CONTENTS

Introduction:Earth’sMightiestPhilosophers

PartOne:WhatWouldanAvengerDo?Chapter1:SuperhumanEthicsClasswiththeAvengersPrime

TheUtilitarianIronManCaptainAmerica:DutyaboveallElseConvictedHeroesVerily,aFineSegue!EthicistsAssemble!

Chapter2:ShiningtheLightontheDarkAvengers

PlatoandtheAncientGreekAvengersDoesMightMakeRight?AretheDarkAvengersEvilorSimplyBold?NoOneNeedstoKnowBeingJustJustHowDarkaretheDarkAvengers?

Chapter3:TheAvengers:Earth’sMightiest

Family

OfFatherandUltronSometimestheApplesDoFallFarfromtheTreeJourneytotheCenteroftheAntTheTiesthatBindTheTorchisPassedSinsoftheFather?LettherebeanEnding!

PartTwo:WhoisanAvenger?Chapter4:SuperheroIdentity:CaseStudiesintheAvengers

It’sallaboutBodies,Right?IlikeyouforyourMind,HonestUnmaskingtheMantleTheoryofSuperheroIdentityCaseStudy1:TheSupersoldierCaseStudy2:PymParticlesAreyoutheNextGoliath?

Chapter5:IamMadeofInk:She-HulkandMetacomics

WhatisaMetacomic?YourCoverisBlown,Jen“There’saReaderOutThereNow!”Gutter-Hoppin’andMoreAmazingStoriesDon’tMaketheShe-HulkAngry...WhataretheShe-Hulk’sPowers?MaybeJen’sReadingthisChapterRightNow

Chapter6:TheSelf-CorruptionofNormanOsborn:ACautionaryTale

Osborn’sOratoryandtheDarkReignTheSplitOsbornIdentityWagtheGoblinHoistbyhisOwnPetard

PartThree:ShouldtheAvengersDoMoreThanAvenge?

Chapter7:ForgiversAssemble!

TimeTravel,Retcons,andForgivenessCanCapForgivetheRestofhisKookyQuartet?WhowillForgivetheMutants?ForgiveMe!ForgivenessintheHouseOfM

TheParadoxofForgivenessAvengers,Forgive!

Chapter8:Gods,Beasts,andPoliticalAnimals:WhytheAvengersAssemble

AssemblingforNecessityorPerfection?ElementaryGreekLessons(ApprovedbytheComicsCode)Ms.-SingherFriendsGettingherArêteTogetherTheOriginalIrredeemableAnt-ManNeitherGodsnorBeastsButPoliticalAnimals

Chapter9:Cap’sKookyQuartet:IsRehabilitationPossible?

CananArcherChangehisTrickArrows?FindingaBalancewithHawkeyeMaybeitReallyisintheBloodOldDogsandNewTricksAvengingorSaving?HopefortheFuture?AvengersRehabilitate!

PartFour:DotheAvengersEverGoToo

Far?Chapter10:FightingtheGoodFight:MilitaryEthicsandtheKree-SkrullWar

EntryPointtotheKree-SkrullWarThere’sanIntergalacticWarGoingonandYou’reInvitedWasRonanintheRight?ThoseSneakySkrullsTorturedLogicAndthewarRageson

Chapter11:SecretsandLies:CompromisingtheAvengers’ValuesfortheGoodoftheWorld

FiguringouttheRulesOccultingtheTruthSorcererSupremeEmergencyShhhhh—AvengersAssemble(inSecret)!BeingWikileakedOn“ThisistheKindofThingthatisGoingtoBiteUSintheButt”

Chapter12:TheAvengersandS.H.I.E.L.D.:TheProblemwithProactiveSuperheroics

TheUltimates,theAvengers,andNickFury’sS.H.I.E.L.D.RedandGoldHelicarriers?IDidn’tMeanit,HonestThisChangesEverything(UntilitChangesBack)ButIWanttoHelp!CaptainAmerica’smightyS.H.I.E.L.D....Well,SortOf

PartFive:WhatKindofWorlddotheAvengersLiveIn?

Chapter13:CanKangKillhisPastSelf?TheParadoxofTimeTravel

TheScienceofBendingTimeBreakingTimeBuildingaTimeMachineClosedTimelikeKangTimetoEnd

Chapter14:“NoOtherGodsBeforeMe”:God,Ontology,andEthicsintheAvengers’Universe

God,theOne-Who-Is-Above-All—or“Stan,”

ForShort“GodsareaBitDifferent”OntologyComics#1DoesGodlinessImplyGoodness?EqualOpportunity—forDeities?

Chapter15:LoveAvengersStyle:CananAndroidLoveaHuman?

WhatisLove,Anyway?Friends,Lovers,andSignificantOthersUnreciprocatedLove“NoSisterofMineMayBecomeInvolvedwitha—a—aRobot!”Love:AmericanStyle

Chapter16:TheWayoftheArrow:HawkeyeMeetstheTaoistMasters

Don’tTrySoHard,ClintWhenisaButcherLikeanArcher?Hawkeye,Humble?TheLifeandDeathofaHeroTheWayoftheArcher

Appendix:WhyarethereFourVolumesofAvengers?

Contributors:AvengersAcademy

Index:FromJarvis’sSecretFiles

TheBlackwellPhilosophyandPopCultureSeries

SeriesEditor:WilliamIrwin

SouthParkandPhilosophyEditedbyRobertArp

MetallicaandPhilosophyEditedbyWilliamIrwin

FamilyGuyandPhilosophyEditedbyJ.JeremyWisnewski

TheDailyShowandPhilosophyEditedbyJasonHolt

LostandPhilosophyEditedbySharonKaye

24andPhilosophyEditedbyJenniferHartWeed,RichardDavis,andRonaldWeed

BattlestarGalacticaandPhilosophyEditedbyJasonT.Eberl

TheOfficeandPhilosophyEditedbyJ.JeremyWisnewski

BatmanandPhilosophyEditedbyMarkD.WhiteandRobertArp

HouseandPhilosophyEditedbyHenryJacoby

WatchmenandPhilosophyEditedbyMarkD.White

X-MenandPhilosophyEdited by Rebecca Housel and J. JeremyWisnewski

TerminatorandPhilosophyEditedbyRichardBrownandKevinDecker

HeroesandPhilosophyEditedbyDavidKyleJohnson

TwilightandPhilosophyEdited by Rebecca Housel and J. JeremyWisnewski

FinalFantasyandPhilosophyEditedbyJasonP.BlahutaandMichelS.Beaulieu

AliceinWonderlandandPhilosophyEditedbyRichardBrianDavis

IronManandPhilosophyEditedbyMarkD.White

TrueBloodandPhilosophyEditedbyGeorgeDunnandRebeccaHousel

MadMenandPhilosophyEditedbyJamesSouthandRodCarveth

30RockandPhilosophyEditedbyJ.JeremyWisnewski

TheUltimateHarryPotterandPhilosophyEditedbyGregoryBassham

TheUltimateLostandPhilosophyEditedbySharonKaye

GreenLanternandPhilosophyEditedbyJaneDrydenandMarkD.White

TheGirlwiththeDragonTattooandPhilosophyEditedbyEricBronson

ArrestedDevelopmentandPhilosophyEdited by Kristopher Phillips and J. JeremyWisnewski

InceptionandPhilosophyEditedbyDavidJohnson

TheBigLebowskiandPhilosophyEditedbyPeterS.Fosl

Spider-ManandPhilosophyEditedbyJonathanSanford

TheBigBangTheoryandPhilosophyEditedbyDeanKowalski

TheHungerGamesandPhilosophyEditedbyGeorgeDunnandNicolasMichaud

GameofThronesandPhilosophy

EditedbyHenryJacoby

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1.Avengers(Fictitiouscharacters)2.Comicbooks,strips,etc.—Moralandethicalaspects.3.Superheroesinliterature.4.Superherofilms—Historyand

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INTRODUCTION:EARTH’SMIGHTIESTPHILOSOPHERS

Ifyoulikesuperheroes—andyouwouldn’tbereadingthisbookifyoudidn’t—you love superhero teams, and the Avengers are the preeminent team in theMarvelUniverse.ThebestthingabouttheAvengersisthatnotonlydoyougetto see all your favorite heroes banding together to defeat formidable threatsagainstincredibleodds,butyoualsogettoseetheminteractbothassuperheroesandaspeople.Whetherthey’recoopedupinAvengersMansionorexploringthedeepest realms of space, you get to see how they work together and playtogether, bothwhen theyget along andwhen theydon’t.That’swhatwe loveabout theAvengers,whether in the comics, the animated series, or the featurefilm—it’sequalpartssuperheroepicandsoapopera.Just as theAvengers assemble to confront threatsno singleherocanhandle

himselforherself,thecontributorstoTheAvengersandPhilosophyassembledtodiscuss a range of topics so broad that no single philosopher could possiblyhandleitall.Haveyoueverwonderedhowthe“bigthree”Avengers—CaptainAmerica, IronMan, andThor—compare in termsof theirmoralphilosophies?HastheKree-SkrullWarevermadeyouconsidertheethicsofwaritself?Whatabout theAvengers’ peculiar tendency towelcome former criminals into theirranks,suchasHawkeye,Quicksilver,andtheScarletWitch?Wedidn’tforgettoaskquestionsabout thegreatAvengersvillains:CanKangactuallygoback intime to kill himself? Do we actually admire Norman Osborn and his DarkAvengers?And finally, speaking of soap opera, can theScarletWitch and theVisiontrulyloveeachother?No matter what Avengers lineup you prefer, or which Avenger is your

favorite, there’s a chapter inThe Avengers and Philosophy for you. (Why noSquirrel Girl, you ask?Wait for volume two—it’s all her.) So until AvengersAcademy opens a branch near you, this book is the best way to learn fromEarth’sMightiestPhilosophers—untilwegetourownmovie,thatis!

Iwould like to thankBill Irwin for his constant support, encouragement, andhardworkonthisbookandtheBlackwellPhilosophyandPopCultureseriesasa whole; Connie Santisteban at Wiley, who saw this book through frombeginningtoend;andmyfellowcontributors,whocamethroughwith insightsintophilosophyandtheAvengersIwouldneverhave imagined. Ialsowant to

give special thanks to Christine Hanefalk, who was incredibly supportive,especially in the stressful final weeks of this project. Finally, I would like tothank all the creators who have made the Avengers shine for half a century,startingwithStanLeeandJackKirby, throughKurtBusiekandGeorgePérez,and all the way up to Brian Michael Bendis, and Joss Whedon for bringingEarth’sMightiestHeroestolifeonthesilverscreen.

PARTONE

WHATWOULDANAVENGERDO?

Chapter1

SUPERHUMANETHICSCLASSWITHTHEAVENGERSPRIME

MarkD.White

AtAvengersAcademy,whereveteranslikeHankPymandTigrateachyoungerheroesinthewaysofAvengerdom,oneoftherequiredcoursesisSuperhumanEthicsClass.Inthisclass,superpupilsarepresentedwithethicaldilemmasthatcropupintheday-to-day“routine”ofanAvenger,andthentheyareaskedhowtheywouldhandle themandwhy.Wemay recoil at the thoughtofHankPymteachingthisclass—theposterchildfor“DowhatIsay,notasI’vedonemyselftimeandtimeagain”—butsuchaclassisessentialtoteachyoungheroeshowtoexercisethegreatresponsibilitythatcomeswithgreatpower.1Ifyouaskme,themostobviousteachersforSuperhumanEthicsClasswould

beCaptainAmerica, IronMan, andThor,whowere christened the “AvengersPrime”inarecentminiseries.2I’mnotclaimingthatthesethreearenecessarilythe most ethical Avengers, but they do serve as examples of the three mostpopular systems of ethics: utilitarianism, deontology, and virtue ethics.Whileeachofthesethreeclassicheroesexemplifieshisparticularmoralcompassinhissolo adventures, it is through their interactions—especially their conflicts—within theAvengers that they best illustrate their different ethical approaches.Let’s startwith IronMan because his ethical framework is inmanyways thesimplest, and also because he sets the stage for introducing the other two incontrast.

TheUtilitarianIronManTony Stark has long been an important figure in the Marvel Universe, butstartingwiththe“CivilWar”eventin2006,hebecamecentraltoit.AssoonasherealizedthatpassageoftheSuperhumanRegistrationAct,alawrequiringallsuperheroes to register and reveal their identities to the government, wasinevitable,hegotinfrontofitandmadesureitwasimplementedhisway.WhenCaptainAmericastartedasuperheroresistanceagainstthelaw,IronManledthe

pro-registrationforcesagainsthim,andafterthewarendedwithCap’ssurrender,TonywasgrantedcontrolofS.H.I.E.L.D.andtheAvengers.Duringthattenure,he had to deal with the death of Captain America (Steve Rogers) and theanointmentofhissuccessor(BuckyBarnes), thedestructionofNewYorkCitybythesameHulkhehadhelpedtoexiletospaceyearsbefore,andafull-scalesecret invasionby theSkrulls.TheSkrulldebacle led to thedownfallofTonyStark,theriseofNormanOsborn,andTony’sself-lobotomizationtoensurethatOsbornwouldnotgetthesuperheroregistrationinformationstoredinhisbrain.Osborn’s“DarkReign”endedwiththeSiegeofAsgardafterTony(withmostofhismindrestored),SteveRogers(backfromthedead),andThor(nowaproudOklahoman)reunitedtoleadtheassortedAvengersteamsagainsthim.3Manypeople, inboth theMarvelUniverseand therealworld, foundTony’s

decisionsandactionsduring thisperioddespicable, especiallyduring theCivilWar, when he enlisted the Thunderbolts, a team of known supervillains andpsychopaths, to roundupunregisteredheroes,andhelpedbuildaprison in theNegative Zone to hold them. It’s hard to doubt Tony’s sincere motivation tomake things better, though. And rarely can things be made better withoutbreakingsomerulesorcreatingsomenegativeconsequences.The issues of broken rules andnegative consequences are familiar tomoral

philosophersbecausetheyalsoapplytoutilitarianism,TonyStark’sbasicethicalsystem. Utilitarianism judges actions by the goodness (or “utility”) of theirconsequences.Anactionthatcreatesmoregoodthanbadintheworldisethical,and the action that createsmost good compared to bad is themost ethical (orrequired). The philosopher credited with introducing utilitarianism, JeremyBentham(1748–1832),equated“good”withpleasureand“bad”withpain.Otherutilitarianshavealsoproposedhappiness,well-being,orpreferencesatisfactionas ways to think of utility.4 However utility or goodness is measured,utilitarianism is based on the commonsense notion that outcomes matter.Furthermore,everyone’sutility isequally important.Thismeans thatgoodnesscanbeaddeduptoarriveatasumtotalforeachaction,whichcanbeusedforcomparisonsofalternativesormaximizationtoarriveatthemorallybestplanofaction.5While theconceptofutilitarianismisverysimple, inpractice itcanbecome

verycomplicatedbecausemeasuring theutilityofvariousoptions is incrediblydifficult.Inordertoevaluateandcomparethegoodnessofdifferentcoursesofaction, apersonmust traceout all the effectsof eachchoice.Of course,TonyStarkregardshimselfasafuturist,uniquelyabletoseetheresultsofanyevent.AfterdefeatingtheCrimsonDynamobystoppinghisheartandthenimmediately

reviving him, Cap dresses Tony down, saying, “You could have stopped thesituationwithout stopping theman’s heart. I can think of at least four—” butTony interrupts with, “And I can think of seven. But this one was the mostexpedient.”6 Even on this relatively small scale, however, the chain of eventsflowing from that choice can be hard to predict, especiallywhenother peopleandrandomeventsintervene.(Forinstance, theDynamomayhavehadaheartconditionthatpreventedTonyfromrestartingit.)Whenitcomestomonumentaldecisions like exiling the Hulk or supporting superhero registration, thecountless and complex ramifications are impossible to know and thereforeimpossible to measure and compare. As we have seen, Tony did get a lot ofthingswrong—Capdied,theHulkcameback,andtheSkrullsinvaded.Soevena self-styled futurist can make mistakes. And since his decisions are only asgoodashispredictions,Tony’sinabilitytoknowtheresultsofthisactioncastshisdecisions indoubt.Thisdoubt, of course, applies to all utilitariandecisionmaking.

CaptainAmerica:DutyaboveAllElseIronMan and Captain America have long been depicted as seeing the worlddifferently.TheCivilWar,though,broughtthisethicalconflicttotheforefrontofthe Marvel Universe. While Tony exemplifies utilitarianism, Cap provides ashiningexampleofdeontology,which judges themoralityofactions inandofthemselvesaccordingtogeneralprinciplesordutiesrather thanconsequences.7In the case of Tony’s stopping theCrimsonDynamo’s heart, Cap presumablyregarded this as a violation of the principle not to kill. As far as Cap isconcerned, the “expediency” Tony cited does not work as a justification. Theconflictbetweendeontologyandutilitarianismisoftenputintermsofthe“right”andthe“good,”inwhichthegoodisaquantitytobemaximizedwhiletherightissomethingtobeadheredto.StoppingtheDynamo’sheartmayhavebeenthemostexpedientwaytoagoodresult,buttoCapitsimplywasn’ttherightthingtodo.Whendeontologists(likeCap)criticizeutilitarians(likeTony)forletting“the

endsjustify themeans,” theyare implyingthatcertainmeanstoanendshouldneverbetaken,regardlessofhowgoodtheconsequenceswouldbe.Nomatterhowworthyanend—evensavinglives—somemeasuresshouldnotbetakenasamatter of principle. In the real world, torturing terror suspects and placingwiretapsonphonesareprimeexamples;intheCivilWar,weseeexamplessuchas building the Negative Zone and enlisting the Thunderbolts. Such actions,

considered intrinsically wrong, cannot be justified by their consequences, butrathertaintthoseotherwisenobleends.Tobesure,deontologistsdonotentirelydismiss the importance of consequences, but they do regard principles asimportantalso.One advantage that deontology seems to have over utilitarianism is that it

doesn’t requireus tocalculateandcompare thegoodandbadconsequencesofeverydecision.Capwouldn’thaveworkedouttheprosandconsofinvitingtheThunderbolts to his cause. Rather, he just never would have considered it,because he would regard it as wrong to deal with confirmed killers. (HeultimatelyrejectsthePunisher’soffertojointheanti-registrationmovementforthesamereason.)8Butthisneglectsthecomplexityofdistinguishingrightfromwrong.WhenCapsaystoTonythat“what’srightisright,”ortellsSharonCarter(regarding thepro-registration forces) that “what they’redoing iswrong,plainandsimple,”hissimplelanguageobscuresthefactthatatremendousamountofdeliberation and judgment goes into determining what is right in any givensituation.9 Instead of calculating positive and negative effects on utility,however, the deontologist weighs various principles and duties against eachother(andevenagainstconsequences).Furthermore,deontologyavoidsthecontingentnatureofutilitarianethics,by

whichachangeincircumstancescanflipamoraljudgmentonewayoranother.Tony was originally opposed to registration, citing the risks to heroes’ lovedones, morale, and incentives to continue to serve as heroes.10 Once he wasconvinced that the registration act would pass, however, he signed on as itsfigurehead, telling Peter Parker, “I have to take the lead in making the otherpowersregister.IfIdon’t,someoneelseworsewill.Andfrankly...Ithinkit’sthe right thing to do at this point.”11 From a utilitarian point of view this isadmirable:headjustedtocircumstancesanddidthebestwiththecardshewasdealtastheychanged.Toadeontologist,though,rightandwrongdonotdependon circumstances but on principle.Capwas steadfast in opposing registration,notoutofstubbornness,butoutofastyleofjudgmentthatdoesnotdependonthestateoftheworldatanygiventime.EvenwhenhesurrenderedattheendofCivil War, it was not because he changed his mind about registration, butbecausehe realizedhiseffortshadstrayed from theiroriginalpurpose:“We’renotfightingforthepeopleanymore...we’rejustfighting.”12WhenIronManvisitshiminhiscellatRyker’s,Captellshim,“wemaintainedtheprinciplesweswore to defend and protect. You sold your principles.”13 It would be moreprecise, though, to say that Tony and Cap simply had different overarchingprinciplestobeginwith,representingthegoodandtheright.Eachfoughtforhis

principletotheend—andwithconviction.

ConvictedHeroesIt’seasytopointoutthedifferencesbetweenutilitarianismanddeontology,butwe should also point out their similarities. (This will prove especially usefulwhenwegettodiscussingvirtueethicsandThor.)We’vealreadymentionedonesimilarity: both utilitarianism and deontology require judgment, albeit ofdifferent kinds. Utilitarianism demands the anticipation, evaluation, andcomparisonofeverypossibleresultofeveryoption,whiledeontologyrequiresthe consideration and balancing of every principle and duty involved in asituation. Neither process can be done perfectly—and waiting while a persontriescanresultindisaster.Choiceshavetobemade,andsometimesapersonhastousejudgmenttomakethemoncethetimefordeliberationrunsout.AsTonysaid during the battlewith theHulk, “Every day I choose between courses ofaction that could affectmillions, even billions of lives.With stakes that high,how dare I decide? But at this point, doing nothing is a decision in and ofitself.”14Ethical decisionmaking of either type, utilitarian or deontological, requires

convictiontomakeiteffective.Comingtothebestdecisionisonething,butit’sworthless if the person doesn’t follow throughwith it. Despite IronMan andCaptainAmerica’sdifferences, theybothshare tremendousconviction.TalkingtoCap’scorpseafterhisassassinationonthecourtroomsteps,Tonyconfesses,“IknewthatIwouldbeputinthepositionoftakingchargeofthissideofthings.Becauseifnotme,who?Whoelsewasthere?Noone.SoIsuckeditup.Ididwhatyoudo.Icommitted....Itwastherightthingtodo!”15As usual, Cap gives amore eloquent speech to demonstrate his conviction,

thistimetoSpider-ManasheconsidersabandoningTonytosidewithCap:Doesn’tmatterwhatthepresssays.Doesn’tmatterwhatthepoliticiansor the mobs say. Doesn’t matter if the whole country decides thatsomethingwrongissomethingright.Thisnationwasfoundedononeprincipleaboveallelse:therequirementthatwestandupforwhatwebelieve, nomatter theoddsor the consequences.When themobandthepress and thewholeworld tell you tomove, your job is to plantyourself likeatreebesidetheriverof truth,andtell thewholeworld—“No,youmove.”16

Ofcourse,noonewouldeverdoubtCaptainAmerica’sconviction,butmypointismoregeneral:thatconvictiondoesnotdependonone’smoralphilosophy.AsCapsays,“Ifyoubelieveit,youstandupforit.”17Understanding the importance of judgment and conviction can also help us

see through themisconception that deontological ethics (such asCap’s) viewsthe world as “black and white” with no “shades of gray,” simply because ittrucks in absolute terms like “right or wrong” instead of relative terms like“betterorworse.”Forutilitarians, theonlyrightdecisionis the“best”one, theone that results in themost net positive results—every other choice iswrong.When Sharon asks Cap, regarding the registration act, “If Captain Americadoesn’tfollowthelaw,thenwhodoes?”Capreplies,“Theissueisn’tblackandwhite,andthosearetheonlycolorsthelawcansee,”asopposedtothebroaderdeontologicalconceptsofjusticeandlibertythathevalues.18Butonceyouseepast the simple rules—what contemporary philosopher and economistDeirdreMcCloskeymocksasdoingethicsby“three-by-five-inchcard”—andrecognizethe roleof judgment inethicaldecisionmaking, thenneitherutilitarianismnordeontology is black and white.19 The only thing deserving of that term isconviction, thedeterminationtostandbyone’smoralchoices,whichcanoftenbeconfusedwithstubbornness.Infact,though,convictionisavirtue.

Verily,aFineSegue!Another thingutilitarianismanddeontologyhave in common is their focusonaction:determiningtherightthingindoinanyparticularsituation.Butourthirdschool of ethics, virtue ethics, focuses on the actor instead, emphasizingenduringcharactertraitsthatgood(orvirtuous)peoplepossess,suchashonesty,courage,andresolve—allofthemhallmarksofahero.20IronManandCaptainAmericadisplaythesevirtues,ofcourse,buttheirvirtuesdonotaccountforhowtheymakemoraldecisions.Foranexampleofvirtueethics,weturntoourthirdAvengerPrime,Thor.TheOdinson lives by a code of honor, adhering to the highest standards of

bravery,loyalty,andhonesty,andtheseidealsmotivatehisactions.HedoesnotweighthepositiveandnegativeeffectsofalternativeslikeTonydoes,butratherletshisinstinctsguidehimtotherightaction.InthiswayThorresemblesCap,inthattheybothdothe“rightthing.”Ofcourse,theydoitfordifferentreasons,though:Capdoes the right thingbecause it representshisdutiesorprinciples,andThorbecauseitrepresentshischaracter.

Becauseofhiswell-earnedslumberafterbreakingtheseeminglyendlesscycleofRagnarok(thedeathofthegods),ThormissedoutontheCivilWar.WhenhereturnedtoEarth,though,hediscoveredbothCaptainAmerica’sdeathandIronMan’s part in creating the clone of Thor (as well as his other questionabledecisions). When IronMan meets him to welcome him back to Earth as hisfriendandthento“urge”himtoregister,ThorrecountsTony’sdeedsduringthesuperherobattle,describingthemasoffensesagainstvirtue:

You have hunted down those we once fought beside and calledcomrades.Killedorimprisonedthosewhoopposedyou,regardlessoftheirpreviousloyalties....Youtookmygeneticcodeand,withoutmypermission,withoutmyknowledge,usedittocreateanabomination—an aberration—an insult—and this you told the world was me. Youdefiledmybody,desecratedmytrust,violatedeverythingthatIam.Isthishowyoudefinefriendship?21

ThordoesnotaddressthemotivesorrationaleforTony’sactions,butinsteadhisviolationof thebasic conceptsof camaraderie, loyalty, integrity, respect, trust,andfriendship.Agoodpersondoesnotactagainstthesevirtues,asThorsaystoTony with eloquent language—and devastating force. Instead, good peopleembodythesevirtues,whichareanessentialpartoftheircharacter,andmanifestthemselves in their decisions, intentions, and actions (although not necessarilyperfectly).22OnthefirstanniversaryofCaptainAmerica’sdeath,Thorvisitshisgravesite

and summons the spirit of his fallen comrade.After offering to avengeCap’smurder (an offer that is declined),Thor pays tribute, again in the language ofvirtue,specificallythevirtuesofhonorandfriendship:

Ihavelivedmanyagesofmen,Steven.Centurieswithoutend.Ihaveseenmany greatmen, and known countless honors. But the greatesthonorofthisancientandtiredsoulhasbeentheprivilegeoffightingbesideyou,andcallingyoumyfriend.23

Again,ThordoesnotcareaboutCap’sdedicationtodutyorprinciple,buthowwellthatleadshimtoliveuptovirtuesthatThorregardsasworthyofahero,awarrior,andafriend.Of course, it is notmerely otherswhomThor holds up to the standards of

virtue,butfirstandforemosthimself.Heisunwaveringinhisfairness,aswhenhe approached a demonic, rampaging Asgardian with an open hand beforeengaginganddefeatinghiminbattle,andthenacceptedexilefromAsgardonce

itwasrevealedthathisvanquishedfoewasnoneotherthanBor,hisgrandfatherandpreviousking.24He isunflinching inhiscourage,suchaswhenheswearsduringtheSiegeofAsgard,afterbeingbeatendownbyNormanOsbornandhisDarkAvengers,“Iwillnot runfromyou,Osborn,notyourminions. Iwillnothide.Iwilldefendmyhomeandthehomeofmyfather . . .withmyverylastbreath.”25 He has a profound sense of honor and justice, refusing to kill BobReynolds(theSentry)attheendoftheSiege—evenwhenReynoldsbegshimto—untilReynolds forceshis handby attacking theAvengers (afterwhichThortakeshisburntbody,wrappedinhiscape,andburiesitinthesun).26Andheisfiercely loyal,goingso faras to revivehisadoptedbrotherLoki followinghisdeath during the destruction of Asgard (for which Loki was ultimatelyresponsiblebutlaterrepented).27Of course, many heroes exemplify these traits, including Iron Man and

CaptainAmerica,butThoractsthiswayforthesakeofthesevirtues,ratherthanout of the expectation of good consequences or respect for duty or principle.Thorstrivestobeagoodperson,avirtuousperson.Forinstance,at theendofAvengers Prime, Thor reclaims the Twilight Sword with which Hela (thegoddessofdeath)hadreshapedtheninerealms,butherefusestouseithimself.HecouldhaverestoredAsgardtoitsformerglory,beforeitwasdestroyedinthelastRagnarok,thenrestoredoverBroxton,Oklahoma,andlaterdestroyedagainintheSiege.28ButhetellsAmora(theEnchantress),“Tousethisunholypowerformy own endswouldmakeme the same demon she is.”29 And that “samedemon”—someonewhousesinfinitepowerforhisownends,orevenforwhathepredictswouldbethebestforeverybody—isn’twhoThorstrivestobe.

EthicistsAssemble!Can we conclude, therefore, that virtue ethics has nothing in common withutilitarianismanddeontology?Absolutelynot—allthreeethicalapproachescanbe seen as ways to determine the right thing to do or the right way to live,whetherapproachedthroughactionorcharacter.Andtheyoftenreachthesameconclusions when it comes to very general topics such as murder and lying,though theymay have different things to say on specific cases. For instance,utilitarianism might be more permissive of some well-meaning lies thandeontologyorvirtueethics.Still, nomatter which ethical framework you choose to adopt, you need to

exercisejudgmenttoapplyittospecificcircumstances.Youalsoneedconviction

to stand by your decision in the face of criticism from others or doubts fromwithin.AsmuchasourAvengersPrimemaydifferintermsoftheirbasicmoralphilosophy, they share the same capacity for sound judgment and unshakableconviction.Ultimately they serve as examples to thoseof uswhoaspire tobeheroesinourownlives—butcan’taffordthetuitionatAvengersAcademy!

NOTES

1.See,forexample,AvengersAcademy#10(May2011),reprintedinAvengersAcademy:WhenWillWeUseThisintheRealWorld?(2011),anddiscussedhere:http://www.comicsprofessor.com/2011/03/superhuman-ethics-classis-in-session-in-avengers-academy-10.html.2.AvengersPrime#1–5(August2010–March2011),reprintedinAvengersPrime(2011).3.See...well,mostallMarvelcomicssince2006,butespeciallyCivilWar(2007),WorldWarHulk(2008),SecretInvasion(2009),andSiege(2010),plusdozens(ifnothundreds)oftie-incomics.(Goahead,readthem,I’llwait.)4.SeeBentham’sAnIntroductiontothePrinciplesofMoralsandLegislation(1781),availableathttp://www.utilitarianism.com/jeremy-bentham/index.html.5.Utilitarianismisaspecificformofconsequentialism,whichjudgesthemoralityofactionsbysomeaspectoftheirconsequences,suchasgoodness(asinutilitarianism)orequality(asinegalitarianism).Forathoroughdiscussion,seeWalterSinnott-Armstrong,“Consequentialism,”StanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy,http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/consequentialism.6.IronMan,vol.4,#7(June2006),reprintedinIronMan:ExecuteProgram(2007).Attheendofthestoryline(#12,November2006),toavoidbeingforcedtokillCapbymentalcontrol,Tonystopshisownheart,trustingthathewouldberevivedashedidfortheDynamo.7.SeeLarryAlexanderandMichaelMoore,“DeontologicalEthics,”StanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy,http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-deontological.8.CivilWar#6(December2006).Ontheotherhand,heallowedWolverineintotheAvengersdespitetellingTony,“He’samurderer”

(NewAvengers,vol.1,#6,June2005,reprintedinNewAvengers:Breakout,2006).IwouldliketothinkthatasoldierlikeCapknowsthedifferencebetweensomeonewhokillsintheheatofbattleandsomeonewhodoesthesameforpersonalgain(liketheThunderbolts)orvengeance(likethePunisher);formoreonthistheme,seethechapter“TheAvengersandS.H.I.E.L.D.:TheProblemwithProactiveSuperheroics”byArnoBogaertsinthisvolume.9.IronMan/CaptainAmerica:CasualtiesofWar(February2007),reprintedinCivilWar:IronMan(2007);CaptainAmerica,vol.5,#22(November2006),reprintedinCivilWar:CaptainAmerica(2007).10.SeeAmazingSpider-Man#529–531(April–June2006),reprintedinCivilWar:TheRoadtoCivilWar(2007).11.AmazingSpider-Man#532,reprintedinCivilWar:AmazingSpider-Man(2007).12.CivilWar#7(January2007).13.CivilWar:TheConfession(May2007),reprintedinCivilWar:IronMan(2007).14.WorldWarHulk#4(November2007).15.CivilWar:TheConfession.16.AmazingSpider-Man#537(December2006),reprintedinCivilWar:AmazingSpider-Man.17.CaptainAmericatoIronMan,fromIronMan/CaptainAmerica:CasualtiesofWar.18.CaptainAmerica,vol.5,#22.19.DeirdreMcCloskey,TheBourgeoisVirtues:EthicsforanAgeofCommerce(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2006),263.20.SeeRosalindHursthouse,“VirtueEthics,”StanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy,http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-virtue.21.Thor,vol.3,#3(November2007),reprintedinThorbyJ.MichaelStraczynskiVol.1(2008).22.Formoreonvirtueandimperfection,seethechaptertitled“Cap’sKookyQuartet:IsRehabilitationPossible?”byAndrewTerjeseninthisvolume.23.Thor,vol.3,#11(November2008),reprintedinThorbyJ.MichaelStraczynskiVol.2(2009).FormoreontheancientGreekmeaningoffriendship,seethechaptertitled“Gods,Beasts,andPoliticalAnimals:WhytheAvengersAssemble”byTonySpanakosinthisvolume.

24.Thor,vol.3,#600(April2009),reprintedinThorbyJ.MichaelStraczynskiVol.2.(Afterissue#12,theserieswasrenumberedat#600tocommemoratetheanniversaryofthetitle.)25.Siege#2(April2010).26.Siege#4(June2010).27.Thor,vol.3,#617(January2011),reprintedinThor:TheWorldEaters(2011).28.HecouldhavealsoerasedtheTwilightbooksandmoviesfromexistence.Youknow,fortheirony.29.AvengersPrime#5(March2011).

Chapter2

SHININGTHELIGHTONTHEDARKAVENGERS

SarahDonovanandNickRichardson

FormedintheaftermathoftheSecretInvasion,theteamofAvengersassembledbyNormanOsborn—andknowntocomicbookreadersastheDarkAvengers—appear towork for thepublicgood.Sheddinghis alter ego, theGreenGoblin,Osborn became the head ofH.A.M.M.E.R. (the successor to S.H.I.E.L.D.) bypromotinghisroleinthedefeatoftheSkrullinvasion—aswellaspointingoutthatTonyStark,NickFury,S.H.I.E.L.D., and the (old)Avengershad failed toprevent it in the first place. Since the American public believes that they are“real” Avengers, the Dark Avengers can piggyback on their predecessors’squeaky-cleanreputationandgetawaywithallsortsofwickeddeeds.MadeupofvillainsposingasclassicAvengers likeHawkeyeandMs.Marvel, theDarkAvengersdoprotectthepublicgoodaftertheAtlanteansattackMelrose,buttheyalso engage in behavior unbecoming of true Avengers. For instance, OsbornformsanalliancewiththeevilCabal;inretaliationfortheattackonMelrose,theSentry (whowasa“real”Avengeraswell)kills allof theAtlantean terrorists;andthe“new”HawkeyemurderstheSentry’swifeonOsborn’sorders.1Inpublic,theDarkAvengersappeartobegood,butinrealitytheyarenot.For

philosophers,thisraisesquestions.Isitnecessarytobegood,orisitenoughtoappeartobegood?Ifyoucouldgetawaywithbeingbadwhileappearingtobegood,wouldyoudoit?Andwhatdowethinkofpeoplewhodogetawaywithit?

PlatoandtheAncientGreekAvengersIn the Republic, Plato (429–347 BCE) creates a character out of his teacherSocrates (469–399BCE),who argues thatwhen people are just, it is becausetheyareguidedbysomethingdivineandperfect.2SteveRogers,alsoknownasCaptain America, embodies this belief; his actions seem to be guided andmotivated by a profound sense of justice. He has exceptional strength,

endurance,anddiscipline,whichhecoulduse to takewhathewantsby force,yethechooses tobeasoldier,asuperhero,andanAvenger,servingthepublicgoodinsteadofhisown.Cap’sdeeppatriotismisanexampleofhisdedicationtonormsthatheregardsasgreaterthanhimself.AnotherofPlato’s characters in theRepublic,Thrasymachus, argues instead

thatweareonlygoodwhenwe thinkwewill benefit from it.Nothinggreaterthan us determines our actions except our own advantage, especially avoidinggetting caught doing the wrong thing. Norman Osborn exemplifies this viewwhen he becomes the head of H.A.M.M.E.R. and puts together his team ofAvengers to serve his own nefarious purposes. Though theDarkAvengers dosome good, it is merely a cover for Osborn’s greater plans. Osborn does notbelieveinanysenseof“justice”beyondhisownadvantage.Butwhatdoes itmean tobelieve inconceptsofgoodnessor justice thatare

aboveorbeyondus?Toanswerthis,wemoveintotherealmofmetaphysics,thestudyofthatwhichisbeyondthephysical,thingsthatcan’tbetouched,suchasgods or the soul. Plato’s theory of the Forms is a classic example of ametaphysical theory. Plato believed that the Forms are immaterial, perfectentitiesthataretheblueprintsforallthingsthatexistonearth.Physicalobjects,bycontrast,arecopies(withdifferingdegreesofimperfections)oftheForms.AccordingtoPlato’smetaphysics,realityisnotwhatwethink.Theworldof

theFormsisthetruereality,whereasourworldisaninferiorrealmofchange.Inhisfamousallegoryofthecave,Platolikensourknowledgeoftheworldaroundustothatofprisonersinacave,staringatshadowsonthewall.3Theprisonersmistakenly think the shadows are the highest reality, unaware of that whichmakes theshadows themselves.Likewise, ifweare ignorantof theForms,wewillmistakenlythinkthematerialworldisthehighestreality.Platourgesusto“leavethecave”andgainknowledgeoftheForms.Afterall,

wecanonlybegoodand justbyunderstanding theFormof theGoodand theFormoftheJust.Onceagain,SteveRogersexemplifieswhatitmeanstobelievein universal, eternal values such as the Forms. At the end of the Civil War,Rogers, the leaderof theanti-registrationmovement,standsdownand is takeninto custody.When Tony Stark visits him at the Raft, the maximum-securityinstallationatRyker’sIsland,RogerslambastsStarkforbeginningabloodywarthatwasbornoutofStark’sego,ratherthananyhigherideals,likefreedom.WeseethatRogersisguidedbyprinciplesoutsideofhimselfwhenhesaystoStark,“Whomadeyouthemoralcompassofus?”4Rogersimpliesherethatthereisageneral code of ethics that stands apart from humans (and therefore is notcreated by us) but to which we must conform. This same kind of thinking

underliesanybeliefinidealsandprinciples.AgainweseethiswhenRogerssaysto Stark, “Wemaintained the principleswe swore to defend and protect. Yousoldyourprinciples.You lost thisbefore it started.”5 In short,Rogers can saythathehas taken themoralhighgroundbecause there really isametaphysical“highground”totake.

DoesMightMakeRight?WhileCaptainAmericawouldpresumablyagreewithsomemetaphysicaltheoryabout goodness and justice (though not necessarily Plato’s), Norman Osbornclearly would not. For example, when he gives an elaborate TV interview todefendhispublicimage,Osbornactsonlyforhisowngoodandforthepurposeof appearing good to the American people.6 Osborn is a modern-dayThrasymachus. In theRepublic, after Socrates argues that justice can only beunderstood by reference to a metaphysical Form, Thrasymachus counters bysaying that “justice is nothing other than the advantage of the stronger.”7 ForThrasymachus(andOsborn),therearenometaphysicalFormsagainstwhichtomeasure or judge our actions. Instead, justice is simply about winning at allcosts.Let’s set Norman Osborn aside for the moment in order to focus on the

membersofhisAvengersteam,whoappeartobeactual,well-knownAvengers.Infact,though,thegeneralpublicwouldbehorrifiedtolearntheirtrueidentitiesandcriminalbackgrounds.For instance, the identityofMs.Marvel is takenbyMoonstone(KarlaSofen),who,amongotherevildeeds,killedherownmother,joinedtheMastersofEvil,andfoughtagainsttheAvengers.Daken,Wolverine’stwistedson,assumeshisfather’s identity thoughhe’sbeenkillingpeoplesincehewas a child (more indiscriminately than his father has).Hawkeye is reallyBullseye,oneofDaredevil’sprominentandmostpsychoticenemies,andSpider-ManisVenom(rememberSpidey’sblackcostume?).Allofthese“heroes”poseasotherpeoplewhoarewidelyregardedasgood,

andthustheyareseenbythepublicasthedefendersofgoodnessandjustice.Weknow, of course, that theseDarkAvengers areunjust in a strong sense of theword—the question is, should we care? Is Thrasymachus right that justice ismerelytheadvantageofthestronger?

AretheDarkAvengersEvilorSimply

Bold?Another of Plato’s characters in the Republic, Glaucon, illustratesThrasymachus’s view with a story about the ring of Gyges.8 In this story, ashepherd comes across a chasm in the middle of a field in which he finds ahollowbronzehorsethatentombsadeadmanwearingagoldring.Theshepherdtakestheringanddiscoversthatitmakeshiminvisible(thinkTolkien,butbeforethecommonera).Heusesthepoweroftheringtokillthekingandtakeoverthekingdom.Throughtheringhehasgainedasuperpower,whichhecoulduseforjustorwickedactions—exactlyliketheDarkAvengerscan(aswellastherealones).Whatwouldhappenifthereweretwosuchrings,andyougaveonetoajust

person and the other to an unjust person? Glaucon suggests that “no one, itseems,wouldbesoincorruptiblethathewouldstayonthepathofjusticeorstayawayfromotherpeople’sproperty.”9Inotherwords,boththejustandtheunjustpersonwoulddobadthings;itwouldsimplytakethejustpersonabitlonger.Glaucon goes further, saying that most people would look down upon the

personunwillingtocommitinjustice.Ifapersonwasgiventheopportunitytobeinvisible,anddidnot take theopportunity, then thatpersonwould“be thoughtwretched and stupid by everyone aware of the situation, though, of course,they’d praise him in public, deceiving each other for fear of sufferinginjustice.”10Glauconsuggests thatwhilewewouldneveradmit itpublicly,wethinkthatpeoplearefoolsiftheyaregoodwhennooneelseiswatching.Soinfact he would claim that on some level we admire people like the DarkAvengers.Glauconconcludesthatmostpeoplebelievethelifeofanunjustandwicked

person isactuallybetter (innonmoral terms) than thatofa justperson.SonotonlydoweadmiretheDarkAvengers,butwebelieveourlifewouldbebetterifwewereoneofthem.Todemonstratethis,Glauconsetsupathoughtexperimentwith two scenarios. First, imagine a perfectly unjust person who is granted areputation for being just and, no matter what he does, is able to explain hisactions from within his narrative of being a just person. Second, imagine aperfectly just person who never does anything unjust, but who is given areputation forprofound injustice.Hewill alwaysact justly,butwill alwaysbethoughttobeunjust.Glaucon’s experiment pushes us to ask ourselves whether “being” just is

important enough to us that we would accept the second scenario. In other

words, if you only had the two options of being just and appearing unjust, orbeingunjustandappearingjust,whichwouldyouchoose?Doyoucareenoughaboutbeing just thatyouwouldacceptbeing shunnedbyyour family, friends,and society (inwhich caseyou acceptSocrates’s view)?Ordoyou caremoreaboutpowerand thepraiseyouget fromthosearoundyou(inwhichcaseyouacceptThrasymachus’sview)?TheDarkAvengersallhave“magicrings,”sotospeak.Theyallappeartobe

goodbecausetheyaredresseduplikeAvengers,buttheydobadthingsthatthegeneralpublicdoesnotknowabout.The short runofDarkAvengers aboundswithexamplesofhiddenviolentactionsthattheaveragepersonwouldconsidermorally despicable. For instance, Norman Osborn gives Bullseye, posing asHawkeye, theorder tomurder theSentry’swife,Lindy.Bullseye ismore thanhappy to throw Lindy out of a helicopter and then claim that she committedsuicide.11WecanseewhattheDarkAvengers,andespeciallyOsborn,dowhenthey have the power of invisibility, hiding behind the identities of legitimateAvengers,butthetrulyscarythoughtishowreadilytheywereacceptedassuch.

