 articles (see Figure 1). Two trained researchers examined each article to determine its match with the inclusion criteria; it was then classified as “included for review” or “excluded from review.” When the match was unclear, articles were temporarily classified as “possible inclusion” before being reviewed by two additional researchers for final classification. Initially, 50 articles were identified for inclusion. Four of those articles were later excluded because they lacked clarity necessary to categorize them appropriately for the review. For example, one article examining movement lacked sufficient information to determine whether the movement should be classified as physical activity; another article lacked a clear academic performance variable. The other two articles lacked clarity in descriptions of analyses and testing of research questions that was necessary for categorization. A fifth article was excluded because of its focus on elite athletes rather than a general student population. Two additional articles that examined associations between participation in a sports-based interdisciplinary curriculum and academic grades were excluded because of insufficient detail about the physical activity participation levels of students and the subsequent lack of fit into the review categories.

A total of 363 articles were excluded. Reasons for exclusion were failure to include an appropriate measure of physical activity (n=103), academic achievement (n=40), or both physical activity and academic achievement (n=25); classification as a review or meta-analysis (n=82); inclusion of participants outside the


F IGURE 1:

108 Included for Review

87 Excluded from Review



43 Total Articles Included for Review

85 of these articles were later classified as excluded

These 38 articles were reviewed by 5 team members and

then classified as

Classified as

38 Possible Inclusion



406 Total Articles

Article Classification System

age range of interest (n=58); inability to obtain full text of the study (n=49); and a publication date outside the inclusion range (n=6).

Overall, 43 articles (describing 50 unique studies) met the inclusion criteria and were read, abstracted, and coded for this synthesis. Two articles in this review presented findings from more than one study that met inclusion criteria; one article described three studies,37

and the other reported six.2

Study Coding Process The coding method for this report is similar to that of several prominent literature reviews in the public health field.38-40 A team of eight trained reviewers read and coded the 43 articles using a standard coding protocol (see Appendix B). When multiple studies were presented in a single article, this information was noted in the coding, but the studies remained grouped by article. The coding protocol involved abstracting information from the studies and entering it into a Microsoft Access® database.

Whenever possible, information was abstracted directly from articles as stated by authors. The following information was abstracted: purpose, research questions, study design, sampling, sample characteristics, setting, theory, intervention, methods, analytic strategy, results, limitations, study focus, and additional comments. For this review, study designs were classified as experimental, quasi-experimental, descriptive, or case studies (study designs are defined in Appendix C); data collection methods and time points were noted as described. Studies that lacked details regarding any field of interest were coded as “information not provided.”

To ensure consistency in coding, approximately 17% of all articles were double-coded by a reviewer and a senior coder. A team of article reviewers met regularly during the coding process to discuss and resolve issues associated with coding. A system was established for handling coding questions and concerns. Senior team members resolved and verified issues as they arose.

A brief summary profile of each study was then created (see Appendices D–G). A list of the studies


classified as using quasi-experimental or experimental designs is provided at the beginning of each of these appendices. These summaries were e-mailed to the studies’ corresponding authors for review and verification. Authors not responding within the initial timeline received a second request for review. Seventy-two percent of the authors (31 of 43) reviewed their summaries. Author edits and suggestions were incorporated where applicable.

Data Analysis Coded data from the articles were used to categorize and organize studies first by their physical activity context and then by outcome, cohort, sampling groups, and date published. The individual studies were identified (in the instances where articles described more than one study), and all reviewed studies were treated equally, regardless of study characteristics or design. Although meta-analysis was considered as a method to analyze data in this review, the small number and heterogeneity of studies precluded use of that method. Therefore, descriptive literature synthesis was conducted. In this report, the results describe the types of associations or relationships reported in the studies. When positive or negative associations are described in the Results section below, they refer to findings that the study authors reported as reaching statistical significance (p ≤ 0.05).


RESULTS This review examines the findings of 43 articles (reflective of 50 studies total) that explored the relationship between physical activity and/or physical education and academic performance. Each study was categorized in one of four physical activity context areas: 1) school-based physical education; 2) recess; 3) classroom-based physical activity (outside of physical education and recess); and 4) extracurricular physical activity.

School-based physical education as a context category encompassed all studies that were explicitly set in physical education class or consisted of a school-based course or curriculum that addressed primary aspects of physical education. This category included activities conducted in physical education class but did not exclude curricula with components that extended beyond formal physical education. Typically, studies in this category examined the impact of increasing the amount of time students spent in physical education class or manipulating the types of activities conducted with students.

Recess studies explored the relationship between academic performance and recess during the school day in elementary schools. Recess is typically 10–15 minutes or longer of unstructured free play that may occur as a break during the school day or in association with lunch.

Classroom-based physical activity as a context category included studies that were classroom-based but were not physical education class or recess. In general, these studies explored short physical activity breaks (5–20 minutes) or ways to introduce physical activity into learning activities that were either designed to promote learning through physical activity or provide students with a pure physical activity break. These interventions are relatively easy and inexpensive for a teacher to incorporate into the classroom.

Extracurricular physical activity as a context category encompassed studies that focused specifically on the relationships between activities organized through school that occur outside of the regular school day. This category included participation in school sports (interscholastic sports and other teams) as well as other after-school physical activity programs.

Results at a Glance

For the 43 articles reviewed, •

• A total of 251 associations between • physical activity and academic performance were measured.

• The most commonly measured indicator • of academic performance was cognitive skills and attitudes (112 of the 251 associations tested).

• More than half (50.5%) of all • associations tested were positive.

• Positive associations were found across • measures of academic achievement, academic behavior, and cognitive skills and attitudes.

• There were only four negative • associations, accounting for 1.5% of all associations tested.

Of all 50 studies in the review, almost two-thirds (62%) focused on youth physical activity experiences through school-based physical education, during recess, or in the classroom; the remaining studies (38%) examined extracurricular physical activity (see Table 1). Slightly more than half (54%) of the articles focused exclusively on students in secondary school settings; 44% included studies conducted with elementary students; and 2% included both elementary and secondary grade levels. The scope and research designs varied as well. Most studies were descriptive (44%) or quasi-experimental (34%) in nature, and the majority (76%) reported longitudinal data. Most studies (80%) were conducted during the school day, and about two-thirds (64%) included a physical education or physical activity intervention. Finally, the majority (68%) of studies were conducted in the United States; overall, studies were conducted in nine countries other than the United States.


For ease of review, the results are presented here by physical activity context. Within each context, results are described by study focus (intervention or nonintervention) and by the type of results.

Each results subsection also includes a summary table that shows the number of associations (total, positive, negative, and no association) for all the studies reviewed

in that context area. Results with p values less than 0.05 are considered statistically significant in this report. Qualitative and descriptive studies that did not include significance testing are described in the text of this report, but not in the outcome counts. Associations are displayed by type of academic performance outcome measured: cognitive skills and attitudes, academic behavior, or academic achievement.

Table 1: Summary Characteristics of Reviewed Studies Number of Studies that Included Academic Achievement Measure*

Characteristics of Studies Number of

Studies (N=50) Academic

Achievement Academic Behavior

Cognitive Skills and Attitudes

Physical Activity Context

Physical education class 14 10 3 7

Recess 8 0 3 5

Classroom based 9 6 1 5

Extracurricular physical activity 19 16 9 14

Study Design

Experimental 11 8 3 6

Quasi-experimental 17 6 4 12

Descriptive 22 17 11 11

Data Collection Design

Cross-sectional 12 8 3 5

Longitudinal 38 27 15 26

Intervention

Intervention 32 20 12 23

Nonintervention 18 15 6 8

Setting†

School day 40 26 12 22

After school 6 5 2 5

Community 3 3 3 3

Household 2 2 1 2

Student Sample Educational Level

Primary 22 12 6 11

Secondary 27 23 11 19

Cross level 1 0 1 1

Country

United States 34 23 16 21

International 16 12 2 10

* Studies often included more than one type of measure; thus, the number of studies that include these different academic performance measures may exceed the total number of studies in any given category.

† Some studies included more than one setting; therefore, the total number of studies by setting exceeds 50.


School-Based Physical Education Studies

Fourteen studies (reported in 14 articles) examined the relationship between school-based physical education and academic performance (see Figure 2, and Tables 2a and 2b). Most (n=10) described intervention studies and assessed the impact of an intervention on a range of outcomes. The remaining four were descriptive and examined the relationships between physical education and academic measures. Appendix D includes summary profiles for each of the articles reviewed in this section. FIGURE 2:

Type of Association Observed for Cognitive Skills and Attitudes, Academic Behaviors,

and Academic Achievement Outcomes Across All Physical Education Class Studies

(n=79 associations within 14 studies)

Positive Association (n=39) No Association (n=39) Negative Association (n=1)

Intervention Studies. In general, the intervention studies (three implemented in the United States and seven in other countries) examined how differences in physical education affected academic performance. Six studies41-46 examined increasing the amount of physical education or the level of physical activity intensity in physical education class and comparing students’ academic performance by intervention condition (e.g., physical education two times per week versus daily physical education, or physical education for 20 minutes versus physical education for 30 or 40 minutes, or the intensity of physical activity during physical education).

School-Based Physical Education Studies: Highlights

• • Eleven of 14 studies found one or more positive associations between physical education and indicators of cognitive skills and attitudes, academic behavior, and/or academic achievement.

• • Overall, increased time in physical education appears to have a positive relationship or no relationship with academic achievement.

• • Increased time in physical education does not appear to have a negative relationship with academic achievement.

Two studies examined strategies for improving the quality of physical education: one focused on implementation by trained instructors of a curriculum that promotes greater amounts of moderate and vigorous physical activity in students, and the other implemented multiple strategies such as focusing on students’ personal goal setting, emphasizing opportunities for active participation by all students, and maximizing active use of class time.47,48 The remaining two studies examined the relationship between increasing the emphasis on different types of activities (i.e., aerobic exercise, coordinative exercise) and aspects of academic performance.49,50

Collectively, the studies were conducted across a broad range of grade levels, representing elementary, middle, and high schools. Seven studies employed an experimental design, and three reported data from quasi-experimental designs. Most studies involved short-term follow-up (e.g., immediate or 3-month delay). Sallis and colleagues48 and Ericsson43 both followed youth for approximately 3 years.

Finally, the studies assessed a range of indicators of academic performance, including cognitive skills (e.g., concentration and creativity), attitudes


(e.g., self-esteem and motivation), academic behaviors (e.g., conduct), and/or academic achievement (e.g., standardized test scores and GPA).

Results varied across the 10 intervention studies, with most (8 of 10) showing one or more positive associations. Two studies showed all or mostly positive associations between physical education and cognitive skills and attitudes or academic achievement. Specifically, Ericsson43 found that extending physical education (from 2 days per week to daily) was associated positively with academic achievement (math, reading, and writing test scores). That study also noted positive associations

for attention, an indicator of cognitive functioning, although the relationships dissipated over time. Budde and colleagues49 found that coordination exercises (i.e., exercises that require the body to balance, react, adjust, and/or differentiate) were more beneficial than normal sport lessons in boosting cognitive functioning (specifically, concentration and attention).

Six studies reported more mixed conclusions. Five found a mixture of positive and nonsignificant associations.41,42,44,47,50 For example, Dwyer and colleagues42 compared academic achievement and classroom behavior across three intervention conditions

Table 2a: School-Based Physical Education Intervention Studies: Summary of the Outcomes of Cognitive Skills and Attitudes, Academic Behaviors, and Academic Achievement

Variables in Physical Education Intervention Studies (N=10 Studies)*

Total # of Performance

Outcomes Across the 10 Intervention

Studies

Type of Relationship Observed Between Physical Education Class and Academic Performance

Positive None Negative

Cognitive Skills and Attitudes (N=7 Studies) 24 12 12 0

Attention/concentration 5 3 2 0

Self-esteem 1 1 0 0

Creativity 1 1 0 0

Perception of academic or intellectual competence/self-concept 8 3 5 0

Perceptual motor ability 1 0 1 0

Planning ability 1 0 1 0

Perceived self-concept 2 1 1 0

Impulse control 3 2 1 0

Life satisfaction 1 1 0 0

Attitude towards school 1 0 1 0

Academic Behavior (N=3 Studies) 7 2 5 0

Conduct 7 2 5 0

Academic Achievement (N=6 Studies) 21 11 9 1

Achievement test scores (e.g., math, reading, language arts) 19 10 8 1

Grades/grade point average 2 1 1 0

Total 52 25 26 1

* Studies may have measured the relationship between physical education class and academic performance in more than one way (e.g., measured the association between physical education class and standardized test scores, attendance, motivation, and perceived academic potential). Individual studies in this section measured between 1 and 8 different outcomes and may be represented in multiple cells of the table.


(fitness group: 75 minutes of activity daily, with an emphasis on intensity of activities; skill group: 75 minutes of activity daily with no focus on intensity; and control group: three 30-minute periods of physical education per week). They found no differences in academic achievement across the three intervention conditions, despite the fact that students in the fitness and skill groups actually had less classroom teaching time to accommodate the increase in time for physical education. They also found that classroom behavior improved for students in the skill and fitness intervention conditions. The sixth study found four positive and three nonsignificant associations, as well as one negative relationship.48 Sallis and colleagues48 examined an intensive 2-year health-related physical education program that was taught by trained classroom teachers or physical education specialists and was designed to increase students’ physical activity levels. They found that the SPARK program taught by trained teachers had a positive impact on reading, language, and basic battery standardized test scores, but had no significant impact on math. When taught by physical education specialists, students in the SPARK program scored better than students not enrolled in SPARK on reading, but lower on language and about the same in math.

Finally, two studies found no associations between physical education and indicators of academic performance. These studies examined the relationship between the frequency of physical education and either cognitive skills and attitudes46 or academic

achievement.45 Raviv and Low46 found that physical education did not reduce concentration, contrary to the beliefs of some teachers in their study. Pollatschek and O’Hagan45 found that the frequency of physical education participation (daily versus twice a week) was not associated with students’ standardized math and reading test scores or affect towards school; similar results were found for boys and girls.

Collectively, the results of these studies suggest that physical education may have favorable associations with students’ cognitive skills and attitudes and their academic achievement, but the relationships are not universal and vary by outcome studied. Furthermore, increasing time for physical education does not appear to have negative associations with academic achievement.

Nonintervention Studies. The four nonintervention studies (two conducted in the United States and two in other countries) examined associations between physical education and academic performance using cross-sectional designs (n=3) or secondary analyses of an existing longitudinal data set (n=1). Three of the four studies were conducted at the elementary or middle school level; the fourth study was completed with high school students. All studies used standardized tests to assess academic achievement. Results were either positive or neutral. Three of the studies found positive associations between time spent in physical education or skills learned in physical education and indicators of academic achievement. As an example, one study51

Table 2b: School-Based Physical Education Nonintervention Studies: Summary of the Outcomes of Academic Achievement

Variables in Physical Education Nonintervention Studies (N=4 Studies)*


Outcomes Across the 4

Nonintervention Studies

Type of Relationship Observed Between Physical Education Class and Academic Performance




Total 27 14 13 0

* Studies may have measured the relationship between physical education class and academic performance in more than one way (e.g., measured the association between physical education class and multiple subjects in standardized test scores). Individual studies in this section measured between 2 and 14 different outcomes and may be represented in multiple cells of the table.


noted a positive association between standardized English language arts test scores and time spent in physical education but found no such association for math scores. Another study52 found small but significant associations between physical education and academic achievement in math and reading for girls who had more physical education (70–300 minutes per week) compared with those getting lower amounts (0–35 minutes per week); none of the associations were significant for boys. Dexter53 found a combination of positive associations and no association between performance on sports learned in physical education and an average of math and English test scores and grades, depending on the sport; results were similar for boys and girls. The remaining study found no significant associations between physical education and academic performance on state literacy and numeracy tests.54

There were no negative associations between physical education and indicators of academic performance across these four studies. Consistent with the results of the physical education intervention studies, the data from these four studies suggest physical education has some positive associations with academic outcomes, but these results vary by outcome.

Strengths and Limitations of Methods. This collection of studies has a number of strengths as well as limitations. The studies were conducted across a range of grade levels and used a broad array of indicators related to cognitive skills, attitudes, and academic achievement. Furthermore, nearly half featured experimental designs, and half explored associations by gender. Several limitations were noted by the authors of the studies, including small samples or samples with potential biases that may affect the generalizability of the results (e.g., university research/laboratory school populations or affluent populations). Several authors acknowledged measurement issues, such as limited follow-up, not assessing precursors of academic achievement (e.g., concentration, memory, or classroom behavior), or failing to collect data on socioeconomic status (SES) and other potentially important background variables. Finally, authors of intervention studies also noted implementation limits, such as unequal participation in the intervention or lack of data on implementation quality. Many of the studies did not report data on the racial/ethnic characteristics of their samples, and only one examined results by racial/ethnic subgroups.

Recess Studies: Highlights

• • All eight studies found one or more positive associations between recess and indicators of cognitive skills, attitudes, and academic behavior.

• • Time spent in recess appears to have a positive relationship or no relationship with children’s attention, concentration, and/or on-task classroom behavior.

Recess Studies Eight studies (reported in six articles) examined the relationship between school recess, cognitive skills, attitudes, and/or academic behavior (see Figure 3, and Tables 3a and 3b). Six of the studies tested an intervention to examine how recess impacts these indicators of academic performance. The other two descriptive, nonintervention studies explored the relationships between recess and school adjustment or classroom behavior. Appendix E includes summary profiles for each of the articles reviewed in this section.

FIGURE 3:


and Academic Achievement Outcomes Across All Recess Studies


Positive Association (n=10) No Association (n=7)


Intervention Studies. The six intervention studies (all implemented in the United States) examined the relationship between recess, or increased physical activity during recess, and cognitive skills (attention or concentration) and academic behavior (on-task behavior). All of these studies were conducted in elementary schools with students in kindergarten through fourth grade, and all six employed an experimental or quasi-experimental design.37,55-57 Most used trained observers to collect data on classroom and recess behaviors, with multiple observation points. The data collection follow-up period ranged from 0 to 4 months following baseline. The interventions involved the introduction of recess into the daily school schedule or manipulating the timing of recess (e.g., holding recess after varying lengths of class time).

Results across these six studies showed positive outcomes or no association. Three studies reported all positive associations between more physical activity at recess and classroom behaviors.55-57 Specifically, Caterino and Polak55 found that fourth-grade students who participated in directed physical activity during recess (stretching and aerobic walking) had significantly higher concentration scores than those students who sat quietly in the library during recess. Both studies that measured academic behavior found a positive relationship between recess and on-task behavior. Jarrett and colleagues56 observed that children were less fidgety, less listless, more focused,

and more on task when they had recess compared with when they did not have recess. Pellegrini and Davis57

found that students who engaged in physical activity (as opposed to sedentary behavior) during recess fidgeted less in the classroom after recess.

The three intervention studies by Pellegrini and colleagues37 reported both positive and nonsignificant associations. These studies examined the relationships between the timing of recess (i.e., recess after 2.5 hours versus 3 hours of classroom time) and students’ behaviors during recess and students’ classroom behaviors before and after recess. Investigators found that students’ attention rates were lower after longer periods of classroom work without a break than after shorter periods. They also found that, in general, students’ attention was better after recess than before. Finally, they found that the type of behavior during recess did not affect classroom attention after recess for any grade or gender groups.

Nonintervention Studies. One of the two nonintervention recess studies58 explored the impact of the frequency of recess on teacher reports of classroom behavior in a very large sample (n=11,529); the other59 explored the impact of recess on observations of individual students’ cognitive and emotional adjustment to school within one school (n=77). Barros, Silver, and Stein58 found that overall classroom behavior (based on

Table 3a: Recess Intervention Studies: Summary of the Outcomes of Cognitive Skills and Attitudes and Academic Behaviors

Variables in Recess Intervention Studies (N=6 Studies)*



Studies

Type of Relationship Observed Between Recess and Academic Performance





On-task behavior (not fidgeting) 4 4 0 0

Total 14 8 6 0

* Studies may have measured the relationship between recess and academic performance in more than one way (e.g., measured the association between recess and attention and behavior). Individual studies in this section measured between 1 and 9 different outcomes and may be represented in multiple cells of the table.


Table 3b: Recess Nonintervention Studies: Summary of the Outcomes of Cognitive Skills and Attitudes and Academic Behaviors

Variables in Recess Nonintervention Studies (N=2 Studies)*


Outcomes Across the 2

Nonintervention Studies

Type of Relationship Observed Between Recess and Academic Performance


Cognitive Skills and Attitudes (N=1 Study) 2 1 1 0

Perceptions of school adjustment 2 1 1 0

Academic Behavior (N=1 Study) 1 1 0 0

On-task behavior (not fidgeting) 1 1 0 0

Total 3 2 1 0

* Studies may have measured the relationship between recess and academic performance in more than one way (e.g., measured the association between recess and perceptions of school adjustment and on-task behavior). Individual studies in this section measured between 1 and 2 different outcomes and may be represented in multiple cells of the table.

teacher ratings) was significantly better for students who had recess every day for at least 15 minutes than for those who did not. Exploration of the impact of recess on individual students showed a positive association with end-of-year social competence and perceptions of school adjustment for boys, but not for girls.59

Strengths and Limitations of Methods.These studies feature several strengths as well as a few notable limitations. Six of the eight studies used experimental or quasi-experimental designs, and most involved observations of student behaviors with multiple observation points (e.g., 6, 12, or 32 observations). The studies focused on elementary-level students, primarily because recess is most common at the elementary grade levels. Study authors reported a number of limitations including small sample sizes (range of 23–77 students in seven of the eight studies), and the inability in most of the studies to analyze data by SES, race/ethnicity, or other subgroups. In addition, the authors noted that classroom-level ratings of student behavior by the classroom teacher could be influenced by the teachers’ perceptions of the benefits of recess.

Classroom Physical Activity Studies Nine studies (reported in nine articles) examined the relationship between classroom-based physical activity and academic performance (four implemented in the

United States and five in other countries) (see Figure 4 and Table 4). All nine of the studies were interventions. Appendix F includes summary profiles for each of the articles reviewed in this section.

These studies examined how the introduction of brief physical activities in a classroom setting affected cognitive skills (e.g., aptitude, attention, memory); attitudes (e.g., mood); academic behaviors (e.g., on-task behavior, concentration); and academic achievement (e.g., standardized test scores, reading literacy scores, math fluency scores). The interventions involved the introduction of physical activities by trained teachers or facilitators into the classroom setting, with activities lasting 5–20 minutes per session. Physical activity sessions or breaks typically were delivered on a daily or regular basis. Intervention implementation periods spanned from 1 day to 16 months, with most lasting 2–3 months.

All but two of these studies were conducted with elementary school students in first through fifth grades; the others were conducted in a primary and secondary school in Sweden60 and an urban middle school in the United States.61 Five studies employed quasi-experimental designs,60-64 three used experimental designs,32,65-67 and one used a qualitative case-study design.68 The data collection follow-up period ranged from 0 to 12 months after the intervention. Outcome measures most often included standardized aptitude


and achievement tests and teacher or trained observer ratings of classroom behavior.

FIGURE 4:


and Academic Achievement Outcomes Across All Classroom Physical Activity Studies

(n=20 associations within 9 quantitative studies)

Positive Association (n=8) No Association (n=12)

Classroom Physical Activity Studies: Highlights

• • Eight of the nine studies found positive associations between classroom- based physical activity and indicators of academic performance.

• • One study examined gender effects and found no differences in outcomes by gender.

Results across the nine intervention studies showed positive outcomes or no association. Four studies reported all positive associations between classroom physical activity and classroom behaviors and academic achievement.60-63 Specifically, Della Valle and colleagues61 found using movement with seventh-grade learners who had an active learning style enhanced their performance on a word recognition task. Maeda and Randall62 reported that second-grade students exhibited greater concentration and demonstrated higher math fluency after engaging in brief movement breaks consisting of 5 minutes of vigorous exercise 1 hour after lunch. Similarly, Mahar et al.63 observed greater frequency of verbal and motor behavior that followed class rules and was appropriate to the learning situation for third- and fourth-grade students whose teachers led them in daily 10-minute regimens of physical activities (e.g., jumping, rolling, hopping, twisting) during academic instruction. This relationship was especially strong among students who were least on task at baseline. Furthermore, Norlander and colleagues60 found that teachers observed higher student concentration levels after daily stretching exercises.

Four intervention studies reported positive and nonsignificant associations.64,66-68 Fredericks et al.66 described improvements in spatial aptitude, reading skills, and math skills among first-grade students exposed to daily classroom exercises focused on the development of perceptual and sensory motor skills. However, there were no associations with other indicators of aptitude, such as perception, reasoning, memory, and verbal comprehension or emotional indicators. In their feasibility study, Lowden et al.68 qualitatively described that students and teachers perceived that student exposure to The Class Moves!® program was positively related to improvements in on-task classroom behaviors and concentration. Teachers, however, did not feel they could relate the program to academic or cognitive achievement. Molloy64 observed that students exposed to 5 minutes, but not 10 minutes, of aerobic exercise improved their arithmetic performance. Exposure to aerobic exercise was unrelated to observed on-task behavior (attention) for all but a small sample of hyperactive students. Uhrich and Swalm67 found that daily sessions to develop motor skills (bimanual coordination) through a sport cup-stacking exercise were associated with improvements in reading comprehension but not reading decoding scores. These improvements were comparable for boys and girls.

The ninth intervention study found no relationship between an additional 15 minutes of daily classroom-based physical activity (skipping, dancing, and resistance exercises) in the context of a school-wide physical activity program and standardized achievement tests.65 The classroom intervention lasted


Table 4: Classroom Physical Activity Intervention Studies: Summary of the Outcomes of Cognitive Skills and Attitudes, Academic Behaviors, and Academic Achievement

Variables in Classroom Physical Activity Intervention Studies (N=9 Studies)*



Studies

Type of Relationship Observed Between Classroom Physical Activity and Academic Performance




Visual/spatial skills 4 1 3 0

Memory 1 0 1 0

Verbal/conceptual ability 1 0 1 0

Perceptual/motor ability (coordination) 2 0 2 0

Mood 1 0 1 0

Academic Behavior (N=1 Study) 1 1 0 0

Conduct (classroom behavior) 1 1 0 0



Total 20 8 12 0

* One qualitative study (Lowden68) and one quantitative study (Maeda and Randall62) that did not include significance testing were not included in these results. Studies may have measured the relationship between classroom physical activity and academic performance in more than one way (e.g., measured the associations among classroom physical activities and ability, classroom behaviors, and standardized test scores). Individual studies in this section measured between 1 and 11 different outcomes.

16 months and was designed to complement 80 minutes of weekly physical education. Analyses by gender showed similar results.

Collectively, eight of the nine studies reviewed suggest that classroom-based physical activities may have favorable associations with indicators of cognitive functioning, academic behaviors, and/or academic achievement. Furthermore, there was no evidence that allotting classroom time for these activities was negatively associated with academic achievement.

Strengths and Limitations of Methods. These studies feature both strengths and important limitations. Eight of the nine studies employed either experimental or quasi-experimental designs, and most used standardized measures of cognitive functioning and academic achievement and standardized protocols for classroom observations. Several studies collected data at multiple

follow-up dates. When reported, study populations represented an array of racial and ethnic backgrounds. Limitations reported by study authors include small sample sizes, with all but two studies having fewer than 100 students, and the inability to analyze data by SES, race/ethnicity, or other subgroups. Others noted that classroom observers typically were not blinded to study condition. Some authors also noted concerns about group comparability at baseline and its potential impact on determining an intervention effect.


Extracurricular Physical Activity Studies Nineteen studies (reported in 14 articles) examined the relationship between involvement in extracurricular physical activity (such as interscholastic sports or other physical activities outside of the regular school day) and academic performance (see Figure 5, and Tables 5a and 5b). Nine studies focused on involvement in school interscholastic sport teams; the other 10 focused on other school-related extracurricular physical activities. Appendix G includes summary profiles for each of the 14 articles reviewed in this section.

FIGURE 5:


and Academic Achievement Outcomes Across All Extracurricular Physical Activity Studies


Positive Association (n=70) No Association (n=62) Negative Association (n=3)

Interscholastic School Sports

All nine of the studies assessing the relationship between school sports team participation and academic performance were descriptive in nature and focused on secondary school students.69-77 Most studies (n=8) were implemented in the United States. Eight of the nine studies examined how students’ participation on sports teams was related to test scores, grades, or teacher ratings of academic achievement; two75,77 measured dropout rates.

Extracurricular Physical Activity Studies: Highlights

• • Nearly all the associations between extracurricular physical activity and indicators of academic performance were either positive (52%) or neutral (46%).

• • Grade point average was positively associated with extracurricular physical activity 12 of the 22 times it was measured.

• • The two different interventions aimed at improving academic performance through extracurricular physical activity had some positive impacts on students’ grades and/or verbal and conceptual skills.

• • Two studies examined the relationship between extracurricular physical activity and dropout rates and found that participation was associated with decreased high school dropout rates.

Three of the nine studies were cross-sectional, collecting data at one time point; six were longitudinal and involved a secondary analysis of data collected at baseline and 3–5 years later. Two of the nine studies had small samples (85–136); the remaining studies had larger sample sizes (883–14,249).

These studies varied in measurement of academic performance and participation in sports. Some used school records (test scores, GPAs, or dropout rates),72,74,75,77 and one used a teacher rating of student academic ability71 for students who participated in interscholastic sports. Others examined the relationship between student report of participation on sports teams (type of team was not specified) and students’ self-reported grades.69,70,73,78


The studies that explored the relationship between school records of academic achievement and student participation in interscholastic sports found mostly positive and neutral results. For example, one study74

of eighth-grade students found that participation in interscholastic sports was associated with higher math grades, higher math standardized test scores, and higher overall GPAs; however, another study72 of 12th-grade students found no relationship between varsity sports participation and grades. Two studies75,77 examined the impact of sports on high school dropout rates and found that participants were significantly less likely to drop out of school compared with nonparticipants.

Two studies75,76 found that the relationship between academic achievement and varsity sports participation was inconsistent, showing positive, negative, and no association, depending on the outcome measured and the grade level of the students. Fredricks and Eccles76

found participation in seventh-grade school sports was associated with a decreased school value in eighth and 11th grades but was associated with increased resiliency in 11th grade. Yin and Moore75 found that students who reported participation in interscholastic sports in eighth grade showed significantly lower test scores for that year compared with students who did not participate. However, as these same students moved through high school, those differences disappeared, showing no differences in test scores between sport participants and nonparticipants in the 10th or 12th grades. Hawkins and Mulkey’s71 exploration of the relationship between interscholastic sports participation and teacher ratings of students’ academic ability showed no relationship between participation and academic ability; however, other measures of academic behavior and cognitive skills and attitudes showed positive relationships or no relationship, varying by gender. As an example, male athletes were more likely to plan to attend college than nonathletes, and both male and female athletes showed greater interest in class than nonathletes.

Three of the four studies that examined the relationship between student report of participation in sports teams and self-report of grades showed positive relationships. Fredricks and Eccles70 also found a positive relationship between sports participation and students’ educational expectations and school completion rates.

Seven of the nine studies examined gender effects69-72,74,75,76 on academic performance; five of the seven studies found at least one significant difference by gender; however, overall, 68% of the associations by gender showed no relationship. One study76 also examined results by race and SES. No other subgroup or demographic analyses were reported in the other studies.

Other School-Related Extracurricular Physical Activity

Ten studies focused on extracurricular physical activities organized through the school but conducted outside the regular school day (e.g., after school). Seven studies examined the effects of an intervention,2,34 and the other three were descriptive,79,80,78 with sample sizes ranging from 35 to 4,264. Measures of academic performance included grades, math scores, homework completion, and attendance.

Intervention Studies. One intervention article2

focused on physical activity opportunities after school using six different studies. This article, which focused on studies conducted in the United States, assessed the impact of a life skills program with an emphasis on improving physical fitness on students’ self-reported grades, school attendance, and self-concept. The program was taught after school in a sample of middle schools, high schools, and community centers. As part of the program, students completed an individual exercise program as well as instruction about related topics such as self-assessment, goal setting, fitness, and exercise planning. Program impact was evaluated at six sites immediately after the program. Results showed positive associations between program participation and academic performance (grades and attendance) or no significant relationships. The positive findings (for self-concept, school attendance, and self-reported grades) were concentrated in the community site, which had the largest sample size. Across all sites (middle schools, high schools, and community centers), self-concept improved significantly for program participants.

The other intervention study was conducted in the United Kingdom and examined participation in a school-organized, year-long exercise program completed at home and its relationship with cognitive skills and math


Table 5a: Extracurricular Physical Activity Intervention Studies: Summary of the Outcomes of Cognitive Skills and Attitudes, Academic Behavior, and Academic Achievement

Variables in Extracurricular Physical Activity Intervention Studies (N=7 Studies)*



Studies

Type of Relationship Observed Between Extracurricular Physical Activity and Academic Performance



Self-esteem/self-concept 6 6 0 0

Verbal/literacy ability 8 3 5 0

Working memory 1 1 0 0

Motor ability (coordination) 2 2 0 0


Attendance 6 1 5 0


Grade point average 6 1 5 0

Total 29 14 15 0

* Studies may have measured the relationship between extracurricular physical activity and academic and cognitive performance in more than one way (e.g., measured the association between extracurricular physical activity and grade point average, self-concept, and attendance). Individual studies in this section measured between 3 and 11 different academic measures. Consequently, the number of studies across the three academic performance areas exceeds 2.

outcomes of 7- to 10-year-old children diagnosed with, or at risk of, dyslexia or dyspraxia.34 This study used a quasi-experimental design with immediate and long-term (3-year) follow-up. Little detail was provided on how the physical activity intervention was developed or implemented. Children showed improved verbal and cognitive skills following the individualized physical activity intervention, although there were no math improvements.34

Nonintervention Studies. The three nonintervention studies, all conducted with secondary students in the United States, examined associations between participation in after-school physical activity and academic performance using existing data sets (one cross-sectional and two longitudinal). Two studies78,79

explored the association between student reports of participation in extracurricular activities and student self-reported grades, including involvement in a combination of sports and nonsport activities. Those studies found consistently positive associations between extracurricular activity participation and self-reported grades as well

as positive academic attitudes and higher academic aspirations. Harrison and Narayan80 examined the impact of participation in after-school activities (including participating 1–2 hours per week or more in school sports) on homework completion and class attendance. The study showed that physical activity participation was positively related to homework completion and class attendance.

Strengths and Limitations of Methods. These studies featured a number of strengths. Most had relatively large sample sizes. Most (n=16) of the studies focused on measures of academic achievement, such as standardized test scores or grades (record data or self-reported data). In addition, of the studies that examined sports participation compared with nonparticipation, more than half (n=6) specified the level of competitiveness of team participation; nonetheless, these studies did not compare outcomes by varying levels of sports competitiveness. More than three-fourths of the studies were longitudinal in nature (n=15), allowing for an exploration of causality; the cross-sectional nature of the remaining studies (n=4)



Self-esteem/self-efficacy/self-concept 19 5 4 0

Academic self-concept/competence 3 2 1 0

Locus of control 5 4 1 0

Educational aspirations/potential 4 4 0 0

Interest in class 4 3 1 0

Mood 8 1 7 0

Positive academic attitudes 3 3 0 0

School value 4 0 2 2

School attachment 4 4 0 0

Resiliency 4 2 2 0


Conduct (discipline) 4 0 4 0

Enrollment in academic track/science class 4 2 2 0

School completion 1 1 0 0

Attendance 6 2 4 0

Prepared for class 4 0 4 0

Homework completion 2 2 0 0

Attend college 4 2 2 0

Dropout rates/graduation 9 6 3 0



Grade point average/grades 16 11 5 0

Academic ability

Total

4 1 3 0

3 106 56 47

limited the ability to establish the temporal relationship between the variables. Relatively few studies examined data by race/ethnicity, and only two explored physical activity interventions. Reports were unclear whether sport participation required a minimal level of academic achievement, a requirement that could bias the samples.

Several authors also acknowledged limitations such as the need to include measures of social influence (e.g., parental support) in future research, the need to look more closely at how level of participation or competitiveness in sport might affect academic achievement, and the fact that some of the associations found were relatively weak.

Table 5b: Extracurricular Physical Activity Nonintervention Studies: Summary of the Outcomes of Cognitive Skills and Attitudes, Academic Behavior, and Academic Achievement

Variables in Extracurricular Physical Activity Intervention Studies (N=12 Studies)*



Studies

Type of Relationship Observed Between Extracurricular Physical Activity and Academic Performance


* Studies may have measured the relationship between extracurricular physical activity and academic performance in more than one way (e.g., measured the association between participation in sports and test scores, attendance, and perceived academic potential). Individual studies in this section measured between 1 and 32 different academic measures. Consequently, the number of studies across the three academic performance areas exceeds 14.


SUMMARY This report identified peer-reviewed studies and published reports addressing the association between physical activity, including physical education, and indicators of academic performance, including those related to cognitive skills and attitudes, academic behaviors, and academic achievement.

Overall Findings Overall, what do the results of these studies say about the relationship between physical activity and academics, and what does it mean for schools?

• Collectively, the results suggest that physical activity is either positively related to academic performance (50.5% of the associations summarized) or that there is not a demonstrated relationship between physical activity and academic performance (48% of the associations summarized). In addition, increasing time during the school day for physical activity does not appear to take away from academic performance. This pattern of having positive relationships or no relationships, along with the lack of negative relationships, was consistent throughout the results, despite the heterogeneous nature of the included studies, and is consistent with other published reviews.15,81

• School boards, school administrators, and principals can feel confident that maintaining or increasing time dedicated for physical activity during the school day will not have a negative impact on academic performance, and it may positively impact students’ academic performance.

What kinds of academic outcomes were positively related to physical activity?

• Studies looked at a broad range of outcomes. Researchers reported that participating in physical activity was positively related to outcomes including academic achievement, academic behaviors, and indicators of cognitive skills and attitudes, such as concentration, memory, self-esteem, and verbal skills.

Which outcomes were most positive?

• Positive associations were found across measures of academic achievement, academic behavior, and cognitive skills and attitudes, but there are some interesting patterns for different outcomes within these categories. Seven articles describing intervention studies (three school-based physical education, two recess, one classroom-based physical activity, and one extracurricular activity) evaluated the relationship between physical activity and academic behaviors, such as classroom conduct.2,41,42,50,56,57,63 The majority of these articles (86%) found at least one positive association with academic behavior outcomes. Given these findings, physical activity interventions may offer one approach to improving academic behaviors (e.g., classroom conduct) in some youth.

Does physical activity have any negative relationship with grades or test scores?

• Very few of the findings in the studies reviewed were negative (only 4 associations of 251 examined), a percentage small enough to reasonably be expected by chance. This pattern of results is consistent with other reports15,16 that suggest that adding physical activity to the school day does not detract from academic performance. The evidence suggests that superintendents and principals can devote school time to physical activity without concern that it will lower student test scores.

Why are some of the study results positive whereas others show no relationship?

• There are a number of possible explanations. Some of the studies had relatively small samples, which can make it more difficult to find statistically significant results. Other studies measured a very broad range of student attitudes and behaviors to try to understand which factors may be related and which may not. Other issues, such as the questionnaires used in the studies, may account for some of the differences. Finally, differences that may not have been discussed in the studies—such as the intensity or duration of the physical activity, the context in which the physical


activity took place, individual student differences (e.g., in motivation), and levels and quality of implementation for intervention studies—may help explain the different results among the studies.

Findings for Physical Activity by Context

Is school-based physical education related to academic performance?

• The study results suggest that school-based physical education either leads to a positive result or is associated with no change in academic performance. Overall, 11 of 14 studies found one or more positive associations between physical education and indicators of cognitive skills and attitudes, academic behavior, and/or academic achievement. Nearly half the associations (49.5%) between physical education and academic performance were positive; nearly all remaining associations in this context area showed no relationship.

• The studies also suggest that increased time spent in physical education is not likely to detract from academic performance even when less time is devoted to subjects other than physical education. Across the nine studies that examined the relationship between time spent in physical education and academic performance, 16 outcomes were positive and 31 showed no association. No negative associations were found.

Is recess related to academic performance?

• Yes, for some outcomes. Eight studies meeting the criteria of this review looked at the impact of physical activity during recess on academic performance. Of all outcomes measured in this context area, 59% were positive. In addition, all eight studies found one or more positive findings suggesting that recess was associated with improvements in attention, concentration, and/or on-task classroom behavior. None of the studies looked directly at the association between recess and measures of academic achievement (e.g., test scores or grades).

• None of the studies reported negative relationships, which indicates that recess does not appear to detract from students’ focus in the classroom.

Are physical activity breaks during class related to academic performance?

• Yes, for some outcomes. Nearly all studies (eight of nine) in this category found that offering physical activity breaks during standard classroom instruction may have favorable associations with some indicators of cognitive functioning (e.g., attention/ concentration); academic behaviors (e.g., classroom conduct); and/or academic achievement (e.g., test scores). Of the individual outcomes studied, 40% of associations between physical activity breaks and academic performance were positive and 60% showed no relationship.

• None of the studies found negative associations. Classroom physical activity breaks do not appear to have a negative relationship with academic performance. Indeed, classroom teachers can include physical activity breaks as one strategy to promote academic-related benefits for students. Furthermore, incorporating brief physical activity breaks into the classroom might contribute to students’ overall levels of physical activity and health.82

Is participation in extracurricular physical activities at school related to academic performance?

• Yes, for some outcomes. More than half of the associations examined in these studies were positive (52% overall), and almost none were negative (2%). Of note, GPA was positively associated with extracurricular physical activity 12 of the 22 times it was measured. Two studies also examined the association between extracurricular activities and dropout rates and found that participation was linked to decreased high school dropout rates.


Findings by Gender, Other Demographic Characteristics, and Research Design

Do the results vary by gender?

• Relatively few studies examined differences in associations by gender, and there were no distinct patterns. Of studies that did examine data by gender, a few found differences, but most did not. For example, eight of the studies on school-based physical education examined data by gender. Six found no differences by gender; one found effects favoring boys (higher-level motor skills were associated with greater increases in reading and math scores among boys than girls); and one found effects favoring girls (greater time spent in physical education was related to higher reading and math scores for girls but not for boys).

How do the studies and results differ by grade level?

• Studies of recess and classroom-based physical activity tended to be from elementary school settings, and studies of extracurricular physical activity tended to be from secondary school settings.

• Overall, the pattern of results appeared slightly more positive in the secondary school setting. Of the associations examined among elementary youth only, 43% were positive, 56% were neutral, and 1% were negative. At the secondary level, 55% of the associations examined were positive, 43% were neutral, and 2% were negative.

Do the results vary by race/ethnicity?

• Very few studies examined the relationships between physical activity and academic performance by race or ethnicity, so it is difficult to make conclusions at this time. Of the seven studies that explored race/ ethnicity, most focused on how race/ethnicity affected participation in physical activity rather than on how it influenced the association between physical activity and academic achievement. One study examining classroom-based physical activity breaks by race found

no differences in academic performance between Asian and Caucasian students.65 A study of an 8-week movement intervention found that language spoken (Afrikaans, English, and Other), used as a proxy indicator for race/ethnicity, may have explained some differences in children’s spatial aptitude.66

Do the results vary by research design?

• Not much variation in results by research design was noted. Although many factors influence a study’s quality, experimental or quasi-experimental research designs are generally regarded as more rigorous. The pattern of associations in studies with either of these types of design had very similar results. In the 29 studies using experimental or quasi-experimental designs, 50% (55 of 109) of associations were positive, and 49% (53 of 109) were not significant. Less than 1% (1 of 109) of the associations were negative.

Strengths and Limitations of Review

What are the strengths of this review?

• This review has a number of strengths. It covers 23 years of research; it involved a systematic process for locating, reviewing, and coding the studies; articles were obtained using an extensive array of search terms and international databases; articles were reviewed by multiple trained coders; and the articles cover a broad array of contexts in which youth participate in school-based physical activities. Furthermore, a majority (64%) of studies included in the review were intervention studies, and a majority (76%) were longitudinal.

What are the limitations of this review?

• This review summarizes all studies that met the established review criteria, regardless of the study characteristics. The studies were not ranked, weighted, or grouped according to their strengths and limitations; as a result, findings from studies with more rigorous research designs and larger sample sizes were given no more influence than findings from studies with weaker designs and smaller sample sizes. Instead,


results were based on counts of statistical findings, and this, in essence, had the effect of allowing individual studies containing multiple comparisons to have a greater influence on the findings as a whole. The number of statistical findings in any given study ranged from 1 to 32; given those differences, it becomes clear that a single study with 32 comparisons would have influenced the overall results more than a study that included only 1 comparison.

In addition, the breadth of the review, while revealing a variety of study designs, measures, and populations, often made comparisons and summaries difficult. For example, similar constructs were often defined and/or measured differently across studies. Even something as seemingly consistent as standardized test scores can vary from state to state. Therefore, these inconsistencies limit the ability of this or any review to draw specific conclusions across all studies.

For the same reason, it was not appropriate to make broad statements about effect sizes. Although the studies in this review include examples of moderate and large effect sizes,47,51,63 there were not enough studies analyzing the same variables in any given category to make summary statements about the magnitude of associations between physical activity and academic performance variables. As a result, conclusions do not summarize magnitudes of effect sizes and are intentionally broad.

Implications for Future Research or Evaluation

What other research or evaluation needs to be done to further the field in this area?

• Within the contexts reviewed, there were relatively few studies of the impact of recess and classroom physical activity on academic achievement. None of the reviewed studies examined the relationship of sports and academic achievement within the primary grades or the relationship of physically active breaks/recess and academic achievement within the secondary grades. Few studies conducted subgroup analyses beyond gender comparisons.

• Less than half of the studies described effect sizes or magnitudes of the associations observed. Reporting of effect sizes can guide researchers and practitioners towards interventions most likely to impact outcomes of interest.

• Although nearly all of the reviewed studies described a practical framework for the research, few of the studies articulated a theoretical basis for the work or explicitly described how the findings informed theory development. Theoretical specificity may enable researchers to more easily identify relevant bodies of work from other disciplines, consider new relationships and mechanisms of action, align and strengthen intervention design and measurement, and ultimately progress the field more effectively and efficiently.

• Improved understanding of the specific cognitive and behavioral impacts of particular physical activities could inform intervention developers and improve the match between interventions, populations, and educational goals. For example, compared with measures of cognitive skills and attitudes, academic behaviors such as on-task classroom behavior or following instructions were less likely to be examined as proximal outcomes of physical activity or potential mediators of academic achievement.

• Future research should further examine the relationship between school-based physical activity and academic performance in subpopulations of students (e.g., based on gender, race/ethnicity, or SES). Results from this type of research could help physical education teachers and physical activity coordinators apply findings of programs and interventions to meet the needs of particular groups of students.

• Future research should be developed in consultation with educators (e.g., school administrators and staff) and informed by research across disciplines, such as neurobiology, cognitive science, social psychology, and kinesiology. For instance, few studies placed the work within a neurobiology model to better understand the role of brain physiology, within an ecological framework to account for contextual variables, or within a developmental perspective to examine developmental differences in relationships between physical activity and academic achievement.


• Future research and evaluation would benefit from identifying uniform ways to measure key outcomes, including both physical activity and academic performance outcomes. Similarly, future studies would benefit from larger sample sizes and stronger research designs that include longitudinal follow-up, as appropriate. Adequate follow-up of interventions has been more limited in physical education compared with other contexts.

Implications for Schools What are the policy and practice implications from this review?

• Schools should continue to offer or increase opportunities for physical activity. There is evidence that physical activity may help improve academic performance (including grades and standardized test scores) in some situations. Increasing or maintaining time dedicated to physical education does not adversely impact academic performance.

• The studies in this review also suggest that physical activity can impact cognitive skills and attitudes, important components of improved academic performance. This includes enhanced concentration and attention as well as improved classroom behavior.

• Taking all of the evidence into account, schools should strive to meet the National Association for Sport and Physical Education’s recommendation of daily physical education and offer students a balanced academic program that includes opportunities for a variety of daily physical activities.

What are the current recommendations for students’ physical activity?

• Recent recommendations indicate that 6- to 17-year-olds should be participating in at least 60 minutes of physical activity daily,83 and schools can and should provide opportunities for physical activity to help students meet this recommendation. In fact, the Institute of Medicine’s Preventing Childhood Obesity: Health in the Balance report recommended that schools provide a significant portion of students’ daily physical activity.84

• To enable students to meet these recommended levels of physical activity, the National Association for Sport and Physical Education recommends that all pre-K through grade 12 schools implement a comprehensive school physical activity program, which includes quality physical education; physical activity before, during, and after school, including recess and other physical activity breaks; extracurricular, noncompetitive physical activity clubs; interscholastic sports; and walk- and bike-to-school initiatives.35

How can schools promote physical activity at school?

• Physical activity can be included in the school environment in a number of ways without detracting from academic performance. Studies highlight potential benefits of physical activity in physical education classes, during recess, in regular classrooms, and through extracurricular sports and other physical activity opportunities.

– School-based physical education: To maximize the potential benefits of student participation in physical education class, schools and physical education teachers can consider increasing the amount of time students spend in physical education class or adding components to increase the quality of physical education class. Studies reviewed here showed that programs were able to increase physical education time by increasing the number of days per week or the length of class time, adding trained physical education instructors, supplementing programs with community resources, and using outside facilities (e.g., swimming pools). In addition, the studies reviewed here explored several different strategies for enhancing the quality of physical education class, requiring varying levels of resources. These range from implementing a standards- and research-based physical education curriculum to adding specific components to physical education.

– Recess: Studies reviewed here used structured or unstructured play during recess as a means to provide students with time for movement and play during the school day. School boards,


superintendents, principals, and teachers can feel confident that providing recess to students on a regular basis may benefit academic behaviors (e.g., attention), facilitate social development,85

and contribute to overall physical activity86 and its associated health benefits.

– Classroom-based physical activity: Movement activities and physical activity breaks are simple ways for classroom teachers to enhance student physical activity and possibly academic performance. Most interventions described in this review used short breaks (5–20 minutes) that required little or no teacher preparation, special equipment, or resources. As an example, interventions such as speed (cup) stacking could be a center or activity station. Simple movement-based learning techniques (e.g., walking around the perimeter of the classroom while learning vocabulary or using music and rhythmic movement to enhance memory tasks) could be incorporated into large group lessons. Short exercise breaks (e.g., 5 minutes of walking or 10 minutes of prescribed exercise) could be introduced into the classroom routine prior to teaching subjects that require intense student concentration.

– Extracurricular physical activities: The evidence in this review suggests that superintendents, principals, and athletic directors can develop or continue school-based sports programs (e.g., intramurals or physical activity clubs and interscholastic sports programs), without concern that participation in such activities would have negative associations with academic performance. Increasing or maintaining time dedicated to physical activity does not adversely impact academic performance. Indeed, studies suggest there may be a range of possible benefits for some students, including developing a stronger sense of self, fostering educational aspirations, maintaining interest in class, encouraging homework completion, and reducing dropout rates. School administrators and teachers can also encourage after-school organizations, clubs, student groups, and parent

groups to incorporate physical activities into their programs and events (e.g., fundraisers, special activities).

• Collectively, the findings from this review support the National Association for Sport and Physical Education’s recommendations for a comprehensive school physical activity program.35 The results also suggest that physical education and physical activity may help advance academic performance for many students and should not hinder academic progress.


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Appendix A: Database Search Terms


SEARCH TERMS Physical Activity • Reading performance

• Mathematics achievement • Physical activity • Mathematics performance • Exercise • Science achievement • Physical education • Science performance • Fitness • Educational indicators • Sport • Achievement scores • Sport participation (searched in Cumulative

Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature • Educational testing [CINAHL®] and SportDiscus™ only) • Educational assessment

• Energy expenditure (searched in CINAHL® and • Dropout SportDiscus™ only) • School refusal

• Student motivation

• Student engagement Academic-Related • Student learning

• Academic achievement ®• Information retrieval (searched in CINAHL• Academic problems and SportDiscus™ only)

• Educational status (MeSH) • Cognitive performance

• Education measurement (MeSH) • Student assessment

• Graduation rates • Brain development

• Academic grades • School connectedness

• Grade point average (GPA)

• Standardized test scores

• Grade retention Databases For Searching • Years of school completed • PubMed • Time on task • SportDiscus™ • Attentiveness • CINAHL®

• Concentration (searched in CINAHL® • Expanded Academic Index ASAP

and SportDiscus™ only) • PsycNET®

• Attendance • Sociological Abstracts

• Tardiness • ERIC

• Discipline • ScienceDirect®

• Memory • Google Scholar

• Reading achievement


Appendix B: Coding Sheet


Topic:

Title of Article:

Date of Article (month/year):

Citation:

Journal:

Authors:

Volume/edition/pages:

1. Purpose of study as stated by author

2. Research questions/hypotheses as stated by author

3. Study Design (check all that apply)

Study Type Data Type

Quasi-experimental Quantitative

Experimental Qualitative

Case study

Cohort Design Follow-up Design

Cross-sectional Immediate post

Prospective Delayed post

Retrospective

Describe design:


4. Sampling

a. Sample included: (check all that apply) Children/youth (ages 5–18) Parents School personnel Community personnel Classroom School Community Household Other. Please describe:

b. Describe how each sample was obtained:

c. What was the sampling frame for each sample?

d. Study inclusion criteria for each sample:

e. Type of sample: (check all that apply and note for which sample)

Probability Simple random sampling Stratified random sampling Cluster sampling Census Other. Please describe:

Nonprobability Convenience sampling Quota sampling Purposive sampling Snowball sampling Other. Please describe:

f. What was the participation rate for each sample?

Mark source of this rate: Reported by authors Calculated by the reviewer g. If the study was longitudinal, what were the retention rates by time period?

Mark here if the study was not longitudinal. h. Are there any selection bias issues mentioned and/or apparent? Yes No If yes, describe:


5. Sample Characteristics

Children or Youth N = Other. Please describe: N =

Age range: Mean age: Grade level in school:

Age range: Mean age:

Socioeconomic status (describe how established as well):

Child gender: % Male % Female Other gender: % Male % Female

Youth Race/Ethnicity:

____% American Indian or Alaska Native ____% Asian ____% Black or African American ____% Hispanic ____% Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander ____% White ____% Other. Please describe: ____% Alternate Category. Please describe:

Other Race/Ethnicity:

____% American Indian or Alaska Native ____% Asian ____% Black or African American ____% Hispanic ____% Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander ____% White ____% Other. Please describe: ____% Alternate Category. Please describe:

Country of study: USA Other. Please describe:

6. Setting

School (during school day). Specify grade levels served by school:

Recess Classroom School-wide

Physical education class Lunch time Special event

(e.g., jog-a-thon)

Other:

Before school (on school grounds or on the way to school):

After school (on school grounds). Specify grade levels served by school:

Community-based organization:

Other. Please describe:


7. Theory and theoretical model as stated by author, if specified (Is there a theoretical base for the study? If so, what theory is described? What are the relational forms in the model?)

8. Describe the intervention conditions as stated by the author. Include a description of the structure (e.g., number of sessions, number of sessions per week, average length of each session, who is implementing and how those individuals are trained), topics covered and implementation:



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s da

taba

se w

ill d

ispl

ay a

dro

p do

wn

box

with

the

follo

win

g re

spon

se o

ptio

ns: p

aper

-pen

cil s

urve

y, c

ompu

ter a

ssis

ted

surv

ey, fi

tnes

s te

st, s

kill

asse

ssm

ent,

mea

sure

men

t de

vice

(e.g

., pe

dom

eter

, acc

eler

omet

er, h

eart

rate

mon

itor),

dia

ry o

r jou

rnal

, obs

erva

tion,

inte

rvie

w, f

ocus

gro

up, a

nd o

ther

.

§Th

e A

cces

s da

taba

se w

ill d

ispl

ay a

dro

p do

wn

box

with

the

follo

win

g op

tions

: stu

dent

, tea

cher

, par

ent,

scho

ol a

dmin

istra

tion,

rese

arch

sta

ff, o

ther

adu

lt, p

eer,

and

othe

r.

**Th

e A

cces

s da

taba

se w

ill d

ispl

ay c

heck

box

es w

ith th

e fo

llow

ing

resp

onse

opt

ions

: bas

elin

e, 1

mon

th, 2

mon

ths,

3 m

onth

s, 6

mon

ths,

12

mon

ths,

18

mon

ths,

24

mon

ths,

36

mon

ths,

and

oth

er.

9b. M

etho

ds f

or D

epen

dent

Var

iabl

es A

s Re

port

ed b

y A

utho

rs (

plea

se u

se a

sep

arat

e ro

w fo

r ea

ch b

road

con

cept

)


Broa

d Co

ncep

t or

Con

stru

ct

How

Is C

once

pt

Ope

ratio

nal-

ized

and

for

W

hat T

arge

t Po

pula

tion

(i.e.

, In

dica

tors

)?

Nam

e of

Sc

ale

or

Inde

x

# Ite

ms

in

Scal

e

Item

and

Su

mm

ary

Mea

sure

men

t Ty

pes

(e.g

., N

omin

al, O

rdin

al,

Inte

rval

, Rat

io)

Dat

a Co

llect

ion

Met

hod

(e.g

., Pa

per-

Penc

il Su

rvey

)††

Info

rman

t or

Info

rmat

ion

Sour

ce (e

.g.,

Stud

ent,

Teac

her,

Trai

ned

Dat

a Co

llect

or)‡‡

Dat

a Co

llect

ion

Tim

e Po

ints

§§

Relia

bilit

y In

form

atio

n (N

ote

if fr

om

Stud

y Sa

mpl

e or

Oth

er)

Valid

ity

Info

rmat

ion

(Not

e if

from

St

udy

Sam

ple

or O

ther

)

††Th

e A

cces

s da

taba

se w

ill d

ispl

ay a

dro

p do

wn

box

with

the

follo

win

g re

spon

se o

ptio

ns: p

aper

-pen

cil s

urve

y, c

ompu

ter a

ssis

ted

surv

ey, fi

tnes

s te

st, s

kill

asse

ssm

ent,

mea

sure

men

t de

vice

(e.g

., pe

dom

eter

, acc

eler

omet

er, h

eart

rate

mon

itor),

dia

ry o

r jou

rnal

, obs

erva

tion,

inte

rvie

w, f

ocus

gro

up, a

nd o

ther

.

‡‡Th

e A

cces

s da

taba

se w

ill d

ispl

ay a

dro

p do

wn

box

with

the

follo

win

g op

tions

: stu

dent

, tea

cher

, par

ent,

scho

ol a

dmin

istra

tion,

rese

arch

sta

ff, o

ther

adu

lt, p

eer,

and

othe

r.