NoOneNeedstoKnowLike Glaucon’s example of the unjust person who is granted a reputation forjustice, Osborn consistently works to maintain a positive public image forhimselfandhisteam.Forexample,somemembersofthenewlyassembledDarkAvengers suggest that theymake thepublic safebygoingafterTonyStark, towhich Osborn replies, “No. For now, Tony Stark is a court of law matter.Kickingamanwhilehe’sdownishardlyawaytowinoverthepublic.”Bullseyeasks,“Whocaresaboutthatonanylevel?”Osbornresponds,“Ido.Soyoudo,too.”12AftertheDarkAvengers’firstpublicappearance,Osborntellsthem,“Letmemakesomethingperfectlyclear....Noneofyou—Imeannoneofyou—talkto themedia ever again.”13 Osborn plans to control every aspect of theDarkAvengers’publicimage,becausethe“rings”mustbepolishediftheyaretoworkproperly.Osborn’sconcernwiththepublicimageoftheDarkAvengerscontinueswhen

ClintBarton(thegenuineHawkeye)claimsontelevisionthat“NormanOsbornisemployingcriminals todohisblackopsdirtywork,righthere in theUnitedStates.”14BartonsaysthatOsbornhimselfis“acriminalsociopath.Mostpeopledon’t even know, or seem to have forgotten, but he used to be the murdererknownas theGreenGoblin.”15Ofcourse,Osborngoeson television todispel

Barton’sclaims.WhilenotdenyingthathewastheGreenGoblin(butpointingoutBarton’scriminalpast),Osbornappealstopublicpityandsaysthathewasoncementallyillbutisnowhealed.Heclaimsthathesoughttherapyandeventookmedicationtorelievehis“condition.”Tobolsterhisappealhesays,“Andreally,doyouthinkforasecondthatthepresidentoftheUnitedStatesandtheJoint Chiefs of Staff would allow a murderous costumed maniac to lead animportant initiative in this, themost important time in our history?”16Osbornknows that he must manipulate public perception so that he and the DarkAvengerscanpursuetheirownunjustagenda.While Osborn works hard to maintain a squeaky-clean image for the Dark

Avengers,BartonisnottheonlyonewhoknowsthetrueidentityofsomeoftheDarkAvengers.FellowvillainMorganLeFayknows,asdoesMariaHill,formerdeputydirectorofS.H.I.E.L.D.AfterbeingfiredbyOsborn,Hill tellshimthatshe needs to talk to him in person: “I wanted to look you right in the eye. Iwantedthismomentwithyou.Iwantedtotellyouthatwhenyoudocrashandburn—and. . .ohyouwill—Iwillbetherewhenithappens.Laughingmyassoff.”AttheendofthefirstissueofDarkAvengers,HillstandswithNickFuryandotherswhounderstandthetruenatureoftheDarkAvengers.AsFurysaystohisnewlyassembledteam,“Youwillbemyarmy.Theworldneedsus.Thesearedarkanddesperatetimes.”17Recall that Glaucon (channeling Thrasymachus) asserts that most people

would love theopportunity todowhat theywantand takewhat theywant forthemselvesbutalsomaintainareputationforbeinggoodandjust.SoaccordingtoGlaucon,weareactuallyjealousoftheDarkAvengersandtheirblatantlackofmorals.IfyoudisagreewithGlaucon,thenyouprobablybelievethatthereisadeeper sense inwhichwe are “good” or “bad.”While youmight notwish toappearunjustinordertobejust,youwoulddoit.And,ofcourse,sodosomeofthecharactersinDarkAvengers.

BeingJustThe real Avengers’Ms.Marvel (Carol Danvers), the Dark Avengers’ CaptainMarvel(Noh-Varr),anddualAvenger(andGreekgod)Aresarewillingtoriskeverything—reputationandlife—inordertobejust.WhenOsborntellsDanversthatheis thenewheadof theAvengers,sherefusestoworkwithhim,saying,“Nooneworthadamnwillsidewithyou,Norman.TherewillbenoAvengers.None.”18Sostrongareherconvictions that shegoesAWOLfromhermilitarypositiontoavoidworkingwithOsborn.Shewouldratherbeperceivedashaving

abandoned her duties than merely appear to be a just and good soldier byworkingwithOsborn.ButDanversisa“true”Avenger,sowewouldn’texpectanythingless.Likewise,Noh-VarrleavestheDarkAvengersassoonashefindsoutthathis

fellowDarkAvengersareactuallycriminals.HediscoversthiswhenMoonstone,posing as Ms. Marvel, hurries to turn on the TV to hear Osborn’s interviewshortlyafterseducingNoh-Varr.Shesaystohim,“I’mdyingtoseehowNormansells the fact thatheput togethera teamofpsychoticcriminalsandmurderersandcallsthemAvengers.”19Noh-Varrisgenuinelyshockedashesays,“Heputtogetherwhat?”20ThatnightNoh-VarrdefectsfromtheDarkAvengersandgoesintohiding.EveryonewhoshunstheDarkAvengersseemstothinkthatthereissomethingdeepertobeinggoodthansimplybeingonthewinningside.Aresisyetanotherexampleofsomeonewhowouldratherbejustthanmerely

appear to be just.When he joined theDarkAvengers, he, likeNoh-Varr,wasnaïveinhisbeliefthatheandOsbornservedtogetheronthesideofjustice.AftertherealMs.MarvelrefusestojointheDarkAvengers,anddiscoversthatAresdid,shesaystoAreswhilepointingatOsborn,“Doyouknowwhoheis?”Aresresponds, “He’s thewarriorwhobestedmyownenemy inbattle.”Alongwiththe general public, Ares thinks that Osborn is a hero who stopped the Skrullinvasion.DuringtheSiegeofAsgard,however,AresdiscoversthatOsbornhadlied to him and used him.He attacksOsborn, saying, “And I told youwhat Iwoulddo,Osborn!I toldyoutrue!I’mgoingtopulloffyourhead,armorandall.”21TheSentrystepsintodefendOsborn,literallytearingAresinhalf.Aresgivesmorethanhisreputationtobejust—hegiveshislife.(Buthe’sagod—he

gets better.) Just How Dark Are the DarkAvengers?Whenyoudothe“rightthing,”isitbecauseyouthinkyouarebeingwatched,orisitbecauseyouhaveadeeperbeliefabout“right”and“wrong”thatguidesyouractions? If, like Osborn, you were given the opportunity to direct a team ofcorrupt superheroes, would you avoid the temptation to punish your nemesis,accumulate wealth, and settle a few scores? If no one knew, and you wereguaranteedthatnoonewouldknow,whatwouldyoudo?Ifyoucommissionedtheseacts,wouldyoufeelguilty?Ifyouwouldfeelguilty,thenyouareeitheratrulyvirtuouspersonoragreatfool.Unfortunately,philosophyhasnoscientificmethodfordeterminingwhichyouare,andsoweare leftwondering:whatdowereallythinkabouttheDarkAvengers?

NOTES

1.AllofthisoccurredintheDarkAvengersseries,whichlastedsixteenissuesfromMarch2009toJuly2010,andhasbeencollectedinthehardcoverDarkAvengers(2011)aswellasseparatetradepaperbacks.2.InPlato,CompleteWorks,ed.JohnM.Cooper(Indianapolis:Hackett,1997).StandardpaginationisgivenwheneverPlatoisquoted,soyoucanfindtherelevantpassagesinanyreputabletranslation.3.SeeBookVIIoftheRepublic.4.CivilWar:TheConfession(May2007).5.Ibid.6.DarkAvengers#5(August2009).7.Republic,338c.8.AlthoughitisworthnotingthatGlauconsaysthatheissupportingThrasymachus’sargumentonlybecausehewantsSocratestoreallydefeatit.GlauconwantstoagreewithSocrates,buthealsowantsagoodargument.(Hemayhavebeenthefirstdevil’sadvocate!)SeeRepublic,357a–b.9.Republic,360b.10.Ibid.,360d.11.DarkAvengers#14–15(April–May2010).SeeDarkReign:Hawkeye(2010)formoreexamplesofBullseye’sheinousconductwhilewearingClintBarton’scostume.12.DarkAvengers#1(March2009).13.DarkAvengers#2(April2009).14.DarkAvengers#4(June2009).15.Ibid.16.DarkAvengers#5(August2009).17.DarkAvengers#1.18.Ibid.19.DarkAvengers#5.20.Ibid.21.Siege#1–2(March–April2010),reprintedinSiege(2010).

Chapter3

THEAVENGERS:EARTH’SMIGHTIESTFAMILY

JasonSouthworthandRuthTallman

Whatmakesaherooravillain?Often,whenwetalkaboutheroeswefocusontheirstrongcharacter,onthevirtuesofcourage,determination,andself-reliancethatmakethemremarkable.Wetendtogivethemalotofpersonalcreditforthewaytheyexcelintheworld.Butdidyoueverstoptothinkaboutthepeoplewhohadahandinshapingthoseheroesintotheindividualstheyeventuallybecame?ThereisalongtraditionintheMarvelUniverseoffamilylegaciesofheroism

andvillainy.T’Chakaandhischildren,T’ChallaandShuri,allservedWakandaas its protector, the Black Panther. Twins Brian and Elizabeth Braddock havemadenamesforthemselvesasheroesCaptainBritainandPsylocke,respectively.Somefamilieshavebeeninvolvedinsuperheroicsandevildoingforgenerations.The second Captain America’s (Isaiah Bradley’s) grandson, Eli Bradley, iscarryingonthefamilylegacyasPatriot.Ontheevilsideofthecoin,fatherandson Heinrich and Helmut Zemo have both fought Captain America as BaronZemo,carryingonatraditionofevilthatstretchesbacktwelvegenerations.Alloftheseexamplesareindicationsthatupbringingcountsforalotwhenit

comes toaperson’scharacter.Nature—even in theformof radioactivespidersandgammarays—accountsforthepotentialofapersontobecomeaherooravillain,butnurtureplaysapivotalrole in influencingwhichpathapersonwillfollow.Inthischapter,we’llconsidertheissueofparentalresponsibilityfortheactions and characters of children, using examples drawn from decades ofAvengerscomics.

OfFatherandUltronWedon’thavetogoveryfarintothehistoryoftheAvengerstoseethatthereareinconsistencies in themanner inwhich parents are credited or blamed for theway their children turn out. More comic book pages have been spent on therelationshipbetweenHankPymandUltron, the livingautomaton, thanonany

other parent and child. Pym, the Avenger who holds the record for the mostnumber of aliases (Ant-Man, Giant-Man, Goliath, Yellowjacket, Wasp, andScientistSupreme),developedasupercomputerwithahuman-levelintelligencebased on Pym’s own “brain patterns.”1 Following his creation,Ultron quicklydeveloped self-consciousness and,with it, thoughts of his own.Unfortunately,thesethoughts includedkillingPym,therestof theAvengers,andprettymucheveryoneelse.SomemightfinditstrangetodiscusstheHankPym/Ultronrelationshipasa

parentalone,but this is thewaypeopleintheMarvelUniverseviewit.UltronandPymexplicitlyaddresseachotheras“father”and“son.”Furthermore,whenUltronMark12(the“good”incarnationofUltron)dies,Pymmournsthedeathofhis“son”andissodistraughtthathecontemplatessuicide(actuallyholdingaguntohishead).2Theirrelationshipislikethatofmanyparentsandchildren—forinstance,HankwasthereforUltron’screation,andthetworeconnectedforbetterandworseafterUltronbecamehisownperson.However,Pymneverhadachanceto influenceUltron’s thoughts,andinfacthedidn’tevenknowthathis“son” had developed self-consciousness untilUltron attacked him for the firsttime.SoisHankPymmorallyresponsibleforUltron’sbehavior?FortheAvengers,

theanswerisaresoundingyes.Therearedozensofinstanceswherepeoplehaveexpressed judgment and condemnation of Pym, and he has been explicitlyblamed for the death and destruction caused by Ultron. The line of thoughtseemstobethatHankisresponsiblebecausehadhenotcreatedUltron,Ultroncouldn’thavecommittedhisterribledeeds.Ms.Marvel(CarolDanvers)sumsupthissentimentbestwhenshethinks,“AndyoucreatedUltronso$%#@you....Ifyoucan’t[stophim],killyourself.”3SothereisastrongintuitionamongtheAvengers, and shared bymost readers, that Pymdid somethingwrong just byfatheringUltron,evenifhehadnoroleincraftingUltron’s“character.”

SometimestheApplesDoFallFarfromtheTree

A tension arises, however,whenwe consider the case of two otherAvengers,WandaandPietroMaximoff,knownastheScarletWitchandQuicksilver.TheseAvengersdidn’tcometoknowtheirfatheruntiltheywereadults.Theirmother,MagdaEisenhardt,lefttheirfatherwhileshewaspregnantoutoffearthatharmwouldcometoherchildrenbecauseherhusband,Max,hadrevealedhimselfto

beamutant.Magdadiedsoonaftergivingbirth,andthetwinswereplacedinthecareofagypsycouplenamedDjangoandMaryaMaximoff.4Thisiswhytheirsurnamediffersfromthatoftheirfather,MaxEisenhardt,wholateradoptedthenameErikLehnsherr,betterknownasMagneto.Magneto’s actions as a supervillain andmutant terrorist clearly earn him a

place high on the list of the greatest villains of theMarvelUniverse. But hisfatherhoodismuchlikethatofHankPym:MagnetocontributedhisDNAtohischildren,whileHankdonatedhisbrainpatterns.After that initial involvement,neitherparticipatedinthemoraleducationorcharacter-buildingoftheirprogeny.Pymwas ignorant ofUltron’smental development, andMagneto had no ideawherehischildrenwere.YetwhileHankisblamedforUltron,noonehasevergivenMagnetoanycreditforfatheringtwoAvengers.TheonlydifferenceisthatPym is a hero who fathered a villain, andMagneto is a villain who fatheredheroes. It is unclear how that fact could affect moral praiseworthiness orblameworthiness, however. The cases seem to be the same in all relevantregards, so we can’t have it both ways. IfMagneto gets no credit, then Pymshould get no blame—and if Pym is held responsible, so shouldMagneto. Sowhatarewe todo? It looks likewearegoing toneed to findsomethingotherthanmerecreationtohangourpraiseandblameon.Let’s think about the underlying factors that prompt our gut response of

wanting to blame Pym. It seems likewe react so negatively to Pym’s role increating Ultron because Ultron is so evil, and having a hero for a father justintensifiesourvisceralresponse.Wethinkthatheroesshouldhaveheroickids,and the jarring juxtaposition of Hank’s heroism and Ultron’s evil is deeplyunsettling.Wereact toourdiscomfortbysearchingforsomeonetoblame,andHankisthemostreadilyavailabletarget.Whenavillain’schildmanagestoturnoutokay,on theotherhand,we tend to thinksimply that thekidgot lucky,orhadanexceptionallystrongcharacterthatstoppedhimfromfallingvictimtothecorrupting influence of his evil parent. We don’t seem to mind the lack ofsymmetry when the child is better than the parent; we don’t need to blameanyoneforanything,andwedon’twanttogivecredittoavillainousparent.

JourneytotheCenteroftheAntThisgivesusapsychologicalexplanationforwhywewanttoblameHankbutnot praise Magneto, but is this justified or fair? Let’s take a look at aparadigmatic example of a hero and his heroic kid to see what we can learnregardingtheappropriatedesignationofparentalpraiseandblame.

ScottLang(thesecondAnt-Man,afterPym)isoftengivenconsiderablecreditforhisdaughterCassie’ssuccessasasuperhero(Stature).EarlierinherteensshewasafoundingmemberoftheYoungAvengers,andshewentontobecometheyoungestpersonknowinglyadmittedintotheAvengersproperinPym’sMightyAvengerslineup.5Praisingherfatherdoesn’tseemmisguidedinthiscase,andacloserlookattheirrelationshipshouldtelluswhy.It isn’t discussedmuch anymore, butScottLangwas first introduced to the

MarvelUniverseasacriminal.Afterfailingasanelectrician,hetriedhishandatburglary, failedat thataswell,andendedup in jail.He firstbecameAnt-Manusingequipmenthehad stolen fromHankPym’s laboratory inorder to rescuetheonlydoctorwhocouldcureCassie(thenayoungchild)ofaheartcondition.6Fromthatpoint forward,Langdideverything inhispower to teachCassie thedifferencebetweenrightandwrong,alessonhestressedhehadtolearnthehardway.Thiseffortpaidoff,asScottsucceededininstillinghisdaughterwithstrongmoralvalues,asenseofsocialresponsibility,andawillingnesstosacrificemuchofherownadolescencetohelpstrangers.Cassieconsistentlymakesitclearthatshe isasuperherobecauseof the lessonsshe learnedfromherfather,which iswhatmotivatedhertoadoptaversionofherdad’soldcostume,bothtohonorhismemoryandtomakeastrongdeclarationthatsheiswhosheisbecauseofScottLang.Inshort,hadCassienothadScottasafather,itisunlikelythatshewouldhavebecomeasuperhero.OnewaytounderstandtheinfluenceScotthadonCassiecomestousthrough

the tradition of the Greek philosopher Aristotle (384–322 BCE). Aristotlebelieved that while we might have innate tendencies to behave in particularways,muchofourmoral character isdeveloped throughaprocessofhabitualimitation. Aristotle thought that we learn to be good people bywatching andimitatingthosewhohavealreadydevelopedvirtuoushabits.Thisideahasbeenmetwith renewedphilosophical interest in recent yearsunder thenamemoralexemplarism.7Moral exemplarists argue thatwhenwe spend timewith strongmoral role models, it is highly likely that we will begin to adopt patterns ofbehaviorthatimitatethoseexemplars.ThisisexactlywhathappenedinCassie’scase.WithAnt-Manasherfatherandmoralexemplar,itishardlysurprisingthatCassiebecametheheroStature.Thephilosophicalconceptofmoralexemplarismhelpsusfigureoutwhatto

make of those puzzling tensions regarding parental praise and blame. If weconsider the cases of Pym and Ultron, and Magneto and his twin children,through the lens of the Langs, a clearer picture emerges of what determineswhether parental praise or blame is actually warranted. Magneto’s genes

producedgreatkids,butwhocares?Pym’sbrainwavesresultedinanevilrobot,butthat’snotPym’sfault.Weshouldn’tpraiseMagnetoorblamePym,becauseneitherofthemservedasmoral(orimmoral)exemplarsfortheirchildren.WhenwepraiseScottLang,it’snotforcontributinghisgenestoCassiebutforgivinghisdaughterasolidmoralgroundingandsettinganexampleofthewayaheroshould liveanddie.Even ifScottweren’tCassie’sbiological father,hewoulddeservecreditforraisingCassie.Sowe’ve finallygot an answer: parentsdeservepraise for thewillful effort

theyputintohelpingtheirchildrenbecomegoodpeople,andtheydeserveblamewhentheyfailtocontributeinthatwaytotheirchildren’supbringing—orwhenthey act to influence their kids for theworse, like the elderBaron Zemo did.Parents who are present and active in their children’s lives can have a hugeimpactontheadultstheybecome,ascanbeseeninmanyexamplesthroughoutAvengerslore.

TheTiesThatBindThroughflashbacks,welearnthatsimilartypesofchildhoodexperiencesshapedScottLang’steammateT’Challa, theBlackPanther.Whilehewasgrowingup,T’Challa’sfather,T’Chaka,wastheBlackPanther,theleaderoftheirhomelandofWakanda.Althoughabusynationalfigure,T’Chakaplayedaveryhands-onroleinhisson’supbringing.T’Chakathoughtitimportantthatfromasyounganageaspossible,hissonunderstandrightfromwrongandwhatitmeanstohavepeopledependonyou.Tofacilitatethis,theydiscussedthesemattersoften,andT’ChallafrequentlyaccompaniedhisfatherasheconductedbusinessthroughoutWakanda. Itwasononeof these trips thatT’ChakawasmurderedbyUlyssesKlaw.Witnessinghisfather’sdeath,T’Challareactedwiththeinstinctshisfatherhadworkedtodevelopinhim,andwasabletoturnKlaw’sweaponagainsthim,saving countless lives.8 This is not to give all the credit to T’Chaka, though.T’Challa was also raised by his stepmother, Ramonda, after his biologicalmotherdiedduringchildbirth.RamondadedicatedherlifetoraisingT’Challaashis father wanted, and prevented him from being consumed with rage overT’Chaka’sdeath.Tothisday,RamondaisstilloneofT’Challa’sclosestadvisers,andoneofthefewpeoplefromwhomhekeepsnosecrets.On the villainous side of things, we have the Barons Zemo. The elder,

Heinrich,wasaNaziscientistwhofoughtCaptainAmericaduringWorldWarII.Althoughhe isbestknownforbeing themanresponsible forCap’ssuspendedanimation and his sidekick Bucky’s apparent death, he also created countless

superweaponsused to facilitate theNaziwareffort.Zemowassodespised forhis cruelty, even by otherGermans during thewar, that he took towearing amask to hide his face (a point that is pretty amusing since he didn’t hide hisname,sohecouldn’thavehadmuchanonymity).Heinrichhadason,Helmut,andasyoumightexpectfromaNaziofthefirstorder,Heinrichraisedhissontobelieve that Aryans were the only people of worth. Adding insult to injury,HeinrichwasalsoabusivetoHelmut,directinghisangerandfrustrationatbeingstuckinhismasktowardhisson.Asyoumightexpect,Helmutdidn’tgrowuptobeastableindividual.When

he learned that Captain America was still alive, the younger Zemo sought toestablish justice—in the perverted form of the concept taught to him by hisfather—and worked to kill Captain America, first as the Phoenix and later,modifying his father’s costume, as a new Baron Zemo, becoming one of theAvengers’greatestfoesaswellascontinuingtoplagueRogersandlaterBucky(Rogers’ssuccessorasCaptainAmerica).9

TheTorchIsPassedThatattentionandguidancegoalongwaytoshapinganindividualisalessontheleadersof theAvengers learnedearly.IronManandCaptainAmericahavegone out of their way to recruit criminals and troubled individuals into theAvengers family in an attempt to offer them guidance to help them becomeheroes(andtopreventthemfrombecomingsuperpainsintheass).ThefirstmajorrosterchangetotheteamaddedtheScarletWitch,Quicksilver,

andHawkeye(ClintBarton),whowithCaptainAmericaformed“Cap’sKookyQuartet.”10For thosecountingathome, that’s twoterroristsanda thief.AtrueAvengersfandoesn’tneedtobetoldhowthisturnedout:allthreereformedandhaveservedinseveralincarnationsoftheteam.Subsequentcriminaladditionstothe team have included the aforementioned Scott Lang, thief andRussian spyNatashaRomanova(theBlackWidow),Ultron’ssontheVision(whojoinedtheteam in the same issue in which he first appeared as a villain attacking theWasp),theSwordsman(thefirstvillaindefeatedbyCap’sKookyQuartet),andEricO’Grady,thethirdAnt-Man,whomasqueradedasasuperheroforpersonalgain.11Why would Cap, Tony, and the other Avengers risk inviting questionable

characters and downright criminals into the group, trusting them to keep theirsecretsandtocovertheirbacksindangeroussituations?Whenwethinkofthe

missionoftheAvengers,ourthoughtstypicallygototheinnocentcivilianstheyprotect.ButitseemsanothermissionoftheAvengershasalwaysbeentoserveasmoralexemplarsforyoungstersinneedofdirection.12TonyStarkhadthisinmind when he offered Scott Lang his first job out of prison, installing thesecurity system in Avengers Mansion,13 and the success of Scott and othersoffersafairamountofevidencethatmoralexemplarismactuallydoeswork.Of these examples,Hawkeye isprobably thegreatest success.Hebeganhis

careerasanAvenger resentful for theoversight, andhe is famous for fightingconstantlywithCaptainAmerica.FormuchofhisearlycareerasanAvenger,hethought he did not get enough respect, and he quit the team several times toprove he didn’t need help to be a hero. In spite of this distasteful behavior,CaptainAmericakeptencouraginghim.Overtime,HawkeyebecameoneofthemosttrustedAvengers,andwhenitwastimetostartasecondteamontheWestCoast, the Vision chose Hawkeye to assemble and lead the team.14 Hawkeyetookthelessonofsecondchancesseriously:whentheThunderbolts,agroupofsupervillainsclaimingtobereformed,emerged,hesupportedthem,adoptingforthemtheroleCaptainAmericahadplayedforhim.15Atthispoint,itoughttobeclearthatamoralexemplarneedn’tbeaparent,or

evenabloodrelative.Ourtendencytopraiseandblameparentsfortheactionsandcharactersoftheirchildrencomesfromthefactthatmostparentsdoserveasmoralexemplarsfortheirkids.Parentsareusuallythepeoplechildrenspendthemosttimewithduringtheirformativeyears,anditisnaturaltodevelopfeelingsofadmirationfor thosewhocare foruswhenwearevulnerable.However,wealso know, and this is increasingly clear in our modern world of blendedfamilies,thatthenurturing,caregivingroleissometimesprovidedquitewellbyanonparent.T’Challa’sstepmother,Ramonda,isagreatexampleofthis.Whilenot his biologicalmother, she filled thematernal role in his life and certainlyactedasamoralexemplar,alongsideaswellasafterthedeathofhisbiologicalparent.MagnetoisWandaandPietro’sfather,buthehasneverbeentheirmoralexemplar—that role was played by Cap and the other Avengers. What isimportant isn’t blood but action. The Avengers have taught us that providingstructure,guidance,andaclearmodeltofollowcanhavewonderfulresults,andcan form lasting, family-strength relationships among the most unlikely ofindividuals.

SinsoftheFather?

IncaseslikePymandMagneto,wemightbetemptedtosaythatwhilewecan’tholdthemmorallyaccountableforthewaytheirchildrenturnedout,sincetheyweren’t involved in theirupbringing,maybeweshould hold themaccountablefor not being present in their children’s lives. To be fair, Pym and Magnetoprobablyneedtobeletoffthehookforthis,sinceMagnetodidn’tknowwherehis childrenwere or how to find them andUltron’s childhood occurredwhileHankwas,uh,sleeping.Butgenerally,don’tparentshaveanobligationtoraisetheirkids?Actually, no, or at least not always. Moral exemplars have an enormous

influenceon theway theiremulators turnout.Raisingkids isa tough job,andfrankly, not everyone is up to the task. Think about the Baron Zemo legacy.Heinrich’s bad example went a long way to shaping Helmut into the deeplytroubled, desperately unhappy menace he became. Wouldn’t Heinrich havedeservedsomepraise,ratherthanblame,ifhe’drecognizedthathewasjustnotfathermaterialandgivenhisbabytoastablefamilytoraise?Shouldn’tweallsendMagnetoathank-youcardfornot raisingWandaandPietro?Thinkaboutwhat the world would be like if they’d grown up hearing bedtime stories ofworlddominationfromdearoldDad.This is a point that some in theMarvel Universe have acknowledged. The

villainCountLuchinoNefariawanted his infant daughter,Giulietta, to have achanceat anormal life thatheknewhe’dbeunable toprovide forher.Sohegavehertoawealthycouple,ByronandLorettaFrost,toraiseastheirown.ItwasonlyaftertheFrosts’death,whenNefariawasunabletoleavewellenoughaloneand introducedhimself toGiulietta asher real father, that shebegan thedownward spiral that eventuated in her becoming the criminal MadameMasque.16Evenifyouaren’tadepravedvillain,sometimestheresponsiblethingtodois

toturnyourchildren’supbringingovertosomeonewhoismorequalifiedtogivethemthehelptheyneed.Ifyouthinkaboutit,mostparentsdothistoalimitedextent.Wesendourkidstoschooltogainknowledgeweareillequippedtogivethem.Wehelp themacquire skillsweourselves lackbypayingpiano teachersandsoccercoachestofillinwherewefallshort.Andwhenachildneedsextrahelp,we’llemployapsychologistoraspeechtherapist,orevensendthechildtoaspecialschooltogetwhatheorsheneeds.Nooneblamestheparentsofdeafchildrenforsendingthemawaytoaspecializedschoolforthehearingimpaired.If anything, it is often seen as a noble sacrifice, especially if the children areseparated from their loving parents more than they would be at a standardschool.

There are clear parallels to these ideas in the Marvel Universe. ProfessorXavierand theother leadersof theX-Menare in thebusinessof raisingotherpeople’schildren for them,butwedon’tblame thosekids’parents for sendingthemto theXavierSchool for theGifted.On thecontrary,wearepleased thatthese children’s parents recognized their own inability to offer their mutantchildren the guidance they need as they learn to cope with and control theirpowers, and we are happy that they are willing to sacrifice a close parentalrelationshipwiththeirkidsinordertogivethemthebestopportunitiesavailable.Intherealworld,parentswhogivetheirchildrentothestateortoarelativeto

raiseareoftenjudgedharshlyforfailingasparents.Whiletherearesurelylessvirtuous reasons for giving up one’s parental responsibilities—selfishness orlaziness, to name a couple—in some cases, placingone’s biological child intohands you know aremore capable than your own can be the best and bravestthingaparentcando.ThistropeisasoldasMosesandthebulrushes,anditissomethingthatcertainlybearsrememberingtoday,whenweconsiderthevariousformsparentalpraiseandblamecantake.

LetThereBeanEnding!TheAvengersareoneoftheelitesuperheroteamsintheMarvelUniverse,andthebest,brightest,andmostpowerfulheroeswouldbehonoredtojointheteam.YetCaptainAmericaandIronManhavealwaysmadeittheirbusinesstorecruit“wild cards,” young, directionless individuals, often with sketchy pasts. Theytake a chance on these young people, and through the powerful guidance andsupporttheteamcanprovide,morallyquestionableindividualsaretransformedinto the Earth’s mightiest protectors. Especially given that many of theseindividuals had less than heroic biological parents—can it get anyworse thanMagneto?—we now have clear evidence that the people who mentored you,rather than thosewho siredyou,have amoreprofoundeffect on thewayyouturn out. And because of this, praise and blame should not be givenautomatically to one’s biological parents, but to one’s intellectual or moral“parents,”whetherthosearethesameindividualsornot.Keepthisinmindwhenthinking about Tigra’s young sonWilliam: which is worse for him, having aSkrullposingasHankPymasthebiologicalfather(completewithPym’sDNA),ortherealPymasanurturingfather?17(Uh,maybeMagneto’savailable?)

NOTES

1.AsseeninaflashbackinAvengers,vol.1,#58(November1968),reprintedinEssentialAvengersVol.3(2001).2.WestCoastAvengers,vol.2,#14(November1986),reprintedinAvengers:WestCoastAvengers—SinsofthePast(2011).3.MightyAvengers,vol.1,#4(August2007),reprintedinMightyAvengersVol.1:TheUltronInitiative(2007).4.VisionandtheScarletWitch,vol.2,#12(September1986),reprintedinAvengers:VisionandtheScarletWitch—AYearintheLife(2010).5.Ragewastechnicallyyounger,ashewasfourteen,butwhenhistrueagewasdiscoveredhewasdemotedtotheNewWarriors.6.MarvelPremiere#47–48(April–May1979).7.Foramoderntakeonmoralexemplarism,seeLindaZagzebski,“ExemplaristVirtueTheory,”Metaphilosophy41(2010):49–52.8.Thisstoryhasbeentoldmanytimes,mostrecentlyinBlackPanther,vol.4,#1–6(April–September2005),reprintedinBlackPanther:WhoIstheBlackPanther(2009).9.HewasPhoenixinCaptainAmerica,vol.1,#168(reprintedinEssentialCaptainAmericaVol.4,2008),andthenewBaronZemoinCaptainAmerica,vol.1,#275.10.Avengers,vol.1,#16(May1965),reprintedinEssentialAvengersVol.1(1998).IronManattemptedtorecruitNamorinthesameissue,butherefusedtojoin.WhileNamormightnotbeavillain(Marvelcharactersandreadersaresplitonthisone),everyoneagreeshehasaseriousangerproblemthathecouldusesomehelpgettingundercontrol.11.Avengers,vol.1,#19(August1965),#36(January1967),#57(October1968),#100(June1972),and#195(May1980),respectively.(Allbut#195arereprintedintheEssentialAvengersvolumes.)12.Onredemption,seethechapterstitled“ForgiversAssemble!”byDanielP.Malloyand“Cap’sKookyQuartet:IsRehabilitationPossible?”byAndrewTerjeseninthisvolume.13.Avengers,vol.1,#181(March1979),reprintedinAvengers:NightsofWundagore(2009).14.Avengers,vol.1,#243(May1984).15.SeeThunderbolts#22andAvengers,vol.3,#12(bothJanuary1999,thelatterreprintedinAvengersAssembleVol.2,2005).

16.IronMan,vol.1,#18(October1969),reprintedinEssentialIronManVol.3(2008).17.See,forinstance,AvengersAcademy#7(December2010),reprintedinAvengersAcademy:WhenWillWeUseThisintheRealWorld?(2011).

PARTTWO

WHOISANAVENGER?

Chapter4

SUPERHEROIDENTITY:CASESTUDIESINTHEAVENGERS

StephenM.Nelson

You’reinacomicbookstoreandyouseeadisplayofAvengerscomicsfrom

thepastfivedecades.Doesitseemalittlestrangethatthefoundingmembersonthe early covers are still around, half a century later, looking prettymuch thesame?Doyouwonder:aretheythesamesuperheroes?Ofcoursetheyare,yousay—takeIronMan,forinstance.Hemayhavedifferentarmoronthecoversofthefirstissuesofvolumes1and4ofAvengers(September1963andJuly2010,respectively),butthey’rebothTonyStarkunderneath,sowhat’stheproblem?Whatmayseemobviousatfirst,though,getspuzzlingwhenwelookatsome

oftheotherAvengersandthechangesthey’vegonethroughovertheyears.Twodifferentkindsofcasesinparticularchallengeourinitialclear-cutanswer.First,we have superheroes who have been “played” by different people, such asCaptain America. Second, there are people who have been many differentsuperheroes, such as Henry “Hank” Pym. Both kinds of cases pose problemsaboutidentity,orwhatitistobeaparticularsuperhero.Canonepersonbemanysuperheroes, and can one superhero bemany people? Luckily, we have somephilosophical tools that we can bring to bear on these issues, stemming frominvestigationsintothenatureofpersonalidentity,orwhatitistobeaperson.

It’sAllaboutBodies,Right?Concernsaboutthenotionofidentity,personalorotherwise,comeupinthefieldofmetaphysics,wherephilosopherspuzzleaboutthenatureofreality.Theword“identity”hasdifferentuses,but theone that’s important inmetaphysics is thekind that isalsoof interest inmathematics.Weevencall itnumerical identity,since it iswhatweuse to talkabout two things reallybeingoneand thesamething across a spanof time.For example, youmight discover that thewomanwhojustwavedtoyouandthewomanwhosoldyouyourfirstcarareactuallyoneandthesamewoman.Anotherwaywecouldsaythis is that thosewomen

areidentical.Whenphilosophersdiscuss the issueofpersonal identity,orwhat it is tobe

oneandthesamepersonoveraspanoftime,wedosobyproposingtheoriesthatattempt toget at theessenceofwhat it is tobeaperson.Onecontender for agood explanation of personal identity is the “body” theory, which says that apersonistobeidentifiedwithhisorherbody.Sotobeoneandthesamepersonacrossaspanoftimeisjusttohaveoneandthesamebodyacrossthatspan.HowcouldthebodytheoryworkwithsomeonelikeSteveRogers,theoriginal

CaptainAmerica?Let’scallthescrawnykidwhohadn’ttakenthesuper-soldierserumyet“Stevie,”andtheathletic(post-serum)man“Steve.”StevieandStevedo not look exactly like each other, nor are they made of exactly the samephysical particles. So if the body theory of personal identity required the twobodies to look thesameorhaveall thesameparticles, thenwewouldsay thatStevieandStevearenotthesameperson.Butifthetheoryismoresophisticated,takingintoaccountthenormalprocessesofgrowthandcellregeneration,abodytheorymaybe able to explainhowStevie andSteveare the sameperson: theformerdevelopedintothelatter,thussharingthesamebody.Doubtsaboutthebodytheorycomefromathoughtexperimentdevisedbythe

philosopher John Locke (1632–1704), in which we imagine people swappingbodies.1 Suppose one day Steve Rogers and Hank Pym wake up with eachother’smemoriesandpersonalities.TheygotothemorningAvengersmeeting,andthepersonwholookslikeHankPymstartsreminiscingaboutfightingNazisinWorldWarII,whilethepersonwholookslikeSteveRogerstellsastoryabouthiswife,Janet.Aftercarefulquestioning,everyonerealizeswhat’shappened—RogersandPymhaveswitchedbodies.(JustanotherdaywiththeAvengers.)Sowho’swho?Ifwethinkthebodytheoryiscorrect,thenwemustsaythatthepersonwith

Pym’sbody isPymand likewisewithRogers.But it seemsabit strange tobeforced to say that the personwith Pym’s body is Pym, evenwhen he has nomemoryofbeingPym.ThispersonbehavesandtalksasifheisRogers,andhewoulddenythatheisPym.Thesekindsofconsiderationshaveledphilosopherstoother theories, suchasones rooted incollectionsofpsychologicalattributeslikememoriesandpersonalities.

ILikeYouforYourMind,HonestLet’s call this kind of competitor to the body theory the “psychology” theory.Thistheorysaysthatsomeaspectofourpsychologyiswhatisessentialtousas

individuals, so preserving this feature iswhat preserves personal identity overtime. (Proponents of this kind of theory disagree about which psychologicalfeatureiskey,butthatneedn’tworryushere.)Thisgivesusabetterexplanationofthebody-swappingcaseofPymandRogers,sinceitpredicts thatwewouldthinkPym’sidentitygoeswithhismemoriesandpersonality,regardlessofwhichbodyeachendsup in.Adifficultywith thepsychology theory, though,canbeillustratedwithadifferentkindofexample.SupposePym invents a duplicatingmachine that takes a person’s brain and

splits it into its twohemispheres, thencreates twonewcompletebrainsoutofthem—eachoneidenticaltotheoriginalandretainingallpsychologicalaspectsoftheoriginalperson.Let’ssayPymdoesthis tohimselfandthencreatestwonew bodies to put the new brains in. At the end of it all, we have two newpeople,eachofwhomhasthesamepsychologicalprofileasHankPym.Unfortunately, ifwe think that thepsychology theoryofpersonal identity is

correct,wehaveaproblemindecidingwhatweshouldsayaboutthesetwonewPym-likemen.IsoneofthemidenticaltotheoldHankPym?Ifso,whichone?Theycan’tbothbeidenticaltoPym,sincethentheywouldhavetobeidenticaltoeachother.Andsincetherearetwoofthem,theyareclearlynotoneandthesameperson.ButtheybothhavePym’spsychology,andneitherofthemappearstohaveanykindofprivilegedaccess—theybothhaveequalclaimtoit.Thebodytheoryandthepsychologytheoryaretwoofthemaincandidatesfor

explainingpersonal identity, but they arenot theonlyoptions to choose from.And thedifficulties I raised foreachof themmaynotbe insurmountable.Youmayalreadyhave some ideas forhowwemight tweak thebody theory togetaround the body-swapping problem, or modify the psychology theory to getaroundtheduplicationproblem.Thesearefruitfulexercises,butlet’stakewhatwehavediscussedhereandseehowwecanuseittodiscusssuperheroes,ratherthanjust“regular”people.2

UnmaskingtheMantleTheoryofSuperheroIdentity

WhenwediscussedHankPymandSteveRogers,weweretalkingaboutthemaspeople,notastheirsuperheropersonas.Nowlet’stakeupthequestionwebeganthis chapterwith:what canwe say about superhero identity that allows us toapproachpuzzlingcases,likethemultipleheroicguisesofPym,orthemultiplebearersoftheCaptainAmericatitle?

Woulditworktosimplyimportatheoryofpersonalidentity,suchasthebodyorpsychology theory,directly to thecaseof superheroes?Unfortunately, thosetheorieswillnotquitecapturewhatweneed.Goliathand theWaspareclearlytwo different superheroes, but Hank Pym has been both of them at differenttimes.WhatevermakesPymidentical tohimselfover timecannotbe thesamethingthatmakesasuperheroidenticaltohimselforherselfovertime;otherwisewe would have difficulty saying that Goliath and theWasp are not identicalsuperheroidentities(eventhoughtheybothmayhavebeenassumedbythesameperson).Ontheotherhand,CaptainAmericaisonesuperheroidentitythathasbeenassumedbySteveRogers (mostprominently) and alsobyothers such asJohnWalkerandBuckyBarnes.IfCaptainAmericawerejustabody,orjustacertain group of psychological features, it would not be possible for differentpeople (who have different physical and psychological characteristics) to “be”him.Butclearlytherehavebeenmultiplepeople,allgoingbythename“CaptainAmerica,”soweneedanewtheoryofidentity.What shouldwe say about superhero identity if it is not the same thing as

personalidentity?Onepossibilitywouldbetodrawfromthewaywetalkaboutsuperheroes and apply it to the approach we use with personal identity,respectingthefactthatitisadifferentsortofthingtobeasuperherothantobeaperson. Being a superhero is like being a persona, or wearing amantle, likewhen we say, “David Bowie shed the mantle of Ziggy Stardust in the early1970s,adoptingafewyearslaterthepersonaoftheThinWhiteDuke.”Bowiecreatedhispersonasasaperformanceartist,andtheyweresomethingmorethanjustBowiehimself—theywereassociatedwithcertainfeaturesthatwentbeyondthepersonplayingthem.Whatisitaboutamantlethatallowsforitscontinuityoveraspanoftime?If

itisnotjustthebodyorthepersonalitywearingit,whatisitthatisessentialtobeingasuperhero?Twodifferentfeaturesstandoutwhenweposethequestionthisway.Oneisthatasuperheromantlemustbeoftheappropriatekind;thatis,itmustbethemantleofasuperhero.Thesecondfeatureisthatthebearerofasuperheromantlemusthaveacertain legitimacy.Not justanyonecanputonaCaptainAmerica uniform and actuallybeCaptainAmerica; there is a processthatmustbe followed tobecomecertainsuperheroes.Bothof these features—appropriatenessandlegitimacy—takeusbeyondthekindsoftheoriesweseeforpersonalidentity.Let’s explore these two features in a bit more detail. The aspect of

appropriatenessofamantleisjustthekindofrolethatwetraditionallyassociatewith superheroes. For one thing, there must be some form of superpower or

extraordinary ability associatedwith it, such as superstrength, lightning speed,extraordinary proficiencywith aweapon, and so on.A superhero needs to beextraordinary in some form or other. A superhero must also be a hero undersome reasonable description, to distinguish superheroes from supervillains. Soby“appropriate”Ijustmeanwhatwewouldexpect—asuperheromantleisonethatisassociatedwithsomeextraordinaryability(orabilities)andsomekindofheroism,thereasonwecallthatpersonasuperhero.The issue of what it is to “legitimately” bear such a mantle is difficult to

specify, butwe can think of a superheromantle along the lines of intellectualproperty.IfIinventanewproduct,Ihavealegitimateclaimtothatproduct,byvirtue of the fact that it ismyown creation; or if I create somekind of art, Ilikewisebearalegitimateclaimtothatart.TheDavidBowieexampleillustratesthispointwell, becausehehas theonly legitimateclaim tohisZiggyStardustmantle.HecouldperhapspassitontosomeoneelsewhocouldgiveconcertsormakealbumsasZiggyStardust,but itwouldbe illegitimate ifsomeonedidsowithoutBowie’sblessing (that is,wewouldn’t think that suchapersonwouldreallybe Ziggy Stardust, as Bowie was).More generally, the legitimacy of amantlecanbetracedtoitssourceorpedigree;thepersonhastohave“earned”the mantle, either by creating it or having it bestowed upon him or her bysomeone in authority (likewhenCap gaveKateBishop themantle—andbowandarrows—ofHawkeyeduringoneofClintBarton’s“deaths”).3Nowwehaveatheoryinplace—wecancallitthe“mantle”theory—thatwill

allowustoapproachthecasesofHankPymandCaptainAmericainabitmoredetail.Ourgoalwith this theory is tocapture theessenceofwhat it is tobeasuperhero,inthesamewaythebodyandpsychologytheoriesaimtocapturetheessenceofwhatitistobeaperson.Ifwecandothissuccessfully,thensomeofthepuzzlingcasesoughttobecomelesspuzzling.

CaseStudy1:TheSupersoldierCaptainAmericaisoneofthemosticonicsuperheroesintheMarvelUniverse,and SteveRogers is the first andmost prominent person towear the patrioticcostume.Butheisnottheonlyone.In1987,JohnWalkertookoverthejobafterSteveRogersquitbeingCaptainAmerica,thoughRogerstookthejobbackafterayearandahalf.Then,in2007,SteveRogersallegedlydied,disappearingforafewyears,leadingtohisoldsidekickBuckyBarnesbecomingthenewCaptainAmerica.WhenRogerscameback,BuckycontinuedasCaptainAmericauntilhis apparent death fightingSin and theSerpent during the “Fear Itself” event,

afterwhichSteveonceagaindonnedthestarsandstripes.4WereJohnWalkerandBuckyBarnesreallyCaptainAmerica?Orshouldwe

say that they were three different superheroes, all called “Captain America”?According to the mantle view, we have two main things to consider indeterminingwhethertheywereoneandthesamesuperhero:appropriatenessandlegitimacy.Dideachpersonweartheappropriatemantle,anddidtheycomebyitlegitimately?Theissueofappropriatenesshastodowithwhetherthebearerofthemantle

has the right kinds of abilities andwhether the bearer is heroic.WithCaptainAmerica,theabilitiesareacollectionofextraordinaryphysicalfeatures,suchasthe strength and agility that were given to Rogers through the super-soldierprogram.(Someproficiencywiththeroundshieldisalsoakeyelement.)BothWalker and Barnes satisfied these requirements, adding their own uniquecharacter to the mantle (Walker was considerably stronger than Rogers, andBuckycarriedagun).Theyalsobothactedwithanappropriatekindofheroismwhile they wore the mantle. NeitherWalker nor Barnes had a squeaky-cleanpast, but it is common for heroes to have their unheroic moments. What isimportantisthatwhiletheywearthemantleofasuperhero,theyareexpectedtobe heroes; repeated failure on this score would put their superhero status injeopardy.Legitimacy is the more interesting issue when it comes to considering

multiplepeoplebeingCaptainAmerica.ForWalker,themomentcomeswhenagovernmentcommission,whosejobistomanagethe“superhumanresources”inAmerica,seeksareplacementforRogersasCaptainAmerica.ThegovernmentisworriedaboutthebadpresstheymightgetfromRogersquittinginanactofprotest,sotheysettleonWalker,anotherall-Americanwhoismakinganameforhimself as the Super-Patriot, a Cap-esque hero. They offerWalker the role asCaptainAmericaandheaccepts,whilehavingthefollowingconversationwithamemberofthecommission,ValerieCooper:

Walker: I couldn’t just do the job without changing my name andcostume...?Cooper:No,CaptainAmericaisatraditionthatgoesbackdecades.Wewanttopreserveit.Well?Walker:Hmmm . . .Ma’am, ifUncleSamwantedme tobeMickeyMouse,I’mthatkindofAmerican—thekindyoucancounton.WhendoIstart?5

By the end of the issue,Walker iswearing theCaptainAmerica costume andeveryone is calling him by that name. It seems that now he really is Captain

America.For Bucky, we have a different kind of moment, but one that is just as

illuminating and decisive. Bucky picked up the available mantle of CaptainAmericain2008,supportedbyTonyStark,whowasdirectorofS.H.I.E.L.D.atthetime.Then,in2009,whenRogerscameback,hepubliclyendorsedBuckyasCaptainAmerica.6So in2010, thesliceof timeweareconsideringforBucky,SteveRogersnowhadasuperheroidentitysimilartothatofNickFury(akindof superbureaucrat, with a license to requisition), and Bucky was CaptainAmerica.Bucky’slegitimacycamefirstfromStarkclaimingthatRogerswouldhavewantedBuckytocontinuetheCaptainAmericalegacy,andthenfromSteveRogershimselfgivinghimhisendorsement.We see the legitimacy requirement fulfilled in two different ways here—

Walkerwas given themantle by a government committee (which also took itawayfromhim,givingitbacktoRogers),andBarneswasgivenitbyStarkandthen Rogers. In the specific circumstances, it makes sense why differentmechanisms are legitimate. The mantle of Captain America is sometimesconsideredtobeownedbythegovernment,thoughitisalsoinsomesensethepropertyofSteveRogers.AndinboththeWalkerandBarnescases,viewedinthislight,weshouldbehappytosaythatpeopleotherthanSteveRogersreallywereCaptainAmerica.