§§Th

e A

cces

s da

taba

se w

ill d

ispl

ay c

heck

box

es w

ith th

e fo

llow

ing

resp

onse

opt

ions

: bas

elin

e, 1

mon

th, 2

mon

ths,

3 m

onth

s, 6

mon

ths,

12

mon

ths,

18

mon

ths,

24

mon

ths,

36

mon

ths,

and

oth

er.

____________________________________

10. Analytic strategy

a. Describe the analytic strategy as stated by author (by outcome as appropriate):

b. Describe the covariates used for each analysis, as applicable:

c. Did the authors:

Conduct statistical testing when appropriate?Yes No NA INP***

Control for design effects in the statistical model (e.g., control for cluster design and/or repeated measures over time)?

Yes No NA INP

Correct for multiple testing (e.g., Bonferroni or more stringent p -value)? Yes No NA INP

Experiments: Control for differential exposure to the intervention (dose)? Yes No NA INP

d. Missing data (describe how it was handled if applicable, e.g., listwise deletions, imputations):

e. Are there any other apparent problems with the data analyses? Yes No Not sure

If yes, please explain:

***INP=Information not provided.


11. R

esul

ts


Rese

arch

Q

uest

ion

or

Out

com

e or

Br

oad

Conc

ept

Resu

lts b

y Co

ncep

t/

Out

com

e

Resu

lts b

y Co

ncep

t/

Out

com

e N

Sum

mar

y

Incl

ude

Mag

nitu

de o

f A

ssoc

iatio

n if

Repo

rted

(e.g

., ef

fect

siz

e)

Do

Resu

lts D

irec

tly

Rela

te t

o Pa

per

Focu

s?††

†H

ypot

hesi

s Te

sted

(D

escr

iptiv

e)

(Dat

a Re

sults

) Ty

pe o

f A

ssoc

iatio

n‡‡‡

Des

crip

tion

of A

ssoc

iatio

n if

Ava

ilabl

e

††† P

leas

e ra

te o

n a

3-po

int s

cale

(0=N

o, n

ot re

late

d; 1

=Yes

, a li

ttle;

2=Y

es, a

lot).

‡‡

‡ Ple

ase

rate

on

a 3-

poin

t sca

le (0

=Neg

ativ

e as

soci

atio

n, 1

=No

asso

ciat

ion,

2=P

ositi

ve a

ssoc

iatio

n).

12. Limitations: What limitations were reported by the authors (as stated by author)?

13. Limitations noted by reviewers, but not reported by authors:

14. What type of activity does the article deal with? (Mark all that apply.) Physical education class Regular recess Lunch recess Classroom-based, but not physical education classes specifically General physical activity (school-based or nonschool-based) Sports or athletics Other (please specify):

15. Additional Comments:


Appendix C: Glossary of Research Design Terms Case-study design A case study is an in-depth examination (often over time) of one or a small number of cases believed to represent a broader phenomenon;87 it is usually, but not always, observational.88 In this report, all case studies reported only qualitative data.

Cross-sectional study A cross-sectional study is conducted at a single time point (often through a survey), with a sample believed to represent a cross section of the population of interest on relevant variables such as sex, age, education levels, etc. Cross-sectional studies can be used to determine whether two variables are associated but do not allow for the direct examination of the impact of time on such associations, a condition necessary to establish casuality.88,89

Descriptive design Descriptive studies have the purpose of describing activities, events, or behaviors that have occurred in a given situation; their goal is often to create a “profile” of a phenomenon, program, or population as it exists.90 Descriptive and inferential statistics may be used.87 These studies differ from most quasi-experimental and experimental designs in that they do not control environments or expose subjects to different treatments and typically lack a control or comparison group, making it more difficult to account for the influence of extraneous factors.87,88

Experimental design Experimental design is often considered the most rigorous of research designs and is frequently referred to as the gold-standard for establishing causality; in order for a study to be classified as experimental, it must include a control group and use random assignment to intervention and control groups.91 Results may not generalize beyond the sample or conditions of the experiment.87

Intervention An intervention is “a specific activity (or set of related activities) intended to change the knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, or practices of individuals and populations to reduce their health risk. An intervention has distinct process and outcome objectives and a protocol outlining the steps for implementation.”92

Longitudinal study A longitudinal study is a study conducted over time of a variable or a group of subjects,87 unlike a cross-sectional study. By collecting data at a minimum of two distinct points in time,90 one advantage of longitudinal studies is that they allow for the direct observation of the impact of time on variable associations, a condition necessary to establish casuality.88 The studies in this review had a wide range of time between the initial and final data collection points; in some, final data were collected immediately following interventions, and in others, final data were collected as many as 4 years after the initial data collection.

Quasi-experimental design A quasi-experimental design is similar to an experimental design but lacks the important characteristic of random assignment to intervention and control or comparison groups.93 Though not considered as rigorous as an experimental design, it is often considered the next best thing for establishing causality.


Appendix D: School-Based Physical Education Summary Matrix

Articles describing quasi-experimental or experimental designs are highlighted in the table before the matrix for each setting. Not all studies used these designs.

School Based Physical Education Studies Using Quasi Experimental or Experimental Design (Authors and Date Only)

Bluechardt, M.H., Shephard, R.J. 1995

Budde, H., Voelcker-Rehage, C., Pietraßyk-Kendziorra, S., Ribeiro, P., Tidow, G. 2008

Dwyer, T., Blizzard, L., Dean, K. 1996

Ericsson, I. 2008

McNaughten, D., Gabbard, C. 1993

Milosis, D., Papaioannou, A.G. 2007

Pollatschek, J.L., O’Hagan, F.J. 1989

Raviv, S., Low, M. 1990

Sallis, J.F., McKenzie, T.L., Kolody, B., Lewis, M., Marshall, S., Rosengard, P. 1999

Tremarche, P.V., Robinson, E.M., Graham, L.B. 2007

Tuckman, B.W., Hinkle, J.S. 1986


App

endi

x D

: Phy

sica

l Edu

catio

n C

lass

Sum

mar

y M

atri

x§§§


Stud

y Ci

tatio

n St

udy

Focu

s an

d Se

tting

Sa

mpl

e C

hara

cter

istic

s St

udy

Des

ign

and

Dat

a Co

llect

ion

Inte

rven

tion

Cond

ition

s Ke

y O

utco

mes

and

Res

ults

Blue

char

dt M

H,

Shep

hard

RJ41

Usi

ng a

n ex

tracu

rricu

lar

phys

ical

act

ivity

pr

ogra

m to

en

hanc

e so

cial

sk

ills

Jour

nal o

f Lea

rnin

g D

isabi

litie

s 19

95;2

8(3)

: 16

0-16

9

Stud

y fo

cus:

Ph

ysic

al

educ

atio

n cl

ass

Des

crip

tion:

Ex

tracu

rricu

lar

phys

ical

act

ivity

pr

ogra

m a

nd

self-

repo

rted

acad

emic

co

mpe

tenc

e

Setti

ng: S

choo

l

Coun

try:

So

uthe

rn

Ont

ario

, Can

ada

Sam

ple

1: Y

outh

N

: 45

Age

ran

ge: N

R M

ean

age:

9.4

G

rade

: Prim

ary

Gen

der:

M

: 76%

F:

24%

Et

hnic

ity: N

R

Stud

y de

sign

: Exp

erim

enta

l

Dat

a co

llect

ion

met

hod

and

time

poin

ts:

Skill

ass

essm

ent (

gros

s an

d fin

e m

otor

ski

lls a

s m

easu

red

by

Brui

nink

s-O

sere

tsky

Test

of M

otor

Pr

ofici

ency

) 2

tim

es (b

asel

ine,

imm

edia

te

follo

w-u

p af

ter 1

0-w

eek

inte

rven

tion)

Pape

r-pen

cil s

urve

y (s

elf-r

epor

t ac

adem

ic a

nd n

on-a

cade

mic

co

mpe

tenc

e, p

erce

ptio

n of

ph

ysic

al a

nd s

ocia

l per

form

ance

du

ring

inte

rven

tion

as m

easu

red

by th

e Se

lf-Pe

rcep

tion

Profi

le fo

r Le

arni

ng D

isab

led

Stud

ents)

2 ti

mes

(bas

elin

e, 1

0 w

eeks

)

Teac

her o

bser

vatio

n (s

ocia

l be

havi

or)

3 ti

mes

(bas

elin

e, 1

0 w

eeks

, 3

mon

ths)

Cond

ition

s: S

tude

nts

with

lear

ning

di

sabi

litie

s pa

rtici

pate

d in

inte

nse

phys

ical

edu

catio

n in

struc

tion

or

acad

emic

enr

ichm

ent.

Stru

ctur

e:

Inte

rven

tion:

Clo

sely

sup

ervi

sed

twic

e-w

eekl

y, 9

0-m

inut

e ex

tracu

rricu

lar

sess

ions

in th

e po

ol o

r gym

nasi

um

desig

ned

to c

ombi

ne v

igor

ous

phys

ical

ac

tivity

with

soc

ial s

kills

trai

ning

and

pr

oble

m s

olvi

ng o

ver a

10

-wee

k pe

riod.

26

instr

ucto

rs re

ceiv

ed 1

7 ho

urs

of tr

aini

ng a

nd w

ere

assig

ned

2 stu

dent

s ea

ch fo

r the

dur

atio

n of

the

proj

ect.

Con

trol:

Stud

ents

rece

ived

the

sam

e am

ount

of i

ndiv

idua

l atte

ntio

n in

ac

adem

ic in

struc

tion

(twic

e w

eekl

y,

90 m

inut

es, 1

0 w

eeks

).

Topi

cs c

over

ed:

Inte

rven

tion:

Gym

ses

sions

focu

sed

on u

pper

-lim

b co

ordi

natio

n (g

ross

an

d fin

e m

otor

). Po

ol s

essio

ns fo

cuse

d on

stre

ngth

and

vis

ual-m

otor

con

trol.

Soci

al s

kills

wer

e de

velo

ped

thro

ugh

mod

elin

g, p

ract

ice

prob

lem

-solvi

ng,

role

-pla

y w

ith fe

edba

ck.

Con

trol:

Sess

ions

focu

sed

on d

efici

t sk

ills

as id

entifi

ed b

y cl

assr

oom

teac

her.

Met

hods

: Ses

sions

wer

e ba

sed

on

pool

and

gym

nasi

um a

ctiv

ities

(one

of

each

eve

ry w

eek)

. 70

min

utes

of t

he

90 m

inut

es w

ere

activ

ity b

ased

.

Doe

s th

e in

terv

entio

n gr

oup

perf

orm

si

gnifi

cant

ly b

ette

r on

sel

f-rep

orte

d ac

adem

ic a

nd te

ache

r-ob

serv

ed s

ocia

l m

easu

res

than

the

cont

rol g

roup

afte

r 10

-w

eek

inte

rven

tion,

con

trolli

ng fo

r ge

nder

?a

• Se

lf-pe

rcep

tion

of g

ener

al

inte

llect

ual a

bilit

y •

Self-

perc

eptio

n of

spe

lling

co

mpe

tenc

e •

Self-

perc

eptio

n of

mat

hem

atic

al

com

pete

nce

• Se

lf-pe

rcep

tion

of w

ritin

g co

mpe

tenc

e •

Self-

perc

eptio

n of

rea

ding

co

mpe

tenc

e •

Glo

bal s

elf-w

orth

•

Coop

erat

es (s

ocia

l beh

avio

r) •

Dis

rupt

s (s

ocia

l beh

avio

r) •

Figh

ts (s

ocia

l beh

avio

r) •

Seek

s he

lp (s

ocia

l beh

avio

r) •

Lead

er (s

ocia

l beh

avio

r)

0 0 0 0 0 + 0 0 0 0 0 a A

dditi

onal

ana

lyse

s sh

owed

that

ther

e w

ere

no

sign

ifica

nt g

roup

x ti

me

x ge

nder

effe

cts

on th

e ou

tcom

es.

Doe

s th

e in

terv

entio

n gr

oup

perfo

rm s

ig-

nific

antly

bet

ter o

n m

otor

ski

lls (a

s m

ea-

sure

d by

Bru

inin

ks-O

sere

tsky

Test

of M

otor

Pr

ofici

ency

) and

sel

f-rep

orte

d no

naca

dem

ic

mea

sure

s th

an th

e co

ntro

l gro

up a

fter 1

0-

wee

k in

terv

entio

n, c

ontro

lling

for g

ende

r ?•

Com

posi

te m

otor

ski

ll sc

ores

(gro

ss,

fine,

bat

tery

) •

Non

acad

emic

sco

res

(soc

ial

acce

ptan

ce, a

thle

tic c

ompe

tenc

e,

phys

ical

app

eara

nce,

beh

avio

ral

cond

uct)

0 0

§§§Re

sults

are

cod

ed a

s fo

llow

s: +

sig

nifie

s a

sign

ifica

nt p

ositi

ve o

utco

me;

0 s

ignifie

s no

sig

nific

ant o

utco

me;

– s

ignifie

s a

sign

ifica

nt n

egat

ive

outc

ome.

Mat

rices

may

not

incl

ude

all o

utco

mes

des

crib

ed in

the

artic

le; s

hade

d ou

tcom

es a

re o

utco

mes

of p

rimar

y in

tere

st to

(and

wer

e in

clud

ed in

) thi

s re

view

; add

ition

al o

utco

mes

repo

rted

here

may

be

of

inte

rest

to re

ader

s.

NR

= N

ot re

porte

d by

stu

dy a

utho

rs.

Indi

cate

s da

ta c

olle

ctio

n tim

e po

ints.

Stud

y Ci

tatio

n St

udy

Focu

s an

d Se

tting

Sa

mpl

e C

hara

cter

istic

s St

udy

Des

ign

and

Dat

a Co

llect

ion

Inte

rven

tion

Cond

ition

s Ke

y O

utco

mes

and

Res

ults

Budd

e H

, Vo

elck

er-R

ehag

e C

, Pie

traßy

k-Ke

ndzi

orra

S,

Ribe

iro P

, Tid

ow

G49

Acu

te c

oord

inat

ive

exer

cise

impr

oves

at

tent

iona

l pe

rform

ance

in

adol

esce

nts.

Neu

rosc

ienc

e Le

tters

20

08;4

41(2

): 21

9-22

3

Stud

y fo

cus:

Ph

ysic

al

educ

atio

n cl

ass

Des

crip

tion:

Ef

fect

of e

xerc

ise

on c

once

ntra

tion

and

atte

ntio

n sp

an

Setti

ng: S

choo

l, ph

ysic

al

educ

atio

n cl

ass

Coun

try:

G

erm

any

Sam

ple

1: Y

outh

N

: 47

Age

ran

ge: N

R M

ean

age:

15.

00

Gra

de: N

R G

ende

r:

M: 7

6.60

%

F: 2

3.40

%

Ethn

icity

: NR

Sam

ple

2: Y

outh

N

: 52

Age

ran

ge: N

R M

ean

age:

14.9

0 G

rade

: NR

Gen

der:

M

: 84.

60%

F:

15.

40%

Et

hnic

ity: N

R

Stud

y de

sign

: Exp

erim

enta

l

Dat

a co

llect

ion

met

hod

and

time

poin

ts:

Stan

dard

ized

tests

(c

once

ntra

tion

and

atte

ntio

n as

m

easu

red

by d

2 te

st) 2

tim

es (p

rete

st w

eek

2 af

ter a

re

gula

r cla

ss a

nd p

ostte

st w

eek

3 af

ter e

xerc

ise

or s

port

clas

s)

Cond

ition

s: S

tude

nts

wer

e as

signe

d to

th

e co

ordi

nate

d ex

erci

se c

ondi

tion

or

the

norm

al s

port

less

on c

ondi

tion.

Coor

dina

ted

exer

cise

con

ditio

n (C

E): E

xerc

ises

sel

ecte

d fro

m s

peci

al

form

s fo

r soc

cer a

nd M

unic

h Fi

tnes

s te

st; g

roup

s of

4 s

tude

nts

spen

t 1.7

5 m

inut

es a

t eac

h of

5 e

xerc

ise

statio

ns.

Nor

mal

spo

rt le

sson

con

ditio

n (N

SL):

Stud

ents

exer

cise

d fo

r 10

min

utes

at

sam

e in

tens

ity a

s C

E gr

oup

but

with

out a

ny s

pecific

atio

n on

mot

or

coor

dina

tion.

Did

the

stud

ents

in th

e co

ordi

nate

d ex

erci

se

grou

p ha

ve h

ighe

r co

ncen

tratio

n an

d at

tent

ion

scor

es o

n th

e d2

test

than

con

trol

grou

ps fr

om p

rete

st to

pos

ttest

?

• O

vera

ll co

ncen

tratio

n an

d at

tent

ion

scor

e +

Did

the

stude

nts

in th

e co

ordi

nate

d ex

erci

se

grou

p ha

ve a

gre

ater

num

ber o

f cor

rect

re

spon

ses

on th

e d2

test

than

con

trol

grou

ps fr

om p

rete

st to

pos

ttest ?

• Q

uant

ity o

f cor

rect

resp

onse

s •

Qua

lity

of re

spon

ses

+ +

Add

ition

al a

naly

ses

show

ed th

at th

ere

wer

e no

si

gnifi

cant

effe

cts

of g

ende

r on

the

pret

est t

o po

stte

st ch

ange

s.

Car

lson

SA,

Fulto

n JE

, Lee

SM

, M

ayna

rd L

M,

Brow

n D

R, K

ohl

HW

3rd

, et a

l.52

Phys

ical

edu

catio

n an

d ac

adem

ic

achi

evem

ent i

n el

emen

tary

sch

ool:

data

from

the

Early

Chi

ldho

od

Long

itudi

nal S

tudy

.

Am

eric

an Jo

urna

l of

Pub

lic H

ealth

20

08;9

8(4)

:

Stud

y fo

cus:

Ph

ysi c

al

educ

atio

n cl

ass

Des

crip

tion:

A

ssoc

iatio

n be

twee

n ph

ysic

al

educ

atio

n an

d ac

adem

ic

achi

evem

ent

Setti

ng: S

choo

l, ph

ysic

al

educ

atio

n cl

ass,

cl

assr

oom

Coun

try:

USA

Sam

ple

1: Y

outh

N

: 531

6 A

g e r

ange

: NR

Mea

n ag

e: 6

.2

Gra

de: P

rimar

y (K

–5th

gra

des)

G

ende

r:

M: 4

7.90

%

F: 5

2.10

%

Ethn

icity

: H

ispa

nic:

13.

3%

Whi

te: 6

9.2%

O

ther

: 17.

5%

Stud

y de

sign

: Des

crip

tive,

se

cond

ary

anal

ysis

of d

ata

from

th

e Ea

rly C

hild

hood

Lon

gitu

dina

l St

udy,

Kin

derg

arte

n C

lass

of

1998

to 1

999

(EC

LS-K

)

Dat

a co

llect

ion

met

hod

and

time

poin

ts: T

each

er re

port

(tim

es p

er

wee

k an

d m

inut

es p

er d

ay s

pent

in

phy

sical

edu

catio

n) 5

tim

es (b

asel

ine-

Fall

K,

Sprin

g K,

Spr

ing

1st,

Sprin

g 3r

d,

and

Sprin

g 5t

h gr

ades

)

Stan

dard

ized

tests

(mat

h an

d re

adin

g ite

m re

spon

se th

eory

[IR

T] s

core

s);

No

inte

rven

tion

Do

stud

ents

who

spe

nd m

ore

time

in

phys

ical

edu

catio

n (m

ediu

m v

s. lo

w

phys

ical

edu

catio

n tim

e) h

ave

high

er

acad

emic

ach

ieve

men

t ove

r tim

e (a

s m

easu

red

by IR

T sc

ores

and

con

trolli

ng fo

r de

mog

raph

ics)

?

• Re

adin

g (b

oys)

•

Read

ing

(girl

s)

• M

ath

(boy

s)

• M

ath

(girl

s)

0 0 0 0

Do

stud

ents

who

spe

nd m

ore

time

in

phys

ical

edu

catio

n (h

igh

v s. l

ow p

hysi

cal

educ

atio

n tim

e) h

ave

high

er a

cade

mic

ac

hiev

emen

t ove

r tim

e (a

s m

easu

red

by IR

T sc

ores

and

con

trolli

ng fo

r de

mog

raph

ics)

?

• Re

adin

g (b

oys)

0

721-

727

5 ti

mes

(bas

elin

e-Fa

ll K,

•

Read

ing

(girl

s)

+ Sp

ring

K, S

prin

g 1s

t, Sp

ring

3rd,

•

Mat

h (b

oys)

0

and

Sprin

g 5t

h gr

ades

) •

Mat

h (g

irls)

+


Stud

y Ci

tatio

n St

udy

Focu

s an

d Se

tting

Sa

mpl

e C

hara

cter

istic

s St

udy

Des

ign

and

Dat

a Co

llect

ion

Inte

rven

tion

Cond

ition

s Ke

y O

utco

mes

and

Res

ults

Dex

ter T

53

Rela

tions

hips

be

twee

n sp

ort

know

ledg

e, s

port

perfo

rman

ce a

nd

acad

emic

abi

lity:

em

piric

al e

vide

nce

from

GC

SE

Phys

ical

Edu

catio

n.

Jour

nal o

f Sp

orts

Scie

nces

19

99;1

7(4)

: 28

3-29

5

Stud

y fo

cus:

Ph

ysic

al

educ

atio

n cl

ass

Des

crip

tion:

The

re

latio

nshi

ps

betw

een

spor

t kn

owle

dge,

spo

rt pe

rform

ance

, an

d ac

adem

ic

abili

ty

Setti

ng: S

choo

l, ph

ysic

al

educ

atio

n cl

ass,

cl

assr

oom

Coun

try:

UK

Sam

ple

1: Y

outh

N

: 517

A

ge r

ange

: NR

Mea

n ag

e: 1

6.00

G

rade

: Sec

onda

ry

(at c

ompl

etio

n of

com

pulso

ry

scho

ol)

Gen

der:

NR

Ethn

icity

: NR

Stud

y de

sign

: Des

crip

tive,

se

cond

ary

anal

ysis

of d

ata

from

th

e 19

95 G

ener

al C

ertifi

cate

of

Sec

onda

ry E

duca

tion

(GC

SE) e

xam

inat

ion

in p

hysi

cal

educ

atio

n, m

ath,

and

Eng

lish

Dat

a co

llect

ion

met

hod

and

time

poin

ts: S

tand

ardi

zed

test

s (G

CSE

/Eng

lish,

mat

h, p

hysi

cal

educ

atio

n kn

owle

dge,

spo

rt kn

owle

dge)

1 ti

me

Skill

ass

essm

ent (

badm

into

n,

bask

etba

ll, fo

otba

ll, h

ocke

y,

roun

ders

, net

ball,

ave

rage

spo

rt pe

rform

ance

sco

re a

s m

easu

red

by A

mat

eur

Ath

letic

Ass

ocia

tion

ESSO

5 S

tar

poin

ts s

yste

m)

1 ti

me

No

inte

rven

tion

Is a

cade

mic

abi

lity

(as

mea

sure

d by

GCS

E En

glis

h sc

ores

) ass

ocia

ted

with

spo

rt s

kill

perf

orm

ance

(ass

esse

d by

teac

hers

)?b

• Fo

otba

ll •

Badm

into

n •

Bask

etba

ll •

Hoc

key

• N

etba

ll •

Roun

ders

•

Ath

letic

s

+ + 0 + + 0 + Is

aca

dem

ic a

bilit

y (a

s m

easu

red

by G

CSE

mat

h sc

ores

) ass

ocia

ted

with

spo

rt s

kill

perf

orm

ance

(as

asse

ssed

by

teac

hers

)?b

• Fo

otba

ll •

Badm

into

n •

Bask

etba

ll •

Hoc

key

• N

etba

ll •

Roun

ders

•

Ath

letic

s

+ + 0 + + + + b A

dditi

onal

ana

lyse

s by

gen

der

show

ed s

imila

r re

sults

.

Dol

lman

J, B

osho

ff K,

Dod

d G

54

The

rela

tions

hip

betw

een

curri

culu

m

time

for p

hysic

al

educ

atio

n an

d lit

erac

y an

d nu

mer

acy

stand

ards

in S

outh

A

ustra

lian

prim

ary

scho

ols.

Euro

pean

Phy

sical

Ed

ucat

ion

Revi

ew

2006

;12(

2):

151-

163

Stud

y fo

cus:

Ph

ysic

al

educ

atio

n cl

ass

Des

crip

tion:

Th

e re

latio

nshi

p be

twee

n cu

rric

ulum

tim

e fo

r ph

ysic

al

educ

atio

n an

d lit

erac

y an

d nu

mer

acy

stand

ards

in

Sout

h A

ustra

lian

prim

ary

scho

ols

Setti

ng: S

choo

l

Coun

try:

A

ustra

lia

Sam

ple

1: S

c hoo

l N

: 117

G

rade

: Prim

ary

and

Seco

ndar

y (3

rd, 5

th a

nd 7

th

grad

es)

Stud

y de

sign

: Des

crip

tive

Dat

a co

llect

ion

met

hod

and

time

poin

ts: P

rinci

pal p

aper

-pe

ncil

surv

ey (c

urric

ulum

tim

e de

dica

ted

to p

hysi

cal e

duca

tion,

ph

ysic

al e

duca

tion

staff

age

and

phys

ical

edu

catio

n tra

inin

g,

ethn

icity

, SES

) 1

tim

e

Stan

dard

ized

tests

(sta

te li

tera

cy

and

num

erac

y te

sts—

Stat

e La

N)

2 ti

mes

(bas

elin

e, 1

2 m

onth

s)

No

inte

rven

tion

Doe

s cu

rric

ulum

tim

e co

mm

itted

to p

hysi

cal

educ

atio

n in

depe

nden

tly p

redi

ct li

tera

cy

and

num

erac

y co

mpe

tenc

ies

asse

ssed

by

the

Stat

e Li

tera

cy a

nd N

umer

acy

Test

(c

ontro

lling

for

soci

oeco

nom

ic s

tatu

s (S

ES),

nonE

nglis

h-sp

eaki

ng b

ackg

roun

d, a

nd s

taff

profi

le v

aria

bles

)?

• Li

tera

cy

• N

umer

acy

• A

vera

ge s

choo

l atta

inm

ent i

n bo

th

liter

acy

and

num

erac

y

0 0 0


Stud

y Ci

tatio

n St

udy

Focu

s an

d Se

tting

Sa

mpl

e C

hara

cter

istic

s St

udy

Des

ign

and

Dat

a Co

llect

ion

Inte

rven

tion

Cond

ition

s Ke

y O

utco

mes

and

Res

ults

Dw

yer T

, Bliz

zard

L,

Dea

n K42

Phys

ical

act

ivity

an

d pe

rform

ance

in

chi

ldre

n.

Nut

ritio

n Re

view

s 19

96;5

4(4

Pt

2):S

27-S

31

Stud

y fo

cus:

Ph

ysic

al

educ

atio

n cl

ass

Des

crip

tion:

Ph

ysic

al a

ctiv

ity

and

acad

emic

pe

rform

ance

Setti

ng: S

choo

l, cl

assr

oom

Coun

try:

A

ustra

lia

This

arti

cle

also

re

porte

d on

the

Aus

tralia

n Sc

hool

H

ealth

and

Fitn

ess

Stud

y (A

SHFS

); th

ose

data

are

not

pr

esen

ted

here

be

caus

e th

ey d

id

not m

eet i

nclu

sion

crite

ria.

Sam

ple

1: S

choo

l N

: 7

Gra

de: P

rimar

y (5

th g

rade

)

Sam

ple

2: Y

outh

N

: 501

A

ge r

ange

: NR

Mea

n ag

e: 1

0 G

rade

: Prim

ary

(5th

gra

de)

Gen

der:

NR

Ethn

icity

: NR

Stud

y de

sign

: Exp

erim

enta

l

Dat

a co

llect

ion

met

hod

and

time

poin

ts: O

bser

vatio

n (c

lass

room

be

havi

or)

2 tim

es (b

asel

ine,

1 w

eek

post

inte

rven

tion)

Mea

sure

men

t dev

ice

(hei

ght a

nd

wei

ght,

skin

fold

test,

end

uran

ce

fitne

ss te

st)

2 tim

es (b

asel

ine,

1 w

eek

post

inte

rven

tion)

Stan

dard

ized

test

s (th

e A

ustra

lian

Cou

ncil

for

Educ

atio

nal R

esea

rch

arith

met

ic

test

and

the

GA

P re

adin

g te

st)

2 tim

es (b

asel

ine,

1 w

eek

post

inte

rven

tion)

Nam

e: S

choo

l Hea

lth, A

cade

mic

Pe

rform

ance

and

Exe

rcis

e (S

HA

PE)

stud

y

Stru

ctur

e: S

tude

nts

wer

e di

vide

d in

to th

ree

grou

ps (s

kill,

fitn

ess,

and

co

ntro

l) th

at fo

cuse

d on

dev

elop

ing

stud

ent s

kill

and

com

pete

nce

leve

l in

min

or g

ames

. The

inte

rven

tion

took

pla

ce o

ver

14 w

eeks

and

was

ov

erse

en b

y th

e in

vest

igat

ors

to

ensu

re a

dher

ence

.

Impl

emen

tatio

n: In

the

skill

gro

up,

the

exer

cise

(dur

atio

n an

d fre

quen

cy)

was

incr

ease

d to

75

min

utes

dai

ly, 1

5 m

inut

es o

f whi

ch w

ere

in th

e m

orni

ng.

The fit

ness

gro

up h

ad th

e sa

me.