CaseStudy2:PymParticlesWhenitcomestoHankPym,wehaveadifferent,andperhapsmoresubtle,issueconcerningtheconditionoflegitimacy.Overthepastfiftyyears,PymhasbeenAnt-Man, Giant-Man, Goliath, Yellowjacket, and theWasp,moving back andforthbetweenthemfromtimetotime.7IsPymallofthesesuperheroesatonce,or just one at a time? How can we evaluate this question? The issue ofappropriateness is important, though not the key element to evaluating thesituation, so I will discuss that briefly first, and then the subtlety of thelegitimacyquestionatplayinPym’scase.Allofthesepersonasareclearlyoftheappropriatekindtocountassuperhero

mantles. First of all, Pym has been a hero for virtually all of the past fivedecades,fightingthegoodfightwiththeAvengers.8Next,itisplausibletothinkthat at most times in his history, Pym has had the ability to perform thesuperhumanorextraordinarytasksthathisidentitiesrequire.Hissize-changingabilitiesarebasedontheso-calledPymparticle,whichallowsaccesstoanother

dimension calledKosmos. Pym discovered how to use these particles to sendmass toKosmos (shrinking to ant size) and to drawmass from it (growing togiantsize).Hisotherabilities,suchascommunicatingwithantsthroughhisAnt-Man helmet, or electrically “stinging” people and flying when he isYellowjacket,aretechnologicaladvancesthatstemfromhisownabilitiesasanextraordinaryscientist,soitisreasonabletoseehimashavingtheseabilitiesanytimeaswell.ThekeyissuefordecidingwhetherPymisonesuperheroatatime,ormanyat

once, is really a conceptual issue linked to the notion of legitimacy. On themantle view, the question, “Can Pym be multiple superheroes at one time?”becomes thequestion,“CanPymlegitimatelywearmultiplesuperheromantlesatonetime?”Asimilarquestionarisesinissuesaboutpersonalidentity:supposePym develops multiple personality disorder, and we ask whether thepersonalitiescountasdistinctpeople.Accordingtothebodytheoryofidentity,thequestion,“IsPymmultiplepeople?”wouldhingeonwhetherhehasmultiplebodies,whichhedoesnot;whileonthepsychologytheoryitwoulddependonwhether he has multiple sets of psychological features such as memories orpersonalities,whichhemay.HowdowedecideifPymcanlegitimatelywearmultiplesuperheromantlesat

one time?Thinkaboutwhat itmeans towearamantleorpersona.CanDavidBowiewearhisZiggyStardust andhisThinWhiteDukepersonasbothat thesametime?No,certainlynot.Thesepersonaslookandbehavetotallydifferent.Ziggy is a glammed-out alien, and the Thin White Duke is a classy-lookingmadman.Asidefromthefactthatthesetwopersonasareradicallydifferent,theconceptofapersonaitselfrequiresustosaythatapersoncanonlyadoptoneatatime.Yourpersona—howeverglamormundaneitis—isthefacethatyouputonfortheworld,andyoucanonlyhaveonefaceatatime.AsuperheromantleisverymuchlikeBowie’spersona,andthislimittoone

personaatatimetransferstosuperheromantlesaswell.PymcannotcoherentlybebothAnt-ManandGiant-Manatthesametime,forthesimplereasonthattheformerisasuperherowhoshrinksandthelatterisasuperherowhogrows.Thepredictionofthemantleviewthatsomeonecanonlybeonesuperheroatatimeissupportedbythewaythecharactersthemselvestreatthetransitions.Eveninless clear-cut cases, such as when Pym changes identity from Giant-Man toGoliath (a change mostly only in name and costume), we still see that thesuperheroes—Pymincluded—takehimtohavedroppedtheGiant-ManpersonaandpickedupthemantleofGoliath.9Forexample,shortlyafterPymbecomesGoliath,heendsupstuckataheight

oftenfeet,whichisveryunsettlingforhim.Adoctoriscalledintogivehimacheckup,andwehavethisexchangeasthedoctorarrivesandisletinbyCaptainAmericaandQuicksilver:

Doctor:IgothereassoonasIcould,Cap!Whereisthepatient?CaptainAmerica:MajorCarlson! I knewyouwouldn’t let us down!You’ll find this anunusual case!Haveyoueverheardof . . .Giant-Man?Doctor:Ofcourse!Then,he’stheoneI’mtotreat?Quicksilver:He’sGiant-Mannolonger,Cap!HechangedhisnametoGoliath...remember?10

Ofcourse,whensuperheroeschange identity,peoplenaturallyslipanduseoldnames, but Quicksilver’s correction strongly indicates that Giant-Man is gonenow,replacedbyGoliath.We also see this when another Avenger, Clint Barton, sheds his Hawkeye

identityandbecomesGoliath.(Atthispoint,PymisYellowjacket,sowedon’thave twoGoliaths at once, though there is to be anotherGoliath later.)WhenBarton reveals himself to his fellowAvengers asGoliath after secretly takingPym’sgrowthserum,Pymasks,“ButHawkeye . . .whatofyourcareerasanarcher?” Barton answers by snapping his bow in half, after which Pym says,“ThentheAvengercalledHawkeyeisnomore!And,sinceI’vehadtoswearoffthegrowingthing—lookslikethere’sanewGoliathinourranks!”11Aswesee,it seemsnatural toeveryone thatwhenBartonpicksup theGoliathmantle,heputs down theHawkeye one.And breaking his bow significantlymakes clearthatheisnottryingtocombinetwomantlestocreateanewsuperhero,agiantarcher—he’sleavingbothmantlesastheyareandjustchangingfromonetotheother.12

AreYoutheNextGoliath?After seeing how the features of a mantle theory illustrate and explain theinteresting cases of people withmultiple superhero identities and superheroesplayedbymultiplepeople,whatshouldwethink?Isthistheonlywaytoexplainsuperhero identity? Certainly not, but it does fare better than the theories ofpersonal identity discussed at the beginning. Since superheroes are not justpeople—theyarepersonas thatpeopleadopt—weshouldn’texpecta theoryofpersonal identity to neatly fit superheroes. (They have enough trouble fittingnormal people!)But by looking at theories of personal identity,we see things

that push us toward the kind of discussion we should be having wheninvestigatingsuperheroidentity—luckily,wedidn’tneedtotalkaboutsuperherocostumes, or we’d have to spend an entire book just on Janet van Dyne, theoriginalWasp!13

NOTES

1.Locke’sexampleisofaprince’ssoulorconsciousnessinhabitingthebodyofacobbler,fromAnEnquiryConcerningHumanUnderstanding(1690),book2,chapter27,section15.2.TwoveryaccessibleworksontheoriesofpersonalidentityareJohnPerry’sADialogueonPersonalIdentityandImmortality(Indianapolis:Hackett,1978),andthefirstchapterofEarlConeeandTedSider’sRiddlesofExistence:AGuidedTourofMetaphysics(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2007).3.YoungAvengers#12(August2006),reprintedinYoungAvengers:FamilyMatters(2007).4.FearItself#3–4(August–September2011),reprintedinFearItself(2012).UnbeknownsttoRogersatthetime,BuckywasbroughtbackfromneardeathbyNickFuryandlaterresumedhispre-CapidentityoftheWinterSoldier(FearItself#7.1,January2012).5.CaptainAmerica,vol.1,#333(September1987).Walker’stenureasCapbeganhereandranuntilCaptainAmerica,vol.1,#350(February1989),andisreprintedinitsentiretyinCaptainAmerica:TheCaptain(2011).6.Rogers’s“death”happenedinthelandmarkCaptainAmerica,vol.5,#25(March2007),andhecamebackintheCaptainAmericaRebornminiseries(2009–2010).Bucky’srunbeganinCaptainAmerica,vol.5,#33(February2008),withRogersendorsinghiminCaptainAmerica:WhoWillWeartheShield?#1(December2009).7.Pym’sfirstappearanceasAnt-ManwasinTalestoAstonish,vol.1,#35(September1962),whileGiant-ManfirstcameonthesceneinTalestoAstonish,vol.1,#49(November1963),bothreprintedinEssentialAnt-ManVol.1(2002).Pym’snewidentityasGoliathappearedfirstinAvengers,vol.1,#28(May1966)andYellowjacketwasborninAvengers,vol.1,#59(December1968),reprintedin

EssentialAvengersVol.2andVol.3,respectively(2000and2001);andhebecametheWaspinSecretInvasion:Requiem#1(January2009).8.IsayvirtuallybecausePymhashadafewmentalbreakdownsovertheyearsthathaveledtokidnappingJanetvanDyne(shortlybeforetheygetmarried)inAvengers,vol.1,#59,andtoscandalouslyhittingherinAvengers,vol.1,#213(November1981),reprintedinSecretInvasion:Requiem.9.Hesometimesusesbothshrinkingandgrowingabilitiesinsuccession,suchasontherecentAvengers:Earth’sMightiestHeroescartoonseries.HerehewearstheAnt-Mancostumeandgoesbythisname,buthealsogrowslargeattimes,causingsometorefertohimasAnt-Man/Giant-Man.Whatshouldwesayinthiscase?Atthemoment,itseemsthatPymisquicklychangingfromAnt-MantoGiant-Manandbackagain,tooquicklytomakeacostumechangepractical.Eventually,ifhekeepsthisup,weshouldexpecthimtoshedbothpersonasandadoptanewone,consistentwiththeabilitiestobothshrinkandgrowaspartofonepersona.(Heisagenius,afterall.)10.Avengers,vol.1,#29(June1966),reprintedinEssentialAvengersVol.2.11.Avengers,vol.1,#64(May1969),reprintedinEssentialAvengersVol.3;formoreonClintBarton’sidentitycrisis,seethechapterbyMarkD.Whitetitled“TheWayoftheArrow:HawkeyeMeetstheTaoistMasters”inthisvolume.12.ItalsoseemssignificantthatitisPym,thepersonwhocreatedtheGoliathsuperhero,whoexplicitlyendorsesBartonasbeingthenewGoliath,lendingBartonthelegitimacyneededtomakethetransfersuccessful.13.IowemanythanksforusefuldiscussionsandcommentsduringthewritingofthispapertophilosophersRoyT.Cook,PeterW.Hanks,IanStoner,andJasonSwartwood,andtosuperherofansBrandonBueling,CaseyGarske,SandraMarble,andMattNelson.

Chapter5

IAMMADEOFINK:SHE-HULKANDMETACOMICS

RoyT.Cook

JenniferWalters,alsoknownastheSensational(formerlySavage)She-Hulk,isalawyer, bounty hunter, actress, Avenger, and former member of the FantasticFour. Jen is oneofMarvelComics’ premier superheroines, andbetter yet, sheknowsit.Butwait:what is it, exactly, that Jen knows? It isn’tmerely that she is the

mostprominentandpossiblymostpowerfulfemalesuperhero in the(fictional)world that she shares with Spider-Man, Captain America, and her cousin theIncredibleHulk.Inaddition,Jenknowsthatsheisacharacterinacomicbook,andsheisabletotakeadvantageofthisknowledgeinsurprisingways.Simplyput,Jenisthestarofametacomic.Byexploringthisinteresting“superpower”ofJen’s, we’ll see what her self-awareness says about the nature of comicsthemselves.

WhatIsaMetacomic?Tounderstand the termmetacomics, it helps to begin at thebeginning.Withinphilosophy, “meta” has at least two distinct but interconnectedmeanings. Thesimplerofthetwo—whichsticksrathercloselytotheoriginalGreekmeaningofthe term—simply means “beyond” or “about.” For example, metaphysicsinvolvestheorizingaboutthefundamentalnatureofreality,akindoftheorizingthatgoesbeyondphysicsandtheothersciences.Metaethicsinvolvestheorizingabout the nature of ethical judgments and ethical practices, rather thanmerelyactingethicallyormakingparticularethicalchoices.Thetermmetahuman,usedto describe characters in comic books who have powers beyond those ofordinarymortals,alsofallsintothiscategory.Thereisanother,morespecializeduseof“meta,”however.Whenit’sapplied

to some termX, it roughlymeans “X aboutX.”Thusmetadata are data aboutdata, metamathematics is the mathematical study of mathematical systems

themselves,andametalanguageisalanguageusedtodescribeandstudyotherlanguages. Likewise, ametacomic is a comic that is, in one sense or another,aboutcomics.Ametacomicisatypeofmetafiction,whichcontemporaryliterarycriticPatriciaWaughdescribesasany“fictionalwritingwhichself-consciouslyand systematically draws attention to its status as an artifact in order to posequestionsabouttherelationshipbetweenfictionandreality.”1Thusametacomicisanycomicthatdrawsattentiontosomeaspectofitselforitscreation,wherethis“meta”aspectofthestoryisintendednotonlytopropelthestorybutalsotoforcethereadertothinkaboutorquestionthenatureofstorytellingitself.Onesimplewaytoturnacomicintoametacomicistomaketheprotagonist

awarethatheorsheisacharacterinacomic.Thissortofself-awarenessisoftendisplayed by “breaking the fourth wall,” where themetafictionally self-awarecharacterspeaksdirectlytotheaudienceortothewriters,artists,andeditors.InJohnByrne’srunonTheSensationalShe-Hulk,and(moresubtly)inDanSlott’srunonthemorerecentShe-Hulk,Jenpossessesthissortofself-awareness.Self-aware fourth-wall-breaking does not make Jen unique, though, even amongcharacters in the Marvel Universe. Mutant assassin Deadpool also speaksdirectly to the audience and is aware that he is a character in a comic book.2Jen’s abilities are not limited merely to awareness of herself as a fictionalcharacter,however.Inaddition,sheisabletousethisknowledgetomanipulatethecomicbookworldinuniqueways.Why shouldmetafictionally awareAvengers be of interest to philosophers?

Aesthetics,thephilosophicalstudyofthenatureofart,hasshiftedrecentlyfromafocusongeneralquestionsaboutartingeneral3toanapproachthatfocusesontheindividualartsthemselves,includinganemphasisonthedifferencesbetweenoneartformandanother.4Asaresult,itisnotsurprisingthatphilosophersandotherscholarshavebeguntothinkaboutcomicsandmetacomics.5Incomparisonwithmostotherart forms,comicsseemparticularlysaturated

withconventionalelements.Thoughtandspeechballoons,textualsoundeffects,motion lines, and panel borders are all conventional devices that facilitate therepresentation of sound, motion, time, and space in an artistic medium thatconsistsofsilent,staticimagesprintedonatwo-dimensionalpage.Thebetterweunderstandtheseconventionalaspectsofcomicbookstorytelling,thebetterwewillbeabletoappreciateandunderstandthecomicswearereading.Thestudyofmetacomicspromisestobeanextremelyvaluabletoolinthisendeavor.Afterall,whatbetterway tounderstandhow these storytelling conventions functionthan to see what happens when they are bent, broken, or subverted by theSensationalShe-Hulk!

YourCoverIsBlown,JenThemetafictionalmadness of John Byrne’s run onThe Sensational She-Hulkbeginsonthecoverofissue#1(May1989),whichdepictsJenholdingahandfulofX-Mencomicsandsaying to thecomic-shopcustomer,“Okay,now.This isyoursecondchance.Ifyoudon’tbuymybookthistimeI’mgonnacometoyourhouseandripupallofyourX-Men.”6Jenisawarethatsheisthemaincharacterofthiscomic,andisbreakingthefourthwall toconvincethehesitantbuyertopurchaseherbook.Sheisalso,however,cleverlyreferringtowell-knownfactsabout the comic book industry within the real—that is, our—world. She issomehowawarethatherpreviousseries,TheSavageShe-Hulk,didnotsellwellwhile at the same time X-Men-related comics sold in record numbers. ThisshowsthatJenisnotonlyawareofwhathappensinherworld,butisalsoquiteawareofwhathappensinours!Covers often stray from the literal contents of the comic they enclose,

however.Thus if this coverwere the only instance ofmetafictional content inTheSensationalShe-Hulk, itwouldperhapsnotbeall thatnoteworthy.Butwedon’t have to wait long for metafictional content to appear within the comicitself.Forexample,neartheendofissue#1,JendiscoversthattheRingmasterand hisCircus ofCrimewere hired to test the limits of her powers. She thencomplains,“SomeanonymousbadguyisreadytospendthreemillionbuckstofindouthowtoughIam...andIknowhowthesethingswork!It’llbeatleastmy third issuebefore I findoutwho it is!Althoughyou readerswillprobablyfindoutonthenextpage.”Andofcoursewedo!Thenexttwoissuesalsocontainmetafictionalcontent.Onthecoverofissue

#2 (June 1989), Jen catches up on her cousin Bruce Banner’s life by readingissues of The Incredible Hulk, playing with the idea that within the MarvelUniverse,comicbooksarehistoricalrecordsofactualevents.Moreinteresting,however, is an episode in issue #3 (July 1989), in which Jen regainsconsciousnessafterbeingattackedat theendof issue#2.She initiallyworriesthatshehasbeenknockedoutforamonth, thenormal lengthof timebetweenissuesofamonthlycomicsuchashers.Jeneventuallyreassuresherselfthatthisis not necessarily the case, however, basedon thedifferencebetween thewaytimeworkswithinacomic(onlydaysorevenhourspassbetweenissues)andthewayitworksintherealworld.Thisknowledge,combinedwiththefactthathergueststarSpider-Manhasalreadyappeared(whichmeans thatwearehalfwayinto the present issue), allows her to conclude that less than a day has passedsince she was knocked out. In short, Jen uses her knowledge of how time is

portrayed within comics in order to draw conclusions about what happenedwhileshewasunconscious.

“There’saReaderOutThereNow!”Thisisstrangeenough,butthingsgetmuchweirderinissue#4(August1989).Onpagesix,JenhasajobinterviewwiththedreamyDistrictAttorneyTowers.Aftertheinterview,Jenmentionsthatshewasn’texpectingtomeetherromanticinterest so soon. At this point Towers’s assistant, Louise “Weezie” Mason,informsJenthatTowersismarried.Inthefirstpanelofthenextpage,Jenasks,“Sincewhenishemarried??”andWeeziereplies,“SincenowIsuppose.Thisisthefirsttimeit’sbeenmentioned.”Weezie’sresponsedemonstratesthatshe,likeJen,isawarethatsheisacharacterinacomic,butitalsoreflectsadeepinsightinto theway that truthworks in fiction.AlthoughJendidnotmeet them,bothWeezieandTowersappearedinissues#2and#3ofthecomic.SinceTowers’smarital status is not mentioned in these earlier issues, at the time they werepublishedtherewasnofactof thematterregardingwhetherhewasmarriedornot.After all, Byrne could havewritten a different version of issue #4whereTowers is single and begins a romance with Jen! Weezie is aware that hercommentsonthepreviouspagemadeitthecasethatTowersismarried.Further,Weezie presumably does not mean that Towers got married just this minute.Instead,hehasbeenmarriedallalong,althoughthefactthathewasmarriedonlybecomestrue(retroactively)asaresultoftheeventsinissue#4.Themetafictionalweirdnesscontinues in thesecondpanel.Here, Jenshouts

out, “What?!?Byrne!!What kind of game are you playing?!?” as she tries toclimb out of the panel to physically assault Byrne. Weezie, restraining her,attempts to calmherwith thewords “Jen!!Control yourself!We’re inked andcolored! Printed! There’s a reader out there now!” There are a number ofinteresting things going on here, including the continued metafictional self-awareness exhibited by bothWeezie and Jen, and the fact that Jen addressesByrnedirectly(wehave towaituntil issue#50 toseeByrneappear inapaneltogetherwith Jen, however). This panel also suggests that Jen can see Byrne.Normally,we treat panels as a sort of one-waywindow.We can look throughtheselittlerectanglesinordertoseeeventswithinJen’sworld,butcomicbookcharactersarenotmeanttobeabletolookbacktheotherwayandseeus,muchlessclimbthroughthepaneltoassaultus!The most interesting thing in this panel, however, is Weezie’s dialogue.

Weezie is acknowledging that the printed nature of comics places Towers’s

marital status not only out of Jen’s control but out ofByrne’s aswell.By thetime these events are happening, the comic has been printed, packaged, andpurchased by the reader. It’s notable that the three things Weezie mentionsexplicitly—inking, coloring, and printing—are aspects of the creation of thecomic that are not under Byrne’s direct control as writer and penciller. As aresult, there isnothinganyof themcando tochange things—notevenByrne!Weezie is aware that, in a certain sense, she has no free will, and that herthoughts,statements,andactionsfortheremainingfifteenpagesofissue#4arealready determined, since they are already inked, colored, and printed. Herfuturehasalreadybeenlaidoutandisfixedpermanentlyinink.

Gutter-Hoppin’andMoreAmazingStories

Let’sconsiderthethirdandfourthpanelsofthispagetogether,sincetheyareinanimportantsenseasingleunit.InthethirdpanelaconfusedJensputters,“But...but...but,”towhichWeeziereplies,“You’reobviouslytoodistraughttogohome just yet. C’mon . . . I’ll buy you lunch and we can talk.” Unlike theprevious twopanels, there is nothingout of the ordinary in the dialoguehere.Whatisoutoftheordinary,however,ishowWeezie,draggingJenalongbehindher,travelsfromherofficeinthethirdpaneltotherestaurantinthefourthpanel.Weezie crosses this distance in one step, by stepping over the gutter betweenpanels,herrightfoottouchingtheflooroftheofficeandherleftfoottouchingthe floor of the restaurant. Obviously, the restaurant and the office are notlocatedameretwoorthreefeetfromeachotherwithinthefictionalworldthatJenandWeezieinhabit.Buttheyarelocatedmerefractionsofaninchfromeachotheron thepage.Here,WeezieandJenareable to takeadvantageof thefactthatlocationsfarremovedfromeachotherwithintheirworldaresometimesincloseproximityon thepage.Asaresult, it isquickerandmoreconvenient forthemtotravelacrossthepagethanacrosstown.When Jen andWeezie violate comic book convention by stepping over the

gutter,theyforceustothinkabouthowthetransitionfromonepaneltothenextoperatesinstandard,non-“meta”comics.Wenormallymakecertainassumptionsregardingthepassageoftimeanddistancewhenacharacter isdepictedintwodifferentlocationsintwoadjacentpanels—anassumptionsubvertedbyWeezieandJen’sgutter-jumpingmodeoftransportation.JenandWeezie’sabilitytotreattheblankspacebetweenimagesasifitwereapartoftheirworldandnotapart

ofours highlights the critical role that panel transitions, and our assumptionsaboutthem,playinourunderstandingofcomics.7In the fifth panel, Weezie begins to explain things to a confused and

exasperatedJen.WeeziewasformerlytheBlondePhantom,aGoldenAgecomicbook character published by Timely Comics from 1946 to 1949 (The BlondePhantomwasarealGoldenAgecomic,andTimelyComicseventuallybecameMarvel Comics).8 She eventually retired from crimefighting and married herboss,detectiveMarkMason.Nolongerappearinginamonthlycomic,sheandherhusbandbegan toage.AfterwatchingherhusbanddiewhileotherTimelyComics heroes such as Captain America and Namor the Submariner wererevived,Weezie decides tomanipulate events so that shewill appear in Jen’scomicbookandstopaging.The strategy works, and Weezie does not get any older. In fact, she even

regainsheryouthinlaterissues!Weezieis,again,clearlyawareof,andabletotakeadvantageof,comicbookconventions, includingthefactthatcomicbookcharacterstypicallydonotage.HerpresenceinTheSensationalShe-Hulkalsoprovides us with an opportunity to reflect on the development of mainstreamsuperhero comics over the last eight decades.A particularly resonant exampleoccurslaterinthissameissue.AfterWeezieaskswhyJen’sclothingdoesn’tripin an immodest, inappropriate manner during battles, Jen shows Weezie theComics Code label sewn into her chemise, reminding us that the industry-imposedself-censorshipofthecodedidnotexistwhenWeeziewasappearinginherowncomic.

Don’tMaketheShe-HulkAngry...Later issues of Byrne’s run on The Sensational She-Hulk contain additionalstrangemetafictionaltwistsandturns.Jenisabletotravelbetweendimensionsand isable to reappearafterbeingerased fromreality,by tearing thepaperonwhich the comic is printed and stepping through the hole.9 She is able torecognizeregionsofdeepspacebynoticing thatByrnehas reusedbackgroundart from an earlier issue.10 One of the most interesting metafictional stories,however,occursinByrne’slastissueonthebook.Issue#50(April1993)beginswithRenee,theeditorofTheSensationalShe-

Hulk,informingJenthatByrnehasdiedandthattheyneedtoselectanewartistfor the comic. Jen is then shown a handful of sample pages (depicted as fullpages of the comic) in which a number of influential comics creators—Terry

Austin,HowardChaykin,DaveGibbons,AdamHughes,HowardMackie,FrankMiller,WendyPini,andWaltSimonson—providetheirowndistinctivetakeonthecharacter.TerryAustin’scontributionisparticularlyinteresting:aninkerwhofrequentlycollaboratedwithByrne,hedepictsJenandahostofothercharactersin the style of E. C. Segar’sThimble Theatre (Popeye) comic strip, completewith Wimpy, as Galactus, devouring the moon sandwiched within a hugehamburgerbun.BydepictingJenandhercohortasThimbleTheatrecharacters,Austin forces us to confront the differences between monthly mainstreamsuperherocomicbooksanddailynewspapercomicstrips.Inparticular,thispagehighlightsthepuzzlingfactthatnewspapercomicstripsaretypicallysillierthancomic books, yet have traditionally been held in much higher cultural regardthanmainstream superhero comics. Issue #50 concludes with Jen discoveringByrnetiedupandlockedinacloset.WhenJenfinallyreadshisnewtakeonthecomic—onethatrenamesherLi’lShe-Hulkanddepictsherandhersupportingcast as children—she tosses Byrne out of the window, ironically killing her“creator.”TheSensationalShe-Hulk only lasted ten issuesafterByrne’sdeparture. Jen

had towait until 2004 to star in another solo title, but thewaitwasworth it.Lasting from2004 to 2007,DanSlott’s interpretation of the character inShe-Hulk continuedByrne’smetafictional take on the JadeGiantess, although in asubtlervein.InSlott’sstories,JenisabletousecomicbooksbearingtheComicsCode seal in the courtroom as legally admissible historical documents.11 Onecover again shows Jen threatening to rip upyour favorite comics if youdon’tbuy her book (but this time it’sCivilWar variants and notX-Men comics).12Runningthroughallofthis,Jen’snewjobasalawyerspecializingindefendingcaptured supervillains provides the backdrop for an extended parody of theconceitsandconventionsofsuperherocomicbookstorytelling.

WhatAretheShe-Hulk’sPowers?ReflectingonbothByrne’sandSlott’stakesonJen’ssoloadventuresraisesmorequestions. Did the weird, metafictional aspects of the Byrne and Slott storiesreally happen? If so, does Jen also have these metafictional powers whenappearing inAvengers comics, and just choose not to use them?Or are Jen’smetafictional solo adventures merely imaginary stories, in a similar vein toMarvel’s long-runningWhat If series of comics? Or perhaps are they merelydelusionsthatJenandWeezieshare?We can put this question in slightlymore precise terms.Awork of fiction,

suchasanovelorcomic,canbeseenasapartialdescriptionofanimaginaryorfictionalworldwherethingsoccurastheyaredepictedwithinthefiction.MostofthestoriespublishedbyMarvelComicsintersectandoverlapincomplicatedways and are meant to be understood as describing a single, very complexfictionalworld—theMarvelUniverse.Jendoesnotseemtopossessanystrangemetafictional abilities when she appears in Avengers or in Fantastic Four,however, and in the few comicswhere she does display these traits either herbehaviorconfusesother,non-“meta”characters,orsheisdepictedasbeingabitcrazy.13Asaresult, therearelong-standingdisputesregardingwhethertheShe-Hulk

stories we have discussed really happened, in the sense that they describefictionaleventsthatoccurinthesamefictionaluniverseastheeventsdepictedinmoretraditionalAvengersstories,orwhethertheyaredescriptionsofsomeotherfictionalworld (perhaps one that Jen imagines or is deluded into thinking sheinhabits). As you would guess, the Internet age has only intensified thesedisagreements.Fortunately,weneednotgetboggeddown inonline fan forumdiscussions,sincethereisamoreauthoritativesourcetowhichwecanturn:theOfficialHandbookoftheMarvelUniverse.The original version of theOfficialHandbook was published in 1982, and

numerous updated versions and addendums have been published since. TheOfficialHandbookconsistsofdetailedbiographiesanddataformajorandminorcharacters in theMarvelUniverse, and relevant excerpts from this stand-alonereference work are often included as “bonus material” at the end of tradepaperbackreprintcollections. If,asseemsreasonable,wecan treat theOfficialHandbook as thedefinitive source regardingwhat isand isnot thecase in theMarvelUniverse,thenwemerelyneedtolookuptheentryforJenniferWalters(actually,sheislistedunderShe-Hulk)andconsultthedescriptionofherpowersandabilities.Actually,thingsarenotthatsimple.NeweditionsoftheOfficialHandbookdo

not merely contain additional information that wasn’t available in previouseditions.Indeed,factsinpreviouseditionscanturnouttonolongerbefactsinlater editions through a process called retroactive continuity, or retconning,where later stories (often involving time travel or all-powerful cosmic beings)change facts about past stories, or at least our interpretation of them. Jen hasbeen a victimof such retconning. InUncannyX-Men #435 (December 2003),sheisdepictedashavingsexwiththeJuggernaut,butitislaterrevealedthatthiswas actually a Jen Walters doppelgänger from a parallel dimension.14Nevertheless,while factsaboutwhatdidordidn’thappen in thepastmightbe

changed by strange events in the future, resulting in revisions to theOfficialHandbook,presumablychangesinwhatpowersaparticularcharacterpossessesataparticularpointintimeshouldnotchange.Orsoonewouldthink.If we consult theOfficial Handbook, it turns out that even this definitive

source is less definitive than we might have hoped. Jen’sOfficial HandbookentryincludedintheMay2002one-shotThingandShe-Hulk:TheLongNightstatesthat:

Atonepoint theShe-Hulkand[Weezie]Masonsharedthebelief thattheyandthosearoundthemwerecharactersinacomicbook,butthisdelusionrarelydetractedfromtheShe-Hulk’sfightingability,andshenolongerseemstosufferfromit.15

Several years later, however, theOfficialHandbook entry for Jen included in2008’sMarvelEncyclopedia:TheAvengers contains the following informationabouthersuperpowers:

She can swap physiques with other humans using Ovoid mindtechniques, and seems to have the ability to sense extra-dimensionalviewers observing her, a power similar to her cousin’s ability to seeastral forms;Jen tends todownplay this last trait,as speaking toanunseenaudiencetendstounsettlethosearoundher.

This laterdescriptionnotonlylistsJen’smetafictionalself-awarenessasone

ofhersuperpowers,butitalsotriestolegitimizeitasareasonablesuperpowerwithintheconstraintsoftheMarvelUniversebycomparingittotheIncredibleHulk’sabilitytoperceivesupernaturalentities.

MaybeJen’sReadingThisChapterRightNow

I won’t try to determine definitively whether Jen’s metafictional adventuresreallyhappened,althoughitdoesseemunlikelythatahighlydelusionalwomancouldsuccessfullybalancealegalcareerandrolesinboththeAvengersandtheFantastic Four. I will point out, though, that the question is not merely afanboyishworryaboutthedetailsofMarvelcontinuity(notthatthere’sanythingwrongwiththat!).Thepuzzleismorefar-reaching.If themetafictionalaspectsofJen’ssoloadventuresareimaginaryordelusional,thenthisputsthereliabilityofmetafiction,takenasanaccuraterecordofwhathappensinthefictionalworld

supposedlybeingdescribed,indoubt.Asaresult,wewillneedtoreevaluatetherole thatmetafictionalcontentplays indescribing the fictionalworlds that thissort of fiction purports to describe. Given the increasing frequency andimportanceofmetafictionwithincomicsandotherartforms,includingliteratureandfilm,thispromisestohaveaprofoundimpactonthewaythatweunderstandstorytellingingeneral.Moreimportant,perhaps,itwillhaveaprofoundimpactonhowweunderstandJenniferWalters,theSensationalShe-Hulk—andperhapshowsheunderstandsherself.16

NOTES

1.PatriciaWaugh,Metafiction:TheTheoryandPracticeofSelf-ConsciousFiction(London:Routledge,1982),2.2.ForadiscussionofDeadpool’smetafictionaladventures,seeJosephJ.Darowski,“WhenYouKnowYou’reJustaComicBookCharacter,”inX-MenandPhilosophy:AstonishingInsightandUncannyArgumentintheMutantX-Verse,ed.RebeccaHouselandJ.JeremyWisnewski(Hoboken,NJ:JohnWiley&Sons,2009),107–123.3.Forexample,thequestion,“Whatisitthatallartworkshaveincommonthatmakesthemart?”4.See,forexample,PeterKivy,PhilosophiesofArts:AnEssayinDifferences(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1997).5.See,forexample,M.ThomasInge,AnythingCanHappeninaComicBook:CentennialReflectionsonanArtForm(Jackson:UniversityPressofMississippi,1995),andRoyT.Cook,“ComicsAreNotFilm:MetacomicsandMedium-SpecificConventions,”inTheArtofComics:APhilosophicalApproach,ed.AaronMeskinandRoyT.Cook(Hoboken,NJ:JohnWiley&Sons,2012).6.SensationalShe-Hulk#1(May1989),reprintedinSensationalShe-Hulk(2011),whichincludesthefirsteightissuesoftheseries.7.Foraninsightfuldiscussionoftheroleofthegutterincomics,seeScottMcCloud,UnderstandingComics:TheInvisibleArt(NewYork:Harper,1993),ch.3.8.TheBlondePhantom#12–22(December1946–March1949).9.SensationalShe-Hulk#5(September1989)and#37(March1992).10.SensationalShe-Hulk#40(June1992).11.She-Hulk,vol.1,#2(April2004),reprintedinShe-HulkVol.1:

SingleGreenFemale(2004).12.ThealternatecovertoShe-Hulk,vol.2,#8(May,2006),reprintedinShe-HulkVol.4:LawsofAttraction(2007).13.Forexample,seeDamageControl,vol.2,#3(January1990).14.She-Hulk,vol.2,#21(September2007),reprintedinShe-HulkVol.5:PlanetWithoutaHulk(2007).15.ThingandShe-Hulk:TheLongNightone-shot(May2002),reprintedinTheThing:Freakshow(2005).16.ThanksgotoRobCallahan,AliceLeber-Cook,StephenNelson,andanaudienceattheUniversityofMinnesota–Morrisforhelpfulfeedbackonthismaterial.

Chapter6

THESELF-CORRUPTIONOFNORMANOSBORN:ACAUTIONARY

TALE

RobertPowellItwasarguablythegravestexistentialthreatintheMarvelUniverse:theSkrullshad launchedoneof themost sophisticated campaigns to fulfill their religiousprophecy of conquering Earth. Using their shape-shifting abilities, theyinfiltratedourheroes’worldbyreplacingiconicandtrustedheroesinpreparationforafull-scaleinvasion.TheensuingbattleforEarthwouldshapethestatusquooftheMarvelUniverseforyearstocome.One of the many crippling effects of the Skrull invasion—aside from the

broken bonds of trust and solidarity among the world’s heroes—was thecomplete failure and corruption of Earth’s protective institutions. In theaftermath of the Skrull invasion, S.H.I.E.L.D. was dismantled and NormanOsborn, the former Green Goblin, was given “the keys to the kingdom”:directorship over national security. He immediately transformed S.H.I.E.L.D.into H.A.M.M.E.R., consolidated an evil cabal of Machiavellian villains, andassembled his own Avengers team—the Dark Avengers—made up ofreplacementsforrealheroeslikeWolverineandSpider-Man.Aswe’llseeinthischapter,Osborn’s“DarkReign”isacautionarytalewithaphilosophicallesson.

Osborn’sOratoryandtheDarkReignOsborn’srisetopowermirrorssomespecificthemesinPlato’s(429–347BCE)dialoguesfeaturingSocrates(469–399BCE),histeacher,andGorgias(485–380BCE), an Athenian orator. Gorgias was one of the earliest Sophists, whodevelopeda schoolof rhetoric concernedwithpersuasion, andwhomSocratescriticizedforneglectingtheintrinsicvalueoftruthinfavorofthepursuitofself-interest.Socrates makes a critical distinction between craft (or art) and knack. The

formerisagenuineendeavordesignedtoproducesomethingofvalue,whereasthe latter is amere simulation of a craft.Acts of sophistry, such asGorgias’srhetoric, corrupt the individual by limiting their capabilities to reach for thetruth,andcorruptsocietybysubstitutingaflimsysubstituteforatrueendeavor.Gorgias’s protégé Polus vehemently defends the sophistic enterprise, claimingthatanyonewouldenvyandadmireSophistswiththepowerofpersuasionthatenabled them to imprison whomever they please and confiscate property. InPolus’seyes,suchacharacterrepresentstheidealSophistandprovesthevalueof this“art.”Socratesholds firm,however,noting that suchSophistsare tobepitied rather than admired since they have no control over themselves andultimatelynopoweratall.NormanOsbornhasmuchincommonwithPolus’sidealSophist.Henotonly

useshisnewfoundpositiontofurtherhisownwell-beingatthecostofsocietyatlarge, but he does so by subverting established heroic institutions likeS.H.I.E.L.D. and the Avengers, substituting a facsimile for the “real thing.”Furthermore,bothduringandaftertheSkrullinvasion,Osbornproveshimselftobe quitemedia savvy, favoring strategic use of rhetoric to disguise truth. Hisdefenseof thenationalcapital iswell timedanddocumented,andhisshot thattakesout theSkrullQueeniscapturedoncameraminutesafterTonyStarkhasbeenobservedleavingthebattlescenetorepairhissuit—bothofwhichsecureOsborn’s rise to the head ofH.A.M.M.E.R.1 It is noteworthy that, in keepingwith the sophistic paradigm, it is never revealed throughout the entire DarkReignwhatH.A.M.M.E.R.actuallymeans.Neverthelessitcarriestheimageofan organization responding towidespread anxiety and insecurity, and one thatwillstopatnothinginthenameofsecurity.Osborn’sfirstrecruit toH.A.M.M.E.R.isVictoriaHand,awomanknownin

thehighestranksofS.H.I.E.L.D.forhercriticismofNickFury’s“soft”policies.HandisofferedthepositionofdeputydirectorandisgivenherfirstassignmentbyOsborn:

Iwanttoweedoutthemalcontents.Iwantanarmyofmenandwomenready to take back the world. And those who are not ready will bereplaced.Iwantafullreportonthefiftystateinitiative...Iwantyouto take this Starktech Golden Goose of a Helicarrier and I want itscrapped...Youusemydesigns.Youputthemintofullproduction.Iwantthisredandgoldoutofsight.2

Osbornplanstomakehismarkontheworldinaterritorialmanner,vigilantly

andjealouslysafeguardinghis“kingdom”againstanywhodaretoopposehim.

To this end, he also assembles his Dark Avengers, including many villainsplacedintherolesofAvengers(suchasBullseyeposingasHawkeye)andsomeparticularly volatile and unbalanced Avengers (such as Ares and the Sentry,respectively).Lastandtruetoform,OsbornadaptssomeleftoverStarkarmorinared,white,andbluemotif,andchristenshimselftheIronPatriot.

TheSplitOsbornIdentityOsborn’sheavyrelianceandperhapsdependenceonthemediacreatesahollowsimulacrum that he has trapped himself into maintaining while forgoing anyformofself-cultivation.It isimportanttorecall thathisrisetopowerinvolvedthe theft of information or equipment from other heroes. In fact,much of hisstrategy in rising to power involvedmanipulating or corrupting structures thatwere already in place. In this regard,Osborn’s intentions and behaviormirrorthose of Alcibiades in Plato’s dialogue Alcibiades, which focuses on theimportanceofauthenticity.Alcibiades is a young and arrogant Athenian noble who is shocked to

discover, after his discussions with Socrates, that he knows very little aboutjustice. With a well-crafted series of questions, Socrates reveals Alcibiades’scomplete ignorance of the root concepts of things he wishes to speakauthoritatively on in public. Socrates attempts to nudge Alcibiades in a morevirtuousdirection,warningthathisgreedandthirstforfamearemisplacedandresult from his lack of self-awareness. Alcibiades compares himself to andcompeteswith his fellow officials inAthens. In response, Socrates points outthatAlcibiades isactuallyharminghimselfandneglecting theproblemsfacingthe city. He tells him that one can only grow through critical self-reflection,typicallywithafriendwholooksoutforone’sbestinterestandwillnotfallpreytoflattery.3Osborn lacks the insight Socrates imparts to Alcibiades, and serves as a

cautionarytale.LikeAlcibiades,Osbornseekstoimposehisinfluenceanywherehecan, at theexpenseofmore sociallybeneficial andcooperativeoptions.Heapproaches his new rolewith all of his personal vendettas at the fore and yetmasked under cover of national security. For instance, in the aftermath of theUtopia event, Osborn seeks personal revenge on Namor by slaughteringAtlanteansinthenameofnationalsecurity.4Unfortunately,noonecautionshimas Socrates cautioned Alcibiades. Rather than cultivate the company of truefriendswhowillkeephiminline,Osbornsurroundshimselfmostlywithfellowvillains, who will not criticize his goals and actions and are poised to take

advantageofhisimpendingfailure.On the surface,Osborn appears to be a sane and stalwart civil servant, but

beneathheisjustasmonstrousashisalternatepersona,theGreenGoblin.InthiswayheislikeRobertReynolds,theSentry,whohasasecondpersonalitycalledtheVoid. ForReynolds (as in physics), for every action there is an equal andopposite reaction; any act of good performed by the Sentry results in acommensurate act of malfeasance by the Void.5 An amplified version of thesuper-soldierserumthatcreatedCaptainAmericagaveReynoldsthe“powerofonemillionexplodingsuns”butalsocreatedthepersonaoftheVoid,withwhomhestruggledforyearstomaintaincontroloverhispowers.ItisrevealedlateintheDarkAvengersseriesthatOsbornofferedto“help”Reynoldsbygivinghima new formula, one that actually gave the Void control of the Sentry.6 It isappropriate thatOsborn chooses to corrupt the Sentry, amanwhose afflictionmirrorshisown.OsbornoftenstruggleswiththeGreenGoblinforcontrolofhismind,particularlyduringtimesofstress.During their earlymissions,OsbornassuredReynolds that there isnoVoid,

but when Reynolds expresses hesitation at slaughtering Atlantean terrorists,Norman tellshim,“Youdon’thave todoanything,Bob . . .Weneedhim forthis.WeneedthehandofGodtosmitethesebastardstohell.”7ItisnoaccidentthatOsbornplayswithReynolds’smindwhile absolvinghimof responsibilityfor the Void’s actions. After learning that the heroic Noh-Varr, his CaptainMarvel,haslefthisAvengersteam,Osbornretreatstohisprivatequarters,wherehedoesbattlewithhisGoblinpersona:“N-n-no...I’mincharge.Me.Notyou.Me. I’m in charge,” towhich theGoblin answers, “OhNorman . . .Norman,Norman, stop kidding yourself. I’m here, I’m always here.”8 By releasing theSentry’sevilside,OsbornmaybeclearingthewaytolettheGoblintakeoveraswell,absolvinghimselfofanyresponsibilityforwhathedoesafterward.

WagtheGoblin

Youpullthisoff...youarebulletproof.Untouchable.Itwilltaketheleadersof the freeworlddecades tocome togripswithwhatyou’veaccomplished.

—Loki9WithhisAvengers team,andanimageofhimselfasastalwartheroprotectinghiscountry, theonly thingmissing from theOsbornequation isan inauthenticwar. Everything has come full circle when Loki—disguising himself as the

GreenGoblinpersona—goadsamentallyweakOsbornintolaunchinganattackonAsgardwithoutpresidentialsanction.TheSiegeofAsgardistheultimatemonumenttoNormanOsborn’ssophistry,

because he purposefully puts the country in danger in the name of nationalsecurity. In order to appear successful in his duty of securing the nation, hechoosestoactivelyendangerit,creatingtheproblemtowhichhecanprovidethesolution.Significantly, there are no institutional safeguards in place to preventhimfromdoingso,afactdrivenhomewhenweseetheWhiteHousecraftingitsresponse to the Siege. Fully aware of Osborn’s insubordination, the presidentquestions his staff regarding their options.10 One of his staffers laments thatordinarilytheywouldcalltheAvengersinsuchanevent,butironicallytheyareunderOsborn’scommand.Before theSiege begins, theSentry’swife,Lindy, reveals howher husband

wasanarcoticsaddictbeforetheserummadehimintotheSentry:Insteadofdrugs . . . itbecameaboutpower.Hewasaddicted to theSentry.Andhehadjustasmuchcontroloverthatashedidtheother.So that answers the question right?Who is the Sentry?Who is theVoid? It’s what happens when someone who doesn’t deserve powergetspower.11

Lindy’sanalysisandjudgmentofReynoldsholdsforOsbornandtherestofhisAvengersaswell,puttingtheSiegeofAsgardintoperspectiveandhighlightingwhy thingsgoasdisastrouslyas theydo.After interrogating theVoid,OsbornlearnsthatLindyisthelastremainingsourceofReynolds’sconsciouscontrol.Inorder to protect his most prized weapon, Osborn has Bullseye (his fakeHawkeye) indulge his murderous instincts by killing Lindy.12With all of hisweaponsprimed,OsbornproceedswithhisSiege,ultimatelydestroyingthecityofAsgardwitharagingVoid-controlledSentry.During theSiege,Ares learns thatOsbornhasmanipulatedhim into leading

theassaultagainsthisfellowgods.HeisshockedandangeredwhenHeimdall,the Asgardian who sees all in the nine realms, informs him that he was notsavingAsgardfromLoki’smadness,butratheraidinghim.13Inresponsetohismutiny,theVoidliterallyripsAresintwo,whichisbroadcastliveontelevisionand seen by Ares’s son Phobos (one of Nick Fury’s Secret Warriors). Inretaliation, the young god attacks the White House. Unable to confront thepresident personally, Phobos leaves a note chastising him for the choices hemadethatledtothecurrentsituationwithOsborn:

DearMortalheadofstate,Icameheretodaytoexplaintoyouthetrue

andtotalconsequencesofyouractionsoverthelastseveralmonths....Surely, fortunefavorsyouandthemenIsparedenjoyit.Butbeforeyouwashyourhandsofmy father’sblood Iwouldencourageyou toreflect on what brought us to this point. You sacrificed honor forexpediency.Youtradedintentforquickaction.Youwerewrongandweallsufferedforit.14

Phobos’sletterspeaksnotonlytothepresidentoftheUnitedStatesbutalsoto

thewidersystemthatallowedindividualswhodidnotdeservepowerandwereunfitforit toacquireit.It isalsofittingthattheSiegeprovidesanopportunityfor the heroes of the old guard to put aside their past differences and worktogetheratacriticalmoment,ending theDarkReignandushering inaHeroicAge.