Doe

s pa

rtic

ipat

ion

in a

fitn

ess

prog

ram

im

prov

e pe

rfor

man

ce o

n ar

ithm

etic

and

re

adin

g te

sts?

• A

cade

mic

per

form

ance

0

Doe

s pa

rtic

ipat

ion

in a

fitn

ess

prog

ram

im

prov

e cl

assr

oom

beh

avio

r (a

s ob

serv

ed

by te

ache

r)?

• Cl

assr

oom

beh

avio

r +

Doe

s pa

rtici

patio

n in

a fi

tnes

s pr

ogra

m

impr

ove

mea

sure

s of

Phy

sical

Wor

k C

apac

ity a

nd B

MI ?

• Ph

ysic

al w

ork

capa

city

(fitn

ess)

•

Skin

fold

sum

sco

res

+ +

Eric

sson

I43

Mot

or s

kills

, at

tent

ion

and

acad

emic

ac

hiev

emen

ts: a

n in

terv

entio

n stu

dy

in s

choo

l yea

rs

1-3.

Briti

sh E

duca

tiona

l Re

sear

ch Jo

urna

l 20

08;3

4(3)

: 30

1-31

3

Stud

y fo

cus:

Ph

ysic

al

educ

atio

n cl

ass

Des

crip

tion:

M

otor

ski

lls

and

atte

ntio

n an

d ac

adem

ic

achi

evem

ent

Setti

ng: S

choo

l, ph

ysic

al

educ

atio

n cl

ass

Coun

try:

Sw

eden

Sam

ple

1: Y

outh

N

: 251

A

ge r

ange

: 7–9

M

ean

age:

NR

Gra

de: P

rimar

y (1

st–3

rd g

rade

s)

Gen

der:

M

: 55%

F:

45%

Et

hnic

ity: N

R

Stud

y de

sign

: Qua

si-ex

perim

enta

l

Dat

a co

llect

ion

met

hod

and

time

poin

ts: S

kill

asse

ssm

ent

usin

g th

e M

otor

isk

Utv

eckl

ing

som

Gru

nd fö

r Inl

ärni

ng (M

UG

I) ch

eckl

ist (

obse

rvat

ion

of 1

6 gr

oss

mot

or ta

sks

mea

surin

g ba

lanc

e/

bila

tera

l coo

rdin

atio

n an

d ha

nd-

eye

coor

dina

tion)

in 2

nd a

nd 3

rd

grad

es

3 tim

es, d

ata

colle

ctio

n tim

epoi

nts

varie

d by

coh

ort

(bas

elin

e, y

ear 2

, yea

r 3)

Pape

r-pen

cil s

urve

y us

ing

Con

ners

´ qu

estio

nnai

re

(teac

hers

’ and

par

ents’

co

ncep

tion

of c

hild

ren’

s at

tent

ion

abili

ty a

nd im

pulse

con

trol)

Cond

ition

s:

Inte

rven

tion:

Stu

dent

s re

ceiv

ed

phys

ical

edu

catio

n le

sson

s 5

days

per

w

eek.

C

ompa

rison

: Sta

ndar

d ph

ysic

al

educ

atio

n le

sson

s 2

days

per

wee

k.

Met

hods

: In

terv

entio

n: 3

regu

lar

scho

ol p

hysi

cal

educ

atio

n le

sson

s pe

r w

eek

plus

di

ffere

nt lo

cal s

ports

clu

bs g

ave

phys

ical

act

ivity

less

ons

for

2 m

ore

less

ons

ever

y w

eek,

for

a to

tal o

f 5

less

ons

of m

otor

ski

lls tr

aini

ng a

nd

phys

ical

act

ivity

per

wee

k. If

nee

ded

(for

stude

nts

deem

ed m

otor

defi

cien

t),

1 ex

tra le

sson

of M

UG

I mot

or tr

aini

ng

per

wee

k w

as p

rovi

ded.

Do

stud

ents

with

goo

d m

otor

ski

lls h

ave

bette

r at

tent

ion

than

stu

dent

s w

ith d

efici

ts

in m

otor

ski

lls (a

s ob

serv

ed b

y te

ache

rs

and

pare

nts)

?

• A

ttent

ion

• Im

puls

e co

ntro

l + +

Do

stud

ents

in in

terv

entio

n gr

oups

ha

ve b

ette

r at

tent

ion

than

stu

dent

s in

co

mpa

rison

gro

up (a

s ob

serv

ed b

y te

ache

rs

and

pare

nts)

?

• A

ttent

ion

2nd

grad

e •

Impu

lse

cont

rol 2

nd g

rade

•

Atte

ntio

n 3r

d gr

ade

• Im

puls

e co

ntro

l 3rd

gra

de

+ + 0 0

Do

stud

ents

in in

terv

entio

n gr

oups

hav

e be

tter

stan

dard

ized

test

sco

res

than

st

uden

ts in

com

paris

on g

roup

?


Stud

y Ci

tatio

n St

udy

Focu

s an

d Se

tting

Sa

mpl

e C

hara

cter

istic

s St

udy

Des

ign

and

Dat

a Co

llect

ion

Inte

rven

tion

Cond

ition

s Ke

y O

utco

mes

and

Res

ults

3 ti

mes

(bas

elin

e, y

ear

2,

year

3)

Stan

dard

ized

test

s (s

peci

al

educ

atio

n te

ache

rs d

ocum

ent

read

ing

deve

lopm

ent i

n 1s

t and

2n

d gr

ades

) 3

tim

es (b

asel

ine,

6 m

onth

s,

18 m

onth

s)

Stan

dard

ized

tests

(nat

iona

l tes

ts in

Sw

edish

, mat

h, w

ords

, rea

ding

) 1

tim

e (S

wed

ish

and

mat

h:

Sprin

g of

2nd

gra

de; w

ords

and

re

adin

g: S

prin

g of

3rd

gra

de)

• Sw

edis

h re

adin

g an

d w

ritin

g •

Mat

h (s

patia

l abi

lity

and

num

ber

conc

eptio

n)c

+ +

Do

child

ren’

s ob

serv

ed m

otor

ski

lls im

prov

e w

ith e

xten

ded

phys

ical

act

ivity

and

ext

ra

mot

or tr

aini

ng in

sch

ool ?

• M

otor

ski

llsd

+ c A

dditi

onal

ana

lyse

s by

gen

der

show

ed th

at

inte

rven

tion

boys

had

sig

nific

antly

bet

ter

mat

h sc

ores

than

con

trol b

oys.

d A

fter

1 ye

ar, d

iffer

ence

s be

twee

n gr

oups

wer

e ra

ther

larg

e (0

.24)

, and

in y

ear

3, d

iffer

ence

s w

ere

very

larg

e (0

.37)

.

McN

augh

ten

D,

Gab

bard

C44

Phys

ical

ex

ertio

n an

d im

med

iate

men

tal

perfo

rman

ce

of s

ixth

-gra

de

child

ren.

Perc

eptu

al a

nd

Mot

or S

kills

19

93;7

7(3

Pt

2):1

155-

1159

Stud

y fo

cus:

Ph

ysic

al

educ

atio

n cl

ass

Des

crip

tion:

Ph

ysic

al

exer

tion

and

mat

hem

atic

al

perfo

rman

ce

Setti

ng: S

choo

l, cl

assr

oom

Coun

try:

USA

Sam

ple

1: Y

outh

N

: 120

A

ge r

ange

: NR

Mea

n ag

e: 1

1.3

Gra

de: S

econ

dary

(6

th g

rade

) G

ende

r:

M: 5

0%

F: 5

0%

Ethn

icity

: NR

Stud

y de

sign

: Exp

erim

enta

l

Dat

a co

llect

ion

met

hod

and

time

poin

ts: M

easu

rem

ent d

evic

e (ti

me

of d

ay a

nd d

urat

ion

of

wal

king

act

ivity

) 1

1 tim

es (b

asel

ine,

Tue

sday

, W

edne

sday

, Thu

rsda

y of

wee

k 2,

3, 4

and

Tue

sday

of w

eek

5)

Mat

hem

atic

al te

st 1

1 tim

es (b

asel

ine,

Tue

sday

, W

edne

sday

, Thu

rsda

y of

wee

k 2,

3, 4

and

Tue

sday

of w

eek

5)

Stru

ctur

e: T

wo

proc

edur

es: w

alki

ng

for

a sp

ecifi

c du

ratio

n an

d re

ceiv

ing

a tim

ed m

athe

mat

ical

com

puta

tion

test.

Te

stin

g w

as c

ondu

cted

ove

r a

5- w

eek

perio

d.

Met

hods

: Sub

ject

s w

alke

d ar

ound

the

perim

eter

of a

regu

latio

n ba

sket

ball

cour

t at a

mon

itore

d m

oder

ate

inte

nsity

(120

to 1

45 b

eats

per

m

inut

e). W

alki

ng d

urat

ion

was

sy

stem

atic

ally

ord

ered

for

the

20, 3

0,

and

40 m

inut

es. W

alki

ng o

ccur

red

early

mor

ning

(8:3

0 a.

m.),

bef

ore

lunc

h (1

1:50

a.m

.) or

afte

rnoo

n (2

:20

p.m

.). A

mat

hem

atic

s te

st w

as g

iven

at

the

end

of th

e sp

ecifi

ed d

urat

ion

of

activ

ity, a

nd s

ubje

cts

had

90 s

econ

ds

to c

ompl

ete

the

task

.

Doe

s in

crea

sed

dura

tion

(20,

30

or 4

0 m

inut

es) o

f phy

sica

l exe

rtio

n (w

alki

ng) l

ead

to im

prov

ed m

athe

mat

ical

test

sco

res?

• M

ath

test

sco

re (2

0 m

inut

es)

• M

ath

test

sco

re (3

0 m

inut

es)

• M

ath

test

sco

re (4

0 m

inut

es)

0 + +

Doe

s th

e tim

e of

day

e and

dur

atio

n of

st

uden

t exp

osur

e to

phy

sica

l act

ivity

(w

alki

ng) i

mpr

ove

mat

h pe

rfor

man

ce?

• M

ath

test

sco

re (m

orni

ng)

• M

ath

test

sco

re (b

efor

e lu

nch)

•

Mat

h te

st s

core

(afte

r lu

nch)

0 + +

e Add

ition

al a

naly

ses

show

ed th

at g

ende

r di

d no

t ha

ve a

sig

nific

ant e

ffect

or

inte

ract

ion

with

the

resu

lts.


Stud

y Ci

tatio

n St

udy

Focu

s an

d Se

tting

Sa

mpl

e C

hara

cter

istic

s St

udy

Des

ign

and

Dat

a Co

llect

ion

Inte

rven

tion

Cond

ition

s Ke

y O

utco

mes

and

Res

ults

Milo

sis

D,

Papa

ioan

nou

AG

47

Inte

rdis

cipl

inar

y te

achi

ng, m

ultip

le

goal

s an

d se

lf-co

ncep

t.

In: L

iukk

onen

J,

Vand

en A

uwee

le

Y, V

erei

jken

B,

Alfe

rman

n D,

Th

eodo

raki

s Y,

edi

tors

. Ps

ycho

logy

for

Phys

ical

Edu

cato

rs:

Stud

ent i

n Fo

cus.

2n

d ed

ition

. C

ham

paig

n, IL

: H

uman

Kin

etic

s;

2007

:175

-198

Stud

y fo

cus:

Ph

ysic

al

educ

atio

n cl

ass

Des

crip

tion:

Th

e ef

fect

of a

n in

terd

isci

plin

ary

appr

oach

to

teac

hing

phy

sica

l ed

ucat

ion

on

self-

conc

ept a

nd

goal

s

Setti

ng: S

choo

l, ph

ysic

al

educ

atio

n cl

ass

Coun

try:

Gre

ece

Sam

ple

1: Y

outh

N

: 292

A

ge r

ange

: NR

Mea

n ag

e: 1

2.3

Gra

de: I

nitia

l gr

ade

in G

reek

ju

nior

hig

h sc

hool

G

ende

r:

M: 5

5%

F: 4

5%

Stud

y de

sign

: Exp

erim

enta

l

Dat

a co

llect

ion

met

hod

and

time

poin

ts: P

aper

-pen

cil s

urve

y (s

elf-

conc

ept)

2 ti

mes

(bas

elin

e, 6

mon

ths)

Adm

inis

trativ

e re

cord

s (m

ath

and

Gre

ek la

ngua

ge g

rade

s) 2

tim

es (b

asel

ine,

9 m

onth

s)

Nam

e: M

ultid

imen

sion

al M

odel

of

Goa

l Orie

ntat

ions

(MM

GO

)

Cond

ition

s: S

tude

nts

parti

cipa

ted

in th

e M

MG

O p

hysi

cal e

duca

tion

curr

icul

um o

r sta

ndar

d ph

ysic

al

educ

atio

n cl

ass.

Stru

ctur

e:

Inte

rven

tion:

MM

GO

phy

sica

l ed

ucat

ion

clas

s ta

ught

3 ti

mes

per

w

eek

for

6 m

onth

s by

spe

cial

ly

train

ed p

hysi

cal e

duca

tion

teac

her.

Con

trol:

Stan

dard

phy

sica

l edu

catio

n cl

ass

3 tim

es p

er w

eek

for

6 m

onth

s.

Topi

cs c

over

ed: T

he M

MG

O c

ours

e fo

cuse

d on

per

sona

l im

prov

emen

t go

als

and

outc

omes

in th

e he

alth

do

mai

n, th

e ac

hiev

emen

t dom

ain,

an

d th

e so

cial

dom

ain.

Doe

s st

uden

t par

ticip

atio

n in

the

MM

GO

in

terv

entio

n im

prov

e m

ath

and

lanu

gage

gr

ades

, stu

dent

rep

orte

d se

lf-co

ncep

t, an

d lif

e sa

tisfa

ctio

n?

• G

ener

al s

elf-c

once

pt

• G

ener

al s

choo

l sel

f-con

cept

•

Mat

hem

atic

s se

lf-co

ncep

t •

Gre

ek la

ngua

ge s

elf-c

once

pt

• M

ath

grad

es

• La

ngua

ge g

rade

s •

Life

sat

isfa

ctio

n

+ + + + 0 + +

Polla

tsche

k JL

, O

’Hag

an F

J45

An

inve

stiga

tion

of th

e ps

ycho

-ph

ysic

al influ

ence

s of

a q

ualit

y da

ily

phys

ical

edu

catio

n pr

ogra

mm

e.

Hea

lth E

duca

tion

Rese

arch

19

89;4

(3):3

41-

350

Stud

y fo

cus:

Ph

ysic

al

educ

atio

n cl

ass

Des

crip

tion:

Ef

fect

of d

aily

ph

ysic

al

educ

atio

n vs

. phy

sica

l ed

ucat

ion

twic

e a

wee

k on

phy

sica

l, ac

adem

ic, a

nd

affe

ctiv

e stu

dent

ou

tcom

es

Setti

ng: S

choo

l, ph

ysic

al

educ

atio

n cl

ass

Coun

try:

Sc

otla

nd

Sam

ple

1: S

choo

l N

: 399

A

ge r

ange

: NR

Mea

n ag

e: N

R G

rade

: Sec

onda

ry

(6th

gra

de)

Stud

y de

sign

: Qua

si-e

xper

imen

tal

Dat

a co

llect

ion

met

hod

and

time

poin

ts: P

aper

-pen

cil s

urve

y (a

ttitu

de to

war

ds s

choo

l and

sc

hool

wor

k, s

ocia

l rel

atio

ns,

and

pers

onal

ity)

2 tim

es (b

asel

ine,

end

of

acad

emic

yea

r)

Fitne

ss te

st (m

otor

fitn

ess:

mus

cula

r str

engt

h an

d en

dura

nce,

circ

ulat

ory

endu

ranc

e, m

uscu

lar p

ower

, agi

lity,

fle

xibi

lity,

and

spe

ed a

s m

easu

red

by C

anad

ian

Ass

ocia

tion

of

Hea

lth, P

hysic

al E

duca

tion

and

Recr

eatio

n (C

AH

PER)

Fitn

ess-

Perfo

rman

ce II

Tes

t) 2

times

(bas

elin

e, e

nd o

f ac

adem

ic y

ear)

Stan

dard

ized

test

s (re

adin

g,

mat

h ‘G

APA

DO

L’)

2 tim

es (b

asel

ine,

end

of

acad

emic

yea

r)

Cond

ition

s:

Inte

rven

tion:

Stu

dent

s pa

rtici

pate

d in

da

ily p

hysi

cal e

duca

tion.

C

ompa

rison

: 2 p

erio

ds o

f phy

sica

l ed

ucat

ion

per

wee

k.

Met

hods

: In

terv

entio

n: D

aily

PE

clas

ses

usua

lly

cons

istin

g of

45

to 6

0 m

inut

es p

er

day

but a

s m

uch

as h

alf a

day

on

certa

in a

ctiv

ities

, suc

h as

orie

ntee

ring.

Was

the

daily

phy

sica

l edu

catio

n pr

ogra

m

asso

ciat

ed w

ith im

prov

ed p

erfo

rman

ce

scor

es (s

tand

ardi

zed

test

sco

res

and

self-

repo

rted

atti

tude

) com

pare

d w

ith s

tand

ard

phys

ical

edu

catio

n?f

• M

ath

scor

es

• Re

adin

g sc

ores

•

Atti

tude

tow

ard

scho

ol

0 0 0 f A

dditi

onal

ana

lyse

s sh

owed

that

gen

der d

id

not h

ave

a sig

nific

ant e

ffect

on

acad

emic

ac

hiev

emen

t.

Was

the

daily

phy

sical

edu

catio

n pr

ogra

m

asso

ciat

ed w

ith im

prov

ed m

otor

fitn

ess

scor

es c

ompa

red

with

sta

ndar

d ph

ysic

al

educ

atio

n ?g

• M

otor

fitn

ess

(girl

s)

• M

otor

fitn

ess

(boy

s)

+ +

g Inte

rven

tion

girls

sco

red

high

er o

n ev

ery

mot

or

fitne

ss te

st; i

nter

vent

ion

boys

sco

red

high

er o

n sh

uttle

run

and

50

-met

er r

un.


Stud

y Ci

tatio

n St

udy

Focu

s an

d Se

tting

Sa

mpl

e C

hara

cter

istic

s St

udy

Des

ign

and

Dat

a Co

llect

ion

Inte

rven

tion

Cond

ition

s Ke

y O

utco

mes

and

Res

ults

Ravi

v S,

Low

M46

Influ

ence

of

phys

ical

act

ivity

on

con

cent

ratio

n am

ong

juni

or h

igh-

scho

ol s

tude

nts.

Perc

eptu

al a

nd

Mot

or S

kills

19

90;7

0(1)

:67-

74

Stud

y fo

cus:

Ph

ysic

al

educ

atio

n cl

ass

Des

crip

tion:

Ph

ysic

al

educ

atio

n an

d co

ncen

tratio

n

Setti

ng: S

choo

l, ph

ysic

al

Sam

ple

1: Y

outh

N

: 96

Age

ran

ge: 1

1–12

M

ean

age:

NR

Gra

de: S

econ

dary

(Is

rael

i jun

ior

high

sc

hool

) G

ende

r: N

R Et

hnic

ity: N

R

Stud

y de

sign

: Qua

si-e

xper

imen

tal

Dat

a co

llect

ion

met

hod

and

time

poin

ts: S

tand

ardi

zed

test

s (c

once

ntra

tion

as m

easu

red

by

d2 te

st)

NR

Cond

ition

s: S

tude

nts

wer

e di

vide

d in

to

4 gr

oups

: 2 p

artic

ipat

ed in

phy

sica

l ed

ucat

ion

clas

s an

d 2

stud

ied

scie

nce.

Stru

ctur

e: E

ach

subj

ect w

as ta

ught

tw

ice

a da

y by

the

sam

e te

ache

r at

th

e be

ginn

ing

and

end

of th

e sc

hool

da

y.

Doe

s co

urse

con

tent

(sci

ence

or

phys

ical

ed

ucat

ion)

impr

ove

stud

ent l

evel

s of

co

ncen

tratio

n m

easu

red

by th

e d2

test

?

• Be

tter

conc

entra

tion

in s

cien

ce th

an

phys

ical

edu

catio

n 0

Doe

s tim

ing

(beg

inni

ng o

r end

of c

lass

) im

prov

e stu

dent

leve

ls of

con

cent

ratio

n m

easu

red

by th

e d2

test ?

• Be

tter c

once

ntra

tion

at th

e en

ds o

f +

educ

atio

n cl

ass,

le

sson

s th

an th

e be

ginn

ing

clas

sroo

m

• Be

tter c

once

ntra

tion

at th

e +

begi

nnin

g of

the

day

than

the

end

Coun

try:

Isra

el

of th

e da

y

Salli

s JF

, McK

enzi

e TL

, Kol

ody

B, L

ewis

M

, Mar

shal

l S,

Rose

ngar

d P48

Effe

cts

of h

ealth

-re

late

d ph

ysic

al

educ

atio

n on

aca

dem

ic

achi

evem

ent:

Proj

ect S

PARK

.

Rese

arch

Q

uarte

rly fo

r Ex

erci

se a

nd S

port

1999

;70(

2):1

27-

134

Stud

y Fo

cus:

Ph

ysic

al

educ

atio

n cl

ass

Des

crip

tion:

Th

e ef

fect

of

scho

ol p

hysi

cal

educ

atio

n on

sta

ndar

dize

d te

st sc

ores

Setti

ng: S

choo

l da

y, p

hysi

cal

educ

atio

n cl

ass,

cl

assr

oom

Coun

try:

USA

Sam

ple

1: S

choo

ls N

: 7

Sam

ple

2: Y

outh

N

: 759

A

ge r

ange

: NR

Mea

n ag

e: 9

.5

Gra

de: P

rimar

y (4

th–6

th g

rade

) G

ende

r:

M: 5

2%

F: 4

8%

Ethn

icity

: Bl

ack:

2.2

%

His

pani

c: 4

.9%

A

sian

/Pac

ific

Isla

nder

: 14.

2%

Stud

y de

sign

: Exp

erim

enta

l

Dat

a co

llect

ion

met

hod

and

time

poin

ts: P

aper

-pen

cil

surv

ey (s

tand

ardi

zed

test

in

read

ing,

lang

uage

, mat

h, a

nd

basi

c ba

ttery

as

mea

sure

d by

Met

ropo

litan

Ach

ieve

men

t te

st—

MAT

6 an

d M

AT7)

2

times

(bas

elin

e in

2nd

gr

ade,

coh

ort 1

in S

prin

g of

5th

gr

ade,

coh

ort 2

in F

all o

f 6th

gr

ade)

Nam

e: S

PARK

(phy

sica

l edu

catio

n cu

rric

ulum

)

Cond

ition

s: S

tude

nts

wer

e as

sign

ed

to S

PARK

phy

sica

l edu

catio

n cl

asse

s ta

ught

by

phys

ical

edu

catio

n sp

ecia

lists,

by

train

ed c

lass

room

te

ache

rs, o

r sta

ndar

d ph

ysic

al

educ

atio

n (c

ontro

l).

Stru

ctur

e: F

our

30-m

inut

e le

sson

s to

tal p

er w

eek:

3 d

ays

of p

hysi

cal

educ

atio

n le

sson

s in

clud

ing

heal

th-

fitne

ss a

nd s

kill-fit

ness

act

iviti

es p

lus

30 m

inut

es o

f cla

ssro

om le

sson

on

beha

vior

cha

nge/

self-

man

agem

ent.

Topi

cs c

over

ed: 1

3 he

alth

-fitn

ess

units

an

d 9

spor

ts u

nits

Met

hods

: Brie

f rev

iew

of s

kills

, pr

esen

tatio

n of

new

topi

c, s

et p

hysi

cal

activ

ity g

oals.

Did

exp

osur

e to

SPA

RK p

hysi

cal e

duca

tion

impr

ove

stud

ent o

utco

mes

on

stan

dard

ized

te

sts?

Read

ing

• Co

hort

1

• Co

hort

2

Mat

h •

Coho

rt 1

•

Coho

rt 2

La

ngua

ge

• Co

hort

1

• Co

hort

2

Basi

c ba

ttery

•

Coho

rt 1

•

Coho

rt 2

+ + 0 0 + - 0 +


Stud

y Ci

tatio

n St

udy

Focu

s an

d Se

tting

Sa

mpl

e C

hara

cter

istic

s St

udy

Des

ign

and

Dat

a Co

llect

ion

Inte

rven

tion

Cond

ition

s Ke

y O

utco

mes

and

Res

ults

Trem

arch

e PV

, Ro

bins

on E

M,

Gra

ham

LB51

Phys

ical

edu

catio

n an

d its

effe

ct o

n el

emen

tary

testi

ng

resu

lts.

Phys

ical

Edu

cato

r 20

07;6

4(2)

:58-

64

Stud

y fo

cus:

Ph

ysic

al

educ

atio

n cl

ass

Des

crip

tion:

Th

e im

pact

of

incr

ease

d qu

ality

phy

sica

l ed

ucat

ion

time

on s

tand

ardi

zed

test

sco

res

Setti

ng: S

choo

l

Coun

try:

USA

Sam

ple

1: Y

outh

N

: 311

A

ge r

ange

: 9–1

1 M

ean

age:

NR

Gra

de: P

rimar

y (4

th g

rade

) G

ende

r: N

R Et

hnic

ity:

Indi

an: 3

.3%

A

sian

: .6%

Bl

ack:

2.6

%

His

pani

c: 1

%

Whi

te: 9

2.5%

Stud

y de

sign

: Qua

si-e

xper

imen

tal

Dat

a co

llect

ion

met

hod

and

time

poin

ts: S

tand

ardi

zed

test

s (E

nglis

h an

d la

ngua

ge a

rts

and

mat

h on

the

Mas

sach

uset

ts

Com

preh

ensi

ve A

sses

smen

t Sy

stem

—M

CA

S sc

ores

) 1

time

Pape

r-pen

cil s

urve

y (s

tude

nt ti

me

in p

hysi

cal e

duca

tion

per

scho

ol

year

) 1

time

No

inte

rven

tion

Did

stu

dent

s w

ho r

ecei

ved

mor

e ho

urs

of

phys

ical

edu

catio

n sc

ore

high

er o

n th

e M

CAS

test

?

• En

glis

h la

ngua

ge a

rts

• M

ath

+ 0

Tuck

man

BW

, H

inkl

e JS

50

An

expe

rimen

tal

study

of t

he

phys

ical

and

ps

ycho

logi

cal

effe

cts

of a

erob

ic

exer

cise

on

scho

olch

ildre

n.

Hea

lth P

sych

olog

y 19

86;5

(3):1

97-

Stud

y fo

cus:

Ph

ysic

al

educ

atio

n cl

ass

Des

crip

tion:

Ph

ysic

al a

nd

psyc

holo

gica

l ef

fect

s of

aer

obic

ex

erci

se

Setti

ng: S

choo

l, ph

ysic

al

educ

atio

n cl

ass

Sam

ple

1: Y

outh

N

: 154

A

ge r

ange

: 9.

30–1

1.30

M

ean

age:

NR

Gra

de: C

ross

leve

l (4

th–6

th g

rade

s)

Gen

der:

NR

Ethn

icity

: N

onw

hite

: 27

–29%

Stud

y de

sign

: Exp

erim

enta

l

Dat

a co

llect

ion

met

hod

and

time

poin

ts: M

easu

rem

ent d

evic

e (ti

me

on 5

0-m

eter

run

) 2

tim

es

Mea

sure

men

t dev

ice

(tim

e on

80

0-m

eter

run

) 3

tim

es (b

asel

ine,

pos

ttest,

5

mon

ths

afte

r po

stte

st)

Mea

sure

men

t dev

ice

(ski

nfol

d

Cond

ition

s: S

tude

nts

parti

cipa

ted

in th

e ru

nnin

g pr

ogra

m o

r re

gula

r ph

ysic

al e

duca

tion.

Stru

ctur

e:

Inte

rven

tion:

3 r

unni

ng s

essi

ons

per

wee

k fo

r 12

wee

ks. E

ach

sess

ion

laste

d 30

min

utes

. The

ses

sion

s w

ere

cond

ucte

d by

the

rese

arch

team

as

part

of s

tude

nts’

phy

sica

l edu

catio

n cl

asse

s.

Con

trol:

regu

lar

phys

ical

edu

catio

n pr

ogra

m, w

hich

incl

uded

bas

ketb

all,

Doe

s ex

posu

re to

the

inte

rven

tion

impr

ove

child

ren’

s ph

ysic

al a

nd p

sych

olog

ical

ou

tcom

es?

• Cr

eativ

ity (A

ltern

ate

Use

s te

st)

• Cl

assr

oom

beh

avio

r (te

ache

r ob

serv

atio

n)

• Pe

rcei

ved

self-

conc

ept (

self-

repo

rt)

• Pe

rcep

tual

mot

or a

bilit

y (B

ende

r-G

esta

lt te

st)

• Pl

anni

ng a

bilit

y an

d vi

sual

-mot

or

coor

dina

tion

(Maz

e Tr

acin

g te

st)

+ + 0 0 0

Add

ition

al a

naly

ses

of tr

eatm

ent x

gen

der

207

test

for

body

fat,

pulse

rate

) vo

lleyb

all,

and

occa

sion

al jo

ggin

g.

show

ed n

o di

ffere

nces

for

clas

sroo

m b

ehav

ior,

Coun

try:

USA

2

times

Re

gula

r ph

ysic

al e

duca

tion

took

se

lf-co

ncep

t, Be

nder

-Ges

talt

test.

How

ever

, pl

ace

3 tim

es p

er w

eek

for

6th-

grad

e tre

atm

ent b

oys

and

treat

men

t girl

s pe

rform

ed

Pape

r-pen

cil s

urve

y (te

ache

r st

uden

ts an

d 5

times

per

wee

k fo

r 4t

h-

bette

r on

the

maz

e te

st th

an c

ontro

l boy

s an

d

ratin

g of

stu

dent

beh

avio

r as

con

duci

ve o

r di

srup

tive

to

clas

sroo

m p

artic

ipat

ion)

2 ti

mes

Skill

ass

essm

ent (

perc

eptu

al-

mot

or a

bilit

y as

mea

sure

d by

Be

nder

-Ges

talt

test

) 2

tim

es

and

5th-

grad

e st

uden

ts.

Met

hods

: The

run

ning

took

pla

ce

on a

400

-met

er tr

ack

and

cons

iste

d of

gra

dual

incr

emen

ts in

dis

tanc

e,

inte

rval

wor

kout

s, a

nd re

lay

runs

.

cont

rol g

irls,

resp

ectiv

ely.

Doe

s ex

posu

re to

the

inte

rven

tion

impr

ove

child

ren’

s ph

ysic

al o

utco

mes?


Stud

y Ci

tatio

n St

udy

Focu

s an

d Se

tting

Sa

mpl

e C

hara

cter

istic

s St

udy

Des

ign

and

Dat

a Co

llect

ion

Inte

rven

tion

Cond

ition

s Ke

y O

utco

mes

and

Res

ults

Skill

ass

essm

ent (

plan

ning

abi

lity

and

visu

al m

otor

coo

rdin

atio

n as

mea

sure

d by

the

Maz

e Tr

acin

g Te

st)

2 ti

mes

Pape

r-pen

cil s

urve

y (c

reat

ivity

as

mea

sure

d by

the

Alte

rnat

ive

Use

s Te

st m

easu

ring

dive

rgen

t th

inki

ng; s

elf-c

once

pt a

s m

easu

red

by P

iers

-Har

ris

Chi

ldre

n’s

Self-

Con

cept

Sca

le)

2 ti

mes

• 80

0-m

eter

run

(boy

s an

d gi

rls)

• 80

0-m

eter

run

(5-m

onth

follo

w-u

p—bo

ys)

• 80

0-m

eter

run

(5-m

onth

follo

w-u

p—gi

rls)

• 50

-met

er d

ash

• Pu

lse ra

te

• Sk

info

ld (b

ody

fat)

(boy

s)

• Sk

info

ld (b

ody

fat)

(girl

s)

+ + 0 0 + + 0


Appendix E: Recess Summary Matrix Articles describing quasi-experimental or experimental designs are highlighted in the table before the matrix for each setting. Not all studies used these designs.

Recess Studies Using Quasi Experimental or Experimental Design (Authors and Date Only)

Caterino, M.C., Polak, E.D. 1999

Jarrett, O.S., Maxwell, D.M., Dickerson, C., Hoge, P., Davies, G., Yetley, A. 1998

Pellegrini, A.D., Davis, P.D. 1993

Pellegrini, A.D., Huberty, P.D., Jones, I. 1995


App

endi

x E:

Rec

ess

Sum

mar

y M

atri

x***


Stud

y Ci

tatio

n St

udy

Focu

s an

d Se

tting

Sa

mpl

e C

hara

cter

istic

s St

udy

Des

ign

and

Dat

a Co

llect

ion

Inte

rven

tion

Cond

ition

s Ke

y O

utco

mes

and

Res

ults

Barro

s, R

M, S

ilver

, EJ

, Ste

in, R

EK58

Scho

ol re

cess

and

gr

oup

clas

sroo

m

beha

vior

.

Stud

y fo

cus:

Re

cess

Des

crip

tion:

Th

e ef

fect

of

exp

osur

e to

rece

ss o

n

Sam

ple1

: You

th

N: 1

1,52

9 A

ge r

ange

: 8–9

M

ean

age:

NR

Gra

de: P

rimar

y (3

rd g

rade

) G

ende

r:

Stud

y de

sign

: Des

crip

tive,

se

cond

ary

anal

ysis

of E

arly

C

hild

hood

Lon

gitu

dina

l Stu

dy

(EC

LS) d

atas

et (K

inde

rgar

ten

Cla

ss o

f 199

8–19

99)

Dat

a co

llect

ion

met

hod

and

No

inte

rven

tion

Do

stud

ents

who

are

exp

osed

to re

cess

dur

ing

the

scho

ol d

ay h

ave

bette

r cl

assr

oom

beh

avio

r, as

re

port

ed b

y th

e te

ache

r, th

an s

tude

nts

who

do

not

have

rece

ss?

• Cl

assr

oom

beh

avio

r (o

vera

ll cl

assr

oom

) +

Resu

lts w

ere

also

exa

min

ed b

y th

e le

vel o

f exp

osur

e to

Pe

diat

rics

2009

; pr

imar

y sc

hool

M

: 50.

3%

time

poin

ts: P

aper

-pen

cil s

urve

y re

cess

. A

ll le

vels

of r

eces

s sh

owed

sig

nific

antly

bet

ter

clas

s-12

3(2)

:431

-436

stu

dent

s’

F: 4

9.7%

(te

ache

r re

port

of fr

eque

ncy

of

room

beh

avio

r w

hen

com

pare

d w

ith n

o re

cess

. D

iffer

ence

s cl

assr

oom

re

cess

and

phy

sica

l edu

catio

n w

ere

not s

ignific

ant b

etw

een

expo

sure

leve

ls.

beha

vior

Setti

ng: S

choo

l, re

cess

Coun

try:

USA

Ethn

icity

: Bl

ack:

12%

H

ispa

nic:

16%

O

ther

/mix

ed:1

1%

Whi

te: 6

1%

clas

s, c

lass

room

cha

ract

eris

tics,

an

d te

ache

r ra

ting

of g

roup

cl

assr

oom

beh

avio

r) 1

time

(stu

dent

s in

3rd

gra

de)

Add

ition

al a

naly

ses

by e

thni

city

and

SES

rev

eale

d si

gnifi

-ca

nt d

iffer

ence

s. B

lack

and

His

pani

c st

uden

ts a

nd lo

wer

in

com

e st

uden

ts w

ere

all s

ignific

antly

less

like

ly to

hav

e re

cess

. Th

ere

wer

e no

diff

eren

ces

by g

ende

r.

Cat

erin

o M

C,

Pola

k ED

55

Effe

cts

of tw

o ty

pes

of a

ctiv

ity o

n th

e pe

rform

ance

of

sec

ond-

, thi

rd-,

and

four

th-g

rade

stu

dent

s on

a te

st of

con

cent

ratio

n.

Perc

eptu

al a

nd

Mot

or S

kills

199

9;

89(1

):245

-248

Stud

y fo

cus:

Re

cess

Des

crip

tion:

Th

e ef

fect

of

phys

ical

act

ivity

on

ele

men

tary

sc

hool

stu

dent

s’

conc

entra

tion

Setti

ng: S

choo

l, cl

assr

oom

, lib

rary

and

gym

Coun

try:

USA

Sam

ple

1: Y

outh

N

: 54

Age

ran

ge: N

R M

ean

age:

NR

Gra

de: P

rimar

y (3

rd,

4th,

and

5th

gra

des)

Gen

der:

NR

Ethn

icity

: NR

Sam

ple

2: Y

outh

N

: 71

Mea

n ag

e: N

R G

rade

: Prim

ary

Gen

der:

NR

Ethn

icity

: NR

Sam

ple

3: Y

outh

N

: 52

Mea

n ag

e: N

R G

rade

: Prim

ary

Gen

der:

NR

Ethn

icity

: NR

Stud

y de

sign

: Exp

erim

enta

l

Dat

a co

llect

ion

met

hod

and

time

poin

ts: S

tand

ardi

zed

test

s (c

once

ntra

tion

as m

easu

red

by

the

Woo

dcoc

k-Jo

hnso

n Te

st of

C

once

ntra

tion)

1

time

(imm

edia

tely

afte

r in

terv

entio

n)

Cond

ition

s: P

hysi

cal a

ctiv

ity

grou

p, c

lass

room

act

ivity

gr

oup

Stru

ctur

e: S

tude

nts

in th

e ph

ysic

al a

ctiv

ity g

roup

w

ent t

o th

e gy

m fo

r 15

m

inut

es o

f stre

tchi

ng a

nd

aero

bic

wal

king

and

th

en to

the

libra

ry fo

r th

e W

oodc

ock-

John

son

Test

of

Con

cent

ratio

n. S

tude

nts

in

the

clas

sroo

m a

ctiv

ity g

roup

pa

rtici

pate

d in

regu

lar

clas

sroo

m a

ctiv

ities

and

then

w

ent t

o th

e lib

rary

for

the

Woo

dcoc

k-Jo

hnso

n Te

st o

f C

once

ntra

tion.

Do

stud

ents

who

par

ticip

ate

in d

irect

ed p

hysi

cal

activ

ity h

ave

sign

ifica

ntly

hig

her

scor

es o

n th

e W

oodc

ock-

John

son

Test

of C

once

ntra

tion

than

st

uden

ts w

ho p

artic

ipat

e in

typi

cal c

lass

room

ac

tivity

?

• Co

ncen

tratio

n (4

th-g

rade

stu

dent

s)

+

***R

esul

ts ar

e co

ded

as fo

llow

s: +

sig

nifie

s a

sign

ifica

nt p

ositi

ve o

utco

me;

0 s

ignifie

s no

sig

nific

ant o

utco

me;

– s

ignifie

s a

sign

ifica

nt n

egat

ive

outc

ome.

Mat

rices

may

not

incl

ude

all o

utco

mes

des

crib

ed in

the

artic

le; s

hade

d ou

tcom

es a

re o

utco

mes

of p

rimar

y in

tere

st to

(and

wer

e in

clud

ed in

) thi

s re

view

; add

ition

al o

utco

mes

repo

rted

here

may

be

of

inte

rest

to re

ader

s.

NR=

Not

repo

rted

by s

tudy

aut

hors

. In

dica

tes

data

col

lect

ion

time

poin

ts.

Stud

y Ci

tatio

n St

udy

Focu

s an

d Se

tting

Sa

mpl

e C

hara

cter

istic

s St

udy

Des

ign

and

Dat

a Co

llect

ion

Inte

rven

tion

Cond

ition

s Ke

y O

utco

mes

and

Res

ults

Jarre

tt O

S,

Max

wel

l DM

, D

icke

rson

C, H

oge

P, D

avie

s G

, Yet

ley

A56

Impa

ct o

f rec

ess

on c

lass

room

be

havi

or:

Gro

up e

ffect

s an

d in

divi

dual

di

ffere

nces

.

Jour

nal o

f Edu

catio

nal

Rese

arch

199

8;

92(2

):121

-126

Stud

y fo

cus:

Re

cess

Des

crip

tion:

The

ef

fect

of r

eces

s on

cla

ssro

om

beha

vior

Setti

ng: S

choo

l, re

cess

, cla

ssro

om

Coun

try:

USA

Sam

ple

1: Y

outh

N

: 43

Age

ran

ge: N

R M

ean

age:

NR

Gra

de: P

rimar

y (4

th g

rade

) G

ende

r:

M: 4

1.9%

F:

58.

1%

Ethn

icity

: Bl

ack:

18.

6%

Whi

te: 8

1.4%

Stud

y de

sign

: Qua

si-e

xper

imen

tal

Dat

a co

llect

ion

met

hod

and

time

poin

ts: O

bser

vatio

n (c

lass

room

be

havi

or: c

once

ntra

tion,

fidg

ety,

w

ork,

list

less

) 6

times

(bas

elin

e [m

id-

Nov

embe

r] to

mid

-Mar

ch [

until

6

rece

sses

per

chi

ld])

Obs

erva

tion

(aca

dem

ic

achi

evem

ent)

1 ti

me

(yea

r-end

)

Stru

ctur

e: C

hild

ren

wer

e ob

serv

ed in

th

e cl

assr

oom

eac

h w

eek

on th

e 2

days

that

they

did

not

hav

e ph

ysic

al

educ

atio

n. D

urin

g th

e fir

st w

eek

of

obse

rvat

ion,

eac

h cl

ass

was

rand

omly

as

sign

ed to

hav

e re

cess

on

one

of

the

days

and

no

rece

ss o

n th

e ot

her

day

(rece

ss a

mou

nted

to 1

5 to

20

min

utes

).

Doe

s re

cess

impr

ove

stud

ents

’ on-

task

be

havi

or a

nd d

ecre

ase

stud

ents

’ fidg

etin

ess

in th

e cl

assr

oom

(as

obse

rved

by

rese

arch

st

aff)?

•

On-

task

beh

avio

r •

Less

fidg

etin

ess

+ +

Pelle

grin

i AD,

D

avis

PD

57

Rela

tions

bet

wee

n ch

ildre

n’s

play

grou

nd

and

clas

sroo

m

beha

viou

r.

Briti

sh Jo

urna

l of

Edu

catio

nal

Psyc

holo

gy 1

993;

63

(1):8

8-95

Stud

y fo

cus:

Re

cess

Des

crip

tion:

Re

latio

nshi

ps

betw

een

child

ren’

s pl

aygr

ound

an

d cl

assr

oom

be

havi

or

Setti

ng: S

choo

l, re

cess

Coun

try:

USA

Sam

ple

1: S

choo

l N

: 1

Gra

de: P

rimar

y (3

rd g

rade

)

Sam

ple

2: Y

outh

N

: 23

Age

ran

ge: N

R M

ean

age:

9.4

G

rade

: Prim

ary

(3rd

gra

de)

Gen

der:

M

: 60.

9%

F: 3

9.1%

Et

hnic

ity: N

R

Stud

y de

sign

: Qua

si-e

xper

imen

tal

Dat

a co

llect

ion

met

hod

and

time

poin

ts: S

tand

ardi

zed

Test

(c

ogni

tive

abili

ty a

s m

easu

red

by th

e Io

wa

Test

of B

asic

Ski

lls

(198

6) 1

tim

e

Obs

erva

tion

(con

cent

ratio

n an

d fid

getin

g in

cla

ssro

om

and

nons

ocia

l exe

rcis

e, s

ocia

l ex

erci

se, n

onso

cial

sed

enta

ry,

and

soci

al s

eden

tary

rece

ss

beha

vior

) 32

tim

es (o

nly

whe

n ou

tdoo

r pl

ay ti

me

occu

rred

durin

g th

e 14

-wee

k da

ta c

olle

ctio

n pe

riod)

Cond

ition

s: S

tude

nts

wer

e ex

pose

d to

1 o

f 2 c

ondi

tions

, a s

horte

r co

nfine

men

t per

iod

in th

e cl

assr

oom

(2

.5 h

ours

) and

a lo

nger

confin

emen

t pe

riod

in th

e cl

assr

oom

(3 h

ours

) be

fore

rece

ss.

Stru

ctur

e: E

ach

child

was

exp

osed

to

both

con

ditio

ns b

y co

unte

rbal

anci

ng

the

orde

r in

whi

ch th

e w

hole

cla

ss

expe

rienc

ed c

onfin

emen

t acr

oss

the

14-w

eek

obse

rvat

ion

perio

d.

Met

hod:

Stu

dent

s w

ere

obse

rved

be

fore

rece

ss, d

urin

g re

cess

, and

af

ter

rece

ss.

Doe

s ch

ildre

n’s

obse

rved

exe

rcis

e be

havi

or

(soc

ial a

nd n

onso

cial

)h dur

ing

rece

ss

impr

ove

obse

rved

cla

ssro

om b

ehav

ior

imm

edia

tely

follo

win

g re

cess

(con

trolli

ng

for

stan

dard

ized

test

sco

res)

?

• Fi

dget

(soc

ial e

xerc

ise

beha

vior

) •

Fidg

et (n

onso

cial

exe

rcis

e be

havi

or)

+ +

Doe

s ch

ildre

n’s

obse

rved

sed

enta

ry

beha

vior

(soc

ial a

nd n

onso

cial

)h dur

ing

rece

ss im

prov

e ob

serv

ed c

lass

room

be

havi

or im

med

iate

ly fo

llow

ing

rece

ss

(con

trolli

ng fo

r sta

ndar

dize

d te

st sc

ores

) ?•

Fidg

et (s

ocia

l sed

enta

ry b

ehav

ior)

• C

once

ntra

tion

(soc

ial s

eden

tary

be

havi

or)

• C

once

ntra

tion

(non

soci

al s

eden

tary

be

havi

or)

– + –

h Soc

ial e

xerc

ise

beha

vior

: Chi

ldre

n w

ere

exch

angi

ng la

ngua

ge, g

estu

res,

or g

azes

whi

le

enga

ging

in g

ross

bod

y an

d/or

mus

cula

r act

ivity

. N

onso

cial

exe

rcis

e be

havi

or: g

ross

bod

y an

d/

or m

uscu

lar a

ctiv

ity a

lone

or w

ithou

t int

erac

ting

with

oth

ers.

So

cial

sed

enta

ry b

ehav

ior:

Non

stre

nuou

s ex

erci

se s

uch

as w

alki

ng, s

ittin

g, o

r sta

ndin

g w

hile

inte

ract

ing

with

oth

ers.

N

onso

cial

sed

enta

ry b

ehav

ior:

nons

trenu

ous

exer

cise

with

out i

nter

actin

g w

ith o

ther

s.


Stud

y Ci

tatio

n St

udy

Focu

s an

d Se

tting

Sa

mpl

e C

hara

cter

istic

s St

udy

Des

ign

and

Dat

a Co

llect

ion

Inte

rven

tion

Cond

ition

s Ke

y O

utco

mes

and

Res

ults

Pelle

grin

i AD,

H

uber

ty P

D, Jo

nes

I37

The

effe

cts

of

rece

ss ti

min

g on

chi

ldre

n’s

play

grou

nd

and

clas

sroo

m

beha

vior

s.

Am

eric

an

Educ

atio

nal

Rese

arch

Jour

nal

1995

;32(

4):8

45-

864

Stud

y fo

cus:

Re

cess

Des

crip

tion:

Re

cess

and

its

impa

ct o

n st

uden

t beh

avio

r in

the

clas

sroo

m

and

on th

e pl

aygr

ound

Setti

ng: S

choo

l, re

cess

Coun

try:

USA

Sam

ple

1: Y

outh

N

: 37

Age

ran

ge: N

R M

ean

age:

NR

Gra

de: P

rimar

y (2

nd, 4

th g

rade

s)

Gen

der:

M

: 46%

F:

54%

Et

hnic

ity:

Blac

k: 3

0.0%

W

hite

: 70.

0%

Sam

ple

2: Y

outh

N

: 62

Age

ran

ge: N

R M

ean

age:

7.6

G

rade

: Prim

ary

(K, 2

nd, 4

th

grad

es)

Gen

der:

M

: 55.

0%

F: 4

5.0%

Et

hnic

ity:

Blac

k: 3

0.0%

W

hite

: Maj

ority

%

Asi

an: S

mal

l %

Sam

ple

3: Y

outh

N

: 44

Age

ran

ge: N

R M

ean

age:

10.

1 G

rade

: Prim

ary

(4th

gra

de)

Gen

der:

M

: 39.

0%

F: 6

1.0%

Et

hnic

ity: N

R

Stud

y de

sign

: Qua

si-e

xper

imen

tal

Dat

a co

llect

ion

met

hod

and

time

poin

ts: O

bser

vatio

n (s

ocia

l in

tera

ctio

n du

ring

rece

ss,

inat

tent

ion

befo

re a

nd a

fter

rece

ss, p

hysi

cal a

ctiv

ity d

urin

g re

cess

) 3

2 tim

es (e

very

Mon

day–

Th

ursd

ay fo

r 2

mon

ths)

Cond

ition

s: C

hild

ren

in 2

nd a

nd 4

th

grad

es w

ere

pres

ente

d w

ith e

ither

a

mal

e-pr

efer

red

or fe

mal

e-pr

efer

red

task

imm

edia

tely

bef

ore

rece

ss a

nd

imm

edia

tely

afte

r re

cess

. Chi

ldre

n w

ere

expe

cted

to s

it qu

ietly

in th

eir

seat

s w

hile

the

teac

her

read

a s

tory

w

ith e

ither

a m

ale

or fe

mal

e m

ain

char

acte

r.

Stru

ctur

e: 4

day

s pe

r w

eek

rece

ss

timin

g w

as m

anip

ulat

ed: 2

day

s pe

r w

eek

stud

ents

wen

t to

rece

ss

at 1

0:00

a.m

. (sh

ort d

epriv

atio

n pe

riod)

and

2 d

ays

per

wee

k st

uden

ts

wen

t to

rece

ss a

t 10:

30 a

.m. (

long

de

priv

atio

n pe

riod)

.

Met

hod:

Stu

dent

s w

ere

obse

rved

be

fore

rece

ss, d

urin

g re

cess

, and

af

ter

rece

ss.

Are

chi

ldre

n m

ore

atte

ntiv

e to

cla

ssro

om

task

s af

ter

rece

ss th

an b

efor

e re

cess

(as

obse

rved

by

rese

arch

sta

ff)?

Expe

rimen

t 1:

• M

ore

atte

ntiv

e (g

rade

s 2

and

4)

• M

ore

atte

ntiv

e (K

)

Expe

rimen

t 2:

• M

ore

atte

ntiv

e (g

rade

2)

• M

ore

atte

ntiv

e (g

rade

4)

Expe

rimen

t 3:

• M

ore

atte

ntiv

e (c

lass

1)

• M

ore

atte

ntiv

e (c

lass

2)

+ 0 + 0 + 0

Doe

s ch

ildre

n’s

obse

rved

beh

avio

r du

ring

rece

ss a

ffect

pos

t-rec

ess

clas

sroo

m

atte

ntio

n (a

s ob

serv

ed b

y re

sear

ch s

taff)

?

Expe

rimen

t 1:

• A

ttent

ion

Expe

rimen

t 2:

• A

ttent

ion

Expe

rimen

t 3:

• A

ttent

ion

0 0 0

Doe

s th

e tim

ing

of re

cess

(afte

r 2.5

or

3 ho

urs

of c

lass

room

tim

e) a

ffect

the

play

grou

nd p

hysic

al a

ctiv

ity a

nd s

ocia

l in

tera

ctio

n (a

s ob

serv

ed b

y re

sear

ch s

taff)?

Expe

rimen

t 1:

• M

ore

phys

ical

act

ivity

•

Mor

e so

cial

inte

ract

ion

(4th

-gra

de

stude

nts)

Expe

rimen

t 2:

• M

ore

phys

ical

act

ivity

(2nd

- and

4t

h-gr

ade

stude

nts)

•

Mor

e so

cial

inte

ract

ion

Expe

rimen

t 3:

• M

ore

phys

ical

act

ivity

(boy

s)

• M

ore

soci

al in

tera

ctio

n

0 + 0 + + 0


Stud

y Ci

tatio

n St

udy

Focu

s an

d Se

tting

Sa

mpl

e C

hara

cter

istic

s St

udy

Des

ign

and

Dat

a Co

llect

ion

Inte

rven

tion

Cond

ition

s Ke

y O

utco

mes

and

Res

ults

Pelle

grin

i AD,

Kat

o K,

Bla

tchf

ord

P,

Bain

es E

59

A s

hort-

term

lo

ngitu

dina

l stu

dy

of c

hild

ren’

s pl

aygr

ound

gam

es

acro

ss th

e fir

st ye

ar o

f sch

ool:

Impl

icat

ions

for

soci

al c

ompe

tenc

e an

d ad

justm

ent t

o sc

hool

.

Am

eric

an

Stud

y fo

cus:

Re

cess

Des

crip

tion:

Sc

hool

ad

just

men

t, ga

me

faci

litat

ion,

pl

ay/g

ames

be

havi

ors

Setti

ng: S

choo

l, re

cess

Coun

try:

USA

Sam

ple

1: Y

outh

N

: 77

Age

ran

ge: N

R M

ean

age:

6.4

G

rade

: Prim

ary

(1st

gra

de)

Gen

der:

M

: 39.

0%

F: 6

1.0%

Et

hnic

ity: N

R

Stud

y de

sign

: Des

crip

tive,

with

lo

ngitu

dina

l fol

low

-up

Dat

a co

llect

ion

met

hod

and

time

poin

ts: P

aper

-pen

cil

surv

ey (t

each

er a

nd re

sear

cher

ch

eckl

ist o

f stu

dent

beh

avio

r of

ad

just

men

t to

scho

ol, f

acili

ty in

sp

orts

and

gam

es)

2 ti

mes

(lat

e Fa

ll an

d ea

rly

Sprin

g)

Obs

erva

tion

(stu

dent

gam

e be

havi

ors

and

gam

e fa

cilit

y)

12 ti

mes

(obs

erve

d fo

r m

inim

um o

f 3 m

inut

es p

er

No

inte

rven

tion

Doe

s a

com

posi

te m

easu

re o

f stu

dent

s’

“gam

e fa

cilit

y”i p

redi

ct e

nd-o

f-yea

r sc

hool

ad

just

men

t (ba

sed

on r

esea

rch

staf

f and

te

ache

r ag

greg

ate

ratin

gs)?

• Sc

hool

adj

ustm

ent (

boys

) •

Scho

ol a

djus

tmen

t (gi

rls)

+ 0

Doe

s a

com

posi

te m

easu

re o

f gam

e fa

cilit

yi pre

dict

stu

dent

’s e

nd-o

f-yea

r soc

ial

com

pete

nce

(bas

ed o

n re

sear

ch s

taff

and

teac

her a

ggre

gate

ratin

gs) ?

• So

cial

com

pete

nce

(boy

s)

• So

cial

com

pete

nce

(girl

s)

+ 0

i Gam

e fa

cilit

y w

as m

easu

red

thro

ugh

an

Educ

atio

nal

mon

th)

aggr

egat

e m

easu

re th

at in

clud

ed re

sear

cher

Rese

arch

Jour

nal

2002

;39(

4):9

91-

1015

In

terv

iew

(pee

r no

min

atio

ns,

scho

ol c

onne

cted

ness

) 2

tim

es (e

arly

Fal

l and

late

Sp

ring)

obse

rvat

ions

of r

eces

s be

havi

or, b

ehav

ior

chec

klis

ts c

ompl

eted

by

the

teac

her

and

rese

arch

er, a

nd p

eer

iden

tifica

tion

of c

hild

ren

who

wer

e go

od a

t spo

rts.


Appendix F: Classroom Physical Activity Summary Matrix


Classroom Physical Activity Studies Using Quasi Experimental or Experimental Design (Authors and Date only)

Ahamed, Y., MacDonald, H., Reed, K., Naylor, P.-J., Liu-Ambrose, T., McKay, H. 2007

Della Valle, J., Dunn, R., Geisert, G., Sinatra, R., Zenhausern, R. 1986

Fredericks, C.R., Kokot, S.J., Krog, S. 2006

Maeda, J.K., Randall, L.M. 2003

Mahar, M.T., Murphy, S.K., Rowe, D.A., Golden, J., Shields, A.T., Raedeke, T.D. 2006

Molloy, G.N. 1989

Norlander, T., Moas, L., Archer T. 2005

Uhrich, T.A., Swalm, R.L. 2007



App

endi

x F:

Cla

ssro

om P

hysi

cal A

ctiv

ity S

umm

ary

Mat

rix††

††

Stud

y Ci

tatio

n St

udy

Focu

s an

d Se

tting

Sa

mpl

e C

hara

cter

istic

s St

udy

Des

ign

and

Dat

a Co

llect

ion

Inte

rven

tion

Cond

ition

s Ke

y O

utco

mes

and

Res

ults

Aha

med

Y,

Mac

Don

ald

H,

Reed

K, N

aylo

r P-

J, Liu

-Am

bros

e T,

M

cKay

H65

Scho

ol-b

ased

ph

ysic

al a

ctiv

ity

does

not

co

mpr

omis

e ch

ildre

n’s

acad

emic

pe

rform

ance

.

Med

icin

e an

d Sc

ienc

e in

Spo

rts

and

Exer

cise

20

07;3

9(2)

:371

-37

6

Stud

y fo

cus:

C

lass

room

Des

crip

tion:

Ph

ysic

al a

ctiv

ity

inte

rven

tion

eval

uatio

n fo

cusi

ng o

n m

aint

enan

ce

and

chan

ge

of a

cade

mic

pe

rform

ance

Setti

ng: S

choo

l, ph

ysic

al

educ

atio

n

Coun

try:

C

anad

a

Sam

ple

1: S

choo

l N

: 20

Age

ran

ge: N

A

Mea

n ag

e: N

A

Gra

de: P

rimar

y

Sam

ple

2: Y

outh

N

: 288

A

ge r

ange

: 9–1

1 M

ean

age:

10.

2 G

rade

: Prim

ary

(4th

, 5th

gra

des)

G

ende

r:

M: 4

9.7%

F:

50.

3%

Ethn

icity

: A

sian

60.

3%

Whi

te 2

7.9%

O

ther

11.

8%

Stud

y de

sign

: Exp

erim

enta

l

Dat

a co

llect

ion

met

hod

and

time

poin

ts: P

aper

-pen

cil s

urve

y (s

elf-

repo

rt—m

oder

ate

to v

igor

ous

phys

ical

act

ivity

as

mea

sure

d by

a m

odifi

ed v

ersi

on o

f the

Ph

ysic

al A

ctiv

ity Q

uest

ionn

aire

fo

r C

hild

ren

(PA

Q-C

) 5

times

(bas

elin

e m

inus

3

mon

ths,

bas

elin

e, 3

mon

ths,

9

mon

ths,

12

mon

ths)

Stan

dard

ized

tests

(Can

adia

n A

chie

vem

ent T

est-C

AT-3

in

read

ing,

mat

h an

d la

ngua

ge a

rts)

3 ti

mes

(bas

elin

e, 3

mon

ths,

12

mon

ths)

Nam

e: A

ction

Sch

ools!