HoistbyHisOwnPetardUltimately,Osborn—theproverbialAlcibiadesandSophist—isdefeatedbyhisownavaricewhenheisbetrayedbytheveryinstitutionshecreated(suchastheDarkAvengersandtheevilCabal)tosecurepower.Hislackofself-controlanddestructive addiction to power mirror the Sentry’s, and it is fitting that he ispubliclyrevealedtobeundertheinfluenceoftheGreenGoblinaftertheVoidisrevealedtobeincontroloftheSentry.Osborn could have become a hero if he had reined in his passions and

committed himself to a genuine integration and development of his character.Sadly, he had few honest peers like Victoria Hand in his regime, and hisopportunities for critical self-reflection were few and far between. WhenincarceratedaftertheSiege,herevealssomerationaleforcarryingouthisdutyinthemannerinwhichhedid,but it isadistortedrationalizationdrivenbyanexaggerated appreciation of the dangers in the Marvel Universe.15 Osborn’sAchilles’ heel is his insecurity, which led him to react rashly to diverse andindependentsourcesofpower.Insteadofintegratingandunderstandingpotentialandpowerfulsourcesofpower,heattempted toundercut,possess,andsubvertthem. Ultimately his ambitions and insecurities eclipsed all of his heroicpotential.Hehadthegreatpower,butheneverembracedthegreatresponsibilitythatcamewithit—especiallytohimself.

NOTES

1.Thunderbolts#125(December2008),reprintedinThunderboltsVol.3:SecretInvasion(2009),andSecretInvasion#8(January2009),reprintedinSecretInvasion(2009).FormoreonOsborn’smanipulationofthepublictrustintheAvengers,seethechaptertitled“ShiningtheLightontheDarkAvengers”bySarahDonovanandNickRichardsoninthisvolume.2.DarkAvengers#1(March2009);theentireserieswascollectedinthehardcoverDarkAvengers(2011).3.Alcibiades,inPlato,CompleteWorks,ed.JohnM.Cooper(Indianapolis:Hackett,1997),132e–135e.StandardpaginationisgivenwheneverPlatoisquoted,soyoucanfindtherelevantpassagesinanyreputabletranslation.4.DarkReign:TheList—X-Men(November2009),reprintedinDarkReign:TheList(2010).5.Sentry#1–5(2000–2001),reprintedinTheSentry(2005).6.DarkAvengers#13(March2010).7.DarkAvengers#6(August2009).8.Ibid.9.Siege:Loki#1(June2010),reprintedinSiege:Battlefield(2010).10.Siege#1(March2010),reprintedinSiege(2010).11.DarkAvengers#13.12.DarkAvengers#14(April2010).13.Siege#2(April2010),reprintedinSiege.14.Siege:SecretWarriors#1(June2010),reprintedinSiege:Battlefield.15.DarkAvengers#16(July2010)andOsborn#1–5(January–June2011,reprintedinOsborn:EvilIncarcerated,2011).

PARTTHREE

SHOULDTHEAVENGERSDOMORETHANAVENGE?

Chapter7

FORGIVERSASSEMBLE!

DanielP.MalloyTheveryfirstcomicbookIeverboughtwasanissueofWestCoastAvengers,along-runningspinoffofthemainAvengersbook.Idon’trememberwhatitwasaboutorwhichissueitwas.Ionlyrememberthreethings:itcostme75cents(!),itendedinacliffhangerofsomekind—andithadareallycoolcover,whichiswhyIbought it.Thecoverfeatured thisgreatdrawingofsomeguydressed inpurpleand sportingabowandarrow. Ididn’t realize it then,or evenafter I’dreadthebook(manymanytimes),butthatguyonthecoverwasavillain.Notinthatcomic,ofcourse,bywhichtimehewasawell-establishedhero,butmuchearlierinhispurple-cladcareer.YearslaterIfoundoutthatthecharacterwhosedesign andweaponry had gottenme interested in comic books—ClintBarton,theheronamedHawkeye—hadactuallystartedhislifeasavillain.Hawkeye isn’t the only former villain among the Avengers’ ranks. Several

otherhigh-profileteammembersovertheyears—theScarletWitch,Quicksilver,Vision,WonderMan,and theBlackWidow, tonameafew—beganlifeon thewrongsideofthelaw.Certainlyothersuperheroteamshaverecruitedfromtheranksoftheirenemies,butnotquiteasoftenorasprominentlyastheAvengershave. This remarkable fact gives us a chance to explore two of the mostfascinating yet troublesome topics in moral philosophy—forgiveness andredemption—issues thatmustbedealtwith together.Without forgiveness therecanbenoredemption,andforgivenessthatdoesnotgrantredemptionishollow.

TimeTravel,Retcons,andForgivenessIntheuniverseofcomicbooks,unliketherealworld,it’spossibletochangethepast. Sometimes heroes or villains go back in time to change or preserve thecourse of history—that’s Kang the Conqueror’s modus operandi. More often,writersdecidethatsomethinghappenedinthepastthattheyfailedtomentionorthat their characters didn’t know about, so they fill in the gaps, not changinghistoryasmuchascompletingit(afterthefact).Inthemostextremecases,thewritersjudgethatthehistoryoftheircharactersdoesn’tworkanymore,forsome

reason,sotheyjustmakeupanewone.Fans—ofteninacriticaltone—callthisprocessaretcon,short forretroactivecontinuity,changingpaststories tomakethem consistent with present ones. This fantastic ability possessed by comicscreators isoneof the reasonsvery fewheroesandvillains incomicseverstaydead—ifwriters can’t findaway tobring themback to life in current stories,theychangeearlieronessotheydidn’tactuallydie.Unfortunately,weintherealworldareprettymuchstuckwiththepastasitis.

Oh,wecandeny it or lie about it, butwecan’t actually changepast events—whathashappenedhashappened,and that’s theway italwayswillbe.This iswhat philosopher Hannah Arendt (1906–1975) called the “predicament ofirreversibility.”1Onceaneventhasoccurredoranactionhasbeentaken,thereisnogoingback.Thispredicamentaffectsusmostpersonallywhenthethingwewouldliketoreverseissomeactionofourownoronethathasaffectedus.Whowouldn’twanttogobackandretractthosehurtfulwordsorgetinthatonegreatcomeback that you only thought of after you’d left the party?Whowouldn’twant to avoid gettingmuggedor beingbetrayed?We can’t do it, though.Thebestwecandoismanagehowwefeelaboutthatevent.Because we’re talking about forgiveness, let’s focus on a case where one

person has harmed another—or, at least,where one person feels they’ve beenharmed by another.Consider SimonWilliams, theAvenger known asWonderManandoriginally, likeHawkeye,avillain.WiththehelpofthevillainBaronZemo, Simonwas exposed to “ionic energy” and acquired superpowers in anattempttoexactrevengeuponTonyStark(otherwiseknownasIronMan).StarkIndustrieswasindirectcompetitionwithWilliamsInnovations,whichSimon’sfamilyowned.StarkdidnotcompetewithWilliamsunfairly—hesimplyofferedbetter products or cheaper prices or some combination thereof. Nevertheless,WilliamsbelievedhehadbeenwrongedbyStark,andbecameWonderMantoseekrevenge.2There are several ways we can deal with beingwronged, but they all start

fromabasic,perhapseveninstinctualreaction:resentment.Resentmentisnotabadthinginitself.Infact,itisarguablyanimportantpartofself-preservation—at least according to philosopher and theologianBishop JosephButler (1692–1752). In Butler’s sermons on resentment and forgiveness, he argues thatresentmentshouldnotbelookedonasamoralfailing.It issimplyanecessaryreactiontobeingharmedorwronged,andteachesustoavoidsimilarsituationsin the future.3 It can, however, become amoral failing if we allow excessiveresentment to control our actions, as is the casewithWonderMan.Excessiveresentmentleadstorevenge—andtheantidotetoitisforgiveness.

Butler’sargumentsforthelinkbetweenforgivenessandresentmenthavebeentaken as gospel (pun intended—please forgive me) by most contemporaryphilosopherswhothinkaboutforgiveness,althoughtheyalsotypicallyarguethatButler’s definition is correct but incomplete. For instance, excuses pose aparticular problem for Butler’s account. By excuses I don’tmean the classicslike “the dog ate my homework” or “I have a headache.” In this context, anexcuse isa reasonforhavingactedor failed toact thatmitigatesoreliminatesmoral (or legal) responsibility.4For instance, since theVisionwas anartificial“synthezoid”createdandprogrammedbyUltrontodestroytheAvengers,hewasarguablynotresponsibleforthoseactions,sohehasanexcuseinoursense.5Theproblemwithexcusesas farasButler’saccountof forgiveness isconcerned isthat they toosuppressor reduceresentment,but inacompletelydifferentway.We have to add to Butler’s account that forgiveness does not deny thewrongdoer’sresponsibilityforhisorheractions.Atthesametime,forgiveness,likeexcuses,maintainsanauraofdisapproval.

When I forgive someone, I must maintain that the action for which I amforgivingthemwaswrongtobeginwith.Itisnotmaderightbymyforgiveness—forgivenessdoesnotcondoneanaction.Thismayseemafairlyobviouspoint,but that does not prevent people fromgetting confused about it. For instance,takethecaseofthesecondmodernBlackKnight,DaneWhitman.Attemptingtoprove hisworth to theAvengers and atone for themisdeeds of his uncle (hisvillainouspredecessorastheBlackKnight),DaneinfiltratesandthenbetraysthesecondincarnationoftheMastersofEvil.6Now,inalllikelihood,Danehadtodosomeprettyunsavorythingstojointhegroup—theyaretheMastersofEvil,afterall.Attheveryleast,weknowthatDanehadtolietohisfellowMastersofEvil. These deeds, however, do not need to be forgiven. We would condonethem;whateverevilDanedidwasultimately in the interestofpreventingevengreaterevilbytheMastersof...well,youknow.

CanCapForgivetheRestofHisKookyQuartet?

So,forgiveness is theactofgivingupresentmentagainstawrongdoerwithoutdenying his responsibility for doing wrong (as excusing him would) or thewrongnessofthewrong(ascondoningitwould).Thereare(atleast)tworeasonsfor offering forgiveness. First, forgiveness benefits the one who forgives,because to hold on to resentment is to allow thewrongdoermore power over

oneself than he deserves. Second, by forgiving wrongdoers, we makereconciliation between ourselves and them possible. Offering forgiveness is asteptowardreestablishingarelationshipbetweenthewrongdoerandthepersonwronged.This iswhyanswering thequestion in the titleof thissection—“CanCap forgive the rest of his Kooky Quartet?”—is tricky but essential tounderstanding the infamous second lineup of the Avengers, as well asforgivenessitself.In issue #16 ofAvengers (vol. 1,May 1965), the foundingmembers of the

teamdecidethattheyneedtotakeabreak.Theyarenotdisbandingtheteamorleaving the teamaltogether—they simplyneed some timeoff (after agruelingfirst fifteen issues). So they look for replacements, and they find them ratherquicklyintheformofthreereformedsupervillains:Hawkeye,Quicksilver,andthe Scarlet Witch. Previously, Hawkeye had been a minor foe of Iron Man(under the sway of theBlackWidow, no less, also a villain at the time), andQuicksilverandtheScarletWitchhadbeenmembersof(theirfather)Magneto’soriginal Brotherhood of Evil Mutants (note the word “evil”). Together withhonorary founding member Captain America (whom the “real” foundingmembersthawedoutfromablockoficeinthefourthissueoftheseries),thesebaddies-turned-goodiesbecamethenewAvengerslineup.TheproblemwithCap’sKookyQuartet, as this incarnationof theAvengers

came to be known, is that they somehow became heroes “overnight.” Inhindsight, several decades and hundreds of stories later, there’s no doubt thatthey were sincere, although Quicksilver is still an arrogant, hotheaded jerk,Hawkeye—well, he’s an arrogant, hotheaded jerk too—and the ScarletWitch,well,shehasherownissuesthatwe’lltalkaboutlater.(Incontrast,Capjustdieda few times, but he’s better now.) Nonetheless, we should still be concernedaboutthefactthatthesethreehaveperformedevildeeds.Avillaincan’tsimplysay, “Oh, uh, look, I’ve thought it over, andwell, I’m a good guy now.”Evildeedsdon’tdisappearwhenonehasachangeofheart,nordotheyvanishwhenjust anybody says it’s okay. In this case, it’s appropriate that itwas IronManwho introduced the new Avengers lineup, because Hawkeye’s entire criminalcareer basically consisted of trying to defeat him. So Iron Man has whatcontemporary philosopher Claudia Card calls the “moral power” to forgiveHawkeye:asavictimofHawkeye’scrimes,Shellheadhastheauthoritytograntabsolutionandforgiveness.7

WhoWillForgivetheMutants?

But Quicksilver and the Scarlet Witch—mutant siblings Pietro and WandaMaximoff—posemoreofaproblem.Tobesure,therearemitigatingfactorsintheir case: for example, they only joined the Brotherhood of EvilMutants torepayadebttoMagnetoforsavingWanda’slifefromananti-mutantmob.8Toshowtheirgratitude,WandaandPietrosworetheirallegiancetoMagneto’spro-mutant cause, and went on to become supervillains.When they decided theirdebthadbeenpaidtheyleftMagneto’sservice,andlater(naturally)theyturnedupontheAvengers’doorstep,readytoserve.Theydid,however,commitcrimeswhile withMagneto, albeit reluctantly, and they were never punished. So wehavetoassumethat theircrimeswereforgivenorexcused.Bywhom,though?Theonlypeoplewithanyobviouspower to forgiveor excuseare thevictims,andweneverseeorhearanythingfromthem.Withoutthat, thereisnowaytosaythatforgivenesshasbeengranted.Thereareunusualcases,however,whereforgivenesscanbegrantedwithout

thevictim’sassent.Forinstance,supposePietroandWandahad,inthecourseoftheircareersas supervillains,accidentallycaused thedeathofa securityguardnamed Stanley. Obviously, in the case of death, the victim can’t forgive orexcusewhathappened.IfStanleyisnotavailabletoforgivePietroandWanda,who can? Perhaps nobody, in which case theirs will be an evil deed that isforeverontheirheads.Butmaybethesecurityguardhadawife.This,ofcourse,makestheircrimeworse,butthereisabrightside.Stanley’swifeisavictimoftheMaximoffs’crimealso,andassuch,shehas theright tospeaknotonlyonher own behalf, but on her husband’s as well. She can, if she chooses, grantPietroandWandaforgiveness.That’s a fairly uncomplicated case of what we call third-party forgiveness.

Thingsbecomemuchmorecomplicatedwhen the thirdparty isnotadirectorindirect victim of the crime, as when the Avengers grant Quicksilver and theScarletWitchasortofabsolutionbyallowingthemtojointheteam.Toseewhythisisaproblem,thinkbacktoBishopButler’sanalysis,inwhichforgivenessisforgoingrevengeandovercomingresentment.Athirdpartywhoisn’tinjuredbythe evil deed has no reason to feel resentment and no motive for revenge.Therefore, it would seem that there can be no such thing as third-partyforgiveness, and the Avengers, even Cap, cannot absolve Quicksilver and theScarletWitchoftheircrimes.That understanding of forgiveness, however, takes a rather narrow view of

whatitistobeinjuredbyacrime.Acrimeisaviolationofalaw,andourdutytoobeylaws,moralorotherwise,doesnotdependsolelyonourrelationshiptoanyrandompersonwemayharmbynotobeyingthem.Thisdutyisowedtothe

community more generally—that is why we can be punished for crimes thathavenospecificvictim.WhenIjaywalk,forinstance,Iamnotharminganyone—I’mjustcrossingthestreetinanillegalway.Infact,theonlypersonlikelytosufferanybodilyharmfrommyhabitofignoringcrosswalksisme(ifitweren’tformyHerculeanframe,thatis).Nonetheless,byignoringthelawsaboutwhenandwhereImaycrossstreets,Iamcausingharmtothecommunityasawhole:Iam disrupting the orderly flow of traffic and the overall harmony of thecommunity. Admittedly, others are probably disrupting it more: arsonists,kidnappers,andmimes,aswellassupervillains(andmimes),allcometomindas excellent examples of disruptive influences in a community. But myjaywalkingisalsodisruptive—justnottothesamedegree(especiallycomparedtomimes).Sincethecommunityasawholeisbeinginjuredbyacrime(which,youwill

note,rhymeswithmime),thecommunitywouldseemtohavethemoralpowerto forgive, at least in the absence of a direct victim. And the Avengers arerepresentatives,inaway,ofthecommunity,soitfollowsthattheydohavesomerighttoforgiveWandaandPietrofortheircrimes.Notice,though,thatthisrightofthecommunitytakesabackseattotherightsofthevictimsthemselves.Ifthevictimsareinapositionwheretheyarecapableofofferingforgiveness(thatis,theyareneitherdeadnorcomatose,stillinpossessionoftheirfaculties,andarenotpracticingmimes)andrefusetodoso,thecommunitymustrespectthat(tosome degree). There are cases where a refusal to forgive would be utterlyunreasonable, and ones where arguably forgiveness should never be offered.

(Here’sahint:mimes.)ForgiveMe!Onceweknowwhodoesanddoesnothavetherighttoforgiveacrime,thenextquestion is,when should someone forgive a crime?This questionmay be thetrickiest of the bunch. There are actually two sides to it: first, what sorts ofcrimescanbeforgivenandunderwhatcircumstances,andsecond,whethertherearecrimesthataresimplyunforgivable.Inthinkingaboutthefirstproblem,wehavetorealizethatwhilevictimsofa

crime have a right to forgive, they have no obligation. Only the victim candecidewhen and if a crime should be forgiven. Still, it’s possible to establishsomebroadguidelinesaboutforgiveness.Apersonshouldn’tbetooquickortooslow to forgive. Forgiving too quickly displays a lack of self-respect, whilebeingtooreluctanttoforgivemanifestsagrudgingresentment.Ineachcase,thevictim of the crime is granting too much power over themselves to theperpetrator. The victim who forgives instantly is almost agreeing with the

perpetrator that the victim was worth little enough to justify the crime. Thepersonwhoforgivestooslowly,orrefusestoforgivealtogether,remainsforeverdefinedasthevictimofanother.9Indecidingwhatshouldbeforgivenandwhen,weneed toconsidernot just

the victim but the perpetrator as well.We often hear reformed villains speakabout “earning forgiveness,” but this notion is false. To earn something is toacquire a right to it, and there is no right to be forgiven. Such a rightwouldimply an obligation on the part of the victim to forgive, and that right simplydoesn’texist.However,bydisplayingremorse,performingactsofrepentance,ormaking reparations, a perpetrator canmake itmore reasonable for a victim toforgive,eventothepointwhereitseemsunreasonabletowithholdforgiveness.TakeHawkeye, for instance: inhis criminaldaysheharmedTonyStark, so

Starkhastherighttoforgivehim—somethinghedoesquitequickly(perhapstooquickly). But suppose Stark had not been so quick to forgive—at what pointwouldhis refusalhavebecomeunreasonable?There isnoclearanswer,but inHawkeye’scase,heclearlyrepentedofhisearliercriminalbehaviorandchangedhisways,making him a likely candidate for forgiveness.Once he’s helped tosave the world once or twice, he becomes still more likely. Once he’s savedTony’s own armor-clad bacon a fewmore times, it seems thatTonywouldbeunreasonableifhestillresentedHawkeye’searlieractions.10Hawkeye is a fairly easy case (if there is such a thing as an “easy” caseof

forgiveness).Supposewelookatsomethinga littlemoredifficult—what if theperpetratorofthecrimeisunrepentant?Could,forexample,CapforgivetheRedSkull,or theFantasticFourforgiveDoctorDoom?11Fromwhatwe’vealreadysaid,theanswerisyes,ofcoursetheycould,sotherealquestioniswhethertheyshould.Theanswerseemstobeno,unlesstheyhavegoodreasontobelievethatsuchforgivenessmightactuallyspurthevillaininquestiontobecomerepentant.Partof thepurposeof forgiveness is to reestablishharmoniousrelations. If theperpetrator isunrepentantand likely to remainso, then forgivenesswill fail inthispurpose.Ontheotherhand,iftheperpetratorhasadmittedwrongdoingandexpressedremorseforit,orseemslikelytodosogiventherightencouragement,then forgiveness can serve this purpose. To forgive the Red Skull or DoctorDoom, given their immense pride in their criminal actions (as well as theirrefusal to admit any wrongdoing, thinking themselves righteous and noble),wouldbeequivalent tocondoningtheiractions.But toforgivesomeoneontheverge of repenting his or her actions might be the last bit of encouragementneededtostartreformingthem.

ForgivenessintheHouseOfMWe’vediscussedguidelinesforforgivenessintermsofthepeopleinvolvedinacrime, thevictimsandperpetrators,butwe’veneglected the issueof thecrimeitself.It’sonethingforHawkeyetomakeamendsforhisattacksonIronMan,butit’squiteanotherfortheWasptoforgiveherhusband,HankPym,forhittingher,orfortheMarvelUniversetoforgivetheScarletWitchforwarpingrealityitself.12Therearevariousdegreesofcrimestoconsider,someofwhicharemoreeasilyforgiventhanothers.Therearealsoavarietyoffactorstobeconsidered,including the severity of the harm and the number of people impacted by aparticularcrime.Tocuttothechase,though,let’sconsiderwhetherthereareanycrimesthatsimplyoughtnottobeforgiven,ever.Asweconsider thepossibilityofanunforgivablecrime,wecan takeoneof

two approaches. The first claims that certain crimes are unforgivable by theirvery nature: there is something inherent in the crime itself that makesforgivenessunthinkable.Forinstance,wecouldarguethatHankPym’sabuseofhiswifewasunforgivable,notbecauseoftheactualphysicalharmheinflicted,but because of the violation of their relationship that it represented. By thatlogic,JanetvanDyneshouldneverhaveforgivenHank,orwasatleastbehavingunreasonablywhenshedid.Also,somestorieshint that theScarletWitchmayhavebeenmolestedasachild.13IfitistruethatWandawasmolestedasachild,forgiveness for the perpetratormay simply be out of the question; that crimeitselfistooterribletoforgive,regardlessofanycircumstancesinanyparticularinstanceofit.The other approach to unforgivable crimesmaintains that there is no crime

thatisunforgivablebyitsnature,buttherearesomecrimesthatareunforgivabledepending on their degree. For example, a singlemurdermight be forgivable,butattemptedgenocidewouldnotbe.WecanlookagaintotheScarletWitch:intheHouseofMminiseries (2005),Wanda used her reality-warping powers to,well,warpreality,but this timeonagrandscale.Sheattemptedtogranteveryhero his or her fondest wish. In theory, that sounds great, but in actuality, itmeant forcing the entire world to live a lie, one that robbed each and everyperson of their individual histories and identities. There are some mitigatingfactors: Wanda was in the middle of a breakdown and perhaps not entirelyresponsible for her actions. If we accept that, then there is no crime to beforgiven,because it is excused. If,however, the reality-warpingwasvoluntaryand intentional,withnoexcuseavailable, thenwemighthaveanunforgivablecrime.

These two approaches are usually combined, which brings to mind thecontributions of Wanda’s brother, Quicksilver, to this whole reality-warpingbusiness. In the latter stages ofHouseofM, it is revealed that itwas actuallyPietro who caused the whole mess—albeit with the best of intentions. WithWanda’s reality-warpingpowers expandingandher sanity collapsing,manyofthe world’s heroes gathered to decide what should be done about her. WhenPietroheard someone suggestkillingWanda to save theworld,hewent tohissisterandsuggestedthebitofreality-warpingthatbeganthewholestoryline.Indoing this,Pietroarguablyperformedbothsortsofunforgivablecrime.On theonehand,hewasindirectlyresponsibleforthewarpingofrealityonthelargestscaleimaginable,andontheother,hemanipulatedhismentallyunstablesistertoachieveit.

TheParadoxofForgivenessTo be sure, not everyone accepts that there is such a thing as an unforgivablecrime. French philosopher Jacques Derrida (1930–2004) argued that ifforgiveness is to have any meaning, it must be granted to the (seemingly)unforgivable.14 Forgiving the forgivable is (relatively) easy, and comes withbenefits;byforgivingarepentantandremorsefulfriend,forinstance,werepairthefriendship,generatingatypeofexchange.Butforgivingtheunforgivableistheonlykindof“pure”forgiveness(similarto“pure”altruism),wheretherecanbe no expectation of reward. To forgive that which cannot be forgiven is toforgivewithouthope,orneed,orwant.Ifthisishowweunderstandforgivenessand theunforgivable, then the crimeswehave examined so far havenot beenunforgivable. In each case, thosewhowould be called on to forgive have thepossibility of establishing or reestablishing a relationship with the forgivenperson.Inordertofindanunforgivablecrime,byDerrida’slogic,wedon’tneeda particular kind of crime, but a particular kind of criminal: namely, anunrepentant one. Or to make the situation perfect, a deceased unrepentantcriminalwouldbeideal—thereisthennohopeoftheforgivencriminalhavingachangeofheart.Derrida’s discussion of the forgivable expresseswhat some have called the

paradox of forgiveness though it is really the paradox of forgiveness andrepentance. The paradox runs something like this: you can’t forgive anunrepentant criminal, because then you are simply excusing the crime.At thesametime,thereisnoneedtoforgivearepentantcriminal,becauseinrepentingofthecrime,thecriminalhasalreadytakenstepstoeraseit.15

Avengers,Forgive!There is a potential conflict between forgiveness and a team called the“Avengers” that we need to address. To avenge and to forgive seem to beopposites.Toavengeistopunishinordertorightawrong,whiletoforgiveistoforgopunishment—orsoitseems.Infact,avengingandforgivingcanbeunited.Forgivingdoesn’tinvolveforgoingpunishment—itinvolvesforgoingresentmentandrevenge.Revengingandavengingarerelated,butdistinct.Avenginghastodowithjustice,andmaybesoughtbyanyone,notjustthevictimsofacrimeorwrongdoing.Superheroesusuallypursuejusticeinthenamesofthepeopletheyaresworntoprotect,notforthemselves.Revenge,ontheotherhand,ispersonal.I cannot revengeawrongdone toyou—nooffense, but I probablydon’t evenknowyou.Ican’tfeelthekindofpersonalizedharmnecessaryforrevenge.16There is no conflict between avenging and forgiving because the Avengers

(andavengersingeneral)canforgiveaswellaspunish.Forinstance,therehavebeentwooccasionswhereanAvengerhasbeengiventheultimatepunishment—expulsionfromtheteam—onlytobereadmittedlater.IronManwasexpelledinthewake of theArmorWars after he caused the death of theGremlin,17 andHankPymwasexpelledforavarietyofbizarreactions,includingattackingafoewho had already surrendered.18 Both were welcomed back later; they werepunishedandthenforgiven.Thisispossiblebecausepunishmentandforgivenessservedistinctpurposes.

Forgiveness is largely about reestablishing relationships, while punishment isusuallyaboutretribution.Byviolatingtherules,theseAvengersincurreddebtstotherestoftheteam,andwhentheywerepunishedtheyrepaidthosedebts.Thus,Tony and Hank can be readmitted once they have paid for their crimes.Punishmentasretributioncanbethoughtofasmakingreparationsforacrime—a step on the road to forgiveness. Still, while wemay repay a debt by beingpunished,weshouldkeepinmindthatforgivenesscan’tbeearnedlikearewardorapaycheck,whichapersondeserves,butmustbegrantedvoluntarilybythevictim.Ultimately,thisiswhatweshouldtakeawayfromthesereflectionsaboutthe

Avengers:Wecannotdemandforgivenessforpastmissteps,norcanforgivenessbedemandedofus.Wecan,however,makeitmore(orless)reasonabletograntforgiveness through our subsequent behavior. Just asking for forgivenessmaynotmeritit,butitcertainlyhelpsiftherequestshowsthevictimthatthecriminalacknowledges and owns the crime. Those Avengers, like Hawkeye, who are

formercriminalsandvillains,neverdenywhat theydid in theirpast lives,andtheircontinuingserviceasheroesshowsthattheyareworthyofforgiveness.

NOTES

1.HannahArendt,TheHumanCondition(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1998),236–243.2.Avengers,vol.1,#9(October1964).3.BishopJosephButler,“SermonsVIIIandIX,”inFifteenSermons(London:Ware,Longman,andJohnson,1774).4.Forabrilliantphilosophicaldiscussionofexcuses,seeJ.L.Austin,“APleaforExcuses,”inPhilosophicalPapers(NewYork:Oxford,1979),175–204.5.Avengers,vol.1,#57(October1968),reprintedinEssentialAvengersVol.3(2001).6.Avengers,vol.1,#54–55(July–August1968),reprintedinEssentialAvengersVol.3(2001).7.ClaudiaCard,TheAtrocityParadigm:ATheoryofEvil(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2002),chapter8. 8.X-Men,vol.1,#4(March1964),reprintedinEssentialUncannyX-MenVol.1(2010).9.Formoreonthis,seeCharlesGriswold,Forgiveness:APhilosophicalExploration(NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,2007).10.ForTony’sownissueswithforgivenessandatonement,seeChristopherRobichaud,“CanIronManAtoneforTonyStark’sWrongs?”inIronManandPhilosophy,ed.MarkD.White(Hoboken,NJ:JohnWiley&Sons,2010),53–63.11.Forthatmatter,couldanyoneforgiveamime?12.What,nomimejoke?Can’tthinkoutsidethebox?Ha-ha...13.Forinstance,inAvengers,vol.1,#401(August1996).14.JacquesDerrida,OnCosmopolitanismandForgiveness,trans.MarkDooleyandMichaelHughes(NewYork:Routledge,2001),32–33.15.LeoZaibert,“TheParadoxofForgiveness,”JournalofMoralPhilosophy6(2009):365–393.

16.Formoreonthedistinctionbetweenjustice(orretribution)andrevenge,seeRobertNozick,PhilosophicalExplanations(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,1981),366–370.17.IronMan,vol.1,#229(April1988),reprintedinIronMan:ArmorWars(2007).18.Avengers,vol.1,#213(November1981).

Chapter8

GODS,BEASTS,ANDPOLITICALANIMALS:WHYTHEAVENGERS

ASSEMBLE

TonySpanakos

The world needs what it always needs. Heroes. Not S.H.I.E.L.D.Agents . . .NotH.A.M.M.E.R.Agents.Avengers.Now,maybemorethanever.

—SteveRogers1When theAvengers title was relaunched in 2010, we were told that “Earth’sMightiest Heroes united against a common threat! On that day the Avengerswereborn—tofightthefoesthatnosingleherocouldwithstand!”2Thiswasnosurprise,sinceStanLeetoldtrue-believingfansessentiallythesamethingintheoriginalAvengers#1in1963.Buttheclaimismisleading,ifnotinaccurate.TheAvengersmaybelievethatthey“assemble”inordertofightgreatfoes,butthereismoretoitthanthis.WhennotAvengers,theyperformgreatworld-savingdeedsontheirown,but

they long for fellowship and they languish emotionally. (Even their solosuperheroicsareoftendoneintandemwithfellowAvengersinthegreattraditionof the “Marvel team-up.”) So what is the real reason why the Avengersassemble? Aristotle (384–322 BCE) would say that in working together as acommunity the Avengers act excellently (arête) and develop fellowship(philia).3Ultimately, through theircommonaction, theyflourish(eudaimonia).Andthatiswhytheyassemble.

AssemblingforNecessityorPerfection?We can easily dismiss the claim that the Avengers came together out ofnecessity, to defeat a supervillain whom they could not defeat alone. Theevidence for this is that the Avengers originally assemble to fight Loki, who

confuses them into fighting the Hulk.4 But even casual readers of MarvelComics know that Thor fought Loki on his own throughout his long comicscareer. Loki is therefore not a foewhose defeat could only be secured by theconcertedactionoftheAvengers.ThesamecouldbesaidofKang,Modok,theSubmariner, and many other Avenger villains who have also fought soloAvengers.NecessityhardlysustainstheAvengers;theremustbesomethingelsethatmakesthemkeepassembling.Let’slookatAristotle’sexplanationofthecreationofthecity-state(polis)for

suggestions.Man,notsufficientinhimselftoliveinisolation,needsthepolistoensure reproduction, stability, security, and the possibility of exchange.5 Butwhilenecessitymightleadtoformingapolis,itismaintainedforreasonsthatgofar beyond that. The polis, or city-state, is the political community thatrespondedtosomethingmorefundamentalinthelivesoftheGreeks.Putbluntly,“Onecannotbeahumanbeingexcept in thecontextofapolis,”6and themanoutsideofthepolisiseitheragodorbeast.7Agoddoesnotneedthepolis,andabeasthasneitherusenorappreciationofit.Forthemortalmaninbetween,thepolis is the place where fellowship (philia) is found, excellence (arête) isenacted,andhumanthriving(eudaimonia)isdevelopedandperfected.Aristotle’s argument is based on his belief that man is a “political animal”

(zoonpolitikon).Butmanyof theAvengersarenotordinaryhumans.Theyaregods,mutants,andmachines—oneisevenaBeast. Itdoesn’tmatter.OnemayjointheAvengersforthesamereasononejoinsAristotle’spolis,necessity.ButonealsoremainsintheAvengersforthesamereasononeremainsinthepolis,forthesakeofthegoodlife.

ElementaryGreekLessons(ApprovedbytheComicsCode)

WithallduerespecttoourgoodfriendAres,furtherelaborationonafewancientGreektermsmighthelp.Thepoliswasdifferentfromothercommunitiesbasedonitssizeandtheroleofcitizensinitssocialandpoliticallife.8Also,Aristotle’suseoftheword“political”isfarbroaderthanitsusetoday.Havingitsrootsinthelifeofthepolis,politicsforAristotleencompassesthesocial,economic,and(whatwecall)politicalaspectsoflivingincommonwithothers.Thisdistinctionis importantbecause, aside froma fewexamples suchasTonyStark’s timeassecretaryofdefenseandheadofS.H.I.E.L.D.,mostAvengerseschew“politics,”

even though theymay be very political.CaptainAmerica, for example, is thelivingembodimentandsymboloftheAmericanspirit,butherefusestorunforpresident,onlybegrudginglyservingasheadofU.S.securityfollowingNormanOsborn’s “Dark Reign.” In fact, he often avoids formal politics to engage inmore meaningful and direct “political” action (saving the lives of citizens,defendingthecountryfromforeign/alieninvasion,orsimplybeingarolemodeltogenerationsofAmericans).The Avengers do not form their own polis in the sense of an independent

politicalunit(likeGenoshaorthevariousdwellingplacesoftheInhumans),butthey do engage in political community. The reason that they do this—and thereasontheykeepreturningtotheAvengers—isthatavengingallowsthemapathtoattainingeudaimonia that ismoreperfectthantheycanachieveintheirsolocareers.Commonlytranslatedashappinessorfulfillment,eudaimonia“consists...insatisfyingthedesiresthatarenecessaryformantohaveinordertoliveafull, rich life.”9 But reading eudaimonia as “happiness” in the twenty-first-centurysensemaydistortitsmeaninginacoupleofways:first,happinessmightbe read in a hedonistic way, and second, it might be seen as an internalcondition.Aristotlewould disavowboth.The first canbe discardedbecause afulllifeisonebasedonreasonandnotpleasure,andthesecondcanbediscardedbecausehappiness isnot a feelingbut awayofbeing.Specifically,Aristotle’sunderstandingofhappiness (eudaimonia) involvesvirtueorexcellence (arête),action that is practiced and developed over time.Arête is excellence indoingsomething,not simplyan internalcharacteristicof thesoul.10While it isoftenusedinamoralsense,arêtecanalsobeusedtocharacterizetheexcellencethatacarpenter has in terms of building a house. In other words, it is excellencerelative to thecraftor functionof thecraftsman,and it reaches itsacmein thefieldofethicsandpoliticallifebecausethisisthefunctionofallhumans.11If arête is found in action within the community, it supplements and is

supplementedbythedevelopmentoffellowshiporfriendship,philia(lastGreekword,Ipromise),betweencitizens.IntheNicomacheanEthics,Aristotlearguesthat “the happyman [eudaimoni] must have society. . . . And it is obviouslypreferable to associate with friends [philon] and with good men than withstrangers and chance companions. Therefore the happy man requiresfriends.”12Philiacandevelopfordifferentreasons:advantage(Iamfriendswithyou because you can get me a job); pleasure (Jersey Shore’s Snooki enjoyshangingoutwiththeSitchandJWowwbecausetheyaremadfunny);orvirtue(youarefriendswithmebecauseyouwantwhatisgoodformeformysake).13This last form ofphilia, “wanting for someonewhat one thinks good, for his

ownsakeandnotforone’sown,andbeinginclined,sofarasonecan,todosuchthingsforhim,”isthehighestleveloffriendship.14Inthisversionoffriendship,the person sees his or her fellow as “another self” and finds in him or hersomeone also committed to arête: “Hence it is necessary for anyone who isgoingtobehappy[eudaimonisonti]tohaveexcellentfriends[philon].”15Superheroes, obviously, perform superheroic acts of excellence regularly,

whether they aremembers of theAvengers or not.But even though theymaystopcrimeandsuperpoweredvillainsintheirsolocareers,theirlivesandactsarenecessarily incomplete. Inevitably, the desire for eudaimonia leads them toreturntotheAvengers,oratleasttoregularinteractionandteam-ups.

Ms.-SingHerFriends

Jessica Jones: Remember the time you kept the . . . sun fromexploding?!Ms.Marvel:Youknowwhat Ididnext? Iwenthomeandsatonmybuttforsixmonths,eatingBen&Jerry’sandwatchingoldmovies.16

Followingthe“HouseofM”storyarc,CarolDanvers“realizedthatshewasnotlivinguptoherfullpotentialasMs.Marvel”anddecidedtoemphasizehersoloadventuring.17 But, sixmonths later, when she defeats Stilt-Man in battle, hedoesnotrecognizeher,andherrecentlyhiredpublicistgetsheraspotontheTVshowSuperPowerscalled“WhereAreTheyNow?”18Shecomplainsaboutthisto Jessica Jones, another ex-Avenger, telling her that she left the AvengersbecauseasanAvengershewaitedforpeopletosave,whereas,onherown,shegoes out “on patrol” and “find[s] out you’re needed before you’re needed.”19Andyetwhensheseessomegreenaliensonthenexttwopages,herfirstinstinctistocallCaptainAmerica.Infact,theentirefirstissueofhernewcomicbookseriesisshapednotbyhersoloadventures,norbyforgingherownidentity,butbyherinabilitytoescapefrombeinganAvenger.Another importantAvenger inCarol’s life is IronMan (TonyStark),who is

not just a fellow crimefighter but also a recovering alcoholic (likeCarol) andCarol’ssponsorforAlcoholicsAnonymous.20Sowhenheasksher to joinandlead hisAvengers teamafter theMarvelUniverse “CivilWar,” this is comingfrommorethansomeonewhoalsofightscrime.21Itiscomingfromafellowonseveral levels, someonewhounderstandsheras fewotherscan.Afterall, theynotonlyactexcellentlytogether(infightingcrime),buttheyalsofindhappinessineachother’sexcellence(stayingsober,forinstance).

In the first year of her solo run, Carol tries to find herself and realize herpotential. Aristotle says the human function is to attain eudaimonia, andaccordinglyMs.Marvelidentifiesherfunction,sayingthat“heroesneedto...Ineed tomake a difference.”22 Ironically, sheonly comes to this understandingonce she decides to return to (and lead) theAvengers. Before shemakes thisdecision, supervillainsdonot recognizeher,TVproducers consider her a has-been,andshehasnothingresemblinga“normallife.”23Perhapsshecannotleadanormallife—notbecausesheisasuperhero,butspecificallybecausesheisanex-Avenger.Carol tries to explain herself to her publicist, who ultimately does not

understandherandcannot formabondofphiliawithher.Bycontrast, JessicaJonesreallygets heronapersonal level, andCarol alsohasdeep,meaningfulconversationswithCaptainAmericaandTonyStark.Whensheengages in thearêteofasuperhero,CarolusuallydoessowithotherformeroractualAvengers(DoctorStrange,Tigra,Valkyrie).Thusalthoughshecontinues toactasasolohero, she is not able to flourish the way she had hoped. When she finallyunderstandswhatherpurpose is, she fulfills it asanAvenger.On thecoverofMightyAvengers#1andtheopeningsplashpage,Ms.Marvelglidesdownintobattle, completely confident leading the Mighty Avengers, including veteranssuchastheWasp,WonderMan,theBlackWidow,andIronMan,allofwhomareseasonedheroes.Shefindseudaimoniaamongthosewithwhomshesharesphilia,theAvengers.

GettingHerArêteTogether

Youwereamess...youweren’thalfthewomanyou’vebecomeoverthelastcoupleofyears.

—LukeCagetoJessicaJones24LukeCage (PowerMan) uses thesewords, among others, to convince Jessicathat he trulywants tomarry her. Shewas amess, and she is one of themostintriguingandcompellingcharactersinMarveldom.Sheisperpetuallyunhappy,self-deprecating, and utterly lacking in self-confidence. Jessica gained herpowerswhenshewasexposedtosomechemicalsfollowingacaraccidentthatkilledherparentsandbrother.25Priortotheaccident,shewasamiserableloner—somuchsothatshehadacrushonPeterParkerandevenhedidn’tnoticeher—butsheisevenmoresofollowingheraccident,givenherguiltoverpartiallycausing it. After her convalescence in the hospital, Jessica is given the good

newsthatshecanreturntoheroldhighschoolandthatafosterfamilywantstoadopther.26WhenJessicareturnsshe ismorealienated thanever, treated likeafreakby

the cheerleaders, humiliated by the jocks, and pitied by Peter Parker.27 In herfrustration,sherunsawayanddiscoversshehassuperstrengthandcanfly,butshe is still thoroughly unsatisfied. Describing her early superheroing, Jessicasaysshetriedit“foraboutaweek.Anditwasn’tagoodweek.Itwasanangryweek.ButIkepttellingmyself.There’speopleinneed.Peoplecausingtrouble.Thatwastheexcusebutreally...Ijustwantedtohitthings.”28Yearslater,shegivesupthe“superherogame”andbecomesaprivatedetective.Jessica seems to be perpetually looking for eudaimonia. More so than

probably any Marvel character, she is a loner. Her fundamental repulsion atbeingasuperheromakesitseemunlikelythatshewouldneedtobeanAvenger.ButlikeherfriendCarolDanvers,sheismiserablewhensheisnotanAvenger.Shedrinksexcessively,hasmeaninglesstrysts(repeatedly),usesfoullanguage,and smokes like a chimney. There is no eudaimonia. She even yells at CarolwhensheurgesJessicatotakeonacase.29Despiteheroutburst,sheknowsthatCarolisherfriend.ThisiswhyJessica,whotrustsnoone,cantellCarolaboutherone-night standwithLukeCage (a former and futureAvenger). Ironically,whenCaroltellsherthatLukeisa“capechaser”(datesonlysuperheroines),shetries to set Jessica up with Scott Lang, a former Ant-Man.30 In other words,althoughCarolcriticizesLukeforonlydatingheroes,Jessicaseemstrappedinthesamepattern—andnotonly“capes”butAvengersinparticular.In the series The Pulse, Jessica is already pregnant with Luke’s child, and

many of her fellow Avengers pitch in to help. Carol organizes a lunch withJessicaandSueRichards(theInvisibleWoman)becauseJessicaisworriedaboutwhat her kid will be like, having two superheroes for parents.31 Sue, also aformerAvenger,allaysJessica’sfearsbytellingheraboutthetwokidssheandMr.Fantastichave.Later,Carol takesJessicaandLuke to thedesignstudiooffoundingAvengerJanetvanDyne(theWasp)tohelpLukefindanewsuperherooutfit.32WhenJessica’swaterbreaks,Carol fliesher to thehospital,andwhenLuke can’t get to the hospital because of heavy traffic, Jan issues the call,“AvengersAssemble!”33Intheirmomentofhumanneed,JessicaandLuke,bothfiercelyindependent,getalittlehelpfromtheirfriends—allofthemAvengers.Later,thewomaninchargeofthehospitalinsistsongettingJessicaoutofthe

hospitalbecause“wecannotgivebirth towhatever shehas in there!Wedon’tknow what kind of mutant is going to come out! She could give birth to anatomic bomb or—or a poison!!”34 When she suggests sending Jessica to the

Baxter Building or S.H.I.E.L.D., she is interrupted by Captain America, whosays,“Thatwon’tbenecessary. . . .We’ll takeher.”35Cap, surroundedby theNewAvengers, takesher to thehouseofDoctorStrange,aformerAvenger, togivebirth.During thebirth,Ms.Marvel is rightnext toher,holdingacloth toher head.36 While the paparazzi wait outside, powerless journalist Ben Urichwonders, “What about the person behind the mask . . . who needs help andfriendsandlovejustliketherestofus...Whowillbetheretohelpthemwhenthings don’t go their way? When tragedy strikes?”37 As if the point neededfurther clarification, Urich’s narration is matched with images of Luke, Cap,Spidey,Spider-Woman,andIronMan.Together with Luke and a baby girl, Jessica becomes less dark; she’s even

happy at times. Interrupting her wedding to Luke, she inserts her own vows,tellinghim:

Itrulybelievethattogetherwearesomuchbetterthanweareapart...Idon’tgetlostinmyownheadlikeIusedto.Thisworldisascaryplace.YoubeinganAvenger—it’sso...scary.Everydaythere’ssomeidiotinourfacetryingtoruinit.Andeversincewegottogether,Ijusthaven’tcared.38

This is an incredible statement from the (formerly) self-loathing Jessica Jones,theonewho looksdownon the superhero lifestyle.Beingpartof theAvengercommunity—best friends with the leader, marrying another, and a formerAvengerherself—she findsphilia. Inherweddingphoto, Jessicabeams in themidstoftheNewAvengers,clearlyamongherownand,mostimportant,havingfoundhereudaimonia.39Infact,whenClintBarton(Hawkeye)iscaptured,andLuke is still recovering, Jessica joins Spider-Woman, Mockingbird, and Ms.MarveltodobattleasanAvengeragain.40

TheOriginalIrredeemableAnt-Man

I...stoppedtryingtofigureoutthePymsalongtimeago.I’mprettysurethey...drovemetodrinkinthefirstplace.

—TonyStark41Overthelastfivedecades,Henry(Hank)PymhasbecomeoneofMarvel’smostflawed, and repulsive, heroes. When he first appeared in Tales to Astonish,volume 1, #27, in January 1962, he decided that his serums were “far toodangeroustoeverbeusedbyanyhumanagain!”42Nonethelesshereturnedeight

issues later because “so great a discovery must not melt into nothingness!”43Andindeed,Pymhasbeenacharacterconflictedbetweendoingtherightthingand pursuing his science evenwhen it consistently leads to disastrous results,suchasphysicallyabusinghiswife,JanetvanDyne,orendangeringtheteaminhispoorlyconcoctedefforts togethimself invitedbackintotheAvengersafterhewasexpelled.44After one such screwup, Tigra calls him a “rat” and tells Jarvis that she is

happytoseehimgone.Everthevoiceofwisdom,JarviscautionsTigra—andthereader—about being too judgmental. Although, in the words of CaptainAmerica,Pymisguiltyof“misconductbeforetheenemy,”Jarvissays,“Heisahero!Menarefallible—evenheroes.”45WhenPymtriestoapologizetoJan,shetells him, “I pity you. . . . You’re a deeply troubledman! You need help!”46Eventually,heisreinstated,firstasanadviserandthenasamemberoftheWestCoast Avengers.47 In that capacity, he dates Tigra—yes, the same Tigra—contemplates suicide, and eventually gets back together with Jan (for theumpteenth time).Thoughshe isbeautiful,heroic,andanAvenger,Tigra isnotJan,theloveofhislifeandthewomanwithwhomhecofoundedtheAvengers.As with Carol and Jessica, Hank’s eudaimonia is accomplished by being anAvengerandbeingwiththeAvengers,especiallyJan.Hank’s latest reconciliation with the Avengers comes when Hercules and

AmadeusChowanttoreconveneanewteamofAvengersafterNormanOsbornformshisownAvengers team(knowntocomicsfansas theDarkAvengers).48TheyfindJarvisandhetellsthem,“There’sonlyonemanIcanthinkof...toleadateamofnewAvengers”:HankPym.49Pym,atthispoint,isnotAnt-Man,GiantMan,Goliath,orYellowjacket,buttheWasp(anidentityhetakesinhonorofhisnowdeceasedformerwife).WhenJarvistellshim,“Therehascomeaday,sir, unlike any other, where earth’s mightiest heroes must unite against acommon threat,” Pym interrupts himwith, “Stop. TheAvengers’ oath, Jarvis.That won’t work on me. Who do you think wrote it into the charter?”50Unfortunately, he is stillHank Pym, arrogant and self-centered. Previously heconcoctedallsortsofschemes(whichbackfired)togetbackintotheAvengers.Now, when they call him, he says, “I’m flattered. But I’m in the middle ofsomething.Andreally?Me?Therehastobesomeoneelseoutthere.Someothersuperhero.”51But as much as Hank is shirking his responsibility to save the world, he

remains a sympathetic character.He tells the others that he is and has alwaysbeenafraidofleadingtheAvengers.Atfirsthefeltthathecouldnot“measureup” toThor,Hulk, and IronMan,untilhecameupwith theplan that stopped

Lokiduringtheirfirstadventuretogether.“That’swhenIrealizedwhatIbroughttothetable...I,HenryPym,wasthesmartestmanintheroom.Andwhethertheothers realized itornot, Iwas their leader.”52Buthecouldnotcontrol theGiantManserum,andonedayherealizedTonyStarkwasIronMan.“Nexttohim...Iwaslessthannothing.Andfarfromthesmartestmanintheroom.”53Appropriately enough, in the next issue IronMan humiliates Pym and tells

himthatheistakingover,towhichPymreplies,“Youcantakeoverfromhere?You?Tony Stark?Mister fought-against-Cap-in-the-Civil-War. Shot-Hulk-into-space-and-caused-World-War-Hulk.Gave-the-Skrulls-everything-they-needed-toinvade-Earth. You’re taking over? Give me one good reason why.” Starkresponds,simply,“Threewords...You’reHankPym.”54Pymstandsdown,butwhenhehearsaboutsomeofStark’srecklessnesswhilehewasaway(kidnappedbySkrulls),hebeginstoreconsider.WhenPymtakesonChthon,thelattersays,“Itappearstheonlythinggreaterthanhowmuchthepeopleofthisworldbelieveinmeishowlittletheybelieveinyou?”Pymsays,“Well,y’knowwhat?Screwallyou!Idon’tcareifanyofyoubelieveinme.I’mHankPymandIbelieveinmyself.I’llfixthis.”55Pym ultimately prevails in battle, helped by the Vision and the other

Avengers.But thebattlealsoshakeshimfromhisarroganceandvictimization.WhenHerculessaysheoweshimanapology,Pymsays,“No,youdidwhatyouthoughtwasright.IcouldasknomoreofanyAvenger.AsforIronMan...TheTonyIknewwasbetterthanthis.Something’supwithhim.Heseemed...offhisgame.”Despitehaving theopportunity tocritique themanwhohumiliatedhim,Pymdefendshim,showingthesortofarêtethatwewouldnothavethoughtpossibleofhim,whilealsobeingapillarofvirtueforhisfellow,IronMan,asAristotlewouldhavehoped.WhenPymfliesafterTony,Tonysays,“So.You’recallingyourselftheWasp?Andyou’regoingtoleadanewteam?Thosearebigshoes to fill, Hank. Three words of advice. Don’t screw up.”56 Not exactlyheartwarming stuff, but Tony recognizes Pym’s arête and accepts him as afellowAvengerandaleaderofanewAvengersgroup.

NeitherGodsnorBeastsButPoliticalAnimals

“Superheroes . . . donot fit into the societies that theyprotect,”which iswhytheir personal lives are both important and incomplete.57 In this chapter, we

analyzedthewayinwhichthreeAvengers’searchforfulfillment(eudaimonia)involved their fellowship (philia) and practice of excellence (arête)within thecommunityof theAvengers. Importantly,Ms.Marvel,JessicaJones,andHankPym all languished in terms of morale, and at times morality, outside theAvengers.Findingtheireudaimoniarequiredthephiliaandtheopportunitiesforarête made possible by lives intertwined with Avengerness, even if theyperiodically leaveorget thrownoutof theAvengers. It is noteworthy that themost self-loathing superhero, Jessica Jones, and themost repulsive superhero,Hank Pym, often return to the center of Avenger life and never leave itsperiphery.So,toupdateAristotle,theAvengershavebothgodsandbeasts,buteven they are not self-sufficient; they need the polis in order to attaineudaimonia.58

NOTES

1.Avengers,vol.4,#1(July2010),reprintedinAvengersbyBrianMichaelBendisVol.1(2011).2.Ibid.3.Althoughphiliaisgenerallytranslatedas“friendship,”todaythatwordsuggestsavoluntaryrelationshipthatAristotlewouldnothaveunderstood.Also,philiaisnotpurelyfriendshipbutalsoasenseofacommonethicalandsocialidentity,whichiswhyAristotlecanspeakofaformofcivicphiliaamongcitizensinapolis.4.Avengers,vol.1,#1(September1963),reprintedinEssentialAvengersVol.1(1998).5.SeeAristotle,Politics,1252b29–1252b30(anyreputabletranslationwillincludethisstandardpagination),andalsoChristopherShields,Aristotle(NewYork:Routledge,2007),352.6.SeeC.C.W.Taylor,“Politics,”inTheCambridgeCompaniontoAristotle,ed.JonathanBarnes(Cambridge,UK:CambridgeUniversityPress,1995),233–258,esp.at239.7.Aristotle,Politics,1253,andNicomacheanEthics,1097b6–1097b16.WhenIquotefromtheNicomacheanEthics,IuseH.Rackham’stranslationavailableinAristotle:NicomacheanEthics(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,1934).8.Taylor,“Politics,”235.9.JonathanLear,Aristotle:TheDesiretoUnderstand(Cambridge:

CambridgeUniversityPress,1998),155.10.Ibid.,153.TheideaofvirtuebeingsomethingwithinthesoulisassociatedwiththeinfluenceofChristianethics.11.NicomacheanEthics,1097b16–1097b20.12.Ibid.,1169b16–1169b22.13.Ibid.,1168b11–1169a7.14.JohnM.Cooper,“AristotleonFriendship,”inEssaysonAristotle’sEthics,ed.AmélieOksenbergRorty(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1980),301–339.15.NicomacheanEthics,1170b14–1170b19.16.Ms.Marvel,vol.2,#1(May2006),reprintedinMs.Marvel:BestoftheBest(2006).17.Ms.Marvel,vol.2,#13(May2007),reprintedinMs.Marvel:OperationLightningStorm(2007).18.Ms.Marvel,vol.2,#1.19.Ibid.20.Ms.Marvel,vol.2,#13.21.MightyAvengers#1(March2007),reprintedinMightyAvengers:TheUltronInitiative(2008).22.Ms.Marvel,vol.2,#13.23.Intermsofherlovelife,Carolhadjustonedate,witha“normal”guy,whichwas(ofcourse)interruptedbysuperheroing(Ms.Marvel,vol.2,#11,March2007,reprintedinMs.Marvel:OperationLightningStorm).CarolismoreappropriatelymatchedwithSimonWilliams(WonderMan),whomsheandIronManrecruitedfortheMightyAvengers,andwhoshowshertruephiliathroughhisdevotiontoarêteasahero.(SeetheirexchangeinMightyAvengers:TheUltronInitiative,2008.)24.ThePulse#14(May2006),reprintedinThePulseVol.3:Fear(2006).25.Alias#22(July2003),reprintedinAliasUltimateCollectionBook2(2010).26.Ibid.27.Alias#23(August2003),reprintedinAliasUltimateCollectionBook2.28.ThePulse#14.29.Alias#24(September2003),reprintedinAliasUltimateCollection

Book2.30.SeeAliasUltimateCollectionBook1(2009).31.ThePulse#11(November2005),reprintedinThePulseVol.3:Fear.32.Ibid.33.ThePulse#12(January2006),reprintedinThePulseVol.3:Fear.34.Ibid.35.Ibid.36.Ibid.37.Ibid.38.NewAvengersAnnual#1(June2006),reprintedinThePulseVol.3:Fear.39.Ibid.40.NewAvengersAnnual#3(February2010),reprintedinNewAvengersVol.13:Siege(2010).41.MightyAvengers#1(March2007).42.ReprintedinEssentialAnt-ManVol.1(2002).43.TalestoAstonish,vol.1,#35(September1962),reprintedinEssentialAnt-ManVol.1.44.SeeAvengers,vol.1,#212–214(October–December1981).45.Avengers,vol.1,#214(December1981).46.Ibid.47.WestCoastAvengers,vol.2,#21(June1987),reprintedinAvengers:WestCoastAvengers—LostinSpaceandTime(2012).48.FormoreontheDarkAvenger,seethechaptertitled“TheSelf-CorruptionofNormanOsborn:ACautionaryTale”byRobertPowellandthechaptertitled“ShiningtheLightontheDarkAvengers”bySarahDonovanandNickRichardsoninthisvolume.49.MightyAvengers#21(March2009),reprintedinMightyAvengers:Earth’sMightiest(2009).50.Ibid.51.Ibid.52.Ibid.53.Ibid.54.MightyAvengers#22(April2009),reprintedinMightyAvengers:Earth’sMightiest.55.Ibid.

56.Ibid.57.VincentM.Gaine,“GenreandSuperHeroism:BatmanintheNewMillennium,”inThe21stCenturySuperhero:EssaysonGender,Genre,andGlobalizationinFilm,ed.RichardJ.GrayIIandBettyKaklamanidou(Jefferson,NC:McFarland,2011),111–128,esp.at127.58.IamgratefultoMarkWhite,PhotiniSpanakos,andWilliamBatmanBatkayfortheircomments.

Chapter9

CAP’SKOOKYQUARTET:ISREHABILITATIONPOSSIBLE?

AndrewTerjesen

InAvengers,volume1,#16(May1965),thegroupwentthroughitsfirstmajorlineupchange.AllofthefoundingmembersoftheAvengersquit,leavingonlythe“newkid,”CaptainAmerica.ThethreenewrecruitswereHawkeye,whohadfought IronMan several times, and mutant twins Quicksilver and the ScarletWitch,whowereoriginallymembersofMagneto’sBrotherhoodofEvilMutants.Quicklydubbed“Cap’sKookyQuartet,”theAvengersbecameknownforgivingpeoplesecondchancesatleadingheroic,virtuouslives.Butissuchrehabilitationpossible?

CananArcherChangeHisTrickArrows?

AlthoughhisrelationshipswithhisfellowAvengershavebeenrockyduetohiscockynatureandhisneedtoprovehimself(especiallytoCap),Hawkeyeisthemost successful rehabilitation in Avengers history. He has been a part of theAvengersinsomecapacityformostofitsexistence,andhefoundedandledtheWestCoastAvengers. Ifwecanpinpoint thesourceofHawkeye’ssuccess,wecouldgoalongwaytounderstandingthenatureofrehabilitation.The word “rehabilitation” shares a Latin root with the word “habit.” That

Latin rootmeans “tohave, hold, orkeep,”which is fitting since rehabilitatingsomeoneinvolvesbreakingthemofbadhabitsandmakingsuregoodhabitstakehold.TheideathatagoodpersonhasafixedandhabitualcharacterhasalonghistoryinmoralphilosophyandwasbestexpressedbyAristotle(384–322BCE)intheNicomacheanEthics.AccordingtoAristotle,avirtueisafixeddispositionthatleadssomeonetochoosetherightwaytoactinagivensituation.Avirtuouspersonisnotsomeonewhoismerelyhonestorcourageousmostofthetime,orby accident or inclination. Rather, a virtuous person is always honest and

courageousbecausethatiswhoheorsheis.Beinganhonestperson,however,doesnotmeanalways telling the truthor

neverbeingdeceptive.Aristotle recognized that the rightway toactwasoftendependentuponthecircumstancesofaspecificsituation,whichiswhyafixedcharacterwasneeded.Ifhonestyorcouragecouldbesummedupintermsofarule,wewouldmerelytellpeopletofollowthatrule.Avirtuouspersonhastheexperience and fine-tunedmoral sense toknowwhat a situationdemands.Forexample, no one would dispute that Captain America is courageous, but hiscourage is not defined by a particular set of rules. Sometimes his couragedemands that he fight Thanos even if it seems likely that he is going to die,whereas other times courage demands that hemake a strategic retreat or evensurrender(ashedidattheendoftheCivilWar).Ifyou’rebotheredbytheideathatavirtuouspersonalwaysdoesthevirtuous

thing, you’re not alone. Contemporary philosopher and psychologist JohnM.Doris has challengedAristotle’s notionof character as beingunrealistic, usingpsychologicalstudiestoshowthat it is impossibletodevelopthekindoffixedcharacterthatAristotleseemstorequire.1Thesestudiessuggestthatsituationalfactorsloommuchlargerthanindividualcharacterindeterminingbehavior.Forexample, in an infamous study conducted by psychologist Stanley Milgram,subjects were led to believe that they were part of an experiment testing theeffectsofnegativereinforcementonlearning.Subjectsweretoldtogiveshocksto the learners if they got their answers wrong (though unbeknownst to thesubjects,thelearnerswereactuallyapartoftheexperimentandtheshockswerefaked).Milgramfound thatabout two-thirdsofallparticipantswerewilling togo “all the way” to 450 volts of shock (which would supposedly causetremendouspaintothelearner).Evenpeoplewhoreportedleadingvirtuouslivesoutside this experiment went all the way.2 Doris argues that the experimentcreatedasituationwheremostpeoplefeltcompelledtofollowthroughwiththeshockseveniftheythoughtitwasthewrongthingtodo.Theyweren’tactingonvirtues or vices, like courage or cruelty, but instead were reacting to theparticularsituationathand.

FindingaBalancewithHawkeyeDoris argues that we don’t really have global character traits like honesty,courage,orcompassionthatapplytoalargenumberofsituationsregardlessoftheirspecificcircumstances.Instead,wehavelocalcharactertraits,whichapplymore narrowly and in particular situations, like “courage under fire,” or the

“courage to speak out.” So who is right, Aristotle or Doris? The case ofHawkeyeshowsusthattheanswermayliesomewhereinbetween.In Hawkeye’s case, the relevant character trait seems to be a need for

validation or attention. Just consider his reason for becoming a costumedadventurer:hewasjealousoftheattentionIronManwasgetting.3ThisneedforapprovalisafixedpartofHawkeye’scharacter;itisaconstantthemeinhissolostories aswell as his adventureswith theAvengers, theWestCoastAvengers,and theThunderbolts.Soonafterdonninghisheroicmantle, though,Hawkeyewas diverted into a criminal career.After hewasmistaken for a criminal, hishotheadedness led him to decide spitefully that if theywere going to thinkhewasacriminal,hewouldbecomeone.4Hotheadedness and a need for approval are regional character traits, lying

somewherebetween theglobal traitsdescribedbyAristotleand the local traitsdefended by Doris. None of Hawkeye’s regional character traits changedsignificantlywhenhewentfromcriminaltohero.Althoughhisexperienceshavetempered him somewhat, he remains the stereotypical costumed archerwith achiponhisshoulderandabadtemper.Hawkeye’srehabilitationfromacriminaltoaherodidnoteradicatethosetraits;instead,heusedthemforbetterpurposes.His need for approval often leads him to try to prove hisworth to his fellowheroes by taking the lead on riskymissions, and because of his temper he isusuallytheAvengerwhoismostupsetaboutperceivedinjusticeandunfairness.AvengersAnnual#16(1987)featuresoneofHawkeye’smostmemorableand

notorious feats of heroism.5 TheGrandmaster has challenged theAvengers tostophis“lifebombs”fromexplodinganddestroyingtheuniverse.TheAvengerssucceed,buttheGrandmasterinsiststheyreplaythatchallenge,whichtheymustdountiltheGrandmasterwins.Atthatpoint,Hawkeyechallengeshimto“drawstraws”forthefateoftheuniverse.Inthiscase,the“straws”areHawkeye’slasttwoarrows,oneofwhichhasatrickattachment,andtheonewhochoosesthisarrow is thewinner. TheGrandmaster can’t resist this gamble and is shockedwhenhedrawstheshaftwithoutanattachment,leavinghimvulnerablejustlongenoughtobringanendtohisscheme.Aswesoonsee,theGrandmasteractuallychose thearrowwith theattachment,butHawkeyesnapped theattachmentoffthearrowas theGrandmastergrabbed it.CapcriticizesHawkeye forcheating,and later, at abaseballgame,he tellsThor towatchHawkeyecloselybecause“hecheats!”Capbuysintotheideaofcheatingasaglobalcharactertrait.Asweknow, though,Hawkeye is not someonewho always cheats for his own gain.Rather,hehasaregionalcharactertrait—say,beingarulebenderforthesakeofthegreatergood—thatmotivateshisactionsinadiresituation.

MaybeitReallyIsintheBloodTheothermembersoftheKookyQuartethavenotbeenassuccessfulinstayingon the side of the angels. Notmany are fast enough to actmore hastily thanHawkeye, but Quicksilver has no trouble outpacing our favorite archer’s rashandhotheadednature.Heabruptlyquits theAvengersafterhissisterWanda isaccidentallyinjured,andbrieflyjoinsupagainwithMagnetoandevenfightstheX-Men.6 Later he becomes an outright enemy of the West Coast Avengers.Throughouthiscareer,Quicksilverendsupbeingasunpredictableashisnamesuggests.TheScarletWitchisamoreregularfixtureontheAvengersrosteruntilshebecomesoneof their greatest threats during the “AvengersDisassembled”story line,when she kills severalAvengers, including her old friendHawkeyeandher former love theVision.7After that, under her brother’s influence, sheusesher reality-alteringpowers to transform theworld into the“HouseofM,”whereMagnetorulesamutantaristocracythatoppresseshumans.8Wanda andPietro are the twin children ofMagneto. Is there an unstable or

evilgenethattheyinheritedfromtheirfather?Whilethatmightbetemptingtoconclude, there is a simpler answer.9We already saw thatHawkeye’s successdependedonredirectinghisexistingcharactertraits,butnoneofthemwererealobstacles to reform. If we look at Pietro and Wanda, we find that theirexperiences left themwith some habits thatwere an impediment to becominglaw-abidingmembersofthecommunity.As happens to many mutants in the Marvel Universe, Quicksilver and the

Scarlet Witch were persecuted from an early age. This led them to joinMagneto’s Brotherhood of Evil Mutants, which seemed to be less concernedwith fightingprejudice thanwith scheming forworlddomination.Because theBrotherhoodonlymadethingsworse,thetwinsleftandwrotealetteraskingtojoin the Avengers. As Quicksilver explains, “The Avengers might accept uswithout caring that we are different—without always reminding us—we’remutants!!”10Wandaonlyreluctantlygoesalongwithhisplan;shewouldmuchratherthattheystopusingtheirpowersandliveinobscurity.Herewecanseethedifferencesbetweenthetworeflectedintheirregionalcharactertraits.Pietroisarrogant and takes the “scientific” name for mutants in the Marvel Universe—Homosuperior—toheart.HewantstojointheAvengerssothathecanusehissuperspeedwithoutbeingpersecuted.Wanda,ontheotherhand,wantstoliveanormallife;sheismorethanhappytoignorehermutantnature.Quicksilver’s arrogance causes friction with Hawkeye and Cap, but he

develops a grudging respect for themover time. It is not enough, however, toquellhisdistasteforhumanityingeneral.Atonepointhetellshissisterthatitishumans, “with their constant mistrust of everything associated with the wordmutant . . .whoshould tryandpleaseus!”11This isnot theattitudeofahero,andit’snosurprisethatQuicksilver’ssenseofsuperiorityisresponsibleforhisbacksliding into the roleofvillain.He feels thathedeservesacertain levelofrespect, but the public at large remains fearful of him. After being wronglyblamedforanexplosion,hesays,“The timedrawsnearwhenIwillbear theirinsults and suspicions no longer . . . but will lash back!”12 Aside from hisarrogance, Pietro’s defining characteristic is his love for his twin sister.WhenWandaisinjuredinbattle(whichhadsecretlybeencausedbyMagneto),Pietro’simmediate response is tocarryheroffandquit theAvengers.Whenhe finallyreturnstotheAvengers,it’sbecausehissisterisindangerandheneedshelp.13From that point forward, Pietro has a tumultuous association with the

Avengers.Notonlydoeshejoinandquitseveraltimes,buthealsoclasheswiththemashe tries tocarryoutvillainousplots.MostofWanda’s tenurewith theAvengers is a lot calmer, but she eventually uses her powers to destroy theAvengersasanorganizationandthenreshapetheworldintoamutantparadise.Wanda’smostdefiningcharacteristicishersimpledesiretoliveanormallife—which she foundwith theAvengers—and unlike her brother she ismore thanwillingtosuppressherpastexperiencessothatshecanfocusonthenow.WhenAristotletalksaboutcharacter,hedistinguishesavirtuouspersonfrom

acontinentone.Avirtuouspersonissomeonewhoalwaysdoestherightthingbecause it pleases them. For instance, a courageous person takes pleasure indoing the courageous thing. A continent person is someone who does thecourageousthingbutdoesn’tenjoydoingit.Theyprobablydoitbecauseitisthe“right thing to do,” but they find doing the right thing to be burdensome. Avirtuous person will not fall away from virtue, but a continent person couldstumble under certain conditions. Both Quicksilver and Wanda seem to becontinentasopposedtovirtuous.Theirexperiencesmakeitveryhardforthemtotaketruepleasureinbehavingheroically.Hawkeye,bycontrast,enjoysbeingahero. It’snot surprising then that thechildrenofMagneto (especiallyPietro)have a tendency to return to a life of villainy (what legal scholars callrecidivism).

OldDogsandNewTricksWhentheAvengerswerethoughttobehavebeenkilledbyOnslaught(andwere

really in the“HeroesReborn”universe), theMastersofEvilpretended tobeagroupofsuperheroesknownastheThunderbolts.14Beforelong,however,someoftheteamrealizedtheylikedbeingsuperheroesandturnedagainsttheirleader,BaronZemo.WhenHawkeyefirstreadabouttheremainingThunderbolts’claimthattheyhadtrulyreformed,hewaslivid.Inhisusualhotheadedmanner,hesetout to confront them.15 Why was he so skeptical about the Thunderbolts’rehabilitationwhenhehadbeeninasimilarsituationuponjoiningtheAvengers?Tobeginwith,hehadnotbeenacriminallongbeforereforming,whereasthe

Thunderbolts were mostly longtime villains before pretending (and laterdeciding)tobeheroes.Akintothedistinctionbetweenvirtueandcontinenceisthatbetweenviceandincontinence.Viceisduetoanegativetrait,likecruelty,and incontinence is more like a lack of self-control with regard to exercisinggood traits (like kindness) when temptation to do otherwise strikes. A cruelpersonhurtspeopleandtakespleasureinit,whileanimpulsivepersonmayhurtpeoplebutfeelremorseorregretaboutit.Sinceheorsheisnottrulyvicious,theincontinent person is someone whose disposition is still open to change. Theincontinentpersoncouldlearntoovercomebadhabitsandembracegoodones.Forexample,Hawkeyenevertookpleasureinhiscriminalactionsandfeltbadaboutwhathewasdoingwhenhewasworkingwith theBlackWidow.Sohewasprimedforrehabilitation.The longersomeoneengages ina lifeofcrime, though, themore likely it is

thattheywillbecometwistedintoaviciousperson.WecanseethisifwelookattheoriginalThunderbolts.Moonstonehadspentherentire life learninghowtomanipulatepeopletogetwhatshewanted.SowhenHawkeyeofferstoleadtheThunderbolts so that they can earn their chance at redemption, she supports itbecauseshethinksshecanmanipulateHawkeye.Sheeventriestoseducehim,thoughitseemsthatsheactuallyendsupdevelopingfeelingsforhim—feelingsthatappeartogoagainsthertendencytomanipulate,suggestingthepossibilitythat shewill be truly reformed.However, their relationship falls apart and sheembracesheroldways.Hermanipulativenatureisjustwhosheis,anelementofherviciousness.Incontrast to this, severalotherThunderboltsweredriven to theMastersof

Eviloriginallybycircumstancesthatwouldprobablyhavemadeanyoneengageinantisocialbehavior.Songbird(whostartedhercareerasthevillainScreamingMimi) was abused by her father and later her partner in crime. Her resultingvillainous behaviorwas simply away to protect herself.As she began to feelmoresecure,shefounditeasier toembracetheheroic lifestyle,andeventuallyshe became the warden of the Raft, a prison for supervillains, under the

command of Luke Cage.16 Part of her sense of security came from therelationship she formed with Abner Jenkins, originally the Beetle and thenMACH-1, amechanicwho built his own super suit to commit crimes.By hisownadmission,hewasreallyjustlookingforsomerespect,whichhefoundwiththeThunderbolts.Hewasthenabletoputhisvillainouspersonabehindhimandbecomeahero.UnlikeMoonstone,SongbirdandtheBeetledonothavenegativecharacter traits that are too solidified to reform, so they can successfully berehabilitatedandservetheworldasheroes.

AvengingorSaving?When Hawkeye took over the Thunderbolts, he lied to them, saying that theCommissiononSuperhumanActivitieshadagreedtopardonthemiftheystartedoperatingasheroes.Actually,whenHawkeyeapproachedthecommissionaboutamnesty, he was told that it was impossible because they were longtimecriminalsanddeadlythreats.Onecommissionmembersummeduptheobjectionwithasimplequestion:“Iftheyactnicefromnowon,theydon’thavetopayfortheircrimes?”17Thisistheheartofmostpeople’sobjectiontorehabilitationasan alternative to punishment: it seems like an inappropriate, if not blatantlywrong,responsetocriminalbehavior.Most philosophical justificationsof punishment fall intooneof twogeneral

types: deterrence and retributivism. Deterrence focuses on preventing crime,punishingcriminalsbothtopreventthosecriminalsfromcommittingnewcrimes(specific deterrence) and also to provide incentives for other people not tocommitthem(generaldeterrence).Anadvocateofdeterrencewouldworrythatrehabilitation programs could lead to higher crime rates if they are seen as“softer” or providing away out of traditional punishment.On the other hand,proponents of retributivism maintain that criminals deserve punishment as amatter of justice, not because of any beneficial consequences from it. BeforetakingovertheThunderbolts,Hawkeyedemandsthatanymurderersontheteambeprosecuted,sayingmurderis“onecrimethatIcan’toverlook.Thatcan’tbeglossed over no matter how heroic you are afterward.”18 Retributivists givedifferent reasonswhycrimesdeservepunishment: someargue thatpunishmentrestoresthebalanceofrightandwrongafteracrimeiscommitted,whileothersstress the importance of expressing condemnation or disapproval of thewrongdoing.19Thereluctancetoforgopunishingahardenedcriminalisunderstandable,but

ourintuitionsoftenchangewhenitcomestoyoungoffenders.Inthesecases,itis difficult to balance the desire to give young people a chance to redeemthemselveswiththefearofsuggestingtothemthattheircrimesarenotseriouswrongs against society. After bringing an end to Norman Osborn’s “DarkReign,”theAvengershadtodecidewhattodowiththechildrenthatOsbornhaddetained and tortured in order to jump-start their superpowers. The Avengersfeared that the kids’ experiences being tortured by Osborn, coupled with thedeadly side effects of their powers, would make them much more likely tobecomesupervillainsinthefuture.Topreventthis,HankPymhadtheideathattheteenagersshouldbeenrolled

in an Avengers Academy and trained to be heroes. Before long, though, thestudents crack Pym’s files and discover that theAcademy isn’t about trainingthose with the greatest potential for heroism, but instead about trying tointervenewiththosewhohavegreatestpotentialforvillainy.20TheAcademyisput to the test when several of the students sneak off to torment theHood, avillain who had led an assault against their teacher Tigra.21 When Tigradiscovers what the kids did, her immediate response is to expel everyoneinvolved. Pym thinks this is too harsh, though, and convenes a meeting todiscuss their punishment. Another Academy teacher, Speedball, who wasinvolvedintheStamfordincidentthatkilledsixhundredpeople(andledtotheCivilWar),arguesagainstexpulsionbecause“thesekidshaven’tdoneanythingthat theycan’tcomeback from.”22The studentsareputonprobationand toldthatthenextmistaketheymakewillgetthemkickedoutoftheAcademy.TheymayhavehadtragiclivesbeforecomingtotheAcademy,butthesekidsarenothardened criminals. Rehabilitation seems (even more) justified in their casebecausetheyhavetheirentirelivestotrytobegood,virtuouspeople.

HopefortheFuture?Kang, one of the Avengers’ greatest enemies, seems an odd candidate forrehabilitation, but let’s give our favorite time-hopping tyrant a chance.At onepoint,Kangtraveledbackintimetosparehisyoungerselfasavagebeatingbybullies,andthenproceededtoshowyoungKangallthe“great”thingshewouldaccomplish later in life. Older Kang didn’t count on his younger self beingappalledbywhathewouldbecome,however.Insteadofacceptinghisfuture,theyoungKangstolehisolderself’s time-travel technologyandwentevenfartherintothepast.MasqueradingasIronLad,heformedtheYoungAvengerstofightKang.23Toprotecthisfriends,IronLadkilledKang—whichistosay,hekilled

himself,albeitadifferentversionofhimself.Bykillinghimself,Kangcreatesanew reality inwhich theAvengersdied early in their careers andmanyof theYoungAvengerswereneverborn.IronLadthencomestorealizethathehastogobacktohisowntimeandbecomeKanginordertoundohisowndeathathisownhand.24ThestoryofIronLadillustratesseveralthemesofthischapter.Theonlyway

thatanunrepentantvillainlikeKangcouldbecomeaherowouldbeifhewerecaught at a young age before his villainous nature had solidified. In fact, it isrevealedthattheseverebeatingthatKangrescuedhisyoungerselffromwasthecatalyst for his transformation into a villain. Without that experience, hisintellect and senseof adventure ledhim in adifferent direction.Wealsohaveevidenceof IronLad’sgoodcharacterbecausehemakes theultimate sacrificefor thecommongood:hegivesuphisexistenceasahero inorder tosavehisfriends. As even more evidence indicating a fundamental change in Kang’scharacter, Iron Lad’s brain patterns become themodel for the revivedVision,whohassincerejoinedtheAvengersasatrustedhero.TheYoungAvengers—atleastagenerationawayfromCap’sKookyQuartet

—alsogiveusagreatexampleofwhenrehabilitationshouldtrumppunishment.Patriot is the grandson of Isaiah Bradley, the “Black Captain America” fromCaptainAmerica:Truth(2009).Hewantstobeaherolikehisgrandfather,buthedidnotinherithisgrandfather’ssuper-soldierphysiology.SoinordertojointheYoungAvengers,Patriotclaimsthathegothisgrandfather’spowersafterabloodtransfusion.Tomaintainthisruse,hebeganusingthedrugMGH(MutantGrowthHormone) to give himself enhanced strength and durability. Since thedrugisillegal,heobtainshissupplybybustingMGHdealersandseizingsomeoftheirproduct.25When an attempt to get some MGH from a supervillain’s lab goes awry,

Patriot’s lies are exposed. Although he has committed a crime by possessingMGH,noonedemandshebepunished,presumablybecausehisintentionsweregood and he had not been engaging in this behavior for very long. Mostimportant,herecognizesthatheshouldgiveupbeingaYoungAvengerbecausehe lied to his teammates. Patriot’s regional character traits (his desire to helppeople,loyaltytohisteammates,andabilitytoinspirethem)aretheseedsofarealhero.TherestoftheYoungAvengersrecognizethisandinvitehimtorejointheteam,reaffirmingthevalueofrehabilitationoverpunishmentinhiscase.

AvengersRehabilitate!

Rehabilitationcanbeajustifiablealternativeundercertainconditions.Itworksbestifitisdoneearlyinsomeone’scharacterdevelopment,beforetheydeveloptrulyviciouscharactertraits.Rehabilitationcanbeappropriateifitisinresponsetocrimesthatarenotdeemedinexcusable.Andfinally,thereneedstobeaclearindication that the person to be rehabilitated is already trying to resist thenegativeeffectsoftheirregionalcharactertraits.Patriot’swillingnesstogiveuphis spot on theYoungAvengers suggests the kind of remorse that deserves asecondchance,butHawkeyealwaysseemedtobeanoddcase.TotrytoimpresstheAvengershebrokeintotheirmansion,tiedupJarvis,andthenfreedhimwithan impossibly difficult trick shot—which hardly seems to be a sincere andeffective way to announce that you’ve given up a life of crime in hopes ofbecoming one of Earth’s Mightiest Heroes!26 To merit rehabilitation, it isimportant thatour formercriminaldisplay theunderlyingheroic traits, suchasconcernforothersandlackofinterestinbeingrewardedforone’sheroicactions.Outofthethree“problematic”membersofCap’sKookyQuartet,onlyHawkeyeshows clear evidence of rehabilitation, because only he has the right kind ofregionaltraitsthatshowpromiseoffutureheroism.

NOTES

1.Doris’sargumentsaresummarizedinhisbookLackofCharacter:PersonalityandMoralBehavior(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2002).2.ThefullsetupofMilgram’sexperimentandananalysisoftheresultscanbefoundinhisbookObediencetoAuthority:AnExperimentalView(NewYork:HarperandRow,1974).3.TalesofSuspense#57(September1964),reprintedinEssentialIronManVol.1(2002).4.FormoreonHawkeye’sself-doubtandneedforvalidation,seethechapterbyMarkD.Whitetitled“TheWayoftheArrow:HawkeyeMeetstheTaoistMasters”inthisvolume.5.ReprintedinAvengers:TheContest(2010).6.TheyquitinAvengers,vol.1,#49(February1968),reprintedinEssentialAvengersVol.3(2001).7.AvengersDisassembled(2005).OntherelationshipbetweentheScarletWitchandtheVision,seethechapterbyCharlesKlaymantitled“LoveAvengersStyle:CananAndroidLoveaWoman?”inthis

volume.8.HouseofM(2006).9.FormoreontheeffectsofPietroandWanda’sparentage,seethechapterbyJasonSouthworthandRuthTallmantitled“TheAvengers:Earth’sMightiestFamily”inthisvolume.10.Avengers,vol.1,#16(May1965),reprintedinEssentialAvengersVol.1(1998).11.Avengers,vol.1,#45(October1967),reprintedinEssentialAvengersVol.2(2000).12.Avengers,vol.1,#46(November1967),reprintedinEssentialAvengersVol.2.13.Avengers,vol.1,#75(April1970),reprintedinEssentialAvengersVol.4(2005).14.Thunderbolts#1(April1997),reprintedinThunderboltsClassicVol.1(2011).15.Avengers,vol.3,#8(September1998),reprintedinAvengersAssembleVol.1(2004).16.Thunderbolts#144(July2010),reprintedinThunderbolts:Cage(2011).17.Thunderbolts#21(December1998).18.Ibid.19.Formoreonthephilosophyofpunishment,seeAntonyDuff,“LegalPunishment,”StanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy,http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/legal-punishment.20.AsrevealedinAvengersAcademy#1(August2010),reprintedinAvengersAcademy:PermanentRecord(2011).21.AvengersAcademy#8(March2011),reprintedinAvengersAcademy:WillWeUseThisintheRealWorld?(2011).22.AvengersAcademy#9(April2011),reprintedinAvengersAcademy:WillWeUseThisintheRealWorld?23.YoungAvengers:Sidekicks(2006).24.Formoreontheparadoxesoftimetravel(andKang),seethechapterbyAndrewZimmermanJonestitled“CanKangKillHisPastSelf?TheParadoxofTimeTravel”inthisvolume.25.YoungAvengers:FamilyMatters(2007);theentirerunofYoungAvengershassincebeenreprintedinasinglehardcovercollection,YoungAvengers(2008).26.TheoddityofHawkeye’sapplicationforAvengersmembership

wasretconnedrecently(Hawkeye:Blindspot,2011).JarvisletHawkeyeintothemansionandwasawillingparticipantinthisstrangejobapplicationbecauseHawkeyehadriskedhislifetosaveJarvis’smotherfrommuggers.Thisretconshowshowimportantitisthattheofferofrehabilitationgotosomeonewhohasevidencedtherightkindofregionaltraits.

PARTFOUR

DOTHEAVENGERSEVERGOTOOFAR?

Chapter10

FIGHTINGTHEGOODFIGHT:MILITARYETHICSANDTHEKREE-

SKRULLWAR

ChristopherRobichaudOneofthemostfamousepisodesintheongoingexploitsoftheAvengersistheirinvolvement in the Kree-Skrull War, an intergalactic conflict between twoadvancedaliencivilizations that spannedgalaxiesand lastedmillennia.1WhenthemightyAvengersconfrontRonantheAccuser,theSupremeIntelligence,theSkrullshape-shifters,andtheKreeSentry459,theyappearoutmatchedandoutof their league.When they uncover a plan by Ronan, a Kree, to reverse theevolutionofhumans,orwhentheyencounteraplotbythegovernment(stronglyinfluencedbytheSkrulls)toimpugntheAvengerswithconspiracycharges,theyseemill-preparedtoovercomethevastforcesaligningagainstthemandtherestofus.Ofcourse,attheendofthedaytheAvengersprevail,withthehelpoftheirfriend Rick Jones’s love of 1940s superhero characters. While it may seemobviousthattheAvengerswerejustifiedintheirinvolvement,somechallengingquestionsarisewhenwestepbacktotakeahardlookattheKree-Skrullconflictintermsofmilitaryethics.

EntryPointtotheKree-SkrullWarTheAvengersweren’tawareoftheKree-SkrullWaruntiltheywereunwittinglythrustintoitbyarun-inwithCaptainMarvel,whowasoncearenownedKreesoldiercalledMar-Vell.Mar-VellwassenttoEarthatthestartofourspaceageasaspyfortheKree.Hisgoalwastoobservetheemergenceofsuperheroesandthe explosion of our technological advances, which concerned the Kree. ButMar-Vell had a change of heart after arriving here and refused to follow hisorders, instead becoming Captain Marvel, defender of Earth (and becomingseen,inaccurately,asatraitortotheKree).At the start of the Kree-Skrull story line in Avengers, a true Kree traitor,

RonantheAccuser,hassucceededintemporarilyoverthrowingthereignoftheKreeleader,theorganiccomputerknownastheSupremeIntelligence.Partofhiseffortwasmotivatedsimplybya thirst forpower,buthealso thought that theKree ought to be governed by themselves, not a machine.2 Recognizing thestrategic importance of Earth, and embracing the worry that humans areadvancing tooquickly,Ronandecides tomake theconquestofEartha centralpart of his strategy of maintaining Kree dominance. The opportunity to takedownCaptainMarvelalongthewayisanaddedbonusforhim.SoattheverybeginningoftheAvengers’involvementintheKree-SkrullWar,

they find themselves dealing with one Kree who wants to protect Earth andanother who wants to conquer it—and the Skrulls haven’t even entered thepictureyet!Ifthingsseemabitcomplicatedalready,don’tworry.Thestorylineof the Kree-Skrull War is notorious for making even the most die-hard fansscratch their heads.Butwhatever their narrative flaws, from the standpoint ofmilitaryethicsthesecomplicationslendanimportantdegreeofauthenticitytoafantasy war story.When it comes to actual military conflicts, nothing is eversimpleandrarelyisanythingstraightforward,especiallyintermsofethics.Nationsoftengotowarusingmorallanguagethatisblackandwhite.We’re

thegoodguysfightingthebadguys;oursoldiersaretheheroesandtheirsarethevillains; and on and on. This tends to make everything seem simple,straightforward,andtidy;thestoryoftheKree-SkrullWar,however,isanythingbut. Seeing that war, even as portrayed in a superhero comic book, iscomplicated can make us appreciate the moral complexity of war in the realworld. If nothing else, we learn that our moral assessments of governments,individuals,andspecificactionsinwartimeneedtobemorenuanced,careful—and,yes,morecomplicated—thanwemightinitiallyexpect.

There’sanIntergalacticWarGoingOnandYou’reInvited

RonantheAccuserisleadingtheKreeinawaragainsttheSkrulls,andhisplanincludes “devolving” humans soEarth can be used as a base in his efforts. Ifsuccessful,thiswillkilltwobirdswithonestone:itwilleliminatethethreatthathumanswillsupposedlyposetotheKreeoneday,anditwillprovideastrategiclocationtouseagainsttheSkrulls.Withthatsaid,theAvengersfindthemselvessmackdab in themiddleof a cosmicconflict.Which side, if any, should theyjoin?Toanswerthatquestion,theAvengersmustfirstdeterminewhethereither

side is morally justified in fighting the war, which is often not as easy todetermine as we might hope. But in the case of the Kree-Skrull War, theAvengersdon’tneedtodecidewho’sjustifiedrightaway,becausetheirprimaryroleintheconflictisclear:protectEarth.Injustwartheory,thisisthestrongestjustificationforenteringaconflict:self-defense.Oneofthemostimportanttopicsdiscussedinjustwartheoryisdetermining

theconditionsthatjustifyonenationinwagingwaruponanother.ContemporaryphilosopherMichaelWalzerarguesthatamorallypermissiblewarmusthaveajustcause.3Scholarsdisagreeonwhatexactlythismeans,butforourpurposes“cause” can be understood aswhat someone cares about or fights for: it’s thereason forwaging awar.4And forWalzer, among others, the strongestmoralreason a nation canhave for going towar is to defend itself against an act ofaggression.An act of aggression violates a nation’s political sovereignty and often its

territorial integrity as well. Nations have a right to both these things, whichaccording to Walzer stem from the rights of individual citizens. An act ofaggression by one nation against another, then, is a violation of the rights ofcitizens,whointurnhavearighttodefendthemselvesagainstsuchviolations.More important, though, we don’t have an absolute right to self-defense. Forinstance,wearen’tallowedtodefendourselvesagainstamilitaryincursionintoAlaskabycompletelyannihilatingRussia;theresponsewouldn’tbeproportionalto the attack. We also aren’t allowed to use military force if we haven’texhaustedallotheroptions,includingdiplomacy.Somejustwartheoristsgosofarastoarguethatwearen’tallowedtodefendourselvesmilitarilyifwehavegoodreason tobelieve thatwarwon’tstop theaggression,becausemoreharmwillbecausedwithoutmuchgoodcomingfromit.InconsideringtheAvengers’initialinvolvementintheKree-SkrullWar,we’re

going to have to make some adjustments. Most obviously, nations aren’tinvolved so much as entire peoples: the Kree, the Skrulls, and humanity.Walzer’saccount isbasedontheideaofanationperforminganaggressiveactthatviolatesanothernation’srighttopoliticalsovereigntyorterritorialintegrity.TheproblemisthatEarthasawholehasnosuchrights,sinceitisn’tapoliticalentity.All thesame,wecanconsideranunjustifiedattackagainsthumanityassimultaneous acts of aggression against each nation of Earth by the Kree“nation,”ledbyRonan.Admittedly,Ronan’seffortstodevolvethehumanracestartonaremotebaseintheArcticCircle,buthis“PlanAtavus”isintendedtobeleveledagainsttheentirehumanrace.WhentheAvengersarriveonthescene,theplanhasbegun.Anattackisunder

way against the human race, and thus a defensive war—starting with acounterattack by the Avengers—is morally justified, as long as the otherconditionshold.DoestakingoutRonanmeettheproportionalityrequirement?Itseems to; after all, they don’t aim to destroy the entire Kree Empire. Is anAvengers strike the last resort? Admittedly, not much time is spent trying toreasonwithRonan;but then, aswith somanycomicbookvillains,hedoesn’tpresenthimselfasopentorationaldiscussion.Will theAvengers’strikereducethe overall harm from the conflict?They face quite a fight, but the stakes forhumanityareextremelyhighandtheyhavenocompellingreasontobelievetheywillfail.5

WasRonanintheRight?We’ve been assuming that Ronan’s effort to devolve us is indeed an act ofaggression, an unjustified act ofwar against the people of Earth, which itselfjustifiesadefensiveresponseonthepartoftheAvengers.Butthat’snothowtheKreeseeit,ofcourse:RonanhopestopreventusfrombecomingathreattotheKreedowntheroad.Let’ssuppose,forthesakeofargument,thatthisistheonlyreasonRonanis

initiatinghisPlanAtavus.Ishemorallyjustifiedinstartingapreventivewar?Apreventivewarisawarfoughtagainstanationthatisn’tanimmediatethreatbutisconsideredlikelytobecomeonedowntheroad.Somejustwartheoriststhinkthatsuchwarsaremorallyjustifiableonconsequentialistgrounds,becausefewerliveswillbelostifawarofaggressioncanbestoppedbeforeitstarts.One obvious problem with preventive wars is that it is often difficult to

determine what a nation’s intentions are. Without strong and compellingevidenceonthatcount,itseemsthatinitiatingapreventivewarwouldbewhollyunjustifiable. Wars would be waged all the time on nothing but informedhunches(orclaimsofsuch)thatonecountrymighthaveitinforanothercountryat some time in the future.We’d be in a never-ending state of war, hardly aworldanyonewouldwanttolivein.Thatisnottosaythattherecouldneverbeascenario in which rock-solid evidence came to light regarding a nation’snefariouslong-termplans.Butwehavetoimaginethatthosesituationswillbeextremelyrare.WhenitcomestotheKree,it’sclearthattheydon’thaveenoughevidenceto

conclude thatwe intend tobea threat to themdown the road, ifandwhenweeverdevelopthenecessarytechnologytobeathreat.UntiltheAvengersarrivedon the scene, the people of Earth weren’t aware the Kree even existed!