BC

(AS!

BC

) Mod

el

Stru

ctur

e: T

he A

S! B

C m

odel

com

ple-

men

ts th

e 80

min

utes

per

wee

k of

ph

ysic

al e

duca

tion

time

with

15

mor

e m

inut

es p

er d

ay o

f phy

sical

act

ivity

in

the

clas

sroo

m (f

or a

tota

l of 7

5 m

inut

es

per w

eek)

to a

chie

ve th

e re

com

men

ded

tota

l of 1

50 m

inut

es p

er w

eek.

Impl

emen

tatio

n: T

he in

terv

entio

n sp

anne

d 16

mon

ths

but a

cade

mic

pe

rform

ance

was

onl

y ev

alua

ted

acro

ss

the

scho

ol y

ear.

Teac

hers

in in

terv

entio

n sc

hool

s w

ere

requ

ired

to im

plem

ent

clas

sroo

m-b

ased

act

ivitie

s fo

r 15

min

utes

du

ring

each

sch

ool d

ay. A

ctivi

ties

offe

red

by te

ache

rs in

clud

ed s

kipp

ing,

da

ncin

g, a

nd re

sista

nce

exer

cise

s.

Did

incr

ease

d ph

ysic

al a

ctiv

ity im

prov

e ac

adem

ic p

erfo

rman

ce (a

com

bine

d sc

ore

of re

adin

g, m

ath

and

lang

uage

art

s)?

• St

anda

rdiz

ed te

st s

core

(com

bine

d)

0

Did

incr

ease

d ph

ysic

al a

ctivi

ty im

prov

e ac

adem

ic p

erfo

rman

ce b

y ge

nder?

• St

anda

rdiz

ed te

st sc

ores

(com

bine

d)

(by

gend

er)

0

Del

la V

alle

J,

Dun

n R,

Gei

sert

G, S

inat

ra R

, Ze

nhau

sern

R61

The

effe

cts

of

mat

chin

g an

d m

ism

atch

ing

stude

nts’

mob

ility

pr

efer

ence

s on

re

cogn

ition

and

m

emor

y ta

sks.

Stud

y fo

cus:

C

lass

room

Des

crip

tion:

The

ef

fect

of a

ctiv

ity

leve

l on

lear

ning

Setti

ng: S

choo

l, cl

assr

oom

Coun

try:

USA

Sam

ple

1: Y

outh

N

: 40

Age

ran

ge: N

R M

ean

age:

NR

Gra

de: S

econ

dary

(ju

nior

hig

h sc

hool

) G

ende

r:

M: 4

2.5%

F:

57.

5%

Ethn

icity

: NR

Stud

y de

sign

: Qua

si-e

xper

imen

tal

Dat

a co

llect

ion

met

hod

and

time

poin

ts: O

bser

vatio

n (s

tude

nts

stud

ied

15 w

ord

pairs

in

a p

assi

ve a

nd in

an

activ

e en

viro

nmen

t) 1

tim

e

Stan

dard

ized

test

s (m

obili

ty

pref

eren

ce—

scor

e on

ele

men

t of

mob

ility

from

lear

ning

sty

le

Cond

ition

s: P

assi

ve c

ondi

tion,

act

ive

cond

ition

Stru

ctur

e: In

the

pass

ive

cond

ition

, stu

dent

s le

arne

d w

ord

pairs

by

rem

aini

ng in

thei

r sea

ts w

hile

15

wor

d pa

irs w

ere fla

shed

on

a sc

reen

at

4-se

cond

inte

rval

s. In

the

activ

e co

nditi

on, s

tude

nts

exam

ined

15

diffe

rent

wor

d pa

irs p

rinte

d on

car

ds

arra

nged

aro

und

the

perim

eter

of t

he

room

. Stu

dent

s ex

amin

ed e

ach

card

for

Doe

s m

atch

ing

stud

ent’s

mob

ility

pr

efer

ence

to th

e le

arni

ng e

nviro

nmen

t im

prov

e w

ord

reco

gniti

on?j

• W

ord

reco

gniti

on te

st s

core

+

j Stu

dent

s w

ho p

refe

rred

act

ive

lear

ning

pe

rfor

med

sig

nific

antly

bet

ter

whe

n th

ere

was

an

act

ive

lear

ning

env

ironm

ent.

Stud

ents

who

pr

efer

red

pass

ive

lear

ning

per

form

ed b

ette

r in

th

e pa

ssiv

e le

arni

ng e

nviro

nmen

t. W

hen

the

lear

ning

env

ironm

ent m

atch

ed th

e st

uden

t’s

pref

erre

d le

arni

ng s

tyle

, sc

ores

wer

e si

gnifi

-ca

ntly

bet

ter.

Jour

nal o

f Ed

ucat

iona

l Re

sear

ch

1986

;79(

5):2

67-

272

asse

ssm

ent)

1 ti

me

Stan

dard

ized

test

s (w

ord

reco

gniti

on te

st of

60

wor

d pa

irs)

1 tim

e

4 se

cond

s an

d m

oved

to th

e ne

xt o

ne.

Impl

emen

tatio

n: W

ithin

-subj

ects

de

sign

, the

sam

e st

uden

ts le

arne

d w

ord-

pairs

in e

ach

of th

e 2

cond

itons

.

††††

Resu

lts a

re c

oded

as

follo

ws:

+ s

ignifie

s a

sign

ifica

nt p

ositi

ve o

utco

me;

0 s

ignifie

s no

sig

nific

ant o

utco

me;

- si

gnifi

es a

sig

nific

ant n

egat

ive

outc

ome.

Mat

rices

may

not

incl

ude

all o

utco

mes

des

crib

ed in

the

artic

le; s

hade

d ou

tcom

es a

re o

utco

mes

of p

rimar

y in

tere

st to

(and

wer

e in

clud

ed in

) thi

s re

view

; add

ition

al o

utco

mes

repo

rted

here

m

ay b

e of

inte

rest

to re

ader

s.

NR

= N

ot re

porte

d by

stu

dy a

utho

rs.

NA

= N

ot a

pplic

able

. In

dica

tes

data

col

lect

ion

time

poin

ts.

Stud

y Ci

tatio

n St

udy

Focu

s an

d Se

tting

Sa

mpl

e C

hara

cter

istic

s St

udy

Des

ign

and

Dat

a Co

llect

ion

Inte

rven

tion

Cond

ition

s Ke

y O

utco

mes

and

Res

ults

Fred

eric

ks C

R,

Koko

t SJ,

Krog

S66

Usi

ng a

de

velo

pmen

tal

mov

emen

t pr

ogra

mm

e to

en

hanc

e ac

adem

ic

skill

s in

gra

de 1

le

arne

rs.

Sout

h A

frica

n Jo

urna

l for

Re

sear

ch in

Spo

rt,

Phys

ical

Edu

catio

n an

d Re

crea

tion

2006

;28(

1):2

9-42

Stud

y fo

cus:

C

lass

room

Des

crip

tion:

M

ovem

ent a

nd

acad

emic

s —

inte

rpla

y be

twee

n br

ain

and

body

Setti

ng: S

choo

l

Coun

try:

Sou

th

Afri

ca

Sam

ple

1: Y

outh

N

: 53

Age

ran

ge: N

R M

ean

age:

NR

Gra

de: P

rimar

y (1

st g

rade

) G

ende

r:

M: 4

3.40

%

F: 5

6.60

%

Lang

uage

: En

glis

h: 7

9.3%

A

fric

ans:

11.

3%

Oth

er: 9

.4%

Stud

y de

sign

: Exp

erim

enta

l

Dat

a co

llect

ion

met

hod

and

time

poin

ts: S

kill

asse

ssm

ent (

Apt

itude

Te

st fo

r Sc

hool

Beg

inne

rs—

A

SB—

exam

ined

per

cept

ion,

sp

atia

l, re

ason

ing,

num

eric

al,

Ges

talt,

coo

rdin

atio

n, m

emor

y,

and

verb

al c

ompr

ehen

sion

) 2

tim

es (b

asel

ine,

2 m

onth

s)

Stan

dard

ized

test

(Dra

w-a

-pe

rson

—D

AP—

utili

zed

for

emot

iona

l ind

icat

ors)

2 ti

mes

(bas

elin

e, 2

mon

ths)

Cond

ition

s: E

xper

imen

tal,

free-

play

, ed

ucat

iona

l toy

s, a

nd c

ontro

l gro

ups.

Stru

ctur

e: T

he e

xper

imen

tal g

roup

fo

llow

ed a

n 8-

wee

k m

ovem

ent

prog

ram

with

20

min

utes

per

day

. A

fter

war

m-u

p, s

mal

ler

grou

ps w

ere

form

ed to

rota

te th

roug

h sta

tions

. A

ctiv

ities

in s

tatio

ns p

rogr

esse

d in

diffi

culty

as

indi

vidu

al m

aste

ry

occu

rred.

The

free

play

gro

up

allo

wed

chi

ldre

n to

use

pla

ygro

und

equi

pmen

t. Th

e ed

ucat

iona

l toy

s gr

oup

cont

aine

d th

e ch

ildre

n in

thei

r cl

assr

oom

s, b

ut a

llow

ed th

em to

use

ta

ble-

top

educ

atio

nal g

ames

. The

co

ntro

l gro

up fo

llow

ed n

orm

al s

choo

l cu

rric

ulum

.

Doe

s ex

posu

re to

the

mov

emen

t pro

gram

im

prov

e ap

titud

e sc

ores

for

yout

h as

m

easu

red

by th

e A

ptitu

de T

est f

or S

choo

l Be

ginn

ers?

•

Spac

ial a

ptitu

de

• Re

adin

g ap

titud

e •

Mat

h ap

titud

e •

Perc

eptio

n •

Reas

onin

g •

Num

eric

al

• G

esta

lt •

Coor

dina

tion

• M

emor

y •

Verb

al c

ompr

ehen

sion

•

Emot

iona

l ind

icat

ors

+ + + 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Topi

cs C

over

ed: C

onte

nt w

as o

f hig

hly

spec

ific

deve

lopm

enta

l mov

emen

ts in

the

deve

lopm

enta

l seq

uenc

e of

m

ovem

ents

thro

ugh

infa

ncy,

mid

line

cros

sing

, bal

ance

, pro

prio

cept

ion,

la

tera

lity,

inte

rhem

isph

eric

inte

grat

ion,

ve

stib

ular

wor

k, c

onve

rgen

ce,

dive

rgen

ce, v

isua

l acc

omm

odat

ion.

Trai

ning

: Tea

cher

s at

tend

ed a

sem

inar

re

gard

ing

the

proj

ect a

nd th

eir

invo

lvem

ent.

Low

den

K, P

owne

y J,

Dav

idso

n J,

Jam

es C

68

The

Cla

ss M

oves

! Pi

lot i

n Sc

otla

nd

and

Wal

es: A

n Ev

alua

tion.

Edin

burg

h:

Scot

tish

Cou

ncil

for R

esea

rch

in

Educ

atio

n; 2

001

Jan.

Rep

ort N

o.: 1

00.

Stud

y fo

cus:

C

lass

room

Des

crip

tion:

Ex

erci

ses

to e

nhan

ce

conc

entra

tion

and

mot

ivat

ion

Setti

ng: S

choo

l, cl

assr

oom

Coun

try:

Sco

tland

an

d W

ales

Sam

ple

1: S

choo

l N

: 6

Sam

ple

2: Y

outh

N

: ~19

2 A

ge r

ange

: 5–1

2 M

ean

age:

NR

Gra

de: P

rimar

y G

ende

r:

M: 4

8%

F: 5

2%

Ethn

icity

: Pr

imar

ily w

hite

Stud

y de

sign

: Cas

e st

udy

Dat

a co

llect

ion

met

hod

and

time

poin

ts: I

nter

view

(tea

cher

refle

ctio

n of

pro

gram

impa

ct)

2 ti

mes

(bas

elin

e, 3

mon

ths)

Nam

e: T

he C

lass

Mov

es!

Prog

ram

Stru

ctur

e: T

here

wer

e 24

gro

ups

of s

tude

nts

with

a m

axim

um o

f 8

stud

ents

in e

ach

grou

p. E

xerc

ises

are

gr

oupe

d by

them

e an

d ag

e an

d ar

e lis

ted

on a

mon

thly

cal

enda

r, w

hich

fo

llow

s a

stage

-rela

ted

deve

lopm

ent

plan

. Ses

sion

s ar

e 10

to15

min

utes

an

d ca

n be

con

duct

ed b

efor

e, d

urin

g,

or a

fter

any

clas

s su

bjec

t. Id

eally

ac

tiviti

es a

re a

bre

ak fr

om s

eden

tary

w

ork.

Do

teac

hers

repo

rt stu

dent

s in

volv

ed in

th

e C

lass

Mov

es! P

rogr

am h

ave

incr

ease

d ac

adem

ic p

erfo

rman

ce m

easu

res ?

k

• C

lass

room

beh

avio

r +

k Dat

a co

llect

ed th

roug

h qu

alita

tive

inte

rvie

ws;

cl

ear

defin

ition

s of

eac

h ou

tcom

e w

ere

not

prov

ided

by

the

auth

ors.


Stud

y Ci

tatio

n St

udy

Focu

s an

d Se

tting

Sa

mpl

e C

hara

cter

istic

s St

udy

Des

ign

and

Dat

a Co

llect

ion

Inte

rven

tion

Cond

ition

s Ke

y O

utco

mes

and

Res

ults

Sam

ple

3: S

choo

l pe

rson

nel

N: 2

4

Sam

ple

4: P

aren

ts

N: 1

9

Sam

ple

5: S

choo

l pe

rson

nel

N: 3

0 M

aeda

JK, R

anda

ll LM

62

Can

aca

dem

ic

succ

ess

com

e fro

m

five

min

utes

of

phys

ical

act

ivity?

Broc

k Ed

ucat

ion

Jour

nal

2003

;13(

1):1

4-2

2

Stud

y fo

cus:

C

lass

room

Des

crip

tion:

The

im

pact

of a

ddin

g 5

min

utes

of

phys

ical

act

ivity

to

a d

ay fo

r 2n

d-gr

ade

stud

ents

Setti

ng: S

choo

l, cl

assr

oom

Coun

try:

USA

Sam

ple

1: Y

outh

N

: 19

Age

ran

ge: N

R M

ean

age:

NR

Gra

de: P

rimar

y G

ende

r:

M: 3

6.8%

F:

63.

2%

Ethn

icity

: NR

Stud

y de

sign

: Qua

si-ex

perim

enta

l, w

ith s

ingl

e su

bjec

t beh

avio

ral

desi

gn—

mul

tiple

trea

tmen

t re

vers

al d

esig

n

Dat

a co

llect

ion

met

hod

and

time

poin

ts: O

bser

vatio

n (5

min

utes

ru

nnin

g/w

alki

ng)

61 ti

mes

(eac

h da

y fo

r 61

days

)

Teac

her-m

ade flu

ency

test

(1

-min

ute

mat

h ad

ditio

n te

st)

61 ti

mes

(eac

h da

y fo

r 61

days

)

Stru

ctur

e: T

he w

eekl

y ro

utin

e,

appr

oxim

atel

y 1

hour

afte

r lu

nch,

4

days

per

wee

k, c

onsi

sted

of r

estro

om/

wat

er, p

hysi

cal a

ctiv

ity, w

ater

, and

th

en re

turn

to th

e cl

assr

oom

for

the

mat

h ac

tivity

.

Impl

emen

tatio

n: T

he te

ache

r di

vide

d th

e stu

dent

s in

to 2

gro

ups

base

d on

th

eir

perfo

rman

ce in

mat

h re

late

d to

add

ition

con

cept

s: 1

) gra

de-

leve

l gro

up a

nd 2

) bel

ow-g

rade

le

vel g

roup

. 3 v

ersi

ons

of a

dditi

on

prob

lem

s sh

eets

wer

e us

ed.

Do

5 m

inut

es o

f a m

oder

ate

to v

igor

ous

activ

ity in

crea

se m

ath flu

ency

and

co

ncen

tratio

n (b

ased

on

teac

her

obse

rvat

ion)?

• M

ath flu

ency

•

Con

cent

ratio

n + +

Mah

ar M

T,

Mur

phy

SK, R

owe

DA, G

olde

n J,

Shie

lds

AT,

Raed

eke

TD63

Effe

cts

of a

cl

assr

oom

-bas

ed

prog

ram

on

phys

ical

act

ivity

an

d on

-task

be

havi

or.

Med

icin

e an

d Sc

ienc

e in

Spo

rts

and

Exer

cise

20

06;3

8(12

): 20

86-2

094

Stud

y fo

cus:

C

lass

room

Des

crip

tion:

A

clas

sroo

m-b

ased

ph

ysic

al a

ctivi

ty

prog

ram

’s e

ffect

on

ele

men

tary

sc

hool

-age

d ch

ildre

n’s p

hysic

al

activ

ity le

vels

and

on-ta

sk b

ehav

ior

durin

g ac

adem

ic

instr

uctio

n

Setti

ng: S

choo

l, cl

assr

oom

Coun

try:

USA

Sam

ple

1: Y

outh

N

: 243

A

ge r

ange

: NR

Mea

n ag

e: N

R G

rade

: Prim

ary

(K–4

th g

rade

) G

ende

r: N

R Et

hnic

ity: N

R

Stud

y de

sign

: Qua

si-e

xper

imen

tal

Dat

a co

llect

ion

met

hod

and

time

poin

ts: S

truct

ured

and

tim

ed

obse

rvat

ion

(on-

task

beh

avio

r of

3rd

-and

4th

-gra

de s

tude

nts

only

—defin

ed a

s ve

rbal

or

mot

or b

ehav

ior

that

follo

wed

cl

ass

rule

s an

d w

as a

ppro

pria

te

to th

e le

arni

ng s

ituat

ion)

D

aily

ove

r a

12-w

eek

perio

d (p

re- a

nd p

ostin

terv

entio

n)

Mea

sure

men

t dev

ice

– pe

dom

eter

s (n

umbe

r of

ste

ps

take

n in

all

K–4t

h-gr

ade

clas

ses)

5 d

ays

in a

wee

k (a

ll ch

ildre

n in

one

gra

de p

er w

eek)

Stru

ctur

e: S

tude

nts

in a

ll K–

4th-

grad

e cla

ssro

oms

(3 c

lass

es p

er g

rade

) in

one

scho

ol p

artic

ipat

ed in

“En

ergi

zers

.”

Thes

e ar

e cl

assr

oom

-bas

ed p

hysic

al

activ

ities

that

last

appr

oxim

atel

y 10

m

inut

es, i

nteg

rate

gra

de-a

ppro

pria

te

lear

ning

mat

eria

ls, in

volve

no

equi

pmen

t, an

d re

quire

little

teac

her p

repa

ratio

n.

Trai

ning

: Bef

ore

the

study

, cla

ssro

om

teac

hers

atte

nded

a 4

5-m

inut

e tra

inin

g se

ssio

n w

here

they

wer

e ta

ught

how

to

lead

stu

dent

s th

roug

h En

ergi

zers

ac

tiviti

es. T

rain

ing

incl

uded

info

rmat

ion

abou

t the

chi

ldho

od o

besit

y ep

idem

ic.

Impl

emen

tatio

n: T

each

ers

wer

e ea

ch

aske

d to

lead

one

10

-min

ute

activ

ity

per d

ay fo

r 12

wee

ks.

Doe

s pa

rtic

ipat

ion

in E

nerg

izer

s in

crea

se

on-ta

sk b

ehav

ior

in s

choo

l (ba

sed

on

rese

arch

er o

bser

vatio

n)?

• O

n-ta

sk b

ehav

ior

(3rd

- and

4th

-gr

ade

stud

ents

) +

Doe

s pa

rtici

patio

n in

Ene

rgiz

ers

incr

ease

ph

ysic

al a

ctiv

ity in

sch

ool (

base

d on

pe

dom

eter

cou

nts)?

• Ph

ysic

al a

ctiv

ity

+


Stud

y Ci

tatio

n St

udy

Focu

s an

d Se

tting

Sa

mpl

e C

hara

cter

istic

s St

udy

Des

ign

and

Dat

a Co

llect

ion

Inte

rven

tion

Cond

ition

s Ke

y O

utco

mes

and

Res

ults

Mol

loy

GN

64

Che

mic

als,

ex

erci

se a

nd

hype

ract

ivity

: a

shor

t rep

ort.

Inte

rnat

iona

l Jo

urna

l of

Disa

bilit

y,

Dev

elop

men

t an

d Ed

ucat

ion

1989

;36(

1):5

7-61

Stud

y fo

cus:

C

lass

room

Des

crip

tion:

Ef

fect

of e

xerc

ise

on p

robl

em

solv

ing

and

atte

ntio

n in

no

rmal

and

hy

pera

ctiv

e st

uden

ts

Setti

ng: S

choo

l, cl

assr

oom

Coun

try:

A

ustra

lia

Sam

ple

1: Y

outh

N

: 32

Age

ran

ge: N

R M

ean

age:

NR

Gra

de: P

rimar

y G

ende

r: N

R Et

hnic

ity: N

R

Stud

y de

sign

: Qua

si-ex

perim

enta

l

Dat

a co

llect

ion

met

hod

and

time

poin

ts: P

aper

-pen

cil s

urve

y (a

chie

vem

ent t

est s

core

s) 1

tim

e (im

med

iate

ly fo

llow

ing

each

exe

rcis

e co

nditi

on: n

o ex

erci

se, 5

min

utes

of e

xerc

ise,

10

min

utes

of e

xerc

ise)

Obs

erva

tion

(on-

task

beh

avio

r) 1

tim

e (im

med

iate

ly fo

llow

ing

each

exe

rcis

e co

nditi

on: n

o ex

erci

se, 5

min

utes

of e

xerc

ise,

10

min

utes

of e

xerc

ise)

Stan

dard

ized

test

(hyp

erac

tivity

) 1

tim

e (b

efor

e st

udy)

Stru

ctur

e: C

hild

ren

enga

ged

in

3 le

vels

of a

erob

ic e

xerc

ise

at a

co

nsta

nt c

aden

ce: n

o ex

erci

se, 5

m

inut

es, o

r 10

min

utes

of e

xerc

ise.

Doe

s st

uden

t’s p

artic

ipat

ion

in 5

min

utes

of

aer

obic

exe

rcis

e im

prov

e ar

ithm

etic

pr

oble

m s

olvi

ng p

erfo

rman

ce?

• A

rithm

etic

per

form

ance

+

Doe

s st

uden

t’s p

artic

ipat

ion

in 1

0 m

inut

es

of a

erob

ic e

xerc

ise

impr

ove

arith

met

ic

prob

lem

sol

ving

per

form

ance

? •

Arit

hmet

ic p

erfo

rman

ce

0 H

ow d

oes

obse

rved

atte

ntio

n sp

an c

hang

e af

ter

aero

bic

exer

cise

? •

Atte

ntio

n 0

Nor

land

er T

, Moa

s L,

Arc

her T

60

Noi

se a

nd

stres

s in

prim

ary

and

seco

ndar

y sc

hool

chi

ldre

n:

noise

redu

ctio

n an

d in

crea

sed

conc

entra

tion

abili

ty th

roug

h a

shor

t but

regu

lar

exer

cise

and

re

laxa

tion

prog

ram

.

Scho

ol

Effe

ctiv

enes

s an

d Sc

hool

Im

prov

emen

t 20

05;1

6(1)

:91-

99

Stud

y fo

cus:

C

lass

room

Des

crip

tion:

Re

latio

nshi

ps

betw

een

nois

e, s

tress

, co

ncen

tratio

n,

and

exer

cise

Setti

ng: S

choo

l, cl

assr

oom

Coun

try:

Sw

eden

Sam

ple

1: Y

outh

N

: 84

Age

ran

g e: N

R M

ean

age:

11.

3 G

rade

: Cro

ss

leve

l (pr

imar

y an

d se

cond

ary

scho

ol)

Gen

der:

M

: 45.

5%

F: 5

4.5%

Et

hnic

ity: N

R

Sam

ple

2: S

choo

l pe

rson

nel

N: 7

M

ean

age:

42.

1 G

ende

r:

M: 2

8.6%

F:

71.

4%

Ethn

icity

: NR

Stud

y de

sign

: Qua

si-ex

perim

enta

l

Dat

a co

llect

ion

met

hod

and

time

poin

ts: M

easu

rem

ent d

evic

e (n

oise

leve

ls in

the

clas

sroo

m)

2 ti

mes

(bas

elin

e, 1

mon

th)

Pape

r-pen

cil s

urve

y (s

tude

nt

satis

fact

ion

with

exe

rcis

e an

d re

laxa

tion

prog

ram

, stre

ss le

vels)

2 ti

mes

(bas

elin

e, 1

mon

th)

Pape

r-pen

cil s

urve

y (te

ache

r pe

rcep

tion

of s

tude

nt

conc

entra

tion

and

stre

ss le

vels)

2

times

(bas

elin

e, 1

mon

th)

Stru

ctur

e: R

elax

atio

n/ex

erci

se

epis

odes

occ

urre

d tw

ice

daily

for

4 w

eeks

, im

med

iate

ly fo

llow

ing

the

mor

ning

bre

ak a

nd a

fter

the

lunc

h br

eak.

The

pro

gram

took

5

to 1

0 m

inut

es a

nd c

onsi

sted

of a

co

mbi

natio

n of

stre

tchi

ng e

xerc

ises

an

d re

laxa

tion

exer

cise

s.

Doe

s th

e in

terv

entio

n af

fect

stu

dent

abi

lity

to c

once

ntra

te (a

s re

port

ed b

y te

ache

rs)?

• Co

ncen

tratio

n +

Doe

s th

e in

terv

entio

n re

duce

cla

ssro

om

noise

leve

l (as

mea

sure

d by

rese

arch

sta

ff)?

• N

oise

leve

ls +

Doe

s th

e in

terv

entio

n af

fect

stu

dent

sel

f-re

port

ed s

tress

leve

l ?

• St

ress

leve

l 0


Stud

y Ci

tatio

n St

udy

Focu

s an

d Se

tting

Sa

mpl

e C

hara

cter

istic

s St

udy

Des

ign

and

Dat

a Co

llect

ion

Inte

rven

tion

Cond

ition

s Ke

y O

utco

mes

and

Res

ults

Uhr

ich

TA, S

wal

m

RL67

A p

ilot s

tudy

of

a po

ssib

le e

ffect

fro

m a

mot

or

task

on

read

ing

perfo

rman

ce.

Perc

eptu

al a

nd

Mot

or S

kills

20

07;1

04(3

Pt

1):1

035-

1041

Stud

y fo

cus:

C

lass

room

Des

crip

tion:

Influ

ence

of

“cup

sta

ckin

g”

and

read

ing

achi

evem

ent

Setti

ng: S

choo

l, cl

assr

oom

, ph

ysic

al

educ

atio

n

Coun

try:

USA

Sam

ple

1: Y

outh

N

: 41

Age

ran

ge: 1

0–11

M

ean

age:

NR

Gra

de: C

ross

leve

l (K

-8th

gra

de)

Gen

der:

M

: 56%

F:

44%

Et

hnic

ity:

Nat

ive

Am

eric

an: 1

%

Asi

an-A

mer

ican

: 2%

A

frica

n-A

mer

ican

: 20%

La

tin-A

mer

ican

: 3%

Eu

ro-A

mer

ican

: 74%

Stud

y de

sign

: Exp

erim

enta

l

Dat

a co

llect

ion

met

hod

and

time

poin

ts: S

tand

ardi

zed

tests

(mea

surin

g re

adin

g de

codi

ng a

nd

com

preh

ensi

on s

kills

usi

ng

Gat

es-M

acG

initi

e Re

adin

g Te

st 4

th E

ditio

n, G

MRT

-4)

2 tim

es (b

asel

ine,

6

wee

ks)

Inte

rvie

w (r

eadi

ng in

stru

ctio

n fid

elity

) 1

tim

e (c

oncl

usio

n of

in

terv

entio

n)

Stru

ctur

e: F

ive

1-ho

ur le

sson

s m

odifi

ed in

to 1

8 20

-min

ute

less

ons

with

3 le

sson

s pe

r w

eek

over

a

perio

d of

6 w

eeks

.

Impl

emen

tatio

n: E

ach

child

had

12

cups

to u

se d

urin

g th

e in

terv

entio

n tim

e. C

ontro

ls ha

d sn

ack

time

whi

le in

terv

entio

n gr

oup

“sta

cked

” (in

terv

entio

n gr

oup

had

a la

ter

snac

k tim

e).

Doe

s st

uden

t par

ticip

atio

n in

spo

rt s

tack

ing

impr

ove

child

ren’

s re

adin

g lit

erac

y sc

ores

on

the

GM

RT-4

sta

ndar

dize

d te

st?

• Re

adin

g de

codi

ng s

core

s •

Read

ing

com

preh

ensi

on

0 +


Appendix G: Extracurricular Physical Activity Summary Matrix


Extracurricular Physical Activity Studies Using Quasi Experimental or Experimental Design (Authors and Date Only)

Darling, N. 2005

Reynolds, D., Nicolson, R.I. 2007

Schumaker, J.F., Small, L., Wood, J. 1986



App

endi

x G

: Ext

racu

rric

ular

Phy

sica

l Act

ivity

Mat

rix‡‡

‡‡

Stud

y Ci

tatio

n St

udy

Focu

s an

d Se

tting

Sa

mpl

e C

hara

cter

istic

s St

udy

Des

ign

and

Dat

a Co

llect

ion

Inte

rven

tion

Cond

ition

s Ke

y O

utco

mes

and

Res

ults

Col

lingw

ood

TR, S

unde

rlin

J, Re

ynol

ds R

, Koh

l H

W 3

rd2

Phys

ical

trai

ning

as

a s

ubsta

nce

abus

e pr

even

tion

inte

rven

tion

for

yout

h.

Jour

nal o

f Dru

g Ed

ucat

ion

2000

; 30

(4):4

35-4

51

Stud

y fo

cus:

Ex

tracu

rric

ular

ph

ysic

al a

ctiv

ity

Des

crip

tion:

Fi

tnes

s as

a

risk

prev

entio

n in

terv

entio

n

Setti

ng: S

choo

l, co

mm

unity

Coun

try:

USA

Sam

ple

1: Y

outh

N

: 34

Mea

n ag

e: 1

5.5

Gra

de: S

econ

dary

(s

enio

r hi

gh

scho

ol)

Gen

der:

M

: 58.

8%

F: 4

1.2%

Et

hnic

ity:

Blac

k: 2

.9%

W

hite

: 97.

1%

Sam

ple

2: Y

outh

N

: 44

Mea

n ag

e: 1

2 G

rade

: Sec

onda

ry

(juni

or h

igh

scho

ol)

Gen

der:

M

: 53.

5%

F: 4

6.5%

Et

hnic

ity:

Blac

k: 1

5%

His

pani

c: 3

.1%

W

hite

: 80.

4%

Oth

er: 1

.5%

Stud

y de

sign

: Des

crip

tive

Dat

a co

llect

ion

met

hod

and

time

poin

ts: F

itnes

s te

st (p

hysi

cal

fitne

ss b

atte

ry)

2 ti

mes

(bas

elin

e, 3

mon

ths)

Pape

r-pen

cil s

urve

y (s

elf-r

epor

t of

phy

sica

l act

ivity

tim

es p

er

wee

k an

d ra

te h

ow c

ompa

res

to p

eers

, sel

f-rep

ort o

f sch

ool

func

tioni

ng a

nd g

rade

s, s

elf-

conc

ept,

scho

ol a

ttend

ance

, w

ell-b

eing

, chu

rch

parti

cipa

tion,

re

latio

nshi

p w

ith p

aren

ts,

frien

ds’ u

se o

f cig

aret

tes,

al

coho

l, an

d dr

ugs)

2 ti

mes

(bas

elin

e, 3

mon

ths)

Nam

e: F

irst C

hoic

e pr

ogra

m

Trai

ning

: Sta

ff w

ere

train

ed a

s Fi

tnes

s Le

ader

s in

a 4

0-h

our

cour

se

with

a w

ritte

n an

d pr

actic

um

certific

atio

n ex

am. C

onte

nt o

f the

sta

ff co

urse

focu

sed

on fi

tnes

s as

sess

men

t tec

hniq

ues,

goa

l set

ting

and

exer

cise

pre

scrip

tion,

exe

rcis

e le

ader

ship

, tea

chin

g sk

ills,

saf

ety,

and

fo

unda

tions

con

tent

.

Stru

ctur

e: P

rogr

am w

as im

plem

ente

d in

22

setti

ngs

acro

ss th

e sta

te

(incl

udin

g 1

juve

nile

cor

rect

iona

l fa

cilit

y, 6

dru

g tre

atm

ent f

acili

ties,

4

juni

or h

igh

scho

ols,

2 s

enio

r hi

gh

scho

ols,

and

9 n

eigh

borh

ood

or

com

mun

ity c

ente

rs).

This

eva

luat

ion

was

con

duct

ed in

6 s

ites

(1 h

igh

scho

ol, 2

juni

or h

igh

scho

ols,

and

3

com

mun

ity s

ites)

.

Met

hod:

The

re w

ere

24 d

iffer

ent

mod

ules

to te

ach

phys

ical

fitn

ess

as a

lif

e sk

ill, f

ocus

ing

on s

elf-a

sses

smen

t, go

al s

ettin

g, e

xerc

ise

and

nutri

tion

plan

ning

, and

sel

f-rew

ard

mot

ivat

ion

thro

ugh

exer

cise

cla

sses

, edu

catio

nal

mod

ules

, dis

cuss

ion

mod

ules

, an

d in

divi

dual

exe

rcis

e pr

ogra

m

mai

nten

ance

.

Wha

t wer

e th

e ef

fect

s of

the

Firs

t Cho

ice

fitne

ss p

rogr

am o

n pa

rtic

ipat

ing

yout

h ac

adem

ic o

utco

mes

and

ris

k fa

ctor

s?

Site

1

• G

rade

s (s

elf-r

epor

t) •

Scho

ol a

ttend

ance

•

Self-

conc

ept

Site

2

• G

rade

s (s

elf-r

epor

t) •

Scho

ol a

ttend

ance

•

Self-

conc

ept

Site

3

• G

rade

s (s

elf-r

epor

t) •

Scho

ol a

ttend

ance

•

Self-

conc

ept

Site

4

• G

rade

s (s

elf-r

epor

t) •

Scho

ol a

ttend

ance

•

Self-

conc

ept

Site

5

• G

rade

s (s

elf-r

epor

t) •

Scho

ol a

ttend

ance

•

Self-

conc

ept

Site

6

• G

rade

s (s

elf-r

epor

t) •

Scho

ol a

ttend

ance

•

Self-

conc

ept

0 0 + 0 0 + 0 0 + 0 0 + 0 0 + + + +

‡‡‡‡

Resu

lts a

re c

oded

as

follo

ws:

+ s

ignifie

s a

sign

ifica

nt p

ositi

ve o

utco

me;

0 s

ignifie

s no

sig

nific

ant o

utco

me;

– s

ignifie

s a

sign

ifica

nt n

egat

ive

outc

ome.

Mat

rices

may

not

in

clud

e al

l out

com

es d

escr

ibed

in th

e ar

ticle

; sha

ded

outc

omes

are

out

com

es o

f prim

ary

inte

rest

to (a

nd w

ere

incl

uded

in) t

his

revi

ew; a

dditi

onal

out

com

es re

porte

d he

re

may

be

of in

tere

st to

read

ers.

N

R=N

ot re

porte

d by

stu

dy a

utho

rs.

Indi

cate

s da

ta c

olle

ctio

n tim

e po

ints.

Stud

y Ci

tatio

n St

udy

Focu

s an

d Se

tting

Sa

mpl

e C

hara

cter

istic

s St

udy

Des

ign

and

Dat

a Co

llect

ion

Inte

rven

tion

Cond

ition

s Ke

y O

utco

mes

and

Res

ults

Sam

ple

3: Y

outh

N

: 33

Mea

n ag

e: 1

0.9

Gra

de: S

econ

dary

(ju

nior

hig

h sc

hool

) G

ende

r:

M: 6

0%

F: 4

0%

Ethn

icity

: H

ispa

nic:

6%

W

hite

: 94%

Sam

ple

4: Y

outh

N

: 22

Age

ran

ge: N

R M

ean

age:

11.

4 G

rade

: NR

(Nat

iona

l G

uard

com

mun

ity s

ite)

Gen

der:

M

: 50%

F:

50%

Et

hnic

ity:

Blac

k: 6

8%

His

pani

c: 3

2%

Sam

ple

5: Y

outh

N

: 40

Mea

n ag

e: 1

1.9

Gra

de: N

R (N

atio

nal

Gua

rd c

omm

unity

site

) G

ende

r:

M: 4

7.5%

F:

52.

5%

Sam

ple

6: Y

outh

N

: 156

M

ean

age:

11.

1 G

rade

: NR

(Nat

iona

l G

uard

com

mun

ity s

ite)

Gen

der:

M

: 60.

8%

F: 3

9.2%

Et

hnic

ity:

Blac

k: 7

6.2%

H

ispa

nic:

3.8

%

Whi

te: 1

9.8%

Wha

t wer

e th

e ef

fect

s of

the

Firs

t Cho

ice

fitne

ss p

rogr

am o

n pa

rtici

patin

g yo

uth

activ

ity le

vels ?

l

Site

1

• A

ctiv

ity le

vel

Site

2

• A

ctiv

ity le

vel

Site

3

• A

ctiv

ity le

vel

Site

4

• A

ctiv

ity le

vel

Site

5

• A

ctiv

ity le

vel

Site

6

• A

ctiv

ity le

vel

0 0 0 0 0 + l In

add

ition

to a

ctiv

ity le

vel,

othe

r fitn

ess

mea

sure

s in

clud

ed 1

-mile

run

times

, sit

and

reac

h, s

it-up

s,

push

-ups

, bod

y fa

t, an

d w

ell-b

eing

.


Stud

y Ci

tatio

n St

udy

Focu

s an

d Se

tting

Sa

mpl

e Ch

arac

teri

stic

s St

udy

Des

ign

and

Dat

a Co

llect

ion

Inte

rven

tion

Cond

ition

s Ke

y O

utco

mes

and

Res

ults

Cro

snoe

R69

Aca

dem

ic a

nd

heal

th-re

late

d tra

ject

orie

s in

ad

oles

cenc

e:

The

inte

rsec

tion

of g

ende

r and

at

hlet

ics.

Jour

nal o

f Hea

lth

and

Soci

al

Beha

vior

200

2;

43(3

):317

-335

Stud

y fo

cus:

Ex

tracu

rric

ular

ph

ysic

al a

ctiv

ity

Des

crip

tion:

Th

e re

latio

nshi

p of

gen

der

and

athl

etic

s to

ac

adem

ic a

nd

heal

th-re

late

d tra

ject

orie

s in

ad

oles

cenc

e.

Setti

ng: S

choo

l

Coun

try:

USA

Sam

ple

1: S

choo

l N

: 9

Gra

de: S

econ

dary

(hig

h sc

hool

)

Sam

ple

2: Y

outh

N

: 2,6

51

Age

ran

ge: N

R M

ean

age:

NR

Gra

de: S

econ

dary

(hig

h sc

hool

) G

ende

r: N

R Et

hnic

ity:

Ethn

ic m

inor

ity: 4

0%

Not

spe

cifie

d: 6

0%

Stud

y de

sign

: Des

crip

tive,

se

cond

ary

data

ana

lysi

s (s

ee S

tein

berg

et a

l, 19

96)

Dat

a co

llect

ion

met

hod

and

time

poin

ts: P

aper

-pe

ncil

surv

ey (s

elf-

repo

rted

grad

es,

subs

tanc

e us

e, a

thle

tic

parti

cipa

tion)

6 ti

mes

[2

que

stion

naire

s an

swer

ed

per

year

ove

r a

3-ye

ar

perio

d (1

987–

1990

)]

Pape

r-pen

cil s

urve

y (fr

iend

s’ b

ehav

ior,

dem

ogra

phic

s) 1

tim

e

No

inte

rven

tion

Do

mal

e an

d fe

mal

e hi

gh s

choo

l stu

dent

at

hlet

es’ a

cade

mic

traj

ecto

ries

(bas

ed o

n se

lf-re

port

ed g

rade

s) im

prov

e m

ore

than

m

ale

nona

thle

tes?

St

art o

f hig

h sc

hool

: •

Mal

e at

hlet

es

• Fe

mal

e at

hlet

es

Ove

r 3

year

s:

• M

ale

athl

etes

•

Fem

ale

athl

etes

+ + + + D

o ge

nder

and

ath

lete

sta

tus

affe

ct

subs

tanc

e us

e at

the

start

of h

igh

scho

ol?

• To

bacc

o, a

lcoh

ol, o

r dru

g us

e 0

Are

gen

der

and

athl

ete

stat

us r

elat

ed to

th

e tra

ject

ory

of s

ubst

ance

use?

• To

bacc

o us

e •

Alc

ohol

use

(mal

es, f

emal

e at

hlet

es)

• Ill

egal

dru

g us

e

0 – 0

Dar

ling

N,

Cal

dwel

l LL,

Sm

ith R

79

Parti

cipa

tion

in

scho

ol-b

ased

ex

tracu

rricu

lar

activ

ities

and

ad

oles

cent

ad

justm

ent.

Jour

nal o

f Lei

sure

Re

sear

ch 2

005;

37

(1):5

1-76

Stud

y fo

cus:

Ex

tracu

rric

ular

ph

ysic

al a

ctiv

ity

Des

crip

tion:

Th

e re

latio

nshi

p be

twee

n sc

hool

-rela

ted

extra

curr

icul

ar

activ

ities

and

ac

adem

ic

adju

stm

ent

Setti

ng: S

choo

l, af

ter

scho

ol

Coun

try:

USA

Sam

ple

1: Y

outh

N

: 4,2

64

Gra

de: S

econ

dary

(9th

–12t

h gr

ades

) G

ende

r:

M: 4

7.9%

F:

52.

1%

Ethn

icity

: A

sian

: 21.

3%

Blac

k: 4

.6%

H

ispa

nic:

13.

6%

Whi

te: 6

0.5%

Sam

ple

2 (a

sub

set o

f sam

ple

1 w

ho p

artic

ipat

ed in

long

itudi

nal

data

col

lect

ion)

: You

th

N: 2

,462

G

rade

: Sec

onda

ry (9

th–1

2th

grad

es)

Gen

der:

M

: 48%

F:

52%

Et

hnic

ity:

Asi

an: 2

1.2%

Bl

ack:

4.4

%

His

pani

c: 1

3.1%

W

hite

: 61.

3%

Stud

y de

sign

: Des

crip

tive,

se

cond

ary

anal

ysis

of a

n ex

istin

g da

tase

t

Dat

a co

llect

ion

met

hod

and

time

poin

ts:

Pape

r-pen

cil s

urve

y (p

artic

ipat

ion

in

extra

curr

icul

ar a

ctiv

ity

and

type

of a

ctiv

ity,

frien

ds’ p

artic

ipat

ion

in

extra

curr

icul

ar a

ctiv

ities

, at

titud

e to

war

ds s

choo

l, ac

adem

ic a

spira

tions

, se

lf-re

ports

on

last

term

gr

ades

) 2

times

for

Sam

ple

1 (b

asel

ine,

12

mon

ths)

1

time

for

Sam

ple

2 (1

2 m

onth

s)

No

inte

rven

tion

Is p

artic

ipat

ion

in s

choo

l-bas

ed

extra

curr

icul

ar a

ctiv

ities

(spo

rt a

nd

nons

port

) ass

ocia

ted

with

indi

cato

rs o

f ad

oles

cent

adj

ustm

ent (

afte

r ad

just

men

t for

de

mog

raph

ics)

?m

• H

ighe

r se

lf-re

port

ed g

rade

s •

Hig

her

acad

emic

asp

iratio

ns

• Po

sitiv

e ac

adem

ic a

ttitu

des

+ + + mN

o si

gnifi

cant

diff

eren

ces

by g

ende

r or

oth

er

dem

ogra

phic

cha

ract

eris

tics

in fi

nal a

naly

ses.

Pa

rtici

pant

s in

spo

rts a

ctiv

ities

had

mor

e po

sitiv

e ad

justm

ent t

han

nonp

artic

ipan

ts in

ext

racu

rricu

lar

activ

ities

, but

low

er p

ositi

ve a

djus

tmen

t tha

n no

nspo

rts e

xtra

curri

cula

r ac

tivity

par

ticip

ants.

Do

yout

h w

ho h

ave

frien

ds w

ho

parti

cipa

te in

ext

racu

rric

ular

act

iviti

es

have

hig

her

indi

cato

rs o

f ado

lesc

ent

adju

stm

ent ?

• H

ighe

r sel

f-rep

orte

d gr

ades

•

Hig

her a

cade

mic

asp

iratio

ns

• Po

sitiv

e ac

adem

ic a

ttitu

des

+ + +


Stud

y Ci

tatio

n St

udy

Focu

s an

d Se

tting

Sa

mpl

e C

hara

cter

istic

s St

udy

Des

ign

and

Dat

a Co

llect

ion

Inte

rven

tion

Cond

ition

s Ke

y O

utco

mes

and

Res

ults

Dar

ling

N78

Parti

cipa

tion

in

extra

curri

cula

r ac

tiviti

es a

nd

adol

esce

nt

adju

stmen

t: C

ross

sec

tiona

l an

d lo

ngitu

dina

l fin

ding

s.

Jour

nal o

f You

th

and

Ado

lesc

ence

20

05; 3

4(5)

:493

-50

5

Stud

y fo

cus:

Ex

tracu

rric

ular

ph

ysic

al a

ctiv

ity

Des

crip

tion:

Th

e re

latio

nshi

p be

twee

n sc

hool

-rela

ted

extra

curr

icul

ar

activ

ities

and

ac

adem

ic

adju

stm

ent

Setti

ng: S

choo

l, af

ter

scho

ol

Coun

try:

USA

Sam

ple

1: S

choo

l N

: 6

Gra

de: S

econ

dary

(9

th–1

2th

grad

es)

Sam

ple

2 (c

ross

-sec

tiona

l an

alys

es):

Yout

h N

: 3,7

61

Gra

de: S

econ

dary

(9

th–1

2th

grad

es)

Gen

der:

M

: 47%

F:

53%

Et

hnic

ity:

Asi

an: 1

8.7%

Bl

ack:

4.5

%

His

pani

c: 1

3.8%

W

hite

: 64.

0%

Sam

ple

3 (lo

ngitu

dina

l an

alys

es):

Yout

h N

: 3,4

27

Gra

de: S

econ

dary

(9

th–1

1th

grad

es)

Stud

y de

sign

: Qua

si-e

xper

imen

tal

(cro

ss-se

ctio

nal a

nd lo

ngitu

dina

l an

alys

es)

Dat

a co

llect

ion

met

hod

and

time

poin

ts: P

aper

-pen

cil s

urve

y [s

elf-r

epor

ted

grad

es, a

ttitu

de

tow

ards

sch

ool,

acad

emic

as

pira

tions

, dem

ogra

phic

s,

enga

gem

ent i

n cl

asse

s,

parti

cipa

tion

in e

xtra

curr

icul

ar

activ

ity a

t sch

ool d

urin

g cu

rrent

yea

r, tim

e sp

ent i

n ex

tracu

rric

ular

act

iviti

es (e

.g.,

inte

rsch

olas

tic a

nd in

tram

ural

sp

orts,

per

form

ing

grou

ps,

lead

ersh

ip g

roup

s), a

nd c

lubs

, fa

mily

rela

tions

hips

, par

entin

g be

havi

or, p

eer

rela

tions

hip,

de

vian

ce, l

ife e

vent

stre

ss,

depr

essi

ve s

ympt

oms,

sub

stan

ce

use] 3

tim

es (1

987–

1990

)

No

inte

rven

tion

Is p

artic

ipat

ion

in s

choo

l-bas

ed

extra

curr

icul

ar a

ctiv

ities

ass

ocia

ted

with

in

dica

tors

of a

dole

scen

t adj

ustm

ent (

afte

r ad

just

men

t for

dem

ogra

phic

s) in

yea

r 1

of

stud

y?n

• H

ighe

r se

lf-re

port

ed g

rade

s •

Hig

her

acad

emic

asp

iratio

ns

• Po

sitiv

e ac

adem

ic a

ttitu

des

• Le

ss d

epre

ssio

n

+ + + 0 n A

dditi

onal

ana

lyse

s w

ere

cond

ucte

d an

d in

no

case

did

ent

erin

g tim

e co

mm

itmen

t cha

nge

the

asso

ciat

ion

betw

een

parti

cipa

tion

and

outc

omes

. M

ore

time

spen

t on

extra

curri

cula

r ac

tiviti

es w

as

asso

ciat

ed w

ith h

ighe

r gr

ades

and

aca

dem

ic

aspi

ratio

ns.

Is p

artic

ipat

ion

in s

choo

l-bas

ed

extra

curr

icul

ar a

ctiv

ities

ass

ocia

ted

with

in

dica

tors

of a

dole

scen

t adj

ustm

ent (

afte

r ad

just

men

t for

dem

ogra

phic

s) a

cros

s m

utip

le y

ears

of s

tudy

?o

• H

ighe

r se

lf-re

port

ed g

rade

s •

Hig

her

acad

emic

asp

iratio

ns

• Po

sitiv

e ac

adem

ic a

ttitu

des

• Le

ss d

epre

ssio

n

+ + + 0 o A

dditi

onal

ana

lyse

s w

ere

cond

ucte

d an

d m

ore

year

s of

par

ticip

atio

n w

ere

asso

ciat

ed w

ith h

ighe

r gr

ades

, a m

ore

posit

ive

attit

ude

tow

ard

scho

ol,

and

high

er a

cade

mic

asp

iratio

ns.

Is pa

rtici

patio

n in

sch

ool-b

ased

ex

tracu

rricu

lar a

ctiv

ities

ass

ocia

ted

with

in

dica

tors

of a

dole

scen

t adj

ustm

ent (

afte

r ad

justm

ent f

or d

emog

raph

ics)

acro

ss m

utip

le

year

s of

stu

dy?

• Le

ss d

rinki

ng

• Le

ss s

mok

ing

• Le

ss m

ariju

ana

use

• Le

ss o

ther

dru

g us

e

0 + + +


Stud

y Ci

tatio

n St

udy

Focu

s an

d Se

tting

Sa

mpl

e C

hara

cter

istic

s St

udy

Des

ign

and

Dat

a Co

llect

ion

Inte

rven

tion

Cond

ition

s Ke

y O

utco

mes

and

Res

ults

Fred

ricks

JA, E

ccle

s JS

76

Parti

cipa

tion

in

extra

curri

cula

r ac

tiviti

es in

m

iddl

e sc

hool

ye

ars:

Are

ther

e de

velo

pmen

tal

benefit

s fo

r A

frica

n A

mer

ican

an

d Eu

rope

an

Am

eric

an y

outh?

Jour

nal o

f You

th

and

Ado

lesc

ence

20

08;3

7:10

29-

1043

Stud

y fo

cus:

Ex

tracu

rric

ular

ph

ysic

al a

ctiv

ity

Des

crip

tion:

Ex

tracu

rric

ular

ac

tiviti

es a

nd

acad

emic

ac

hiev

emen

t

Setti

ng:

Hou

seho

ld

Coun

try:

USA

Sam

ple

1: Y

outh

N

: 1,0

47

Age

ran

ge: N

R M

ean

age:

12.

27

Gra

de: S

econ

dary

(7

th, 8

th, 1

1th

grad

es)

Gen

der:

M

: 49%

F:

51%

Et

hnic

ity:

Blac

k: 6

7%

Whi

te: 3

3%

Stud

y de

sign

: Des

crip

tive,

se

cond

ary

anal

ysis

of d

ata

from

the

Mar

ylan

d A

dole

scen

t D

evel

opm

ent i

n C

onte

xt S

tudy

(M

AD

ICS)

Dat

a co

llect

ion

met

hod

and

time

poin

ts: P

aper

-pen

cil s

urve

y an

d fa

ce-to

-face

inte

rvie

w [s

elf-

repo

rted

grad

es, s

choo

l val

ue,

parti

cipa

tion

in s

choo

l act

iviti

es

(e.g

., cl

ubs,

stu

dent

gov

ernm

ent,

athl

etic

or

spor

ts te

ams

at

scho

ol, a

nd p

artic

ipat

ion

in S

umm

er o

r af

ter-s

choo

l re

crea

tiona

l pro

gram

s), s

elf-

este

em, p

sych

olog

ical

resi

lienc

y,

depr

essi

on, p

roso

cial

pee

rs,

risky

beh

avio

rs, r

ace,

and

ge

nder

] 3

times

(7th

, 8th

, and

11t

h gr

ades

)

No

inte

rven

tion

Did

par

ticip

atio

n in

7th

-gra

de s

choo

l spo

rts

impr

ove

acad

emic

out

com

es a

t 8th

gra

de?

• Se

lf-re

port

ed G

PA

• Sc

hool

val

ue

• Se

lf-es

teem

•

Resi

lienc

y •

Dep

ress

ion

0 – 0 0 0

Did

par

ticip

atio

n in

7th

-gra

de s

choo

l spo

rts

impr

ove

acad

emic

out

com

es a

t 11t

h gr

ade?

• Se

lf-re

port

ed G

PA

• Sc

hool

val

ue

• Se

lf-es

teem

•

Resi

lienc

y •

Dep

ress

ion

0 – 0 + 0 A

dditi

onal

ana

lyse

s sh

owed

a s

ignific

ant e

ffect

in

8th

gra

de fo

r ra

ce o

n re

silie

ncy

and

SES

on

depr

essi

on; n

o si

gnifi

cant

res

ults

by

gend

er.

Did

par

ticip

atio

n in

7th

-gra

de o

ut-o

f-sch

ool

recr

eatio

n im

prov

e ac

adem

ic o

utco

mes

at

8th

grad

e?

• Se

lf-re

port

ed G

PA

• Sc

hool

val

ue

• Se

lf-es

teem

•

Resi

lienc

y •

Dep

ress

ion

0 0 0 + 0

Did

par

ticip

atio

n in

7th

-gra

de o

ut-o

f-sch

ool

recr

eatio

n im

prov

e ac

adem

ic o

utco

mes

at

11th

gra

de?

• Se

lf-re

port

ed G

PA

• Sc

hool

val

ue

• Se

lf-es

teem

•

Resi

lienc

y •

Dep

ress

ion

0 0 + 0 0

Add

ition

al a

naly

ses

show

ed n

o si

gnifi

cant

ef

fect

s in

8th

or

11th

gra

des

for

gend

er,

race

, or

SES

.

Did

par

ticip

atio

n in

7th

-gra

de s

choo

l clu

bs

impr

ove

acad

emic

out

com

es a

t 8th

gra

de?


Stud

y Ci

tatio

n St

udy

Focu

s an

d Se

tting

Sa

mpl

e C

hara

cter

istic

s St

udy

Des

ign

and

Dat

a Co

llect

ion

Inte

rven

tion

Cond

ition

s Ke

y O

utco

mes

and

Res

ults

• Se

lf-re

porte

d G

PA

• Sc

hool

val

ue

• Se

lf-es

teem

•

Resi

lienc

y •

Dep

ress

ion

+ + 0 + 0 D

id p

artic

ipat

ion

in 7

th-g

rade

sch

ool

club

s im

prov

e ac

adem

ic o

utco

mes

at

11th

gra

de?

• Se

lf-re

porte

d G

PA

• Sc

hool

val

ue

• Se

lf-es

teem

•

Resi

lienc

y •

Dep

ress

ion

+ 0 0 + 0 A

dditi

onal

ana

lyse

s sh

owed

a s

ignific

ant e

ffect

in

11t

h gr

ade

for

race

on

GPA

and

for

gend

er

on s

choo

l val

ue.

Fred

ricks

JA,

Eccl

es JS

70

Is ex

tracu

rricu

lar

Stud

y fo

cus:

Ex

tracu

rric

ular

ph

ysic

al a

ctiv

ity

Sam

ple

1: Y

outh

N

: 1,0

75

Age

ran

ge: N

R M

ean

age:

NR

Stud

y de

sign

: Des

crip

tive,

se

cond

ary

anal

ysis

of d

ata

from

the

Mar

ylan

d A

dole

scen

t D

evel

opm

ent i

n C

onte

xt S

tudy

No

inte

rven

tion

Did

par

ticip

atio

n in

hig

h sc

hool

spo

rts

impr

ove

acad

emic

per

form

ance

out

com

es

at 1

1th

grad

e?

• Se

lf-re

port

ed G

PA

+ pa

rtici

patio

n D

escr

iptio

n:

Gra

de: S

econ

dary

(M

AD

ICS)

•

Educ

atio

nal e

xpec

tatio

ns

+ as

soci

ated

Ex

tracu

rric

ular

(8

th g

rade

–pos

t •

Self-

este

em

+ w

ith b

enefi

cial

ac

tiviti

es a

nd

high

sch

ool)

Dat

a co

llect

ion

met

hod

and

time

• D

epre

ssio

n +

outc

omes?:

ac

adem

ic

Gen

der:

po

ints

: Com

bina

tion

met

hods

•

Inte

rnal

izin

g be

havi

or

+ C

oncu

rrent

and

lo

ngitu

dina

l re

latio

ns.

Dev

elop

men

tal

Psyc

holo

gy 2

006;

42

(4):6

98-7

13

achi

evem

ent

Setti

ng:

Hou

seho

ld

Coun

try:

USA

M: 4

9%

F: 5

1%

Ethn

icity

: Bl

ack:

67%

W

hite

: 33%

(par

ticip

atio

n in

clu

bs, s

ports

or

pros

ocia

l act

iviti

es)

3 tim

es (b

asel

ine,

3 y

ears

, an

d 5

year

s—8t

h gr

ade,

11t

h gr

ade,

and

1 y

ear

out o

f hig

h sc

hool

)

Pape

r-pen

cil s

urve

y (s

elf-r

epor

ted

grad

es)

2 ti

mes

(bas

elin

e an

d 3

year

s at

8th

gra

de a

nd 1

1th

grad

e)

Pape

r-pen

cil s

urve

y (d

epre

ssio

n an

d ps

ycho

logi

cal

heal

th, e

duca

tiona

l exp

ecta

tions

, al

coho

l and

dru

g us

e, c

ivic

en

gage

men

t) 3

(bas

elin

e, 3

yea

rs, a

nd 5

ye

ars

at 8

th g

rade

, 11t

h gr

ade,

an

d 1

year

out

of h

igh

scho

ol)

• Ex

tern

aliz

ing

beha

vior

+

Did

par

ticip

atio

n in

hig

h sc

hool

spo

rts

impr

ove

acad

emic

per

form

ance

out

com

es

1 ye

ar o

ut o

f hig

h sc

hool

(con

trolli

ng

for

dem

ogra

phic

s, m

otiv

atio

ns, a

nd

educ

atio

nal e

xpec

tatio

ns)?