Furthermore,itseemsthattheKree’sfearswereinfluencedbytheirownhistory,not ours. Eons ago, the Skrulls traveled to other planets looking for tradingpartners.When they came to the planetHala, they encountered two races, theCotatiandtheKree,whocompetedtodeterminewhichtheSkrullswouldtradewith.TheCotatiwon,buttheKreeturnedonthemandtheSkrulls,stealingthelatter’s technology, which they used to develop technology of their own tolaunchanoffensiveagainsttheSkrulls.HencetheKree-SkrullWarbegan.Based on their own behavior, the Kree must suspect that once our planet

developssufficienttechnology,wewillactjustasbelligerentlytowardtheotherraceswe encounter in our exploration of the galaxy.Given that humans havedemonstrated little ability or inclination to live in peace with each other, thisisn’tentirelyunreasonable.Allthesame,suchspeculationisstillnotenoughtolaunchanannihilatingstrikeagainstanentirespeciesastheKreeunderRonantry to do. Even preventive wars are supposed to be a last-ditch action whendiplomacyhasfailed,notanopeningsalvo.

ThoseSneakySkrullsSomuch for theKree’s role in all of this—what about theSkrulls?Were theysimplythevictimsoftheaggressiveKree?Inthebeginningperhapstheywere,butby the time theAvengersenter the fray, theSkrullshavebeen fighting theKree for thousandsofyears.Furthermore,being shape-shifters, theyhave alsoinfiltratedEarth,posingatvarioustimesassuperheroes,governmentagents,andeven cows.6 Like the Kree, they recognize Earth’s strategic potential in theirongoing conflict. Unlike the Kree—in particular, unlike Ronan—they did notlaunchadirectattackagainstus.Instead,theirimmediategoalinthestorywe’refocusingon is tocaptureMar-Velland forcehim tomakeadevice, theOmni-WaveProjector,thattheycanuseasaweaponagainsttheKree.Let’ssupposethat theSkrullsarefightingajustwaragainst theKreeat this

point, defending themselves against an aggressive enemy that has built anempireuponviolenceandstolentechnology.Mar-Vell isnolongerasoldieroftheKree,butneitherishewillingtoputaweaponofmassdestructionintothehandsoftheSkrullstouseagainsthispeople.It isveryunlikelythatwecouldjustify theSkrulls’usingsuchaweaponagainst theKree,eventhoughthewarbetween them has already lasted for centuries upon centuries and had costcountlesslives.All thesame,assumingthatmerelypossessingtheweaponandthreateningtouseitwouldbringthewartoaclose,whatmeanscantheSkrullslegitimatelyuse togetCaptainMarvel toput thisweapon into theirhands? In

terms of military ethics, this is not a question about when it is morallypermissibletostartawarbut ratheraboutwhat it ismorallypermissible tododuringawar.TheSkrulls’firststrategyistotrickCaptainMarvel,usingtheirshape-shifting

abilitiestopretendtobeCarolDanvers(anallyofMar-VellandthefutureMs.Marvel)andconvincehimtobuildtheOmni-WaveProjector.Hedoesbuildit,but soon catches on to their ruse and immediately destroys it, which is goodnewsfortheKree.Still,wastheSkrulls’deceptionitselfpermissible?Mostofusdon’t maintain a strict prohibition against lying or other forms of deception,especially if livesareatstake.Supposing thedevice,when in thehandsof theSkrulls,couldbringaboutthewar’send(whetherithadtobeusedornot),thenthedeceptionmaybe justifiedbecause it resulted inasmallercost in termsofliveslost.7

TorturedLogicButthenexttactic—onthepartoftheSkrullsthistime—ismorequestionable.The emperor of the Skrulls threatens to kill the captured Scarlet Witch andQuicksilverifCaptainMarveldoesn’tbuildthemthedevice.Hedoesn’tconsiderthis a violation of the “Convention ofFornax,”which is no doubt akin to ourGeneva Convention and which prohibits combatants in the Kree-Skrull Warfrom being tortured by the enemy. Is the emperor correct in his assessment,though? Is threatening Captain Marvel with the execution of his friends andallies—indeed, forcing him to witness their demise unless he makes theProjector—akindoftorture?Plausibly,yes—andthat’seveniftheemperorisbluffing.Anactiondesigned

to make prisoners of war suffer significant mental duress so that they willprovide information falls under the category of torture. Examples includeregularly causing people sexual humiliation, forcing them to witness thedesecrationofobjectstheyholdsacred,deprivingthemofsleep,ormakingthemlisten to their fellowprisoners suffer physical violence. In the caseofCaptainMarvel,threateninghimwithhavingtowitnesshisfriends’deathsunlesshedoessomethingistorture.SoaretheSkrullsmorallypermittedtodothis?Theveryfact that theactioncountsastorturemightbeenoughtodetermine

theanswer.Tomanypeople,itmakesnosensetoaskwhethertortureiswrong.Butmostmilitary ethicists leave it an open question as towhether all acts oftorture are impermissible, and even people who assert that torture is alwayswronghavedifferentopinionsastowhyit’swrong.Forsome,itallboilsdown

toconsequences.Onthisview,torture—whetherpracticedormerelythreatened—leads to more bad consequences than good ones. Rather than usefulinformation, the thinking goes, bad information is obtained, leading toineffectiveactions,andperhapsretaliatoryabuse.Thisviewalignsitselfnicelywiththemoraltheorycalledconsequentialism,whichmaintainsthatactionsarerightorwrongdependingsolelyontheoutcomesof thoseactions:specifically,whetherthoseactionsmaximizetheoverallgood.On a different view, torture is impermissible even if the consequences are

good—evenifvaluableinformationisgleanedthatleadstoeffectiveactionandoursoldiersaren’tendangeredbecauseofit.Accordingtothisview,torturefailsto treat enemy soldiers and combatantswith themoral respect that all personsareowed.FollowingthephilosopherImmanuelKant(1724–1804),supportersofthispositionseetortureastreatingpersonsmerelyasmeansandnotatthesametimeasendsinthemselves.8Causingsomeonesignificantmentalduressjust togetthemtoprovideusefulinformationistantamounttousingthispersoninsteadofrespectinghimorherasawholeperson.Thiswayofthinkingabout torturefallsbroadlyintodeontology,whichholdsthat thereismoretothemoralityofactionsthantheirconsequencesalone; instead, thereismoralstatus inherent inanactitself,regardlessofitsoutcome.9We will leave it open as to which of these arguments better explains the

common intuition regarding torture; it is enough to acknowledge that severallinesofreasoningareavailabletosupportoppositiontoit.Andifweacceptthattortureiswrong,wecanconcludethateveniftheSkrullsarefightingajustwaragainst the Kree, and even if the Projector would bring it to a close withoutcosting lives, it is stillwrong for them to tortureCaptainMarvel inpursuit oftheir goal. If we relax some of these questionable assumptions, we can sayfurther that whatever circumstances led the Skrulls to being dragged into thiswar,theyarenolongerinnocentparticipantsinit.

AndthewarRagesOnWhowinstheKree-SkrullWar?Neitherside,really.Intheparticularstorywe’vebeen focusingon, a beaten—butbynomeansdefeated—Supreme IntelligencecomesintothemixatthelastminuteandempowersthehonoraryAvengerRickJonestoputanendtothatroundoffighting.Butasthosefamiliarwiththesetwoalienracesknow,thisishardlytheendofthematter.Morerecently,theSkrullsinvadedEarthyetagaininSecretInvasion(2008–2009),whichpaintedamuchdarkerpictureoftheirinvolvementinEarth’saffairs.Fornow,though,wemust

restcontentwithhavingusedtheKree-SkrullWarasanopportunitytoexaminesome of the issues that occupy the work of military ethicists, issues quiterelevanttoallofus,andaboutwhichcarefulreflectionisstillmuchneeded.10

NOTES

1.ThestorythatwillbediscussedinthischapteriscollectedinthevolumeAvengers:Kree-SkrullWar(2008),whichreprintsAvengers,vol.1,#89–97(June1971–March1972),alsoreprinted(inblackandwhite)inEssentialAvengersVol.4(2005).2.Formoreonorganicmachinesandtheirstatuscomparedtohumans,seethechapterbyCharlesKlaymantitled“LoveAvengersStyle:CananAndroidLoveaHuman?”inthisvolume.3.SeehisJustandUnjustWars:AMoralArgumentwithHistoricalIllustrations,4thed.(NewYork:BasicBooks,2006).FormoreonWalzerandjustwartheory,seethechapterbyLouisP.Melançontitled“SecretsandLies:CompromisingtheAvengers’ValuesfortheGoodoftheWorld”inthisvolume.4.Walzer’sbookcoversmattersinmuchgreaterdetailthanwewillbeabletohere.Forabriefyetthoroughintroductiontothemoralityofwar,seeBrianOrend,“War,”StanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy,http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/war.5.Also,manyjustwartheoristsbelievethatawarcan’tbejustunlessitsdeclarationhaspoliticalauthority.TheclosestthingtoaninternationalbodythatcouldgivetheAvengers’actionspoliticallegitimacyinthissensewouldbetheUnitedNations,andthey’renotinthepictureatthetimeoftheKree-SkrullWar.FormoreontheAvengersandgovernments,seethechapterbyArnoBogaertstitled“TheAvengersandS.H.I.E.L.D.:TheProblemwithProactiveSuperheroics”inthisvolume.6.Yes,cows,albeitnotbychoice,butasaresultoftheirbattlewiththeFantasticFour.7.Formoreontheethicsofsecrecyanddeception,seethechapterbyMelançon(citedinnote3)inthisvolume.8.SeeKant’sGroundworkoftheMetaphysicsofMorals,SectionII.9.Formoreonconsequentialismanddeontology,seethechapterbyMarkD.Whitetitled“SuperhumanEthicsClasswiththeAvengers

Prime”inthisvolume.10.Manythankstothedevoted,anonymousfansouttherewho,inarticlesonWikipediaandforums,helpedmefillintheblanksonsomeofthemorereconditeanglestothecharacterswhoappearin“TheKree-SkrullWar.”

Chapter11

SECRETSANDLIES:COMPROMISINGTHEAVENGERS’VALUESFORTHEGOODOFTHE

WORLD

LouisP.Melançon

TheAvengersdon’tbelongtoanyonecountryorgovernment.Weareand we always have been Earth’s mightiest heroes. We’re here forevery man, woman and child on this planet. And I promise we’regoingtodorightbyyou.

—HankPym1Superheroeshavedutiesandmustlivebyrules.Forexample,ifthere’samotherandbabycrossingthestreet,don’t letarampagingmonsterthrowamid-1970ssedanatthem.(Oratleastmakesuretheydon’tgethitbyit.)Oftentheserulesare formalizedwhen superheroes form teams, andmost all the incarnations oftheAvengersfitthisbill.ThefoundingmembersoftheoriginalAvengersteameventookthetimetocodifytheirdutiesinasetofrules,acharterthatmostofthe later teams, except the Dark Avengers, adhere to. (And since the DarkAvengerswerechockfullofmurderersandpsychopaths,theydon’treallycount.Sorry, Norman.)2 Their charter is one of the things that defines what theAvengers are, as well as what it means to be an Avenger as an individual:abiding by a set of rules or standards. But whether in the real world or theMarvelUniverse,itcanbedifficultorevenimpossibletoadheretoallofthem,allofthetime.Inparticular,thereisatensionbetweentheneedtokeeptherulesandtheneed

to achieve certain results. Sometimes compromises must be made.We’re nottalking about things that happen in the heat of battle, or unintendedconsequences of what is otherwise a rule-abiding action.We’re talking aboutthosedeliberatedecisionsandactionsthatbreaktherulesbecauseofadesiretoachieveacertainendorcondition.Canthesedecisionsandactionsdamagewhat

itmeans to be anAvenger andwhat theworldmay thinkof theAvengers? Isthereapointwherewecansaythat toomanycompromiseshavebeenmade—andifso,howdoweknowwherethatpointis?

FiguringOuttheRulesAsHankPymindicatesinthequotethatbeginsthischapter,theAvengershaveadutytodefendandprotectthepeopleofEarthfromallmannerofthreats.Thistype of ethical framework, which judges the morality of an action by itsadherence to rule-governed duty, is called deontology. In fact, adhering to adeontologicalframeworkseemstodefinewhatitmeanstobeanAvenger.Let’simaginealine:atoneendwehavethedeontologicalrulestheAvengers

established togovern theiractions,andat theotherwehaveconsequentialism.Accordingtoconsequentialism,themoralityofanactionisjudgedbyitsoverallresults, such asmaximizing thenumberof peoplewhomight survive aSkrullattack.Sincewe’reimaginingthisasalinebetweentwopoints,let’suseoneofHawkeye’sarrowsasamarkertoshowwhereaparticularviewpointordecisionfallsbetweenthetwoendpoints.Iftheworldexistedinonlyblackandwhite,thearrowcouldjustsitdownat thedeontologicalendandourheroeswouldneverexperiencethetensionofhavingtoquestiontheirchosenrules.ButtheAvengerslive in aworld of at least four colors, so the arrow occasionallymoves awayfrom that endpoint, sliding along the line toward consequentialism, suggestingthattheAvengersmayhavetocompromisetheirdutiesforthesakeofresults.3While the potential portfolio of decisions and actions that might move

Hawkeye’s arrow along our line is unlimited, let’s focus on two in particular:secrets and lies.A secret is a pieceof information that an individual or groupdoesn’twant(some)otherstoknow.Asecretinitselfcanbeconsideredamoral(neithermoralnorimmoral):noonewouldclaimthatyouhavetotelleveryoneeverything (just thinkofbirthdaypresents and surpriseparties!).Whatmattersmorally iswhom the information is being kept away from—andwhy.On theotherhand,lying—intentionallygivingsomeonefalseordistortedinformation—is inherentlydeceptive and thereforeusuallypresumed tobe immoral. It is nosurprisethatliesandsecretsbothtravelinthesamecircles,withliesoftenbeingtold to protect secrets. While lying is usually considered wrong, there aresituations where it can fit within the deontological framework in which theAvengersoperate: for example, placingbrainwashedassassin-trained teenagersintonewidentitiesaspartofawitnessrelocationprogram.4Aswithasecret,thevictimandmotivationofalieareoftenofcriticalimportance.

OccultingtheTruthSeveral years ago in the Marvel Universe, the US government passed theSuperhuman Registration Act, requiring all superheroes to register and revealtheirsecretidentities,resultingina“CivilWar”thatragedbetweenIronMan’spro-registration forces andCaptainAmerica’s underground resistance.5Duringall of this, Doctor Strange, the dimension’s Sorcerer Supreme, did his bestimpersonation of Switzerland: he went somewhere snowy and meditated.6Wanting nothing to do with the violence that was about to rip the superherocommunityapart,Strangehadhis“arrow”wellat thedeontologicalendofourethicalspectrum.Participationintheeventssurroundingtheregistrationact,oneitherside,wouldhavebeenaviolationofhisduties.ButStrangecouldnotstayneutral forever. The political storm calmed down a bit, Captain America was(apparently) killed, and a team of “New” Avengers broke from Tony Stark’steam.Atthatpoint,hedecidedheneededtomovethatmarkeralittleclosertothe consequentialist end of the line, and so he stepped back into the fray toprovideassistancetotheNewAvengersworkingcovertlytofightcrimeandevil.To help those Avengers on the lam, Doctor Strange offered sanctuary,

disguising his house as a new location for a chain coffee shop.7 As a result,villains, other heroes, and even othermagic users did not know that theNewAvengerswereheadquarteredatChezStrange.Whydidhedothis?Becausehedecided that the law,andmethodsforenforcing it,weremisguidedatbestandunjust at worst. In response he created a lie: the deception that his SanctumSanctorum had gone away, replaced by a purveyor of hot beverages. TheconsequenceofconductingthisdeceptionwasthattheNewAvengerswereabletocontinuetofightcrimeandinjustice.This lie targetedeveryone,be they licensedpersonnel fromtheSuperhuman

RegistrationAct,S.H.I.E.L.D.agents,commoncriminals,or just folkswalkingdown the street—and that is why we run into difficulty with this action. OnbehalfoftherestoftheNewAvengers,DoctorStrangeliedtothesamepeoplewhomhewassworntoprotect:thegeneralpublic.It’seasytosaythat“hehadtodoit,”butweshouldbeuneasywithwhathedidjustasweareuneasywhenourelectedleadersintherealworldkeepthingsfromtheirconstituents—itmaybejustified, but heneeds to explainwhy.DoctorStrange, and theNewAvengerswhobenefitedfromhissupport,feltthatthiswasanacceptabledeception,giventhecontextoftheSuperhumanRegistrationAct.Butaswe’llsee,thisdecisionhadsecondaryeffectsonStrangethatcomplicatedthings.

SorcererSupremeEmergencyBeforeweconsidertheeffectsonDoctorStrange,however,weneedtodiscusscontemporaryphilosopherMichaelWalzer’ssupremeemergency.According toWalzer, a supreme emergency is a justification for acts of war that wouldnormally be in violation of just war tradition practices and the norms of thesocietyfighting inawar,especiallydeontological rules that limitsuchactions.The just war tradition (or theory if you happen to be wearing a lab coat)establishescriteriaforenteringintoandconductingawarinanethicalfashion.Over the centuries, the just war tradition has evolved to address bothphilosophicalandtheologicalconcerns.Forourpurposes,thebottomlineisthatthejustwartraditionhelpssocietieskeeptrackofhowfartheymightbemovingHawkeye’sarrowfrom itsdeontologicalhome toward theconsequentialist endofthespectrumintimesofwar.The example scholars normally use to illustrate the supreme emergency

centersontheAlliedbombingofGermanyduringWorldWarII.Asthestandardargument goes, democracy (in the form of the United Kingdom) faced anexistential threat from Nazi Germany. In response, Allied forces conductedbombingoperationsthatmaynothavebeenincompleteaccordancewiththejustwartradition.TheUnitedKingdomwasinastateofsupremeemergency,andastrictpolicyofmaintainingthecountry’svaluescouldleadtoutterdestruction.Soatemporarydeviationfromacceptednormswasjustifiedbecauseitallowedthe country—and its values—to continue once the emergency had passed.8Thesedays,themostdiscussedexampleisthe“tickingtimebomb”rationaleforusingtorturetoextractsecretsfromaterrorsuspect.Thepurportedjustificationis the same: compromising treasured values in the short term to ensure thepersistenceofthosesamevaluesoverthelongterm.Of course,Walzer himself recognizes that it can be difficult to understand

whentheemergencyhaspassed,andmoreimportantlythatitcanbecomemucheasiertosimplydeclareothersupremeemergenciesinordertojustifydeviatingrepeatedlyfromacceptednorms.9Thisisnottosaythatthesedecisionsformaslippery slope.We simply don’t want hard decisions to become easier in thefuture.Thechallengeposedbyadheringtoadeontologicalframeworkisthatitisnotenoughsimplyforacountrytosurvive.Thecountrymustalsobeworthyof surviving. And that worth comes from adherence to the same values thecountrymaybeforcedtocompromise.DoctorStrangehighlightsthisdangerbytrippingdownthispath.Hedeclared

anemergency for theNewAvengersdue tohow theSuperhumanRegistrationActwas being enforced. He threw in his lot with them and lied to the entireworld in support of their efforts. As physical and mystical pressure on hisdeceptiongrew,herelied,againsthisbetterjudgment,onevergreateranddarkerpowers.With“WorldWarHulk,”whichbeganaftertheHulkreturnedfromhisimposed exile in space (which a certain Sorcerer Supreme endorsed), Strangefinds himself in yet another supreme emergency. This time we find himrelativelyateasewithmovingthearrowallthewaytotheconsequentialistendofthespectrum.Thoughhedoestryothertacticsatfirst,hedoesnothesitatetoolongbeforegivinghimselfovertopossessionbyademontodrivetheHulkofftheplanet.10Atthispoint,theEyeofAgamottodeterminesthatStrangehassoviolatedthenormsforSorcererSupremethatheisnolongerfittoclaimthetitleorassociatedpower.11Thecompromiseshavebeen toomuch,andDr.StephenStrangehimselfisnolongerworthsavingastheSorcererSupreme.

Shhhhh—AvengersAssemble(inSecret)!Secretsarenotnecessarilyimmoral,buthowyouprotectthemmaycrossaline(ormovethearrowalongone).Afterall,thefoundingAvengersrecognizedthatsome things must be hidden from the public view: the charter states that noAvengermaybeforcedtorevealtheircivilianidentity.12Somehave,ofcourse:ClintBarton,HankPym,andLukeCage, tonameafew.Butmost try tokeepthatsortofthingonthedownlow.Therearelegitimatereasonsforthis,suchasto protect loved ones and to allow some sense of anonymity when not incostume.WiththeexceptionofJ.JonahJameson,therearen’tmanywhowouldargueagainsttheneedforsuperheroestokeepthissecretfromthegeneralpublicorevenfellowteammates.(EventhesupportersoftheSuperhumanRegistrationActdidnotwant tomake secret identitiespublic.)But thereare always largersecrets.The first five Avengers banded together to protect all mankind and allow

Earth’sinhabitantstomeet“itsrightfuldestiny.”That’saverynoblecausethatfewwouldargueagainst;iftherewereareal-worldorganizationlikethisIknowI’dbeabigsupporter.But let’splaydevil’sadvocate foraminute:whoaskedthem to do this on the world’s behalf? Technically, no group of individuals,states,orotherpoliticalbodyaskedthem;itjustseemedlikeagoodideaatthetime. Because they have done these good deeds in a generally transparentfashion,theAvengershavemaintainedthegoodwillofthemanorwomanonthestreet and most political bodies around the world. So why did they recently

decide that they need a covert team that is kept a secret from the rest of theworldandevenotherAvengers?AftertheSiegeofAsgardendedNormanOsborn’s“DarkReign”andushered

inthebeginningofMarvel’sHeroicAge,SteveRogersundertooktheenormoustask of restructuring the Avengers. He handpicked the primary team (theAvengers) and the leadership of the New Avengers, established AvengersAcademytotrainyoungheroes,andcreatedaspecialoperationsteam,theSecretAvengers—ledbyRogershimself.13Hisvisionfor theSecretAvengerswas toconduct clandestine and undocumented activities against threats to the humanrace,preferablyinaproactivefashionbeforethethreatsgetoutofhand.14 JustaswithDoctorStrange,thereisagreatdealofpotentialheretodamagewhatitmeans to be an Avenger through overuse or misuse of secrecy and the stepstakentoprotectit.The world knows of the Avengers, the New Avengers, and even Avengers

Academy. Yet everything about the Secret Avengers is kept from the generalpublic: the roster, the capabilities, themissions, and the very existence of theteam. Inbattle, the team takesextraprecautions tomakesure thatevidenceoftheir presence isn’t left behind.15 There are several reasons for this, such aspreventing foes from understanding the capabilities used against them orknowingthattheyareevenbeingpursuedbytheSecretAvengers.Butdoesthisreallyrequiresuchanintensiveandhighlyprotectedlevelofsecrecy?According to theAvengersCharter the team is a “sanctionedpeace-keeping

force by . . . the United Nations,” having authority to perform operations,activities, and actions in “all countries belonging or affiliatedwith theUnitedNations.” This sanction has varied over their comics history, but it stands toreason that the Avengers must subscribe to the highest level of transparencyamongUNmemberstatestocontinuetoenjoythisprivilegedstatus.Withinthiscontext,itdoesn’tappearthattheSecretAvengersaredoinganythinguntoward.Almost every society accepts the need to keep some secrecy regardingcapabilities and plans to defend against threats. In democracies, decisions likethesenecessarilymoveHawkeye’sarrowasmidgeclosertotheconsequentialistend, but are often accompanied by public debate about what should andshouldn’tbesecretandwhatisacceptablebehaviorbyorganizationsthatdealinsecrets.Inotherwords,democraciesusuallycreatesomethingthattheSecretAvengers

don’thave:oversight.MechanismsareinstitutedtoensurethatHawkeye’sarrowdoesn’t slideany fartherdown the linewithoutadeliberateandacknowledgedassessmentof risks, including security threats aswell as risks to the country’s

values.TheSecretAvengersmaybeconductingtheirbusinessinafashionthatis admirable and acceptable to the generalworld population.But the fact thatthey have zero accountability and oversight means that when—not if—theirexistenceismadepublic,therewilllikelybeanegativeimpacttothereputationoftheentireAvengersenterprise.Questionswillstarttoemerge:Whatelsearetheykeepinga secret?Are theyusing secrets to coverup theirmistakes?Anddoestheirsecrecyreallyprotectourinterests?

BeingWikileakedOnThingsgetinterestingwhenanimpostorposingasU.S.Agentstealsandreleasesvastamountsof intelligence that theSecretAvengersandotherswereusing todevelop leads and plans in response to threats across the globe. The leakedintelligenceshows that theSecretAvengersweresoliciting information fromawidevarietyofnefariouscharactersabout theactivitiesandplansofcriminals,terrorists,andsupervillains.AsSteveRogershimselfputit,“Somediditfortherightreasons,somedidittoevadeimprisonment,somejustdiditforprofit.”16The fakeU.S.Agent justifieshisactionsbasedon the lackofoversightand

accountability on the part of all the Avengers teams, not just the SecretAvengers.Arguingthatthestoleninformationandtheunsavorycharacterswhoprovided it are proof of Avenger misdeeds, he calls for transparency andoversight.SoweretheAvengerswrongtoleverageinformationgivenwillingly,althoughsecretly,bythosetheywouldnormallyfight?True,theAvengersfightcriminalsandsupervillains.Butasthecharterstates,

thetrialandpunishmentofwrongdoersislefttogovernments,withtheAvengersonlyassistingintheimprisonmentifconventionalcapabilitiesaren’tsufficient.There is nothing to say that the Avengers cannot interact with the villains inother ways. After all, some villains have been rehabilitated by becomingAvengers, such as Quicksilver, the Scarlet Witch, and Hawkeye.17 And thecharter does lay out that the Avengers will share information with lawenforcementgroupssuchasS.H.I.E.L.D.andtheNewYorkPoliceDepartment,aswellashavesecurityclearancesgrantedbytheUSgovernment,whichwecansafelyassumeenablesthemtointeractwiththeUSintelligencecommunity.Furthermore, the law enforcement and intelligence communities deal with

unsavorycharacters(suchas“snitches”andworse—politicians)aspartoftheirdaily activities. Law enforcement needs confidential informants, criminals orsketchy characters who are willing to talk to the police in secret aboutunderworld activity.And the intelligence communityneeds individualswilling

tobetray theircountrymenandcomradesbyprovidingsecrets toanotherstate.The ethical arrow does move toward consequentialism, of course, but this iswidely judged to be acceptable and necessary, provided there is oversight andsome high-level degree of transparency—both of which the Secret Avengerslack.Ifsentimenteverturnsagainstthem,theywillbeintrouble.

“ThisIstheKindofThingThatisGoingtoBiteUsintheButt”18

FortheAvengers,adheringtothestandardssetbythefoundingmembersandtheexpectationsofthepeopletheyprotectcanbedifficult.Sometimesrulesneedtobe broken to make sure the primary mission—protecting the human race—isaccomplished. Within the much more narrow scope of secrets and lies, thestandards can be even more difficult. There is the very real possibility thatthrough their actions theAvengersmay destroywhatmakes them the premiersuperheroorganizationof theMarvelUniverseandkeeps themadmiredby theworld at large. And even when they may be working within the acceptablenormsandrules,themereperceptionthatthey’renotcanbejustasdangerous.This tension servesas a significantwarning to thoseofus in the realworld

whoareconfrontedbydecisionsthattemptustocompromiseourvaluesinfavorofconsequentialism.Areputationforhonestyandintegritythatisearnedoveralifetimeofheroismcanbedestroyedwithasingledecision—somakesureyouhaveagoodreasonforit.(Andthat’snosecret.)

NOTES

1.MightyAvengers#24(June2009),reprintedinMightyAvengersVol.5:Earth’sMightiest(2009).2.FormoreontheDarkAvengers,seethechapterbyRobertPowelltitled“TheSelf-CorruptionofOsborn:ACautionaryTale”andthechapterbySarahDonovanandNickRichardsontitled“ShiningtheLightontheDarkAvengers”inthisvolume.3.WhereHawkeye’sarrowmayseemtogoastrayisruleutilitarianism,whichrecommendsthatpeoplefollowrulesthataredesignedtoproducethebestconsequencesontheaverage.Thisis

oftenputforwardassimplertofollow,basedasitisonestablishedrulesofthumb(“donotlie”),comparedtoactutilitarianism(the“normal”kind),whichrequiresnewconsiderationseachtimeanethicaldilemmacomesup(“willlyingthistimebeokay?”).Aproblemwithruleutilitarianism,however,isthatitseemscounterproductivetofollowaruleevenwhenyoudetermineitwon’tproducegoodconsequences—andsincethisisalwayspossible,actutilitarianismwouldalwaysberequiredanyway.4.CaptainAmericaandtheSecretAvengers#1(May2011).5.CivilWar(2007),collectingtheseven-issueCivilWarminiseries(2006–2007).6.CivilWar#6(December2006).7.NewAvengers,vol.1,#28(May2007),reprintedinNewAvengersVol.6:Revolution(2007).8.SeeMichaelWalzer,JustandUnjustWars:AMoralArgumentwithHistoricalIllustrations,4thed.(NewYork:BasicBooks,2006),251–254.9.Ibid.,260.10.WorldWarHulk#4(November2007),reprintedinWorldWarHulk(2008).11.NewAvengers,vol.1,#54(August2009),reprintedinNewAvengersVol.11:SearchfortheSorcererSupreme(2009).12.ForatextoftheAvengersCharter,seehttp://marvel.wikia.com/Avengers_Charter.13.Avengers,vol.4,#1(July2010),reprintedinAvengersbyBrianMichaelBendisVol.1(2011).14.SecretAvengers#1(July2010),reprintedinSecretAvengersVol.1:MissiontoMars(2011).15.SecretAvengers#8(February2011),reprintedinSecretAvengersVol.2:EyesoftheDragon(2011).16.SecretAvengers#12.1(June2011),reprintedinFearItself:SecretAvengers(2012).17.FormoreontheAvengersandrehabilitation,seethechapterbyAndrewTerjesentitled“Cap’sKookyQuartet:IsRehabilitationPossible?”inthisvolume.18.Spider-Man,inNewAvengers,vol.1,#52(June2009),reprintedinNewAvengersVol.11:SearchfortheSorcererSupreme.

Chapter12

THEAVENGERSANDS.H.I.E.L.D.:THEPROBLEMWITHPROACTIVE

SUPERHEROICS

ArnoBogaertsThe last decade has been one of themost eventful and tumultuous periods inMarvel history. Among other things, the Avengers disassembled andreassembledintoseveralsplinterteams,themutantpopulationwasdecimated,amajorcivilwarsplitthesuperherocommunityintwo,aseverelypissed-offHulkwarred against the world, the alien shape-shifting Skrulls staged a secretinvasion,andNormanOsborninitiatedadarkreignalongwithasecretcabalofsupervillains.Through all these events, twomajor organizations in theMarvelUniverse played important roles: the Avengers, Earth’s primary and arguablymostvisibleteamofsuperheroes,andS.H.I.E.L.D.,theinternationalespionage,lawenforcement,counterterrorist,andglobalpeacekeepingagency.As Earth’sMightiestHeroes, theAvengers face threats no single superhero

can withstand. They essentially react to and deflect the dangers posed byintergalactic and time-traveling conquerors, supervillain breakouts, andinterplanetary wars. S.H.I.E.L.D., on the other hand, maintains a much moreproactive approach toward tackling global terrorism, conducting internationalespionage, and easing political tensions. While S.H.I.E.L.D. has alwaysmaintained close ties toMarvel’s superhero community, in recent years it hasbecomemuchhardertodefinewhatexactlysetsthemapart,withbothIronManandCaptainAmericainchargeofS.H.I.E.L.D.atdifferenttimes.Inthischapter,then,we’llexplorethedangerousslipperyslopethatcanoccurwhensuperheroesusetheirpowersandinfluenceinaproactivemanner.

TheUltimates,theAvengers,andNickFury’sS.H.I.E.L.D.

NickFuryisaWorldWarIIveteran,aformerCIAagent,andasuperspy.Ashisprominent role as director of S.H.I.E.L.D., he served as the de facto liaisonbetweentheUnitedStates,theUnitedNations,andthesuperherocommunity.Infact,intheUltimateMarvelcontinuity—adarkerandmorerealisticreimaginingofthemainstreamMarvelUniverse—Fury’scommandingpresencecanbefeltinnearly every published story.There, S.H.I.E.L.D.was responsible for bringingtheAvengers(oras they’reknown, the“Ultimates”) together in thefirstplace.The team was initially founded in TheUltimates as a paramilitary superherodefenseinitiativeanswerabletoFury(lookingsuspiciouslylikeactorSamuelL.Jackson)and,byextension,theUSgovernment.1BothTheUltimates and its sequelTheUltimates 2 giveus a darker look at

whatwould happen if patriotic super-soldiers, armored billionaires,Asgardianthunder gods, gamma-fueled giants, and size-changing scientists suddenlypopped up in post-9/11 America. After Captain America rescues severalAmericanhostagesintheMiddleEast,controversyquicklybreaksoutovertheworld’s new favorite superhero team. Should the American government andS.H.I.E.L.D. use superhumans—or as they are rather ominously called here,“Persons of Mass Destruction”—in foreign affairs?2 After several conflictswithin the team, the remaining Ultimates are used preemptively to “cripple anation” in the Middle East, completely obliterating its nuclear weaponsstockpile.3Thissetsoffamajorinternationalbacklash,afterwhichwelearnthattheenemiesof theUnitedStateshaveformed theirownsuperhuman team, theLiberators,whichretaliatesbymountingaviciousattackonWashington,D.C.,crippling both the Ultimates and S.H.I.E.L.D.While the Ultimates eventuallywintheday,theLiberators’attackontheUScapitalstandsasagoodexampleofthe massive retaliation the use of superheroes in preemptive strikes almostalwaysbrings.4InthemainstreamMarvelUniverse,too,NickFuryandS.H.I.E.L.D.oftenuse

superheroes in proactive missions. For example, in SecretWar, Fury and theBlackWidow (both aS.H.I.E.L.D. agent and anAvenger) discover thatLuciavon Bardas, acting prime minister of Latveria, is supplying lesser-knownsupervillains and terroristswith advanced technology.5Determined to strike atvonBardasbeforeshecanmountaterroristattackonAmericansoil(andsendamessage to anybodywith similar thoughts), Fury embarks on an unauthorizedmissiontooverthrowtheLatveriangovernment.Togetthejobdoneasquicklyand efficiently as possible, he puts together a surgical strike team, includingAvengers Captain America, Black Widow, Luke Cage, Spider-Man, andWolverine(withoutbeingtotallyhonestwiththem,Imightadd).Theysucceed

inbringingdownvonBardas(alongwithmostofCastleDoom),butexactlyoneyear later, vonBardas retaliates by launching amassive supervillain attack onNewYorkCity.WhileLukeCageissenttothehospitalafterbeingattackedinhishome,theothersuperheroes,alongwiththeFantasticFour,barelymanagetoeliminate the threat and saveNewYorkCity.Afterward Fury, having lost therespect of almost the entire superhero community, is forced to retreatundergroundandisreplacedasdirectorofS.H.I.E.L.D.byMariaHill.Dire consequences such as these seem inevitable when superheroes are

proactive. But Nick Fury, for all his close relationships with the superherocommunity(andhisownsupernaturallyprolongedlife),isnotasuperhero.Inhisdirectorial position and as a self-proclaimed “wartime general,” he’s forced tosee the bigger picture.6 To get his job done and save lives, he doesn’t mindperforming questionable or downright dirty deeds in the name of the greatergood—andifthatmeanstheunethicaluseofsuperheroes,thensobeit.

RedandGoldHelicarriers?Thismay be fine forNick Fury, butwhenever superheroes are forced to dealwith issues like real-world politics, red tape, preemptive strikes, or any otherproactive use of their powers, things tend to get tricky. Take Tony Stark, forexample, and his travails over the last several years of Marvel events, all ofwhich demonstrate Tony’s patented take-charge, proactive stance toward . . .well,everything.Let’sstartwiththeCivilWar:thesuperherocommunitywassplitintwoover

theSuperhumanRegistrationAct,whichforcedindividualswithsuperpowerstosurrendertheiridentitiestotheUSgovernmentandbecomeofficialstateagents(under S.H.I.E.L.D.).7 Stark initially opposed the idea but eventually made apragmaticdecisiontospearheadthemovementafterpassageofthelawbecameinevitable.He led thepro-registration forcesagainsthis formerallyand friendCaptainAmerica,whosawthelawasaviolationofbasiccivilliberties.AfteralongandbloodyconflictthatendedwithCap’ssurrenderandincarceration(andeventuallymurder),IronManwasgiventheproverbialkeystotheHelicarrier—andheusedthemtostartatrainingprogramforyoung(andregistered)heroes,put a registered superhero team in every state (the Fifty State Initiative), and,togetherwithFantasticFourleaderReedRichardsandfellowfoundingAvengerHankPym,implementseveraloftheir“100ideasthatcouldchangetheworld.”8AfterStarktookchargeofS.H.I.E.L.D.andareconstitutedMightyAvengers

team,itwasrevealedthathe,alongsideseveralotherheroesinaproactiveandclandestinegroupknownastheIlluminati,hadbanishedDr.BruceBanner(theHulk) into space to prevent more destructive gamma-fueled rampages.9 TheHulk’s ship landed on a savage planet namedSakaar, but eventually theHulkfoundhiswaybacktoEarth,alongwithhisnewgladiatorialfriends,wheretheensuing battle devastated New York City.10 Finally, the imperialistic, shape-shiftingalienraceknownastheSkrullsunleashedafull-scaleinvasionofEarth.Thiswasmadepossible in no small part by the Illuminati’s botchedproactivemission of years before, during which Skrulls learned enough to abduct andimpersonate many well-known heroes without detection (including AvengersHankPymandSpider-Woman).11Furthermore,becauseTonynetworkedallthetechnologyusedbyS.H.I.E.L.D.and theFiftyStateInitiative tohisownStarktech, theSkrullswereable tocompletelycrippleallofEarth’sdefenses inonefellswoop.12Although the Skrull Armada was eventually driven back by the heroes

(thoughnotuntilafterthedeathoftheWasp,anotherfoundingAvenger),Tonywas blamed for everything and became the “World’s MostWanted” fugitive.S.H.I.E.L.D. was transformed into H.A.M.M.E.R. and placed under thecommandofthepsychoticformerGreenGoblin,NormanOsborn,afterhetookthe kill shot on theSkrullQueen.Osbornwas elevated to the status of publichero,andinthepositionoftopcopheplungedtheMarvelUniverseintoa“DarkReign”thatforcednearlyalltheformerAvengersunderground.OsborncreatedhisownAvengersteam,withsupervillainsassumingthemantlesofheroeslikeMs.MarvelandHawkeye,whileOsbornbrandedhimselfastheIronPatriotandworeaspareIronManarmordecoratedwithCaptainAmerica’sflagmotif.13

IDidn’tMeanIt,HonestThrough all of this, TonyStark showed himself to be themost pragmatic andproactivehero in theMarvelUniverse, taking chargewhennoone elsewouldandthensufferingtheconsequences, includingthescornandresentmentofhisfellowheroesaswellasthebroaderpublic(andmuchofthecomicsfanbase).Yet as a futurist inventor, CEO of a billion-dollar company, and even formersecretaryofdefense,it’shardforhimnottolookatthebiggerpicture—justlikeNickFury.SodoesTonyreallydeservetheblameforthecausalchainofeventsthat started with his well-intended (if overreaching) actions during these lastseveralyearsofcataclysmicMarvelcrossoverevents?

Whenever a person performs an action, both intended and unintendedconsequences (or sideeffects)mayoccur.Sophilosophersask:whichof theseeffects is theactor responsible for?Oneanswer ispresented in thedoctrine ofdouble effect, which originated in the writings of the philosopher ThomasAquinas (1225–1274) and was elaborated upon by modern philosophers likePhilippaFoot (1920–2010)andG.E.M.Anscombe (1919–2001).Simplyput,thedoctrineofdouble effect states that it is sometimesmorallypermissible topromoteagoodendevenif—unintentionallybutforeseeably—seriousharmwillresult from it. It is not, however, permissible to cause the same harmintentionally.14Considerkillinginself-defenseasanexampleofthedoctrineofdoubleeffect.

If a person—let’s call himNick, for no reason at all—is being attackedwithmurderousintentbysomeone—oh,say,BaronvonStrucker—itisokayforNickto defendhimself against theBaronwith lethal force (if necessary). In such acase,Nickwouldbeprotectinghis own life—thegood end—and thedeathofvon Strucker would be the foreseen but unintended consequence of Nick’spromotionof thatend.On theotherhand, ifNickdiscovered that theBaron isplotting tokillhim, itwouldbemorallywrong forhim tokill theBaron first,sincethatwouldbetheintendedactionitself(andtherearemanyotherwaystothwart von Strucker’s plans and save Nick’s life). In both scenarios theconsequence—onedeadBaron—isthesame,yetonlythefirstact,killinginself-defense,ismorallypermissible,becauseit isanunintentionalsideeffectoftheethicalactofself-preservation.15The doctrine of double effect makes an important distinction between

consequences that are intended and those that are merely foreseen (but notintended).Still,thelinebetweenthemisnotalwaysclear,norisitalwaysclearhow to “know”whether a side effect was truly unintentional. Another thornyissue is the matter of determining just how many bad consequences we willtolerateinthepursuitofgoodendsbeforewesay“enough.”Forthedoctrineofdoubleeffecttobeacceptedandworkeffectively,therehastobeproportionalitybetweenbadeffects(themeans)andgoodeffects(theends).AssumingneitherFury nor Stark intended any harmful consequences of their actions, theremaining issue iswhether the good ends theywere pursuingwere enough tojustifythenegativeresultsof theiractions.WithTony,especially, thisquestiondividedmuchoftheMarvelUniverseduringtheperioddescribedabove.What if thedoctrineofdoubleeffectdoesnotendorseTony’sactions?Does

this imply that he’s responsible for thenegativeoutcomeof the recentMarvelevents?Wedon’thave timehere to launchan in-depthdiscussionofcausation

and responsibility. Suffice it to say that even the great futurist Tony Starkcouldn’taccuratelypredictthemassiveconsequenceshisactionswouldhaveontheMarvelUniverse.Notealsothatmanyotherpeople’sactionswereinvolved,and the fartherdown the“chainofcausation”weget fromTony’sactions, thelessresponsibilitywecanpinonhim.16

ThisChangesEverything(UntilItChangesBack)

AsSimonWilliams(WonderMan)pointsouttoCaptainAmerica,onthesubjectofputtingtheAvengersbacktogetherasaglobalpeacekeepingforce,

maybeit’soneofthosethingsthatyoucan’tseewhenyou’rerightinthemiddleofit,butonceyoustepbackitcouldn’tbemoreclear.Frommypointofview . . . thesuperherocivilwar, themutantdecimation,the Skrull Invasion, NormanOsborn . . . they all have one thing incommon...theyarealltheAvengers’fault.17

Well, let’stakeSimon’ssuggestionandstepoutsidetheconfinesoftheMarvelUniverse for aminute. It really does seem that any time a superhero tries beproactive,itcomesbacktobitehimontheAsgard,almostasifthegenreitselfispreventingproactivesuperheroing.The concept of the “status quo” in superhero stories is hotly debated. One

minute fansare skepticalofclaims that thenextbigeventcomic“willchangeeverythingyouknow—forever,”becausethingsalwaysseemtoreverttonormalbeforelong;andthenextminute,fanscomplainthatcreatorsstraytoofarfromestablished, beloved continuity. They want characters to develop—yet neverchange!However,theretentionofacertainrecognizablestatusquoinsuperherostories is not only something that the upper management of Marvel and DCmandate(tomaintaintheeconomicviabilityoftheirlicensingrevenuesoutsidecomics), it’s something that’s ingrained in the very concept of the superheroitself.InSuperHeroes: AModernMythology, comics historianRichardReynolds

writesthatthesuperherois,bydefinition,“battlingonbehalfofthestatusquo,”whichheseesastheworkingsandpositivevaluesofthesocietyinwhichmostsuperheroes operate.18 This status quo is “constantly under attack” and thusneeds a superhuman protector from the outside forces of evil that attempt to

changeit.19Reynolds’svisionseemstofollowwhatphilosophersRobertJewettandJohnSheltonLawrencecall the“Americanmonomyth,”avariationon theclassical monomyth (also known as “the hero’s journey”). The mythologistJosephCampbell (1904–1987)proposed theclassicalmonomythasauniversalnarrativeinwhichahero“venturesforthfromtheworldofcommondayintoaregion of supernatural wonder,” where fabulous forces are encountered, adecisivevictoryiswon,andtheheroreturns“withthepowertobestowboonsonhisfellowman.”20Jewett and Lawrence transfer this focus on the individual hero to the

community.ThusintheAmericanmonomyth:Acommunity inaharmoniousparadise is threatenedbyevil:normalinstitutions fail to contend with this threat: a selfless superheroemerges to renounce temptations and carry out the redemptive task:aided by fate, his decisive victory restores the community to itsparadisiacalcondition:thesuperherothenrecedesintoobscurity.21

This certainly sounds a lot a like the typical superhero story. Combined withReynolds’s comments that the status quo, this (slightly exaggerated butnevertheless positive) “paradisiacal condition” of the community, must bedefendedoverandoveragain,thesuperherokeepsfromfadingintoobscuritybysimply taking on the next supervillain. His adherence to the Americanmonomyththusimpliesthatthesuperhero,andthegenreinwhichheoperates,isprimarily reactive. Something needs to happen—the status quo needs to bethreatened—beforeasuperherocanjumpintoaction.