•

Scho

ol c

ompl

etio

n •

Self-

este

em

• D

epre

ssio

n

+ 0 0 A

dditi

onal

ana

lyse

s sh

owed

no

sign

ifica

nt r

esul

ts

by g

ende

r, ra

ce, o

r in

com

e fo

r th

ese

outc

omes

.


Stud

y Ci

tatio

n St

udy

Focu

s an

d Se

tting

Sa

mpl

e C

hara

cter

istic

s St

udy

Des

ign

and

Dat

a Co

llect

ion

Inte

rven

tion

Cond

ition

s Ke

y O

utco

mes

and

Res

ults

Har

rison

PA

, N

aray

an G

80

Diff

eren

ces

in b

ehav

ior,

psyc

holo

gica

l fa

ctor

s, a

nd

envi

ronm

enta

l fa

ctor

s as

soci

ated

w

ith p

artic

ipat

ion

in s

choo

l spo

rts

and

othe

r act

iviti

es

in a

dole

scen

ce.

Jour

nal o

f Sc

hool

Hea

lth

2003

;73(

3):1

13-

120

Stud

y fo

cus:

Ex

tracu

rric

ular

ph

ysic

al a

ctiv

ity

Des

crip

tion:

Pa

rtici

patio

n in

sc

hool

spo

rts

team

s, h

ealth

be

havi

or,

psyc

holo

gica

l fa

ctor

s,

envi

ronm

enta

l fa

ctor

s, a

nd

extra

curr

icul

ar

activ

ities

Setti

ng: S

choo

l

Coun

try:

USA

Sam

ple

1: Y

outh

N

: 50,

168

Age

ran

ge: N

R M

ean

age:

NR

Gra

de: S

econ

dary

(9

th g

rade

) G

ende

r:

M: 4

9.3%

F:

50.

7%

Ethn

icity

: A

mer

ican

In

dian

: 1%

A

sian

: 5%

Bl

ack:

3%

H

ispa

nic:

2%

W

hite

: 82%

U

nkno

wn:

3%

Bi

raci

al o

r m

ultir

acia

l: 4%

Stud

y de

sign

: Des

crip

tive,

se

cond

ary

anal

ysis

of d

ata

from

th

e 9t

h-gr

ade

Min

neso

ta S

tude

nt

Surv

ey

Dat

a co

llect

ion

met

hod

and

time

poin

ts: P

aper

-pen

cil s

urve

y [s

elf-r

epor

t of s

ubsta

nce

use,

an

tisoc

ial b

ehav

ior,

sexu

al

activ

ity, p

artic

ipat

ion

in s

choo

l sp

orts

team

s or

oth

er a

ctiv

ities

(e

.g.,

band

, cho

ir, v

olun

teer

w

ork,

clu

bs o

r or

gani

zatio

ns

outsi

de o

f sch

ool,

etc.

), ex

erci

se,

fruit/

vege

tabl

e co

nsum

ptio

n,

milk

con

sum

ptio

n, s

elf-e

steem

, em

otio

nal d

istre

ss, h

ealth

y w

eigh

t per

cept

ion,

sui

cida

l be

havi

or, f

amily

alc

ohol

/ pr

oble

ms,

vic

tim o

f phy

sica

l/

sexu

al a

buse

, orie

ntat

ion

to s

choo

l, 2-

pare

nt fa

mily

, pe

rcep

tions

of o

ther

s]

1 tim

e (2

001)

No

inte

rven

tion

Do

stud

ents

who

par

ticip

ate

in s

port

s on

ly o

r sp

orts

and

oth

er a

ctiv

ities

hav

e si

gnifi

cant

ly h

ighe

r od

ds o

f stu

dyin

g/

doin

g ho

mew

ork

and

atte

ndin

g cl

ass

than

st

uden

ts w

ho p

artic

ipat

e in

nei

ther

spo

rts

nor

activ

ities

? •

Doi

ng h

omew

ork

(spo

rts

only

)p

• D

oing

hom

ewor

k (s

port

s an

d ac

tiviti

es)

• Re

duce

d tr

uanc

y (s

port

s on

ly)

• Re

duce

d tr

uanc

y (s

port

s an

d ac

tiviti

es)

+ + + +

p Whe

n th

e sp

orts

-onl

y gr

oup

was

com

pare

d to

the

activ

ities

-onl

y gr

oup,

the

activ

ities

-onl

y gr

oup

was

sig

nific

antly

mor

e lik

ely

to s

pend

tim

e on

hom

ewor

k.

Do

stud

ents

who

par

ticip

ate

in s

port

s on

ly o

r sp

orts

and

oth

er a

ctiv

ities

hav

e si

gnifi

cant

ly h

ighe

r od

ds fo

r sc

hool

-rel

ated

ps

ycho

logi

cal a

nd e

nviro

nmen

tal o

utco

mes

th

an s

tude

nts

who

par

ticip

ate

in n

eith

er

spor

ts n

or a

ctiv

ities

? •

Liki

ng s

choo

l (sp

orts

onl

y)q

• Li

king

sch

ool (

spor

ts a

nd a

ctiv

ities

) •

Usu

ally

feel

s go

od a

bout

sel

f (s

port

s on

ly)

• U

sual

ly fe

els

good

abo

ut s

elf

(spo

rts

and

activ

ities

) •

Belie

ve te

ache

rs c

are

a gr

eat d

eal

abou

t the

m (s

port

s on

ly)

• Be

lieve

teac

hers

car

e a

grea

t dea

l ab

out t

hem

(spo

rts

and

activ

ities

)

+ + + + + +

q Whe

n th

e sp

orts

-onl

y gr

oup

was

com

pare

d to

the

activ

ities

-onl

y gr

oup,

the

activ

ities

-onl

y gr

oup

was

sig

nific

antly

mor

e lik

ely

to r

epor

t lik

ing

scho

ol.

Do

stude

nts

who

par

ticip

ate

in s

ports

onl

y or

sp

orts

and

othe

r act

iviti

es h

ave

signific

antly

hi

gher

odd

s of

mee

ting

guid

elin

es fo

r m

oder

ate

or v

igor

ous

exer

cise

than

stu

dent

s w

ho p

artic

ipat

e in

nei

ther

spor

ts no

r ac

tiviti

es?

• Ex

erci

se g

uide

lines

(spo

rts o

nly)

•

Exer

cise

gui

delin

es (s

ports

and

ac

tiviti

es)

+ +


Stud

y Ci

tatio

n St

udy

Focu

s an

d Se

tting

Sa

mpl

e C

hara

cter

istic

s St

udy

Des

ign

and

Dat

a Co

llect

ion

Inte

rven

tion

Cond

ition

s Ke

y O

utco

mes

and

Res

ults

Haw

kins

R, M

ulke

y LM

71

Ath

letic

inve

stmen

t an

d ac

adem

ic

resi

lienc

e in

a

natio

nal s

ampl

e of

A

frica

n A

mer

ican

fe

mal

es a

nd m

ales

in

the

mid

dle

grad

es.

Educ

atio

n an

d U

rban

Soc

iety

20

05;3

8(1)

:62-

88

Stud

y fo

cus:

Ex

tracu

rric

ular

ph

ysic

al a

ctiv

ity

Des

crip

tion:

A

thle

tic

inve

stm

ent

and

acad

emic

re

silie

nce

Setti

ng: S

choo

l

Coun

try:

USA

Sam

ple

1: S

choo

l N

: 1,0

52

Gra

de: S

econ

dary

(8

th g

rade

)

Sam

ple

2: Y

outh

N

: 2,2

17

Age

ran

ge:

13–1

6 M

ean

age:

NR

Gra

de: S

econ

dary

(8

th g

rade

) G

ende

r:

M: 4

9.8%

F:

50.

2%

Ethn

icity

: NR

Stud

y de

sign

: Des

crip

tive,

se

cond

ary

anal

ysis

of b

ase

year

dat

a fro

m th

e N

atio

nal

Educ

atio

nal L

ongi

tudi

nal S

tudy

of

198

8 (N

ELS8

8)

Dat

a co

llect

ion

met

hod

and

time

poin

ts: P

aper

-pen

cil s

urve

y (s

tude

nt s

elf-r

epor

ted

leve

l of

parti

cipa

tion

in in

ters

chol

astic

an

d in

tram

ural

spo

rts; p

lans

to

enro

ll in

hig

h sc

hool

aca

dem

ic

or c

olle

ge p

repa

rato

ry tr

ack,

gr

adua

te h

igh

scho

ol, o

r at

tend

co

llege

; rep

ort o

f how

pop

ular

or

impo

rtant

they

are

vie

wed

to

be

amon

g sc

hool

mat

es,

stude

nt re

port

of b

ehav

ior

or a

cade

mic

refe

rral

s, s

elf-

repo

rted

abse

ntee

ism

, tar

dine

ss,

clas

s pr

epar

edne

ss, s

choo

l an

ticip

atio

n)

1 tim

e (F

ebru

ary

to Ju

ne,

1988

)

No

inte

rven

tion

Doe

s pa

rtic

ipat

ing

in in

ters

chol

astic

spo

rts

impr

ove

educ

atio

nal p

lans

, pee

r st

atus

, and

aca

dem

ic

inve

stm

ents

?

• A

cade

mic

abi

lity

(teac

her

ratin

g of

mal

es)

• A

cade

mic

abi

lity

(teac

her

ratin

g of

fem

ales

) •

Enro

ll in

aca

dem

ic tr

ack

(mal

es)

• En

roll

in a

cade

mic

trac

k (fe

mal

es)

• G

radu

ate

from

hig

h sc

hool

(mal

es)

• G

radu

ate

from

hig

h sc

hool

(fem

ales

) •

Atte

nd c

olle

ge (m

ales

) •

Atte

nd c

olle

ge (f

emal

es)

• So

cial

mis

cond

uct (

mal

es)

• So

cial

mis

cond

uct (

fem

ales

) •

Atte

ndan

ce p

robl

ems

(mal

es)

• A

ttend

ance

pro

blem

s (fe

mal

es)

• A

cade

mic

unp

repa

redn

ess

(mal

es)

• A

cade

mic

unp

repa

redn

ess

(fem

ales

) •

Inte

rest

in c

lass

es (m

ales

) •

Inte

rest

in c

lass

es (f

emal

es)

0 0 + 0 0 + + 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 + +

Doe

s pa

rtic

ipat

ing

in in

tram

ural

spo

rts

impr

ove

educ

atio

nal p

lans

, pee

r st

atus

, and

aca

dem

ic

inve

stm

ents

?

• A

cade

mic

abi

lity

(teac

her

ratin

g of

mal

es)

+ Pa

per-p

enci

l sur

vey

• A

cade

mic

abi

lity

(teac

her

ratin

g of

fem

ales

) 0

(teac

her

ratin

gs o

f stu

dent

•

Enro

ll in

aca

dem

ic tr

ack

(mal

es)

+ pe

rform

ance

/abi

lity)

•

Enro

ll in

aca

dem

ic tr

ack

(fem

ales

) 0

1 tim

e (F

ebru

ary

to Ju

ne,

• G

radu

ate

from

hig

h sc

hool

(mal

es)

0 19

88)

• G

radu

ate

from

hig

h sc

hool

(fem

ales

) 0

• A

ttend

col

lege

(mal

es)

+ •

Atte

nd c

olle

ge (f

emal

es)

0 •

Soci

al m

isco

nduc

t (m

ales

) 0

• So

cial

mis

cond

uct (

fem

ales

) 0

• A

ttend

ance

pro

blem

s (m

ales

) 0

• A

ttend

ance

pro

blem

s (fe

mal

es)

0 •

Aca

dem

ic u

npre

pare

dnes

s (m

ales

) 0

• A

cade

mic

unp

repa

redn

ess

(fem

ales

) 0

• In

tere

st in

cla

sses

(mal

es)

+ •

Inte

rest

in c

lass

es (f

emal

es)

0


Stud

y Ci

tatio

n St

udy

Focu

s an

d Se

tting

Sa

mpl

e C

hara

cter

istic

s St

udy

Des

ign

and

Dat

a Co

llect

ion

Inte

rven

tion

Cond

ition

s Ke

y O

utco

mes

and

Res

ults

McN

eal,

RB77

Extra

curri

cula

r ac

tiviti

es a

nd h

igh

scho

l dro

pout

s

Soci

olog

y of

Ed

ucat

ion

1995

; 68

(1):6

2-81

Stud

y fo

cus:

Ex

tracu

rric

ular

ph

ysic

al a

ctiv

ity

Des

crip

tion:

Ex

tracu

rric

ular

ac

tiviti

es a

nd

scho

ol d

ropo

ut

rate

s

Setti

ng: S

choo

l

Coun

try:

USA

Sam

ple

1: S

choo

ls N

: 735

G

rade

: Sec

onda

ry

(9th

–12t

h gr

ades

)

Sam

ple

2: Y

outh

N

: 14,

249

Age

ran

ge: N

R M

ean

age:

15.

5 G

rade

: Sec

onda

ry

(9th

–12t

h gr

ade)

G

ende

r:

M: 4

8%

F: 5

2%

Ethn

icity

: Bl

ack:

9.4

%

His

pani

c: 9

.5%

O

ther

: 2.2

%

Whi

te: 7

8.9%

Stud

y de

sign

: Des

crip

tive,

se

cond

ary

anal

ysis

of d

ata

from

th

e H

igh

Scho

ol a

nd B

eyon

d (H

SB) d

atas

et

Dat

a co

llect

ion

met

hod

and

time

poin

ts: P

aper

-pen

cil s

urve

y an

d fa

ce-to

-face

inte

rvie

w

(sel

f-rep

orte

d gr

ades

; sch

ool

valu

e; p

artic

ipat

ion

in s

choo

l ac

tiviti

es s

uch

as c

lubs

, stu

dent

gov

ernm

ent,

athl

etic

or

spo

rts te

ams

at s

choo

l, an

d Su

mm

er o

r af

ter-s

choo

l re

crea

tiona

l pro

gram

s; s

elf-

este

em; p

sych

olog

ical

resi

lienc

y;

depr

essi

on; p

roso

cial

pee

rs;

risky

beh

avio

rs; r

ace;

and

ge

nder

) 2

times

(bas

elin

e in

198

0 an

d 2

year

follo

w-u

p in

198

2)

No

inte

rven

tion

Doe

s pa

rtic

ipat

ion

in a

thle

tics

decr

ease

hi

gh s

choo

l dro

pout

rat

es?

• Lo

wer

dro

pout

rat

es

+

Add

ition

al s

ubgr

oup

anal

yses

wer

e co

nduc

ted

with

out s

ignific

ance

test

ing;

it a

ppea

rs th

at

parti

cipa

tion

may

furth

er d

ecre

ase

drop

out

prob

abili

ty fo

r bl

acks

, an

d hi

gher

SES

stu

dent

s.

Add

ition

al a

naly

ses

show

ed th

at w

hen

stud

ents

pa

rtici

pate

in m

ore

than

one

act

ivity

, lit

tle is

ga

ined

; at

hlet

ic p

artic

ipat

ion

is th

e on

ly o

ne

that

rem

ains

sig

nific

ant.

Did

par

ticip

atio

n in

oth

er n

onsp

orts

ex

tracu

rric

ular

act

iviti

es d

ecre

ase

drop

out

rate

s ?

• Fi

ne a

rts

• A

cade

mic

clu

bs

• Vo

catio

nal c

lubs

0 0 0

Ana

lyse

s al

so c

ontro

lled

for

how

muc

h tim

e st

uden

ts s

pent

wor

king

dur

ing

the

scho

ol y

ear.

Reyn

olds

D,

Nic

olso

n RI

34

Follo

w-u

p of

an

exer

cise

-bas

ed

treat

men

t for

ch

ildre

n w

ith

read

ing

diffi

culti

es.

Dys

lexi

a 20

07;1

3(2)

:78-

96

Stud

y fo

cus:

Ex

tracu

rric

ular

ph

ysic

al a

ctiv

ity

Des

crip

tion:

Ex

erci

se-b

ased

tre

atm

ent

for

child

ren

with

read

ing

diffi

culti

es

Setti

ng:

Hou

seho

ld

Coun

try:

Uni

ted

King

dom

Sam

ple

1: S

choo

l N

: 1

Gra

de: P

rimar

y

Sam

ple

2: Y

outh

N

: 35

Age

ran

ge: N

R M

ean

age:

9

Gra

de: P

rimar

y (U

K ju

nior

sch

ool)

Gen

der:

M

: 54.

3%

F: 4

5.7%

Et

hnic

ity: N

R

Stud

y de

sign

: Qua

si-e

xper

imen

tal

Dat

a co

llect

ion

met

hod

and

time

poin

ts: S

tand

ardi

zed

test

s (c

ogni

tive

and

mot

or s

kills

—

dysle

xia

scre

enin

g te

st)

4 tim

es (J

une

2000

, Jun

e 20

01, J

une

2002

, and

June

20

03)

Stan

dard

ized

test

s (s

choo

l-ad

min

iste

red

test

s)

3 tim

es (J

une

2001

, Jun

e 20

02, a

nd Ju

ne 2

003)

Stru

ctur

e: P

artic

ipan

ts w

ere

assi

gned

to

the

inte

rven

tion

or c

ompa

rison

gr

oup

mat

ched

on

the

basi

s of

age

, an

d dy

slexi

a ‘a

t-ris

k’ le

vels.

Stru

ctur

e: In

terv

entio

n: y

outh

pa

rtici

pate

d in

the

DD

AT (d

ysle

xia,

dy

spra

xia

and

atte

ntio

n-defic

it di

sord

er tr

eatm

ent)

exer

cise

-bas

ed

daily

trea

tmen

t at h

ome

for

6 m

onth

s.

Com

paris

on: y

outh

had

no

addi

tiona

l ac

tivity

.

Did

exp

osur

e to

the

exer

cise

pro

gram

im

prov

e yo

uth’

s pe

rfor

man

ce in

mot

or a

nd

verb

al s

kills

ove

r tim

e?

• Ra

pid

nam

ing

• Be

ad th

read

ing

• 1-

min

ute

read

ing

• Po

stur

al s

tabi

lity

• Ph

onem

ic s

egm

enta

tion

• 2-

min

ute

spel

ling

• Ba

ckw

ards

dig

it sp

an

• N

onse

nse

pass

age

read

ing

• 1-

min

ute

writ

ing

• Ve

rbal

flue

ncy

• Se

man

tic fl

uenc

y

+ + 0 + + 0 + 0 0 0 +

The

inte

rven

tion

grou

p m

ade

roug

hly

norm

al

prog

ress

per

yea

r po

sttre

atm

ent c

ompa

red

with

th

e pr

ojec

ted

mea

n pr

etre

atm

ent.


Stud

y Ci

tatio

n St

udy

Focu

s an

d Se

tting

Sa

mpl

e C

hara

cter

istic

s St

udy

Des

ign

and

Dat

a Co

llect

ion

Inte

rven

tion

Cond

ition

s Ke

y O

utco

mes

and

Res

ults

Schu

mak

er JF

, Sm

all L

, Woo

d J72

Self-

conc

ept,

acad

emic

ac

hiev

emen

t, an

d at

hlet

ic

parti

cipa

tion.

Perc

eptu

al a

nd

Stud

y fo

cus:

Ex

tracu

rric

ular

ph

ysic

al a

ctiv

ity

Des

crip

tion:

Effe

cts

of

athl

etic

par

ticip

atio

n on

sel

f-con

cept

an

d ac

adem

ic

achi

evem

ent i

n hi

gh

scho

ol s

ubje

cts

Sam

ple

1: Y

outh

N

: 85

Age

ran

ge: N

R M

ean

age:

NR

Gra

de: S

econ

dary

(1

2th

grad

e)

Gen

der:

M

: 50.

6%

F: 4

9.4%

Et

hnic

ity: N

R

Stud

y de

sign

: Qua

si-e

xper

imen

tal

Dat

a co

llect

ion

met

hod

and

time

poin

ts: A

dmin

istra

tive

reco

rds

(gra

des)

1

time

Pape

r-pen

cil s

urve

y (s

elf-c

once

pt

ques

tionn

aire

, par

ticip

atio

n fo

r at

le

ast 2

yea

rs in

a v

arsi

ty s

port)

No

inte

rven

tion

Doe

s at

hlet

ic p

artic

ipat

ion

impr

ove

scho

ol-

repo

rted

gra

des

and

stud

ent-r

epor

ted

self-

conc

ept?

• G

rade

s •

Self-

conc

ept

0 +

Doe

s at

hlet

ic p

artic

ipat

ion

impr

ove

scho

ol-

repo

rted

grad

es a

nd s

tude

nt-re

porte

d se

lf-co

ncep

t ?

• G

rade

s (m

ales

) 0

Mot

or S

kills

198

6;

1 tim

e •

Gra

des

(fem

ales

) 0

62(2

):387

-390

Se

tting

: Afte

r sc

hool

•

Self-

conc

ept (

mal

es)

+

Coun

try:

USA

•

Self-

conc

ept (

fem

ales

) 0

Spen

ce JC

, Poo

n P73

Resu

lts fr

om

the

Alb

erta

Sc

hool

s’ A

thle

tic

Ass

ocia

tion

Surv

ey.

Rese

arch

Upd

ate

(ser

ial o

nlin

e)

1997

, Sep

tem

ber;

5(1)

Stud

y fo

cus:

Ex

tracu

rric

ular

ph

ysic

al a

ctiv

ity

Des

crip

tion:

Sur

vey

resu

lts o

n sp

orts

parti

cipa

tion

in

Alb

erta

sch

ools

Setti

ng: S

choo

l

Coun

try:

Alb

erta

, C

anad

a

Sam

ple

1: S

choo

l N

: 36

Gra

de: S

econ

dary

(h

igh

scho

ol)

Sam

ple

2: Y

outh

N

: 883

A

ge r

ange

: NR

Mea

n ag

e: 1

8 G

rade

: Sec

onda

ry

(hig

h sc

hool

) G

ende

r:

M: 5

0.3%

F:

49.

7%

Ethn

icity

: NR

Stud

y de

sign

: Des

crip

tive

Dat

a co

llect

ion

met

hod

and

time

poin

ts: P

aper

-pen

cil s

urve

y (s

elf-r

epor

t of s

choo

l gra

des,

sc

hool

-bas

ed s

ports

par

ticip

atio

n,

nons

choo

l spo

rts p

artic

ipat

ion,

ex

tracu

rric

ular

act

ivity

, sub

stan

ce

use,

and

crim

inal

offe

nses

) 1

time

No

inte

rven

tion

Doe

s pa

rtic

ipat

ion

in s

choo

l-bas

ed s

port

s im

prov

e st

uden

ts’ s

elf-r

epor

ted

acad

emic

ac

hiev

emen

t?

• Se

lf-re

port

ed g

rade

s +

Step

hens

LJ,

Scha

ben

LA74

The

effe

ct o

f in

ters

chol

astic

sp

orts

parti

cipa

tion

on a

cade

mic

ac

hiev

emen

t of

mid

dle

leve

l sch

ool

stude

nts.

NA

SSP

Bulle

tin 2

002;

86

(630

):34

-41

Stud

y fo

cus:

Ex

tracu

rric

ular

ph

ysic

al a

ctiv

ity

Des

crip

tion:

Th

e re

latio

nshi

p be

twee

n ac

adem

ic

achi

evem

ent a

nd

parti

cipa

tion

in

inte

rsch

olas

tic s

ports

Setti

ng: S

choo

l, cl

assr

oom

Coun

try:

USA

Sam

ple

1: Y

outh

N

: 136

A

ge r

ange

: NR

Mea

n ag

e: N

R G

rade

: Sec

onda

ry

(8th

gra

de)

Gen

der:

M

: 50%

F:

50%

Et

hnic

ity: N

R

Stud

y de

sign

: Des

crip

tive

Dat

a co

llect

ion

met

hod

and

time

poin

ts: S

tand

ardi

zed

test

s (m

ath

porti

on o

f the

Cal

iforn

ia

Ach

ieve

men

t Tes

t—C

AT)

1 tim

e

Pape

r-pen

cil s

urve

y (in

ters

chol

astic

sp

orts

par

ticip

atio

n)

1 tim

e

Adm

inis

trativ

e re

cord

s (m

ath

grad

e an

d cu

mul

ativ

e gr

ades

) 1

time

No

inte

rven

tion

Do

athl

etes

hav

e be

tter

acad

emic

ou

tcom

es th

an n

onat

hlet

es?

• M

ath

grad

es

• M

ath

CAT

scor

es

• O

vera

ll G

PA

+ + +

• G

PA (m

ale

athl

etes

com

pare

d w

ith

mal

e no

nath

lete

s)

• G

PA (f

emal

e at

hlet

es c

ompa

red

with

fem

ale

nona

thle

tes)

•

GPA

(fem

ale

athl

etes

com

pare

d w

ith m

ale

athl

etes

)

+ + +


Stud

y Ci

tatio

n St

udy

Focu

s an

d Se

tting

Sa

mpl

e C

hara

cter

istic

s St

udy

Des

ign

and

Dat

a Co

llect

ion

Inte

rven

tion

Cond

ition

s Ke

y O

utco

mes

and

Res

ults

Yin

Z, M

oore

JB75

Re-e

xam

inin

g th

e ro

le o

f in

ters

chol

astic

sp

ort p

artic

ipat

ion

in e

duca

tion.

Psyc

holo

gica

l Re

ports

200

4;

94(3

Pt 2

):144

7-14

54

Stud

y fo

cus:

Ex

tracu

rric

ular

ph

ysic

al a

ctiv

ity

Des

crip

tion:

Re

latio

nshi

p be

twee

n in

ters

chol

astic

sp

orts

and

drop

out r

ate,

co

gniti

ve s

core

, lo

cus

of c

ontro

l, an

d se

lf-co

ncep

t

Setti

ng: S

choo

l, sc

hool

wid

e

Coun

try:

USA

Sam

ple

1: Y

outh

N

: 1,8

83

Age

ran

ge: N

R M

ean

age:

NR

Gra

de: C

ross

leve

l (8

th–1

2th

grad

es)

Gen

der:

NR

Ethn

icity

: NR

Stud

y de

sign

: Des

crip

tive,

se

cond

ary

anal

ysis

of d

ata

from

the

base

yea

r an

d fo

llow

-up

s 1

and

2 of

the

Nat

iona

l Ed

ucat

iona

l Lon

gitu

dina

l Stu

dy

of 1

988

(NEL

S88)

Dat

a co

llect

ion

met

hod

and

time

poin

ts: S

tand

ardi

zed

test

s (c

ompo

site

sco

re o

f mat

h an

d re

adin

g sta

ndar

dize

d te

sts)

3

times

(bas

elin

e, 2

4 m

onth

s,

48 m

onth

s)

Pape

r-pen

cil s

urve

y—N

ELS

(inte

rsch

olas

tic s

port

parti

cipa

tion,

sel

f-con

cept

, loc

us

of c

ontro

l) 3

times

(bas

elin

e, 2

4 m

onth

s,

48 m

onth

s)

Adm

inis

trativ

e re

cord

s (s

choo

l re

cord

s of

dro

pout

s)

1 tim

e (4

8 m

onth

s–12

th g

rade

)

No

inte

rven

tion

Doe

s in

ters

chol

astic

spo

rt p

artic

ipat

ion

impa

ct s

tude

nt s

elf-

repo

rt o

f loc

us o

f co

ntro

l and

sel

f-co

ncep

t?

• 8t

h-gr

ade

locu

s of

con

trol

•

10th

-gra

de lo

cus

of c

ontr

ol

• 12

th-g

rade

locu

s of

con

trol

•

8th-

grad

e se

lf-co

ncep

t •

10th

-gra

de s

elf-

conc

ept

• 12

th-g

rade

sel

f-co

ncep

t

+ + 0 + + 0

Doe

s in

ters

chol

astic

spo

rt p

artic

ipat

ion

impr

ove

a co

mpo

site

sco

re o

f rea

ding

and

m

ath

stan

dard

ized

test

sco

res?

• 8t

h-gr

ade

com

posi

te te

st s

core

•

10th

-gra

de c

ompo

site

test

sco

re

• 12

th-g

rade

com

posi

te te

st s

core

- 0 0

Doe

s pa

rtic

ipat

ion

in in

ters

chol

astic

spo

rt

in 8

th g

rade

dec

reas

e st

uden

t dro

pout

ra

tes

repo

rted

by

scho

ol a

dmin

istr

atio

n?

• D

ropo

ut r

ate

(boy

s)

• D

ropo

ut r

ate

(girl

s)

+ +

Doe

s pa

rtic

ipat

ion

in in

ters

chol

astic

spo

rt

in 1

0th

grad

e de

crea

se s

tude

nt d

ropo

ut

rate

s re

port

ed b

y sc

hool

adm

inis

trat

ion?

• D

ropo

ut r

ate

(boy

s)

• D

ropo

ut r

ate

(girl

s)

+ +


the association between school-based physical …...the association between school-based physical...

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