ButIWanttoHelp!Doesthismeanthatit’sbetterforsuperheroesliketheAvengerstojustsitbackin their headquarters and do nothing until a supervillain comes along anddestroys a couple of nearby buildings (usually their headquarters itself)?Actually,yes,butweallknowthatthat’snotgoingtohappen.Theirworldandours is hardly a “paradise,” and there’s always work to be done. We don’tnecessarily have to agree with Tony Stark’s plans to help people through hisadvanced technologyorhisproactiveactionsduring theCivilWar,butneithercanweletourheroesstandidlybyanddonothing.Inhercriticismofthedoctrineofdoubleeffect,PhilippaFootaskedifthereis

amoral distinctionbetweenwhatwedo and causedirectlybyour action, and

whatwesimplyallowtohappenindirectlybynotacting,otherwiseknownastheact/omissionquestion.22 Insomecases,sheargued, there isn’t, suchaswhenamanmurdershischildrenbygivingthempoison(anact)orbyrefrainingfromgivingthemfood(anomission),bothofwhichwouldbewrong(tosaytheleast).In other cases, though,wewouldmake a strict distinctionbetween acting andallowing. Foot, in another example, stated that most of us implicitly allowpeople to starve in Third World countries. However, it’s one thing to allowpeopletodieinfarawaynations,andquiteanothertosendthempoisonedfood.According to Foot, “There is worked into our moral system a distinctionbetweenwhatweowepeople in theformofaidandwhatweowethemin theway of non-interference.”23 She then compared this distinction with the onebetweenpositiveandnegativeduties.Positivedutiesdescribethingsweshoulddo,suchashelpingothers,whilenegativedutiesdetail thingsweshouldn’tdo,suchashurtingothers.Footnotedthatournegativedutiesalmostalwaysseemtobe morally stronger than our positive ones. So violating a negative duty (byacting tokill someone, for instance) isoftenconsideredworse thanviolatingapositiveduty(bynotactingtosavesomeoneindanger).For superheroes, however, positive duties seem to be more important than

negativeduties.WeallknowfromreadingSpider-Mancomicsthat“withgreatpower comesgreat responsibility,” and inmost cases this translates tohelpingthose inneedwhereveryoucan.Furthermore,Spidey’sorigin storypresents astrong case for this. Uncle Ben would still be alive if only Peter Parker hadperformedanact:stoppingtheburglar(wholaterkilledhisuncle)whenhehadthe chance. But for superheroes, the greater responsibilitymay lie in keepingotherssafefromtheirpower.LooknofurtherthantheHulk:hisfamousrequesttobeleftaloneshowsthathedoesnotwanthisincrediblepowertohurtinnocentbystanders.He’smoreconcernedwithpreventingharmthanhelpingothers,andgivenhisuniquenature,thisisperfectlyunderstandable.Wheneversuperheroesact toomuchontheirpositivedutytohelptheworld

around them, they become proactive.And according to comics historianPeterCoogan, this inevitably sets them on a slippery slope toward, in essence,supervillainy.Thisisespeciallythecasewheneversuperheroes,asCooganputsit, “move up into governance” and become institutional parts of the societythey’retryingtoprotect.24Wecertainlysawthisslipperyslopeintosupervillainyhappenwith IronMan’s demonizeddepictions throughoutmanyMarvel seriesduringtheCivilWarandhissubsequenttenureasdirectorofS.H.I.E.L.D.OtherexamplesincludeThor’stenureas“LordofAsgard”andlater“LordofEarth,”duringwhich his interference onEarth eventually led to a tyrannical rule that

required time travel to undo.25 Consider also the Squadron Supreme (onetimealliesoftheAvengers),whoassumedcontroloftheUnitedStatesandattemptedtoremakethenationintoautopia.Despitetheirbestintentions,the“utopia”theycreatedwasmorelikeatotalitarianregime.26Whileactingonpositiveduties iscertainlyadmirable,practicallyeverytime

we see superheroes attempt to do it proactively on a larger scale, the reactivenature of the superhero genre brings them crashing down hard. Especially inlong-runningongoingnarrativesliketheAvengers,thegeneralstatusquoalwaysseems to return. And even though the team has seen its roster change manytimes,theirgeneralmissionandplaceinsocietyshouldnotchange.AsReynoldsstates,“Thesuperherohasamissiontopreservesociety,nottore-inventit.”27

CaptainAmerica’smightyS.H.I.E.L.D....Well,SortOf

After the incarceration of Norman Osborn following the Siege of Asgard, anewly“reborn”SteveRogersappearedbeforethepresidentoftheUnitedStatesandwasgivenOsborn’s former position as top copof the freeworld: “We’veseen theworldaccording toNickFury . . .We’veseen theworldaccording toTonyStark...And,Lordinheaven,we’veseentheworldaccordingtoNormanOsborn.SteveRogers,Captain . . . Iamaskingyou toanswer thecall.”Steveaccepts, adding, “But . . . I’m going towant to do itmyway.”28 AsCaptainAmerica, SteveRogers has certainly proven himself time and time again as acapable leader, perhaps even themost capable superhero leader in theMarvelUniverse. But will he too, just like Nick Fury and Tony Stark before him,succumb to the sameproactivemethods and trappings his newgoverning roleprovides?With Steve at the helm, it certainly looks like a brighter tomorrow for the

MarvelUniverse. So far, he has been doing amuch better job in his elevatedposition than Tony Stark or even Nick Fury before him. He has as yet onlyshownvaguehintsofproactiveaction—chiefamongthemhisformationoftheblack-opsmilitarystealthunit theSecretAvengers—andmightpossiblybe thebesttopcoptheMarvelUniverseeverhad.29However,FuryrecentlytoldStevethat “you may be good at being me for a while . . . but you don’t have theconstitutionforitlong-term.”30Andhemayberight:shortlyafterhebecamethe“newNickFury,”RogersonceagainbecametheoneandonlyCaptainAmerica,

following the apparent deathofBuckyBarnes, signaling a return to the statusquo—somethingsneverchangeindeed!

NOTES

1.TheUltimates#1–13(March2002–April2004),reprintedinTheUltimates:UltimateCollection(2010).ThepopularityofthisversionofFurycanalsobefeltinMarvel’srecentmovies,inwhichthecharacter—playedbyMr.Jackson,ofcourse—makesconsistentappearancesthroughouttheMarvelmoviesleadinguptotheAvengersfilmitself.2.TheUltimates2#1–13(February2005–February2007),reprintedinTheUltimates2:UltimateCollection(2010).3.TheUltimates2#6(July2005).4.Beforeyousayanything—yes,IknowtheeventsinTheUltimates2weremanipulatedbyThor’smischievousadoptedbrotherLokibehindthescenes,buthis“gentlenudging”ofeventshasnoimpactonthepointI’mmakinghere.(Hedidstnottellmetosaythateither,nope.)5.SecretWar#1–5(April2004–December2005),reprintedinSecretWar(2006).TheEasternEuropeancountry’smorewellknownmonarch,DoctorDoom,wastrappedinhellatthetimeduetotheeventsofFantasticFour,vol.3,#500(September2003),reprintedinFantasticFourVol.2:Unthinkable(2003).6.SecretWar#5(December2005).7.TheCivilWareventspannednumeroustie-insthroughouttheMarvelUniversebutwasmainlytoldinCivilWar#1–7(July2006–January2007),reprintedinCivilWar(2007).8.CivilWar#7(January2007).Number42,forexample,wastheNegativeZoneprisonusedtoincarcerateanti-registrationheroesandvillains,whilenumber43wascleaninguptheS.H.I.E.L.D.organization.Later,ReedRichardsaddedidea#101tothelist:“SolveEverything”(FantasticFour,vol.3,#570,October2009,reprintedinFantasticFourbyJonathanHickmanVol.1,2010).Nowthat’sambitious,proactivesuperheroingforyou!9.NewAvengers:Illuminatione-shot(May2006),reprintedinTheRoadtoCivilWar(2007).TheIlluminatihavebeeninexistencesincetheKree-SkrullWar,andtheirmissionwasdescribedbyProfessor

CharlesXavierasmeetinginsecretto“proactivelychangecatastrophesfromhappening”(Avengers,vol.4,#9,March2011,reprintedinAvengersbyBrianMichaelBendisVol.2,2011).10.WorldWarHulk(2008).11.NewAvengers:Illuminati#1(February2007),reprintedinNewAvengers:Illuminati(2008).12.SecretInvasion(2009).13.DarkAvengersVol.1:Assemble(2009).FormoreonOsbornandtheDarkAvengers,seethechaptertitled“TheSelf-CorruptionofNormanOsborn:ACautionaryTale”byRobertPowellandthechaptertitled“ShiningtheLightontheDarkAvengers”bySarahDonovanandNickRichardsoninthisvolume.14.Foraconcisesummaryofthedoctrineofdoubleeffect,seeAlisonMcIntyre,“DoctrineofDoubleEffect,”StanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy,http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/double-effect.15.Thisalsoshowswhyconsequentialism,theschoolofethicsthatjudgesthemoralworthofanactionbasedsolelyontheconsequencessaidactionbringsabout,firmlyrejectsthedoctrineofthedoubleeffect,sinceintentionality(orlackthereof)hasnoimpactonthegoodnessofoutcomes.16.ForanoverviewofTony’sactionsandmoralresponsibility,especiallyduringtheCivilWar,seeMarkD.White,“DidIronManKillCaptainAmerica?”inIronManandPhilosophy:FacingtheStarkReality,ed.MarkD.White(Hoboken,NJ:JohnWiley&Sons,2008).17.Avengers,vol.4,#1(July2010),reprintedinAvengersbyBrianMichaelBendisVol.1(2011).18.RichardReynolds,SuperHeroes:AModernMythology(Jackson:UniversityPressofMississippi,1994),77.19.Ibid.20.JosephCampbell,TheHerowithaThousandFaces(Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,1949),28.21.RobertJewettandJohnSheltonLawrence,TheAmericanMonomyth(GardenCity,NY:Anchor,1977),xx.22.SeePhilippaFoot,“TheProblemofAbortionandtheDoctrineoftheDoubleEffect,”inVirtuesandVicesandOtherEssaysinMoralPhilosophy(Oxford:BasilBlackwell,1978),19–32.23.Ibid.,27.24.SeePeterCoogan,Superhero:TheSecretOriginofaGenre

(Austin,TX:MonkeybrainBooks,2006),216.(Seechapter4ingeneralforananalysisoftheproactive/reactiverelationshipbetweenthesuperheroandsupervillain.)25.Forthisperiod,seeThor,vol.2,#51–79(September2002–July2004),reprintedinaseriesoftradepaperbacks.Also,onthedifficultieswithtimetraveland“fixing”thepast,seethechapterbyAndrewZimmermanJonestitled“CanKangKillHisPastSelf?TheParadoxofTimeTravel”inthisvolume.26.SquadronSupreme#1–12(September1985–August1986),reprintedinSquadronSupreme(1996).27.Reynolds,SuperHeroes,77.28.Siege#4(June2010),reprintedinSiege(2010).29.SecretAvengers#1(July2010),reprintedinSecretAvengersVol.1:MissiontoMars(2011).SeethechapterbyLouisMelançontitled“SecretsandLies:CompromisingtheAvengers’ValuesfortheGoodoftheWorld”inthisvolumeontheSecretAvengersandtheethicalissuesfacedbythecovertspecial-opsteam.30.CaptainAmerica#619(June2011),reprintedinCaptainAmerica:PrisonerofWar(2011).

PARTFIVE

WHATKINDOFWORLDDOTHEAVENGERSLIVEIN?

Chapter13

CANKANGKILLHISPASTSELF?THEPARADOXOFTIMETRAVEL

AndrewZimmermanJones

Jessica Jones: Is this a time travel thing? ’Cause I hate time travelthings.IronMan:Ifit’sKang,it’satimetravelthing.JessicaJones:See.That’swhyIhateKang.1

EversinceH.G.Wells, time travelhasbeenastapleofsciencefictionand itsclosecousin,superherocomics.IntheAvengerscanon,perhapsthebest-knowntimetravelerisKangtheConqueror,awarlordfromthethirtiethcenturywhoseattempts to gain a foothold in the earlier centuries have frequently put him inconflictwith theAvengers.Atvarious times,hehas shownupnotonly in theidentity of Kang, but also as Immortus (the “Master of Time”), the PharaohRama-Tut, the Scarlet Centurion, and Iron Lad (the founder of the YoungAvengers).Kang’stime-hoppingmanipulationsoftheAvengersactuallypredatehisown first appearance. In the second issueofAvengers, the SpacePhantomattempts to turn the Avengers against each other, resulting in the Hulk’sdeparturefromtheteam.TheSpacePhantomis,ofcourse,laterrevealedtobeaminion of Immortus, the more scholarly (and manipulative) incarnation ofKang.2Fornearlyacentury,scientistsandphilosophersalikehaveseriouslydebated

whether the laws of physics, metaphysics, and logic permit time travel. Theproblem is that once you allow time travel, logical inconsistencies come up,whicheventuallytransformintocontradictions,whichthenblowupintoafull-ontimeparadoxandpotentialviolationsofphysicallaws.

TheScienceofBendingTimeThough our current scientific model of time is based upon Albert Einstein’stheory of relativity—a fact for which Hank Pym will always be profoundly

jealous—thestrange,ephemeralnatureoftimehasbeenponderedforcenturies.ThephilosopherandtheologianSaintAugustine(354–430)mused,“What,then,istime?Ifnooneasksme,Iknowwhatitis.IfIwishtoexplainittohimwhoasksme,Idonotknow.”3Augustineresolvedtheconflictthroughanappealtoasupernatural creator, but that option is not, as a rule, available to scientists.Scientific attempts toquantify theephemeralnatureof timehave tended tobetiedtotheregularactivityofaphysicalsystem,whichisthebasisforanysortoftimekeepingdevice,fromanastronomicalcalendartoawaterclocktothedigitalchronometerinIronMan’sheads-updisplay.Einstein,however,realizedthatthissameregularitycreatedanissue.Let’ssay

thatyousetupasimpleclockthatconsistsofa light thatpointsstraightup.Itfires a tiny pulse of light that hits a mirror one meter above it, and is thenreflectedbackdowntoadetectorrightnexttowherethelaserwasemitted.Eachcycleisa“tick”andacertainnumberofticksindicatesasecond,andsoon.OneofEinstein’sgreatestinsightswastherealizationthatlightmovedataconstantspeed, so this sortof idealclockwillbeperfectlyprecise.4 Ifyoukeepsuchaclockwithyou,you’llalwayshaveaprecisemeasurementofthetimewhereveryouare.Unfortunately,thereisaproblem,whichbecomesevidentifyouconsiderthe

clock inmotion.And there’s no one better to choosewhen discussingmotionthanPietroMaximoff,Quicksilver,althoughevenhecan’tmovefastenoughforourexamplewithoutsomehelp.Solet’sassumethatQuicksilveristravelingtothe Shi’ar homeworld with his wife, Crystal. He sets sail on his fiftieth“birthday,”inMarch2014(basedonthefirstappearanceofQuicksilverandhistwinsister,theScarletWitch,inMarch1964’sX-Men#4).Though the ship they’re using should have faster-than-light engines, the

enginesarebroken,andsoPietroandCrystalareforcedtotravelataspeedthatis very fast, but still a bit shyof the speedof light.Theydecide the trip isn’tworth the trouble and turn around, but they’re moving so slowly (in cosmicterms,thatis)thatthetripstilltakesawhile.Quicksilverisimpatient,sohepaysclose attention to his clock, measuring exactly 365 twenty-four-hour periods(days, if you will) between his departure and his return. He shows up onWanda’sdoorstep,readytocelebratehisfifty-firstbirthday!Pietro’ssisterWandahasaclockofherown,though.(Perhapsthematching

setwasagiftfromdearoldDad,Magneto—themasterraceofmutantsmustbepunctual, after all.) If shewere able to use her hexpowers to keep an eye onPietro’sclockwhilehewastraveling,shewouldnotseeastationaryclock,butratheraclockinmotion.Infact,whilePietrowatchesthelightpulsetravelonly

twometers(onemeterupandonemeterbackdown),Wandaseestheclockalsotravelalmosttwometers(remember,theship’sspeedisjustshyoflightspeed)inthehorizontaldirection.FromWanda’sviewpoint,thepulseoflighttracesouttwosidesofanisoscelestrianglewithaheightofonemeterandabasedistancejustshyoftwometers.Itdoesn’ttakeHankPymorTonyStark—justsomebasicgeometry—tofigure

out that the path of lightWanda sees is going to be longer than the path thatPietrosees.Sincethespeedoflightisconstant, it takeslongerfortheclocktocompletea tick forWanda than itdoes forPietro. Inotherwords, timeon thespaceshipmovesslowerthanitdoesbackonEarth.Forthesakeofthisexample,let’ssaythatQuicksilver’sclockontheshipis

movingatone-twentieththerateofWanda’sclock.IftheentireroundtriptookexactlyoneyearaccordingtoQuicksilver’sclock,Wanda’sclockwouldsaythatit took twenty years. Here is the paradox: how old is Quicksilver upon hisreturn? His birth certificate and driver’s license indicate that he was born inMarch1964andhereturnsinMarch2034,Earthtime,soitwouldappeartobehisseventiethbirthday.Butfromhisperspective,it’shisfifty-firstbirthday.(Ofcourse, in the case of Pietro, we run into further problems based on hissuperspeed metabolism and various aging issues related to extraneous timetravel,butforthesakeofthisexample,thosecanbeignored,ascanhistimelessSteve Martin–like hair color.) What’s intriguing about this example is that,mutant superpowers aside, it’s completely consistent with the known laws ofphysics. In fact, it’s a classic case known as the twin paradox (appropriatelyenough). The only reason we don’t regularly run into this problem is theengineeringchallengeofbuildinganear-light-speedspaceship.Butsmaller-scaleexperiments, such as those involving the lifetime of unstable particles beforetheydecay,haveabsolutelyconfirmedthiseffectaspredictedbyEinstein.Soit’snotjustanimaginedeffectofourhypotheticalclocks.Realphysicalsystemscanactually experience time in differentways, depending on how they’removingrelativetooneanother.

BreakingTimeThe twinparadox is not really a logical paradoxbut rather an exampleofournormal languagebeingunprepared for anunusual situation.Our intuition failsus,buttherearenorealscientificambiguities.It’sjustaquestionofwhatpointof reference should be usedwhen defining aging.Nonetheless, it is a kind oftime travel, in that it enablesPietro to travelahead twentyyears inEarth time

whileonlyagingoneyearhimself.For “real” time travel, the sort that allows Kang to shunt around the

timestreambattling theAvengers inancientEgypt, thewildwest,andmodern-dayManhattan, the trip can’tbeone-way—hehas tobe able to travelback intimeaswellasahead.So,isthereanyscientificwaytotravelbackwardintime?Actually,thereareafew,intheory,atleast(orperhapsIshouldsay,atmost).Tounderstandthesetheories,it’simportanttorealizethatEinstein’stheoryof

general relativity describes a way to model how objects move within theuniverse once you’ve decidedwhat that universe is like, based on parameterssuch as overall energy and matter density. The problem of defining theparameters of the theory and determining what weights to give them is anexperimental challenge that physicists have been working on for nearly acentury. On the bright side, these puzzles resulted in all sorts of unexpectedfindingssuchasdarkmatteranddarkenergy—okay,maybenotsucha“bright”side—thataren’tdirectlyrelevanttoourdiscussionoftimetravel.Timetraveldiscoveriesareofanentirelydifferentsort,becausetheyare(so

far) mathematical discoveries only. Mathematicians and theoretical physiciststend to approach theories as if they’re a What If comic book, creatinghypothetical universes that fit certain criteria and then figuring out what thetheories tell them about such a universe. This approach can result in somesolutions that aremathematically feasible even thoughnoexperimenthaseverrevealedthem.(Thisprocess,inturn,givesexperimenterssomeideasofwhattobe lookingfor,so it’sausefulexercise.)Forexample, in1937,physicistW.J.van Stockum asked us to imagine that there was an infinitely long cylinderspinninginemptyspace.Whenheusedthemathematicsofgeneralrelativitytoanalyzethishypotheticalsituation,hediscoveredthatitwaspossibletohaveanobjectwhose path started in one location in space and time and ended at thesamelocation.(Suchapathiscalledaclosedtimelikecurve.)Butunlessyou’revisiting Galactus’s barber (with the awesome power of the Silver Scissors),whereareyougoingtofindaninfinitelylongspinningcylinder?In 1949, Einstein’s friend and colleague, the mathematician Kurt Gödel,

considered a more realistic scenario: what if the universe itself is spinning?Gödeldiscoveredthatsuchauniverse—ifitwerespinningfastenoughtoavoidacollapse—wouldalsoresult inclosedtimelikecurves.ThoughGödelhimselfwas concerned about the possible paradoxes resulting from such a universe,there were two approaches to take in addressing those concerns: deny thephysicalpossibilityoftheclosedtimelikecurves,ordenythepossibilityoftheparadoxes.

Einstein took the first. Since Gödel’s model required a spinning universe,Einsteinconcludedthatitprobablydidn’tspin.(Thistacticturnedouttobevalidbecause,todate,allevidenceindicatesthattheuniverseisnotspinning.Whew.)It’spossiblealso to take thesecondapproach,maintaining that time travelcanexist,butthatparadoxescannot.Onthisview,theclosedtimelikecurvescreatealoop, but the events on that loop are set in stone. If something happened inKang’spastandKanggoesback,thenhewasalreadythereandhecan’tchangewhathappened.The“future”Kangvisitinghisownpastisalsopartofthatpast,andtheeventsunfoldinoneandonlyoneway,nomatterwhatsortoftimetravelisinvolved.

BuildingaTimeMachineSowe’releftwithourinitialquestion:couldKangkillhimself?Beforewecanexplore thatquestion indepth,weneed togoone step further in the scientificrealm:wehavetobuildatimemachine.In1983,astronomer(andTVstar)CarlSagan sought help for his novel Contact, and in so doing contributed to a“realistic”notionforatimemachine.Tohelp,thephysicistKipThornecameupwith new solutions to general relativity that avoided a lot of problems butcreatedentirelynewones.The ideawas built around awormhole,which is a portal that opens in two

locationsandallowssomethinggoinginonesidetocomeout theother(likeatunnel). Such things are possible in physics (they’re called Einstein-Rosenbridges),butthey’rebelievedtobehighlyunstable,one-wayticketsandburiedin the center of black holes (if they exist at all). To get around this, Thornehypothesizedhavingenough“negativeenergy”and“negativematter”tocreateastable two-waywormhole.Onpaper thisworks, but in realityphysicists don’thaveany reason to think that this stuffactuallyexists, andcertainlynot in thequantitiesneededtopulloffthissortofstunt.But let’s assume that Kang has negative energy and matter in sufficient

quantitiestocreateapairofmovableportalsthatareconnectedbyawormhole.KangleavesportalAonEarth,nexttoWanda’sclock,andheplacesportalBinQuicksilver’s spaceship as he sets off on his journey. Portal B goes withQuicksilver and experiences a year of time, endingup inMarch2034.On theotherhand,portalAexperiencesayearoftimeandisinMarch2015.Becausethe two portals are connected by a wormhole, this creates a portal betweenMarch2015andMarch2034.Thiscertainlyseemslikeafarclunkiermethodoftime travel than whatever Kang employs, but it allows him to implement a

nefariousplantodestroytheAvengersonceandforall.Inthenextissueofthisepicstoryarc,onceKanghashistwotimeportals,he

firesalaserintoportalB.ThebeamcomesoutatportalAandgetsdeflectedbymirrorsfornineteenyearsuntilMarch2034,whenitreflectsbackintoportalBalong with the original laser. (Or, for the impatient, just put portal B thirtysecondsintothefuturefromportalA,whichwouldgivetheAvengerslesstimetothwarttheplan.)ThebeamenteringportalBisnowtwiceaspowerfulasthelaserKang initiallyused.Butwait:becausehe’salreadygothismirrorsall setup, the beam continues to bounce around and go into portal B yet again,resulting in a beam that is three times as powerful as the laserKang initiallyused. If he does this over andover, he can endupwith asmuchpower as heneedstodestroytheAvengers.Theproblem is thatKangused a single laser to generate significantlymore

energythanhestartedwith,whichisaclearviolationofthelawofconservationof energy, one of the most important fundamental physical principles in ouruniverse. It is this sort of problem that causedStephenHawking to propose a“ChronologyProtectionConjecture.”According toHawking, since time travelallowsfortheviolationoffundamentalphysicalprinciples,theremustbesomelawofnaturethatmakesitimpossibletoactuallybuildanysortoftimemachine:“Thelawsofphysicsconspiretopreventtimetravel,onamacroscopicscale.”5This is essentially the same approach taken half a century earlier by AlbertEinstein in response to Gödel’s earlier closed timelike curve result: deny anypotential physical reality to time travel. Not all physicists are convinced,however.Somecontinuetobelievethattimetravelisconsistentwiththeknownlawsofphysics.Mostof thesephysicists seem to think that theparadoxes areavoidedbecausetheclosedtimelikecurvesdon’tallowyoutochangethepast,which is another way of making history safe for historians . . . or would-beconquerors.

ClosedTimelikeKangAn entire volume could be written about Kang and time paradoxes—literaryagents,youknowwhere tofindme—butI’ll limitmyself to threeeventsfromhis checkered history that best show the immutable nature of closed timelikecurves.Bythe1980s,allofKang’stimetravelandmanipulationshadresultedinalot

of divergent timelines where Kang existed in various forms. One version ofKang (who is often called “PrimeKang”) endsup inLimbo, fromwhichhe’s

able to see the various timelines and realizes that in many of them he isabsolutely inept. So he sets a plan inmotion to eliminate all of the “flawed”versions of himself “before the name of Kang becomes synonymous with‘fool’!”6 The plan is mostly successful, but just as Prime Kang declares hisvictory,hediscoversthathewasmanipulatedbyImmortus,theMasterofTime,intoeliminatingalltheextraneousKangs.DriveninsanebythememoriesoftheKangshekilled,PrimeKangvanishesintothehallsofLimbo.Inthisscenario,thereisnotjustonepathforKangbutmanydivergentpaths,

whichseemstoflyinthefaceoftheideaofaclosedtimelikecurve.TheMarvelUniverseisknowntohavemanyparallelworldsoruniverses,however.SothefactthatvariantsofKangexistisn’tparticularlytroubling.PrimeKanghimselfexplains this to the Avengers during the DestinyWar: “Time-travel does notchange the past—as I trust you’ve learned. If one alters the flowof events, itmerely creates a new, divergent branch of the timestream, while the old oneflowson.”7 Ineliminatingthe“flawed”Kangs,PrimeKanghasnotalteredthepast (or even the future). Their actions already happened (or will alreadyhappen) in this timestream, but by killing them it just cuts down the overallnumberofKangsrunningaround.FromKang’s perspective, the problem is that he is destined to become the

scholarlyImmortus,whichheviewsasafateworsethandeath.HeisKangtheConqueror,afterall,andtheideaofgivinguptheconqueringdoesnotsitwellwith him. The effort to thwart this fate becomes Kang’s motivation in theDestinyWar.Inthisbattle,Immortusseekstonotonlyprunethetimeline,buttomake changes that sweep through all timelines.He is successful in convertingChronopolis(Kang’scross-timelinebaseofoperations)intotheForeverCrystalto help him “change history—and reflect those changes throughout all of thetimestream.”8In the final confrontation of theDestinyWar, it is revealed that Immortus’s

variousmanipulationsseemtohavethegoalofsavinghumanityfromthewrathof his masters, the Time Keepers. In the end, Immortus is destroyed, whichseemsforamomenttoshakeevenKang’sresolve.“They—killedhim?Wasthat—mydeath,then?”9Instead,thebattleendswhenCaptainAmericadestroystheForeverCrystal, the effect ofwhich splitsKang in two—Kang theConquerorandImmortus—revealingthatImmortusisnotareplacementofKangbutratheracompletevariantofhim,anewworldlinethatbranchesoff.Heisable,throughsheerchutzpah,tosurvivethecreationofImmortuswithhisKangidentitystillintact. The important thing to note is that Kang’s attempt to change time topreventthecreationofImmortusisdoomedtofailure.Sincehehasencountered

Immortus, it is inevitable that Immortuswill eventually come intobeing; theirindividualclosedtimelikecurvesaresetinmotionandcannotbechanged.Finally,weseethesamepatternatworkwithIronLad,ateenageversionof

NathanielRichards(Kang’strueidentity),whowhenconfrontedwiththerealityof the warmonger he will become flees to the twentieth century with Kang’sarmor.10 Once there—or perhaps we should say “once then”—he gatherstogetheragroupofheroes,theYoungAvengers,inanefforttostoptheeventual,adultKang.They succeed, in fact, but indoing so radically alter the timeline:Kang never exists because IronLad never becomes him, theAvengers are alldead,and theotherYoungAvengersbegin tovanishfromthe timestream.Theonly way to mend the timeline is for Iron Lad to accept his fate, erase hismemories, and return to his own timeline so that he can ultimately becomeKang.Inthiscase,again,weseethatit’snotpossibletochangetheflowofeventson

thisscale.WhenIronLadkillsKang,hecreatesashort-livedalternatetimelinewhereKangneverexisted,butthistimelineisaclosedloopthatceasestoexistmomentsafteritwascreated.EvenifIronLadhadstoodfastinresolve,refusingtobecomeKang,there’snoguaranteethatyearsoflivingindesolationwouldn’teventually have led him to become Kang anyway. The timeline could haveexistedfortwentyyears,butthemomenthebecameKang,itwouldhaveceasedtoexistandtheoriginaltimelinewouldhavepoppedbackintoexistence.

TimetoEndPhysicists in our own reality may not be on par with Hank Pym or ReedRichards(yet),buttheyseemtohaveabettergraspthanKangdoesonhowhardit is to change time. Stephen Hawking has said, when speaking of hisChronology Protection Conjecture, that “it seems theremay be a ChronologyProtection Agency at work, making the world safe for historians.”11 In theMarvel Universe, there is such a group: the Time Keepers and their minionImmortus. But when these powerful beings, or even just a gun-toting Kang,showupwithplanstochangetime,it’stheAvengerswhostepintofilltherole,toprotectthetimelinefromharm.Eveninaworldwheretimetravelispossible,there are still rules—and fortunately there are also Avengers to help enforcethem.

NOTES

1.YoungAvengers#2(May2005),reprintedinYoungAvengers:Sidekicks(2006).2.Avengers,vol.1,#2(November1963).3.SaintAugustineofHippo,Confessions,trans.AlbertC.Outler,397,XIV17,availableathttp://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/confessions-bod.asp.4.Actually,thisneedsavacuum,soassumetheclockexistsinaboxthat’shadalltheairremoved.5.StephenHawking,“SpaceandTimeWarps,”http://www.hawking.org.uk/index.php/lectures/63.6.Avengers,vol.1,#269(July1986),reprintedinAvengers:Kang—TimeandTimeAgain(2005).7.AvengersForever#3(February1999),reprintedinAvengersLegendsVol.1:AvengersForever(2001).8.Ibid.9.AvengersForever#11(October1999),reprintedinAvengersLegendsVol.1:AvengersForever.10.YoungAvengers#2.11.Hawking,“SpaceandTimeWarps.”

Chapter14

“NOOTHERGODSBEFOREME”:GOD,ONTOLOGY,ANDETHICSIN

THEAVENGERS’UNIVERSE

AdamBarkmanWhen Asgard, the home of the Norse gods, fell from the sky and landed inOklahoma,oneChristianpastorbeganhisSundaysermonbyasking,“Small-ggods?Big-G?AretheAsgardians‘gods’?Andiftheyare,well,wheredoesthatleavemyGod?”1Though I feel for this pastor and his disrupted equilibrium, he actually has

nothing to worry about. It’s clear that in the Marvel Universe, God—capital“G”—exists. Doctor Strange learns about Him from the massive but not all-powerfulcosmicbeingEternity,whosays,“Iandmybrother,Death,compriseallyourreality!NeitherhenorIamGod,forGodrulesallrealities!”2Thanos,evenwhenheacquiredtheHeartoftheUniverseandbestedtheLivingTribunal(God’sright-handman),wasnagginglyawareoftheSupremeDeityweavingtheTitan’smischiefforsomehigherpurpose.“Wasthismymomentoftriumph,”heasked himself, “or but a facet of another’s grand plan?”3 As if that weren’tenoughproof,theFantasticFourandSpider-ManhavepersonallymetHim:theFantasticFourbyenteringHeavenitselfandSpider-ManwhenGodappearedasahomelessstrangertocomfortthewearyweb-slinger.4SoGodexists...buthowdowereconcilethiswiththewidevarietyofbeings

in theMarvelUniverse, includinggodsanddemigods likeThor,Hercules,andAres? Moreover, how should we understand the Marvel Universe in light ofExodus20:3,whichcommands,“Youshallhavenoothergodsbeforeme”?

God,theOne-Who-Is-Above-All—or“Stan,”ForShort

In theMarvelgreat chainofgodhood,God is the first-tierbeinganddifferentfromallotherbeings.HeistheCreator,whereaseverythingelseiscreation.Inthree significant instances—in Doctor Strange, Fantastic Four, and, as theFulcrum,intheEternals—GodisdepictedaseitherStanLeeorJackKirby,theliteralcreatorsoftheMarvelUniverse.5InadditiontobeingtheCreator,God“isall-powerfulandallknowing.Itisthe

veryessenceofwhatholdsrealityinitsplace.”6Assuch,God“sets thestage”for thedramaof creation toplayout.7AlthoughGod is transcendent andof adifferentcategorythanallotherMarvelbeings,Heisalsoimmanent,interestedandinvestedinwhatgoesonintherealitiesHecreates.“Theplayisyourlives,”HetellstheFantasticFour.“Youradventuresbecomeourexploration.”8Justasanauthorhasintentionsashewrites,Godhasintentions—perfectintentions—inHiscreation.AsHetellsSpider-Man,“Weallhaveapurpose,Peter.Weallhavearoletoplay.”9ThatHeismeanttobetheChristianGodisclearintheallusionto JesuswhenHe says to Peter, “And, you know, if it’s any consolation, I’veasked a lot more from people much closer to me than you.”10 Indeed, theWatchertellstheInvisibleWoman,“Hisonlyweaponislove!”11Below God in the Marvel great chain of being is the Living Tribunal, a

mysteriousfigure.Likethe“LivingCreatures”ofEzekiel1:6,eachofwhomhasfourfaces,theLivingTribunalhasfourfaces(threeanda“void”),12andliketheLivingCreatures,whoadoreGodinHisthroneroom,theLivingTribunalis“therepresentativeofThe-One-Who-Is-Above-All.”13TheLivingTribunal’s“taskistositinjudgmentofeventsonthefarendofthecosmicscale,”witheachofhisthree visible faces representing a mode of his righteous judgment: necessity,equity,andvengeance.14EachfacecanbelikenedtoanangelintheBiblewhopours out judgment in the name of the Most High.15 Indeed, the LivingTribunal’s face of necessity paraphrases Jesus when he tells She-Hulk,“NecessityistheCosmicmirrorwhichremindsustoalwaysjudgeothersaswewouldhaveourselvesjudged.”16BelowGodandtheLivingTribunalarethecosmicbeingsorastraldeitiesof

the universe. These include the Celestials, Lord Chaos andMaster Order, theWatcher,Galactus,LoveandHate,Kronos,Eternity,andtheChaosKing.17Mostofthesecosmicbeingsareinvolvedinthebirthordeathofuniverses,yetnoneof themareabsolutely indestructibleoreternal;allsufferdefeatatone timeoranother. Below the cosmic beings are the fourth-tier beings, the elders of theuniverse, who include the Collector, the Grandmaster, Chthon, Gaea (MotherEarth),andpossiblyDeath.18

Of course, all this talk about tiers of beings only explains things such aslongevity and parenthood. Those influenced by Greek philosophy and Judeo-Christian theology might maintain that that which is oldest is that which isstrongest,wisest, andmost indestructible. Plato believes this to be true of theForms,andtheJudeo-ChristianbelievesthistobetrueofGod.Wecan’textendthis to Greek and Norse polytheism, however. In both of these cases (not tomention in the caseof oneof their root sources,Mesopotamianmythology),19thelate-comingskyfathers,ZeusandOdin,wereabletodefeattheirrespectivefathers and claim supremacy even while the primordials lingered in thebackground.Likewise,intheMarvelUniverselesserbeingssuchasThanos(anOlympiangodmodifiedbytheCelestials)canwieldtheInfinityGauntlet,whichinturncandefeatEternity,andHerculestheskyfatherisabletobesttheChaosKing. Thus, in respect to created things in the Marvel Universe, order ofexistence isone thing that separates thecosmicbeings, elders, and sky fathersevenifnotmuchelse,absolutelyspeaking,does.

“GodsAreaBitDifferent”We should expect, then, thatwhenwe turn to look at the differences between“gods”and“nongods”amongtheAvengers,wewon’tfindabsolutedifferences.TakeThor,forinstance.GaeagavebirthtotheskyfatherOdin,thesupremegodoftheAsgardians,andtogetherOdinandGaea(intheguiseofJord)gavebirthtoThor.20Odinapparentlyclaimsthetitleofskyfatherbecausehewasdirectly(withouttheaidofalowerbeing)birthedbyGaea,anelder,whereasThorisalowergodbecausehisbloodwasdilutedbyhavingaskyfatherforaparent.Most of the gods in theMarvelUniverse, including theAsgardians, live in

dimensionsdifferentfromthatoftheAvengers,andtheyareabletointerveneinthehumandimensionmoreeasilythanhumanscaninthatofthegods.Thegods’greater magical ability also seems to give them greater resistance to magicalattacks.Forexample,althoughLordNightmare,whoisabeingroughlyonparwith the gods,was able to take control of “thosewithmortalminds,”Thor, agod, remained unaffected.21 The gods’ strength also generally exceeds that ofmortals,evensuperhumanones.WhenSkaar,sonoftheHulk,asks,“Gods?Sowhat?We’vefoughteverymonsteranddemon,”She-Hulkquicklyreplies,“Youdon’t understand. Gods are a bit different.”22 And indeed, they are: “Amongmortals,”HeratellstheHulk,“youmaybethestrongestonethereisbutFatherZeuscouldvaporizeyouwithathought.”AlthoughZeusdoesn’tdothat,hedoessoundlydefeattheHulk,chaininghimuplikePrometheusforvulturestopickat.

In fact, even though Loki magically possesses the Hulk in order to turn himagainst Thor, saying, “Only you have ever brought near defeat to themightyThor,”23Thor,nottheHulk,canliftthemagicalhammerMjolnir,andThor,notthe Hulk, emerges victorious. As the Wasp says on behalf of her fellowAvengers,“Thor,wealreadyknowyouarethestrongest.”24Of course, as with most everything in this graded but not rigidly fixed

universe, these kinds of statements are general, not unqualified. For example,strengthisanunclearterm.Doesitmeanmerephysicalmightordoesitinclude,even leaving magic aside, other nonphysical abilities? Graviton’s power overgravity,forinstance,issufficienttodefeatThor,andsoherightlyasks,“DoyouthinkIwouldsurrenderbecauseofyoursupposedgodhood?PerhapsItooamagod.”25 And even if for the most part gods are physically stronger thansuperhumans, a single god such as Hercules can be physically defeated by agroupoflesserbeings,whichisexactlywhathappenswhenMr.Hyde,Goliath,andtheWreckingCrewbeathimtowithinaninchofhislife.26

OntologyComics#1Sowhatdoesitmeantobeanimmortal?Inontology,theareaofphilosophythatstudiesthenatureofbeingorexistence,wesayaneternalbeingis“outside”oftime, having no beginning and no end; an immortal being has a beginning intime but no end; and amortal being has a beginning and end in time. In theMarvel Universe, only God is eternal. Because all other beings are creatures(that is, created by God), all other beings are either mortal or immortal. Butbecauseallcreatures,exceptforThanosandAdamWarlock,willhavedied(asshowninMarvelUniverse:TheEnd#6), itseemsvery likely thatallcreaturescan die. Thus, strictly speaking, everything in theMarvel Universe is mortalexceptGod.Nevertheless, there is another sense in which not just the cosmic beings,

elders, sky fathers,andgodsbutalsosuperhumans,aliens,andhumanscanbethought of as immortal, or, in the words of Thor, “ever defying the eternalsleep.”27TheskyfathersOdinandZeus,forexample,havediedmultipletimes,but they continue to endure, albeit in different forms, in their respectiveunderworlds alongside,more important, the naked souls ofmere superhumansandhumanswhohaveperished.Allcreaturesareabletodie,yetall(byGod’sdecree, to be sure) are able to endure as well. Indeed, it’s not unusual in theMarvel Universe for cosmic beings, elders, gods, and humans alike to be

resurrected or reincarnated.28 Thus when the gods are called “immortal” weshouldjusttakeittomeantheycan’tdiefromoldageordisease,notthattheir“physical”bodiescan’tperish.TheHulk,theWasp,andBlackWidowareallonlower“levels”ontologically

thanthegodThor,althoughthisismostlyinrespecttolineageandageandonlyto a lesser extent in respect to natural immunities and abilities. All four, ofcourse,weremadebyGodviahisservantsEternityandGaeaandinthisrespectareequals.Buthumanbeings,wearetold,weregiventhefinishingtouchesbythesub-sub-sub-subcreatorOdin(“Somewhisperthathemadethefirstman”).29Iftrue,thiswouldmeanthatwhereasThor,asthesonofOdin,wasbegottenbyOdin, theHulk, theWasp, andBlackWidowwerecreated (or touchedup) byOdin.So,giventheexistenceof“onesupreme”God(whosays,“Youshallhaveno

othergodsbeforeme”),howcanwemakesenseofall theseothergods in theMarvelUniverse?The term“god” (lowercase) isused in theBible todescribenonexistent deities represented in statues (such as Dagon in 1 Samuel 5:4),rebellious angels (suchasSatan), and even, importantly, humanbeings.Psalm82:6 reads, “I said, ‘you are gods’; you are all sons of the Most High”—apassagequotedandelaboratedoninJohn10:34,inwhichJesussays:

Has it not been written in your law, “I said, you are gods”? If hecalled them“gods,” towhom theword ofGod came (and Scripturecannotbebroken),doyousayofHim,whomtheFathersanctifiedandsentintotheworld,“Youareblaspheming,”becauseIsaid,“IamtheSonofGod”?

Therefore,other“gods”cancoexistwiththeGodoftheJudeo-ChristiantraditionaswellaswiththeGodoftheMarvelUniverse.

DoesGodlinessImplyGoodness?IntheMarvelUniverse,asinourown,ontologicalstatus—whichgenerallygoeshand in handwith order of creation, longevity, power, and knowledge—is nomeasureofmoralgoodness.WehaveSatanandMarvelhasMephisto:bothareextremelyoldandpowerfulbeingswhohappentobeevil.Thisisn’tjusttrueofthe devils, however. When wearing the Infinity Gauntlet, Adam Warlockfoolishlyimaginesthatapropersupremebeingmustnotpermit“goodandeviltocloudhisjudgment,”andevenhis“good”aspect,theGoddess,isnothingofthe sort, imagining that goodness is something that can be forced, rather than

wooed.30 Indeed, Galactus and the Celestials massacre millions when theydestroyworlds;thegoddessHerashowsherimmoralitywhenshetellstheHulk,“Anoathtoamonstermeansnothing”;andEternityhimselfisatoddswithGodwhen he tells Dr. Strange, “I am above such petty emotions as gratitude!”31Powerandprivilegerarely,itseems,translateintorightactions.Sohowdidevilcometobe?HintsconsistentwiththebasicJudeo-Christian

storyarefoundthroughouttheMarvelUniverse.InFantasticFour,vol.3,#511,God tells the Four that they areHis “collaborators,” saying, “You’re no one’spuppets...Nobodycandoyourlivingforyou,”andinSensationalSpider-Man#40,whenPeter asksGodwhyhehas beengivenhis powers,God replies byshowinghimthescoresofpeoplehehassavedalongtheway,saying,“Theyaresomeofthepoint,Peter.”GodcreatesbecauseHelovestocreate,tobesure,butHecreatesrationalbeings(“gods”ofallsorts)forcommunionwithHim(orforthem to communewith theGood) and to spreadGoodness to others.Becausegoodandevilonlyhavemeaninginsofarasapersonisfree,GodhasgivenallHis“gods”freewilltochoosebetweengood(God)orevil.Thetruemeaningof“youshallhavenoothergodsbeforeme,”then,isnottodenytheexistenceofothergods,butrathertoloveeverythingproperly:Godandgoodnessaboveallelse.Evil creaturesare simply thosewhovalueorelevateanythingelseaboveGod thegoodandHismoral laws.Thewiseunderstand this; thus theWatchersaystotheDreamingCelestial:

The pulse that seemed to be completely random at first, but nowregisterswitheverycycle?Thatiswhathumanscallaconscience.It’swhat recognizes and differentiates good from evil. It took me evenlongertorealizethatthebestthingtodowassimplyheedit.32

Althoughdiverseandnotparticularlypowerfulinthegrandschemeofthings,

the Avengers also understand this. For instance, Thor understands that thedifferencebetweenrightandwrong is important,andsohe tells“theslayerofthe gods,” Devak, “I have long agreed that some gods are malevolent anddangerous. But your inability to discern between good and evil makes youequallyasdangerous.”33Andalthoughheis“notexactlyhumble”andattimesratherbrash, theGodofThunder loves thegoodasallheroesdo.34More thanthis, however, he understands that justice is perfected or completed by love—indeed, byagape or sacrificial love, the supreme love, the love that theBibleclaims is one of God’s names.35 Thor, as a lover of the good, loves justice(treatingeachasitoughttobetreated)andmercy(goingbeyond,inapositiveway,thecommandsofjustice),saying,“Ishallnotfalterinmyresolvetoprotect

thisplanetandsaveitspeople!”36Andsohegivesprotection,evenwhenfacedwiththeterribleethicaldilemmaofhavingtokillaninnocent(thehumantimebomb that theWasp became by the end of the Skrull invasion) to show thislove.37Allof theAvengers love theGood,andsince theGood isanaspectofGod,theycanbesaidtoloveGodeitherclearlyorthroughaglassdarkly.

EqualOpportunity—forDeities?DuaneFreeman,therepresentativeoftheAmericangovernmenttotheAvengers,oncetriedtopressuretheteamintoacceptingmoreminoritiesintotheteam,towhichIronManreplied:

We don’t recruit for skin color. The Avengers aren’t about equalrepresentation—thesquadsaretoosmallforthat.We’reaboutgettingthe jobdone—and that’s it.We’vehadminoritymembers foryears—from black and Hispanic heroes to gypsies and mythological gods.We’dneverexcludeanyone—anyone—becauseoftheirrace.38

SomethingsimilaristrueofGod,bothintheMarvelUniverseandourown.TheCreator is pleased to accept notonlyhumanbeings, but also any and all free-willed creatures (“gods”) that He has made. He accepts them under onecondition,however:theymustloveHim,andbythatHemeanstheymustlovetheGood.Inthisway,theAvengersareamodelforusall,forthoughtheyarediverse,theyareunifiedintheirloveofGoodnessitself—orHimself.

NOTES

1.TheMightyThor#1(June2011),reprintedinTheMightyThorVol.1:GalactusSeed(2011).2.DoctorStrange,vol.2,#13(April1976),reprintedinEssentialDoctorStrangeVol.3(2007).3.MarvelUniverse:TheEnd#6(August2003),reprintedinMarvelUniverse:TheEnd(2011).4.FantasticFour,vol.3,#511(May2004),reprintedinFantasticFourVol.4:Hereafter(2004);SensationalSpider-Man,vol.2,#40(September2007),reprintedinSpider-Man,PeterParker:BackinBlack(2008).

5.SeeStrangeTales,vol.1,#157–163(June–December1967),reprintedinEssentialDoctorStrangeVol.1(2006);FantasticFour,vol.3,#511;andEternals,vol.4,#9(May2009),reprintedinEternals:ManifestDestiny(2009).6.Eternals,vol.4,#9.7.FantasticFour,vol.3,#511.8.Ibid.9.SensationalSpider-Man,vol.2,#40.10.Ibid.11.FantasticFour,vol.1,#72(March1968),reprintedinEssentialFantasticFourVol.4(2006).12.SilverSurfer,vol.3,#31(December1989).13.TheInfinityWar#2(July1992),reprintedinInfinityWar(2006).Notethatthis“title”shouldnotbeconfusedwiththePrimeCelestial,TheOneAboveAll,whoisamereCelestial,aservantoftheFulcrum(Thor,vol.1,#287,September1979,reprintedinThor:TheEternalsSagaVol.1,2006).14.TheInfinityWar#3(August1992),reprintedinInfinityWar.15.Exodus12,2Samuel24:16,1Corinthians10:10,Hebrews11:28,andRevelation9:11.16.She-Hulk,vol.2,#12(November2006),reprintedinShe-HulkVol.4:LawsofAttraction(2007).17.It’snotveryclearhowhediffersfromLordChaos.18.Intheoldliterature,DeathisoftendepictedasEternity’sopposite,whichwouldmakehimorheracosmicbeing.However,duringtheChaosWartheChaosKingisdepictedasEternity’strueoppositeandDeathisaclearsubordinate.Fortheoldversion,seeCaptainMarvel,vol.1,#27(July1973),reprintedinMarvelMasterworks:CaptainMarvel—Vol.3(2008);forthenewversion,seeChaosWar#2(January2011),reprintedinChaosWar(2011).19.InMesopotamianmythologythesecond-tiergodEakillshisfirst-tierfather—theprimordialApsu—andEa’sson,thethird-tiergodMarduk,slaysthefirst-tierprimordialgoddessTiamettobecomethekingofthegods.EnumaElish1.4,1.69,and4.104.20.Thor,vol.1,#300(October1980),reprintedinThor:TheEternalsSagaVol.2(2007).21.ChaosWar#2.22.IncredibleHulks#622(February2011),reprintedinIncredible

HulksVol.1:ChaosWar(2011).23.Hulkvs.Thor(MarvelAnimation,2009).24.Avengers,vol.1,#220(June1982).25.Avengers,vol.1,#159(May1977),reprintedinEssentialAvengersVol.7(2010).AlsoseeAvengers:Earth’sMightiestHeroes,season1,episode7(MarvelAnimation,2010).26.Avengersvol.1,#274(December1986),reprintedinAvengers:UnderSiege(2010).27.Avengersvol.1,#277(March1987),reprintedinAvengers:UnderSiege.28.Forexample,seetheAsgardiansrestoredinThorbyJ.MichaelStraczynskiVol.1(2008),aftertheeventsshowninAvengersDisassembled:Thor(2004).29.Thor,vol.2,#83(October2004),reprintedinAvengersDisassembled:Thor.30.TheInfinityWar#2;TheInfinityCrusade#3(August1993),reprintedinInfinityCrusadeVol.1(2008).31.IncredibleHulks#622;DoctorStrange,vol.2,#13.32.Eternals,vol.4,#9.33.Thor,vol.2,#78(July2004),reprintedinThor:Gods&Men(2011).34.Avengers,vol.1,#220.35.1John4:8.36.Thor,vol.1,#388(February1988),reprintedinThor:AloneAgainsttheCelestials(1992).Seealsothe2011filmThor,inwhichThortellsLoki,“Thesepeopleareinnocent.Takingtheirliveswillgainyounothing.Sotakemineandendthis.”Andthen,dying,wehearThorsaythewords,“Itisover,”echoingthewordsofthedyingsacrificialJesus,“Itisfinished”(John19:30).37.SecretInvasion#8(January2009),reprintedinSecretInvasion(2009).38.Avengers,vol.3,#27(April2000),reprintedinAvengersAssembleVol.3(2006).

Chapter15

LOVEAVENGERSSTYLE:CANANANDROIDLOVEAHUMAN?

CharlesKlayman

Once upon a time, two Avengers, the Vision and the Scarlet Witch, had aromanticrelationshipthatledtomarriage.SeveraloftheirfellowAvengerswereskepticalbecause,afterall,VisionisanandroidandtheScarletWitchisahuman(moreprecisely,amutant,butthatdistinctionisn’trelevanthere).Whethermadeof synthetic or organic components, androids are artificial and not what wewouldcall“alive.”Buttheycanlookamazinglysimilartous(withoutthelovehandles and blemishes) and can seem self-aware, as if they have consciousexistencesimilartoourown.So,giventheirdifferencesandsimilarities,cananandroidloveahuman(andviceversa)?

WhatIsLove,Anyway?InspiredbyPlato andAristotle,1 the philosopher andChristian apologistC.S.Lewis(1898–1963)categorizedfourgeneraltypesoflove,whichareaffection,friendship,Eros (or romantic love),andcharity.2ForLewis,each typeof lovecontains three qualities or elements, which are gift-love, need-love, andappreciative-love. Different types of love might contain unequal portions ofelements, and while these elements seem separate from each another, theyactually“mixandsucceedoneanother,momentbymoment.”3The most basic need-love often runs the risk of being interpreted as

selfishness.Wedon’tcalla toddlerselfishwhenhegraspsforhismotherwithoutstretchedhands.Thetoddlersimplydisplayslove,whichhappenstomanifestasaneedforhismother.Need-loveisseeninrelationtoourownneedsandwillnot last longer than the need; once themother has picked up the toddler, thetoddler’sneedhasbeenfulfilled.Yetnotallneedsaretransitory:“Theneeditselfmaybepermanentorrecurrent.”4On the other hand, gift-love implies giving—not necessarily out of the

goodness of one’s heart, but from the need to give. Themother doesn’t giveattention to her toddler because she’s a nice person, but because she needs togivetoherchild.Withgift-love,thepersonlongstogiveherbelovedhappiness,comfort,protection,andsoforth.5Finally,ratherthangivingorreceiving,appreciative-loveinvolves“judgment

thattheobjectisverygood,thisattention(almosthomage)offeredtoitasakindofdebt,thiswishthatitshouldbeandshouldcontinuebeingwhatitisevenifwewere never to enjoy it, can go out not only to things but to persons.”6SowhenIsay,“Ilovemyweeklypizzanight,”ImeanthatIjudgethatpizzaissuchagoodthingthatIreserveatimeonceaweeknotonlytosavoritbuttoadmireall its qualities and hope that aftermy demise the institution of pizza-makingwillcontinue.

Friends,Lovers,andSignificantOthersHowdotheseaspectscombinetoformthedifferenttypesoflove,andwhichonebestapplies to theVisionand theScarletWitch?First, let’sconsideraffection,which is based on familiarity. Clearly, eating pizza once a week becomes afamiliarroutine,andoftenthingsthatwegrowaccustomedtoarethingsthatwegrow to love. It is also from this type of love that jealousy comes into play:“ChangeisathreattoAffection.”7ChangemyFridaynightpepperonipizzatoasushi platter andwitnesshow I’ll fight to reclaimmypizzanight.Change thetoddler into a rebellious adolescent and listen how the mother asks what hasbecomeofherbaby.Itseemsthatahumancouldgrowaccustomedtoanandroidoveraperiodoftime,yetaffectiondoesnotseemtobethetypeoflovethattheScarlet Witch had for the Vision. Obviously, as an Avenger, she grewaffectionate toward him, especially since they knew each other for thirty-twoissues before they became involved romantically.8 While a human can haveaffectionate love toward an android, affection alone is not enough to pursue aromanticrelationshipormarriage.Might friendship be enough to generate the Vision and the ScarletWitch’s

love?While the Avengers are a team, it seems as teammates they would becompanions but not necessarily friends. For example, after a hard day ofcombatingevil,wemightimagineWonderManandtheBeastpartyingawaythenight together, yet I doubt theywould inviteCaptainAmerica orHawkeye tojoin their festivities. Theymight think these two are excellent teammates andAvengers,buttheyprobablywouldn’twanttospendtheirleisuretimewiththem.

Afterall,CaptainAmericaistoogoody-goodyandHawkeyeisajerk.NotwantingtospendleisuretimewithafellowAvengermightnotseemright,

butLewisuses the terms friendshipandcompanionship in very specificways.Friendshipisanothertypeoflove,whilecompanionshipisnot.Whereasfriendsarenecessarilycompanions,companionsdonotnecessarily rise to the leveloffriends. Companionship arises out of the instinct to cooperate, but friendshiparises “out of mere Companionship when two or more of the companionsdiscoverthattheyhaveincommonsomeinsightorinterestoreventastewhichtheothersdonotshareandwhich,tillthatmoment,eachbelievedtobehisownunique treasure (or burden).”9 The commonality that inspires friendship oftenmanifests as a commonvisionor a sharedwayof seeingandcaringabout thesame truth.10 The Avengers, for example, might be friends with one anotherinsofar they share the same interest of defeating villains and have the samevisionofgoodtriumphingoverevil.Given Lewis’s handling of friendship, it seems that a human can love an

android as a friend. The ScarletWitch and the Vision are more than friends,however, especiallyonce theydeclare their love foreachother.11Tobe“morethanjustfriends”oftenimpliesatypeoflovethatisromantic,whichLewiscallsEros, the state of being in love.12This type of love is often associatedwith atypeofsexualdesire,whichLewisnamesVenustocontrastitfrom,forexample,the type of sexual desire that animals experience. From an evolutionaryviewpoint,ErosdevelopsoutofVenus,butLewisarguesthatErosdoesn’tbeginfromaphysicalstate.Rather,itbeginsfromamentalstate—preoccupation.“Amaninthisstatereallyhasn’tleisuretothinkofsex.Heistoobusythinkingofaperson.Thefactthatsheisawomanisfarlessimportantthanthefactthatsheisherself.”13Lewis is saying two things here. First, romantic love does not develop

primarilyfromsexualdesire,butratherfromfascination.Second,thebelovedisaself,whichisadmirableandunique.Thisselflurksbehindone’sphysicality;itistheinnerperson,soul,orthe“realyou.”AsLewissays,“NowErosmakesaman reallywant, not awoman,butoneparticularwoman.”14 So the romanticloverisinlovewithaspecific,uniqueindividualwhocannotbereplaced.The lover sees his beloved as something that is good, independently of any

pleasureorhappinessthatthebelovedgivestothelover.ThepointofErosistobecome one with the beloved. Romantic couples are, as we say, “an item”;whereas friends standsidebyside, lovers stand face to face.15AsLewissays,“OneofthefirstthingsErosdoesistoobliteratethedistinctionbetweengivingandreceiving.”16 In cases of true Eros, the line between giving and receiving

vanishes.

UnreciprocatedLoveIsitstillEros,though,ifthebelovedisunwillingorincapableofstanding,asitwere,“facetoface”withtheotherperson?Perhaps,butitwouldbeanunhealthyEros. Suppose that She-Hulk has a crush on Jarvis, theAvengers’ butler,whoignoresher,unwillingtoreciprocateherlove.CaptainAmericamightadviseher,“Keepatit!Jarvisisboundtocomearound,”yetWonderManmightsay,“Giveitup!He’llnevergoforsomeonelikeyou.”That’softenthekindofadviceweget when we find ourselves in a similar situation: either keep at it until thebelovednoticestherealusandreturnsourloveorelsegiveupourfascinationandpreoccupationwiththebeloved.Consider the Greek myth of Narcissus, who fell in love with his own

reflection. Obviously his reflection was unable to return his love, and poorNarcissusdied,unable to leavehisownreflection.As in thecaseofShe-HulkandJarvis,ifloveisnotreciprocateditcanbecomeanobsessionorcraze.Soitseems that a human can romantically love an android, but if the love is notreciprocateditisunhealthy.WhileErosmight be unhealthy if it is unreciprocated, forLewis, there is a

type of love that involves loving the unlovable. As paradoxical as it sounds,Lewis relies upon the ideaof theChristianGod in order to explain the fourthtypeoflove,charity,whichisessentiallyanexpansionofgift-love.Lewismakesadistinctionbetweennaturalgift-loveandashareofGod’sowngift-love,whichheclassifiesasdivinegift-loveandLove-Himself.

NaturalGift-love is always directed towards objectswhich the loverfindsinsomewayintrinsicallylovable—objectstowhichAffectionorErosor[Friendship]attractshim....ButDivineGift-loveinthemanenables him to lovewhat is not naturally lovable; lepers, criminals,enemies,morons,thesulky,thesuperiorandthesneering.Finallybyahighparadox,GodenablesmentohaveaGift-lovetowardsHimself.17

ThereseemstobeaproblemwithgivingtoGodsinceeverythingisalreadyHis,butforLewis,wecangivetoGodbybeingkindandcharitable:“Everystrangerwhom we feed or clothe is Christ. And this apparently is Gift-love to Godwhetherweknowitornot.LoveHimselfcanworkinthosewhoknownothingofHim.”18Charityisalovewherethebelovedisnotoneparticularpersonbutratherpeople ingeneral.Soahumancould loveanandroidoutofcharity,but

suchalovewouldnotbelimitedtothatoneparticularandroid.

“NoSisterofMineMayBecomeInvolvedwitha—a—aRobot!”19

It seems that a human can love an android whether that love is affection,friendship, Eros, or charity. Yet Eros seems to be what best describes therelationship between the Scarlet Witch and the Vision. So now we need todetermineifanandroidcanloveahumaninasimilarfashion.Wemightthinkthatandroidsareincapableoflovebecausetheyaremachines,

likecircularsawsandblenders.Thisargumenthasasubtleproblem,though.Itassumes that only humans can love.Obviously this is false, since nonhumanssuchasThororMar-Vellcanlove.Still,they’realive,whereasmachinesarenot.Clearlysomemachines, suchas themutant-huntingSentinels,are incapableoflove. In a way, though, humans are “flesh machines,” composed of organiccomponents and programmed by a genetic code, operating in response toenvironmentalstimuli.Sonotallmachinesareincapableoflove.Perhaps humans and nonhumans, like Thor and Mar-Vell, are persons,

whereas androids are not.And perhaps only persons are capable of love. Theproblemwith this line of argument is that personhood is a vague concept. A“person”doesnothavetobeahuman;apersonissimplyabeingwhohas,orisworthy of, rights, such as the right to life or respect. Sowhy should humans,Asgardiangods,andtheKreebeconsideredpersons,whereasandroids,zombies,andanimalsarenot?Perhaps theformerhavesoulsand the latterdonot.Thatanswer, however, begs the question of the nature of souls. How dowe reallyknowwhatasoulisandwhohasone?Itappearsillegitimatetodenyandroidstheabilitytolovebasedsimplyonthe

fact that they are inorganic and artificially developed. In arguing for animalrights, contemporary philosopher Peter Singer argues that different forms ofprejudice,suchassexismandracism,involvemembersvaluingtheirowngroupbasedonanarbitrarycharacteristicthatothergroupslack.Speciesism,accordingtoSinger,isaprejudiceorattitudeofbiasagainstmembersofotherspecies.20Arelatedprejudicemaybeatworkinconcludingthatandroidscannotlovesimplybecausetheyareartificial.Singermightpointout that, likeanimals,androids sufferandhave interests.

Beyond that, theycanevenacknowledge that theyaremarginalized insociety.Obviously the Vision is interested in fighting evil; otherwise he would not

engage in superhero activities. He also regularly displays both emotional andphysical suffering.21 Lastly, he acknowledges how, as an android, he ismarginalized by others, remarking that “even among mutants, monsters, andman-gods, we artificial life-forms are still the least accepted.”22 FollowingSinger,then,weshouldrefrainfromorganicism,theprejudiceagainstsyntheticcreatures. Indeed, we should recognize that they have the same rights andprivilegesthatwehave,includingtherighttoloveandgetmarried.

Love:AmericanStyleWhilepersonhoodmaymakeandroidsmorally“eligible”forloveandloving,westillhaven’tansweredthequestionofwhethertheycanlove.Todothat,wehaveto askwhat love really is. For our purposes, it is enough to say that love is aconcept.The American philosopher Charles S. Peirce (1839–1914) gave us the

pragmatic maxim, which articulates a way to think of concepts and theirmeanings.Peirceinstructsusasfollows:

Consider what effects, which might conceivably have practicalbearings,weconceivetheobjectofourconceptiontohave.Then,ourconception of these effects is the whole of our conception of theobject.23

Sowhenweconsideraconceptsuchaslove,itsmeaningisthepossibleeffectsithasintheworldwelivein.IfanandroidsuchastheVisionlovedahumansuchastheScarletWitch,thenhowwouldhisconceptionoflovehaveanymeaningorsignificance?Thepossiblepracticaleffectswouldincludehiscaringforher,treatingherwithkindness,beingreceptivetoherwords,attendingtoherneedsand feelings, and having a degree of physical intimacy with her. Clearly theVisiondoesallthesethings.Thepragmaticmaximisn’tjustawayofthinkingaboutconcepts;italsoaids

inclarifyingourconcepts.Forexample,BaronZemomightsayheloveshispetdog Fritz. But if instead of providing and caring for him, Zemo neglects andabusesFritz,thenaccordingtothepragmaticmaxim,Zemo’sloveforhisdogismeaningless,regardlessofZemo’svehementprotests.Whatifanandroidisprogrammedtogivetheillusionorappearanceoflove?

Is“faking it”goodenough?Ahumancanalsogive the illusionof love.Whenthe script calls for it, actors are trained to “program” themselves to act and

respondas if theyare in love.Obviously this looks like love,but it isnot realsincetheactordoesnotinternallyfeelthelove.Similarly,anandroidorahumanmightstate that theyfeel that theyare in love,which is itselfanotherpracticaleffect of love, but the only way to tell whether they are in love is by theiractions, how they conduct themselves, and their own testimony about theirfeelings,whichisobservableandtestable.Inaway,therealtestiswhetherloveisfeltbyeachparty.So,despitetheskepticismofsomeoftheAvengers,anandroidandahuman

canloveeachotherinameaningfulsense.Theproofisnotidentifyingwhattypeofbeingstheyare—whetheranandroidisaperson,forinstance—butobservingwhattheiractions,feelings,conduct,andthoughtsare.

NOTES

1.SeePlato,Symposium,199c–212b(inanyreputabletranslationwiththestandardpagination),andAristotle,NicomacheanEthics,bookVIII,chapters1–8.2.C.S.Lewis,TheFourLoves(NewYork:Harcourt,Brace,1960).3.Ibid.,33.4.Ibid.,30.5.Ibid.,33.6.Ibid.7.Ibid.,70.8.TheyfirstmetinAvengers,vol.1,#76(May1970),andreconciledtheirfeelingsforeachotherin#108(February1973),reprintedinEssentialAvengersVol.4(2005)andVol.5(2006),respectively.9.Lewis,FourLoves,96.10.Ibid.,99.11.Avengers,vol.1,#109(March,1973),reprintedinEssentialAvengersVol.5.12.Lewis,FourLoves,p.131.13.Ibid.,133.14.Ibid.,135(emphasismine).15.Ibid.,91.16.Ibid.,137.17.Ibid.,177.

18.Ibid.,178.19.QuicksilverinAvengers,vol.1,#110(April1973),reprintedinEssentialAvengersVol.5.20.SeePeterSinger,“AllAnimalsAreEqual,”inAppliedEthics,ed.PeterSinger(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1986),215–228.21.TheVisionexperiencedoverwhelmingemotionsandcriedwhenhewaswelcomedintotheAvengersinAvengers,vol.1,#58(November1968),reprintedinEssentialAvengersVol.3(2001).HealsoexperiencedpainfulincapacitatingseizuresinMarvelTeam-Up,vol.1,#5(November1972),reprintedinEssentialMarvelTeam-UpVol.1(2002).22.HestatedthistoMachineMan,anotherartificiallifeform,inMarvelSuperHeroContestofChampions#1(June1982),reprintedinAvengers:TheContest(2010).23.CharlesS.Peirce,“HowtoMakeOurIdeasClear,”inTheEssentialPeirce:SelectedPhilosophicalWritings,vol.1,1867–1892,ed.NathanHouserandChristianKloesel(Bloomington:IndianaUniversityPress,1992),124–141,at132.

Chapter16

THEWAYOFTHEARROW:HAWKEYEMEETSTHETAOISTMASTERS

MarkD.White

Though he has gone by several other names throughout his superhero career,suchasGoliathandRonin,ClintBartonwillalwaysbebestknownasHawkeye,theAvengingArcher.Orphanedatayoungage,Clintjoinedatravelingcarnivalwith his older brother Barney and was trained in archery by Trick Shot, amemberofthetroupeandapart-timecriminaltoboot.AfterbeingshownupbyIronMan, Clint sought glory as the masked adventurer Hawkeye, only to beconfused fora criminalhimself.SoonhemetNatashaRomanova, theRussianspyknownastheBlackWidowwhowasbentondestroyingTonyStark(beforebecomingaheroherself).Clintfellforherandembracedherlifeofcrime.Afterthe Russian government retaliated against the Widow for trying to defect,however,Clint vowed tomake amends for his past, startingwith applying formembership in the Avengers.1 Along with the ScarletWitch and Quicksilver,who had also found themselves on the wrong side of the law early in theircareers,ClintcompletedthesecondlineupoftheAvengersthatwouldforeverbeknownas“Cap’sKookyQuartet.”2Therestiscomicshistory,albeitafairlyconvolutedhistoryinvolvingseveral

deaths and resurrections, as well as joining the Avengers, the Defenders, theWestCoastAvengers, theGreatLakesAvengers(!), theThunderbolts, theNewAvengers,andtheSecretAvengers.Andofcoursetherewererelationshipswithmany women, including Black Widow and Mockingbird (Bobbi Morse), thelatter ofwhomhemarried after their first case together.3His fellowAvengersthinkofClintasbrashandcocky,buthisdemeanormasksprofoundself-doubt,stemming fromhis unlucky childhood, his earlymistakes in the costume, andcomparisonswiththenoblest(CaptainAmerica),strongest(Thor),andsmartest(Iron Man, Hank Pym) heroes in the Marvel Universe. Clint’s perpetualunderdogstatus,whetherdeservedornot,bringstomindtheEasternphilosophyofTaoism,severalelementsofwhichwe’llexploreinthischapter.

Don’tTrySoHard,ClintThemostfamousworkinTaoist(pronounced“dow-ist”)philosophyistheTaoTeChing, which is often translated as “TheWay of Life.” Said to have beenwrittenbyLaoTzu(pronounced“loud-suh”)around500BCE—giveor takeacentury—it prescribes a way of living for ordinary people as well as tips forsound governance by those in positions of authority.4 But if good living isunderstoodtoinvolveself-governance,theentireTaoTeChingcanbereadasaguidetoaligningoneselfwiththewaysofnatureratherthanfightingthem.Oneof theclearest—yetmostparadoxical—examplesof this respect for the

waysofnature is theconceptofweiwuwei (pronounced“waywooway”),oraction through inaction: “do nondoing, strive for nonstriving.”5 Rather thanimplyingpassivityor laziness,weiwuwei recommends aligningyourselfwiththenaturalharmonyof theuniverseandacknowledgingyour limitedability toalterit(aswellasthefollyintryingto).Effortshouldnotbewastedonthingsthat cannot be changed, but preserved for things that can, andwisdom lies inknowingwhichiswhich.Inthissense,weiwuweiisverysimilarinspirittotheserenityprayerof theologianReinholdNiebuhr (1892–1971), themostpopularphrasingofwhich is,“Godgrantme theserenity toaccept the things Icannotchange; courage to change the things I can change; andwisdom to know thedifference.”6Tobesure,noonewouldconfuseTrickShotforaTaoistsageorwiseman—

he is a drunken, loutish, two-bit thief—but he does know his archery, and hegivesHawkeye a run for hismoneymany times throughout his career.WhenTrickShottrainsayoungClintBarton,hetellshim,“Youmustlearntouseyourbow gently, naturally, instinctively! Such is theway of the arrow!”7 To use abowandarrowis toharnessnatureat itsmostbasic,and thesuccessfularchermustworkwith the bow, not against it.AsHawkeye thinks to himself at onepoint, tomakea successful shotyoumust “be in thenow,”onewith thebow,yoursurroundings,andyourself—inshort,onewithnature.8Hawkeye’seffortlessskillwiththebowandarrowcertainlyillustratesweiwu

wei, but it must be remembered that it took much hard work to develop hisamazing skills. Unfortunately, he wields those skills with arrogance andbrashness,ademeanor thatdoesn’talwayssitwellwithhis fellowAvengers—especially Captain America. As Lao Tzu wrote of sages, “Not congratulatingthemselves,theyarethereforemeritorious,”and“Thosewhoglorifythemselveshavenomerit,thosewhoareproudofthemselvesdonotlast.”9Bybraggingof

hisabilitiesandheroism,Hawkeyedetractsfromthem;hecallsattentiontohisdeeds insteadof letting themspeakfor themselves,whichviolates thespiritofweiwuwei.You’dthinkClintwouldhavelearnedthis lessongivenhisorigins, tryingto

one-upIronManandinsteadbeingmistakenforacriminal.LaoTzuwrotethatifpeople“donotdwellonsuccess, thenby thisverynondwellingsuccesswillnot leave.”10 In the beginning,Clint tried too hard to be famous. It backfired,andheriskedbecominginfamousinstead.Heneededtolearnthatthebestwaytoachievefame is tonot seek it.Afterall,hewasnevermorefamous thanhewas as an Avenger, where he used his skills as an archer to fight crime andvillainy rather than to win acclaim. Lao Tzu would hardly recommend a lifechasingfame,butifClintwantstodoit,thenweiwuweicanshowhimhow—bynotdoingit.

WhenIsaButcherLikeanArcher?WhereasLaoTzuwrotetheTaoTeChingintheformofpoetryorverse,ChuangTzu, aTaoist scholar from the fourth centuryBCEwho built uponLaoTzu’sideas,usedprosetotellstoriesorparablesthatillustratedhisTaoist ideas.It isappropriate thatClintBarton’s fatherwasabutcher,a trade thatdemandsskillandfocusmuchlikearcherydoes—andhappenstohavebeenthesubjectofoneofChuangTzu’stales.Init,akingadmiresabutcher’sskillatcarvinganox,andaskshimhowhedoesitsoeffortlesslyyetsowell:

WhenIfirstbegantocutupoxen,allIsawwasanox....NowImeetit with spirit rather than look at it with my eyes. When sensoryknowledge stops, then the spirit is ready to act. . . . The joints havespaces in between, whereas the edge of the cleaver blade has nothickness.Whenthatwhichhasnothicknessisputintothatwhichhasno space, there isample room formoving theblade.This iswhy theedgeofmycleaver is stillas sharpas if ithadnewlycome from thewhetstone.11

Afterhearingthis,thekingsays,“Excellent!Havingheardthewordofabutcher,Ihavefoundthewaytonurturelife.”12We can easily imagine someone being impressed in the same way by

Hawkeye’sskillwithabowandarrow,especiallyhowitrespectstheharmonyofnatureandtheconservationofeffort.ChuangTzu’sparablecanbeconsidereda

refinement ofwei wu wei, emphasizing that the path of least resistance—thespace between the joints, for instance—is the natural one to travel to ensuresuccess in life.Hawkeye canmake shots that seem impossible to us, and thatamazeevenhisfellowAvengers,buthe’snotgoingtoseekoutthemostdifficultshotinanemergency.Hemaydoitinpracticetotesthimself,ortoshowoffatanexhibition(ortoawoman),butinthemidstofbattleheisgoingtotaketheshotwiththebestchanceofsuccess,whichevenforanexperiencedarcherwillbethemoststraightforwardonepossible.Inotherwords, thereisatimetoseehowgoodyouarebytestingyourlimits,andatimetoshowhowgoodyouarebygettingthejobdone,andforthemostpartHawkeyefindsthatbalance.13InanearlyAvengerstale,Hawkeyepreparestofireelectromagneticarrowsto

rein in theBlack Panther’s runaway airship.When the Panther says, “Heavenhelpusifyoumiss,”Hawkeyereplies,“Biteyourtongue,mister!Inevermiss...Justsettlebackandrelax, littlebuddies.”ButwhenhisbowstringbreaksandtheVisionhastosavetheday,Clintisdevastated:“Onecrummybrokenstring...andI’mMisterFifthWheel!I’mnotinyouguys’league.”AftertheAvengersfind out that BlackWidow is in trouble, they rush off without Clint, who isjudged to be too personally involved. Clint agrees, but for a different reason,sayingtohimself,“Theywereright,blast’em!Ahotheadlikememightjustfoulup things . . . get thewhole bunch of us killed!” So he decides to takeHankPym’sgrowthserumandbecomethenewGoliathtorescueNatasha.Whenthecouple returns toAvengersMansion,Clint confirmshis intentions to leavehis“weak”Hawkeyepersonabehindbysnappinghisbowinhalf.14Ironically, it is during themassive intergalactic conflict knownas theKree-

SkrullWarthatClintrealizeshistruenatureistobeanarcher,notachemicallyenhancedgiant.15NearlyoutofPym’sgrowth serumand findinghimselfonaSkrullwarshiponadestructivemission toEarth,hefashionsabowandarrowfrommaterialshefindsontheshipandusesthemtodestroytheship,narrowlyescapingwithhis life.16Earlier,he thoughthewasfailinghis fellowAvengerswith his archery skills, and tried to be a giant strongman instead (ironically,anothercarnivalidentity).Butbydenyinghistruenatureandnotmakinguseofwhathedidbest,hewasnotfollowingthepathofweiwuwei;instead,hewastryingtoohardtobesomethingthathewasnot.

Hawkeye,Humble?HisbrieftimeasGoliathshowsthatClintfeelsatremendousneedtoliveupto

theexampleofhispeersandearntheiracceptanceaswellashisown.Infact,heleavestheteamaltogethersoonthereafter,sayingthathe’s“hadmyfillofbeingpoor old Hawkeye, the stupid Avenger” (ironically, after having his archeryprowesspraisedbynoneother thanThor).17ClintBartonhasmanyadmirablequalities,includingnotjusthistremendousskillwiththebowandarrowandhisfantasticathleticismbuthisheroicnatureaswell.However,helacksonequalitythat is particularly emphasized by the Taoist masters: humility. He is oftendescribedasbrashandcockybyfriendsandfoesalike,butthisbehaviormasksdeep-rootedinsecurities;asNatashaoncenoted,Clintis“sofullofconceitandinsecurityat the same time.”18Ashiswords show,he suffers fromfeelingsofinadequacycomparedwithhismightiercolleaguesintheAvengers—nonemorethanhisfriend,mentor,andsparringpartner,CaptainAmerica.From the moment he joins the Avengers, Clint challenges Cap’s authority,

accusing him of being awashed-up “square” and aWorldWar II relic. Theirconflictcomestoaheadintheirfourthissuetogether,whenHawkeyestickshisfinger inCap’s face—an image reproduced time and again in future stories—accusinghimofpoorleadershipandtryingto“pushyourweightaroundallthetime.”19But as their relationship develops,Clint gains tremendous respect forthe Sentinel of Liberty, coming to admire his wise and measured leadership,especiallywhenClintheadshisownteam,theWestCoastAvengers.Soonafterheputstogetherthecharterlineup,astrangerappearsintheirnewheadquarters,andClintthinkstohimself,“ShouldIlettheotherscatchourintruder...orrushinandcollarhimmyself?HowwouldCaphandlethis?”20Soonafterward,ClintgetsintoapettybattlewithIronManafterdiscoveringthatthemanwearingthearmorwasn’tTonyStarkbuthissuccessorJamesRhodes.Clintaccuseshimofbeing “an amateur IronMan,”while Rhodey defends his short but successfultenureastheArmoredAvenger.ThisleadsClinttorecallhisinsolencewithCapintheearlydaysoftheAvengersandto“wonderhowCapputupwithme?”21Consistentwithhisorigins,Clintwantstobehighlyregardedbyhispeers,but

he needs to learn the lessons of theTaoists—especially sinceCap follows thesame wisdom, particularly regarding humility and leadership. We’ve alreadymentionedHawkeye’sgloryseeking,whichCapdoesn’tengagein;heshunsthespotlight aswell as the praise that it brings.When leading theAvengers,Capprefers to boost others rather than himself.As LaoTzuwrotewith respect toeffective leadership, “When sages wish to rise above people, they lowerthemselvestothemintheirspeech.Whentheywanttoprecedepeople,theygoaftertheminstatus.”22Capoftenfindshimselfgivingpepspeechestohisself-doubtingteammate,earlyontellinghim,“Youhavealotofpotential,Avenger.

More than the rest.That’swhy I’mpushingyou.Youcouldbe thebestwe’veeverhad.”23Much later,whenHawkeyemarvels atCap’s skillwithhis shieldandaskedhowhedoesit,Capsimplysays,“Practiceandpassion,Clint.Justlikeyou.”24 When Hawkeye continues to challenge Cap’s leadership, even afterdecades together, Cap still deflects the criticism, offering Clint the spot if hethinks he can do it better, and reassuring his old friend, “You’re a goodman,Clint.”25Rather thantakethechancetogloatabouthisownskillsasaheroorleader, Cap chooses to praise Clint, raising him in status while giving himincentive tobe evenbetter: “You really are thebestofus, butonlywhenyouwanttobe.”26Humility can have strategic benefit as well, especially when it comes to

foolingyourenemies.WhenCrossfire capturesHawkeye,planning tokillhimandusehisdeadbody todrawout the restofEarth’sheroes,he tellsClinthechosehimbecauseheis“theweakest,mostvulnerableknowncostumedcrimefighterintown.”27Butasyoucaneasilyguess,Crossfiregrosslyunderestimatesour favorite archer,who escapes his trap by outsmarting the villain,who thentriestokillClintwithhisownbowandarrowbutironicallydiscoversheisnotstrongenoughtopullthestring.AsLaoTzuwrote,“Nocalamityisgreaterthanunderestimatingopponents,”whichalsoimpliesanadvantagetoappearingweaktoyourenemies,asClintlearns(but,itseems,hasnottakentoheart).28

TheLifeandDeathofaHeroLike so many heroes in the Marvel Universe, Hawkeye has had firsthandexperiencewith death, and lived (again) to tell about it—both times.When amentallyunstableScarletWitchattacksAvengersMansionwithaKreearmadathatshefabricateswithherreality-alteringpowers,Clintisshotinthebackbyanumber of Kree soldiers. Refusing to die that way, he grabs a nearby Kree,activates his jetpack, and flies into theKreewarship, destroying it and killinghimself.29Wecouldchoosetoseethissimplyasonefinalgrandstandingmovefrom the former carnival showman, but insteadwewill use it to explore twofinalthemesinTaoism,heroismanddeath,bothofwhichinvolve(inthespiritofweiwuwei)sacrifice“withoutsacrifice.”As Lao Tzu wrote, “Sages put themselves last, and they were first; they

excluded themselves, and they survived.”30 This is true of heroes as well: byputtingtheirownneedsandsafetyasidetoprotectothers,theyensuretheirownsurvival,eitherliterally(continuingasheroesiftheylive)ormetaphorically(as

legaciesafter theirdeath).Hawkeyemakes theultimatesacrificewhenhefliesintotheKreewarship,whichensuresthathewillberememberedasaheroforyears to come.And afterKateBishop, one of theYoungAvengers and a finearcher,standsuptoCaptainAmericalikeonlyClinthasbeforeher,hebestowson her the name Hawkeye (as well as his equipment).31 Hawkeye is now alegacy,amantletobepassedontofutureheroes.32LaoTzuasked,“Ifpeopleusuallydon’tfeardeath,howcandeathbeusedto

scare them?”33Throughhisheroism,ClintBartonhasproven thathedoesnotfeardeath—andevenifhedid,hedoesn’tletthatfearpreventhimfrombeingahero.LaoTzualsowrote(inoneofhismorestraightforwardmoments),“Sagesalwaysconsider itgood tosavepeople,”and in this sense,evenHawkeye isasage.Itisn’tjustaboutsuperheroicsandAvengingforClint,though,atleastlaterinhiscareer.WhenherecentlytookaroadtriptoMyrtleBeach,hestoppedtohelpstrandedmotoristsalongtheway(granted,femalestrandedmotorists).Heendedupsavingastripperfroma lout inabar,anact thatembroiledhiminaschemeinvolvingwarcrimesinLaosandastolenreligiousrelic—andhedidn’tputonhiscostumeuntiltheendofthesix-issuestoryline.34SoonafterHawkeye’sdeath,theScarletWitch(undertheswayofherbrother

Quicksilver) uses her mutant powers to re-form the entire world into onedominatedbymutantsundertheruleofherfather,Magneto.ShealsoresurrectsHawkeye, towhomshehad longbeenclose,butafterhe threatensher lifeshe“disassembles” him again. He is believed dead, but a mysterious copy of hisnewspaperobituarypinnedtoawallwithanarrowleadsus(andtheAvengers)tosuspectotherwise.35Afterseekingout(and,wemightsay,“reconcilingwith”)theScarletWitch,whoapparentlyhasnomemoryofthedestructionshecaused,ClintadoptstheidentityofRoninuntilreturningtotheclassicHawkeyecolorsaftertheSiegeofAsgardendsandthe“HeroicAge”begins.36TheuniquenatureofHawkeye’sexperiencesduringthissecondperiodrecalls

oneofChuangTzu’smostfamoustales:OnceChuangChoudreamedhewasabutterfly.Hewashappyasabutterfly, enjoying himself and going where he wanted. He did notknowhewasChou.Suddenlyheawoke,whereuponhewasstartledtofindhewasChou.Hedidn’tknowwhetherChouhaddreamedhewasabutterfly,orifabutterflyweredreamingitwasChou.37

Earlier in the same chapter of hisworks,ChuangTzu connects this ideawithdeath:“HowdoIknowthedeaddonotregrethavinglongedforlifeatfirst?”38He’smaking two points here: first, that there is noway to compare two such

differentstatesofbeingtodeterminewhichoneismore“real,”asinthebutterflyor Chou. The Scarlet Witch completely altered reality to fit Quicksilver’sconceptionoftheperfectworld:who’stosaywhichwasmorereal,thatrealityor theoriginalone?Second, there isalsonoway tosaywhichoneyouwouldprefer:isitbettertobethebutterflyorChou,andisitbettertobealiveordead?TotheTaoist,lifeanddeatharebothpartsofnature.Neitheristobecelebratedmorethantheother,butbotharetobewelcomedaspartofthetao(“theWay”).Clint has been both, and in two different realities—if onlywe could ask himwhichhepreferred!

TheWayoftheArcherAfterClint tookuptheHawkeye identitymostrecently,he thought tohimself,“Beenawhile,buthere,now,feelingthepullofthestring,thefletchingofthearrow betweenmy fingers, theweight of the quiver onmy back . . . it’s likecominghome.”39Hehasreturnedtohistruepath,theonethatexpressesweiwuwei in that it is themost natural and effortless one for him. It is onlynatural,then,toendthischapterwithafinalquotefromLaoTzu:“TheWayofHeavenislikedrawingabow;thehighislowered,thelowisraised;excessisreduced,need is fulfilled.”40 TheWaymoderates all things and keeps them in balance,andafterallhisexperienceswith love, loss,andstruggle,ClintBartonmaybeonhiswaytorealizingtheWayaswell.

NOTES

1.TalesofSuspense#57,60,and64(1964–1965),reprintedinEssentialIronManVol.1(2002),andAvengers,vol.1,#16(May1965),reprintedinEssentialAvengersVol.1(1998).ForaslightlyupdatedversionofhisintroductiontotheAvengers,seeHawkeye:Blindspot#2(May2011),reprintedinHawkeye:Blindspot(2011).2.Formoreonthethemesofredemptionandrehabilitation,seethechapterstitled“ForgiversAssemble?”byDanielP.Malloyand“Cap’sKookyQuartet:IsRehabilitationPossible?”byAndrewTerjeseninthisvolume.3.Hawkeye,vol.1,#4(December1983),reprintedinthehardcovercollectionAvengers:Hawkeye(2009).

4.ManyscholarsnowthinktheTaoTeChingismorelikelyananonymouscollectionofaccumulatedwisdomthantheworkofasingleman,butforthesakeofconveniencewewillrefertoLaoTzuwhendiscussingit.5.TaoTeChing,chapter63.Unlessnotedotherwise,alltranslationsofTaoisttextsarebyThomasClearyandcanbefoundinTheTaoistClassics,vol.1(Boston:ShambhalaPublications,1994).6.ThisconceptisalsofoundinthewritingsoftheStoicphilosopherEpictetus(55–135);seeBook4,chapter4ofhisDiscourses.7.SoloAvengers#2(January1988),reprintedinAvengers:SoloAvengersClassicVol.1(2012).8.Hawkeye&Mockingbird#3(October2010),reprintedinHawkeye&Mockingbird:Ghosts(2011),whichcontainsallsixissuesoftheshort-livedseries.ThisadvicecomesinhandywhenClinthastofighthisbrotherandBaronZemoafterbeingblinded(Hawkeye:Blindspot#4,July2011).9.TaoTeChing,chapters22and24.10.TaoTeChing,chapter2.11.ChuangTzu,chapter3,66–67,inTheTaoistClassics.12.Ibid.13.However,inAvengers,vol.3,#79(April2004),reprintedinAvengersVol.4:LionheartofAvalon(2004),HawkeyetriestotakeontheentireWreckingCrew,atrioofpowerhouseswhohavegivenThorarunforhismoney.Afterheisbrutallybeatendown,ClintconfessestotheWaspthathediditforherafterseeingherex-husbandHankPym(whooncebeather)manhandleher(Avengers,vol.3,#82,July2004,reprintedinAvengersVol.5:OnceanInvader,2004).14.Avengers,vol.1,#63–64(April–May1969),reprintedinEssentialAvengersVol.3(2001).15.Avengers:Kree-SkrullWar(2008),reprintingAvengers,vol.1,#89–97(June1971–March1972),alsoreprinted(inblackandwhite)inEssentialAvengersVol.4(2005).FormoreontheKree-SkrullWar,seethechaptertitled“FightingtheGoodFight:MilitaryEthicsandtheKree-SkrullWar”byChristopherRobichaudinthisvolume.16.Avengers,vol.1,#99(May1972),reprintedinEssentialAvengersVol.5(2006).17.Avengers,vol.1,#109(March1973),reprintedinEssentialAvengersVol.5.

18.Thunderbolts#43(October2000),reprintedinAvengersAssembleVol.3(2006).19.Avengers,vol.1,#20(September1965),reprintedinEssentialAvengersVol.1.Somethingsneverchange:ClintevenpicksafightwithSteveRogers’ssuccessor,BuckyBarnes,overwho“shouldhave”takenoverthemantleofCaptainAmericaafterRogers’sdeath(NewAvengers:TheReunion#1,May2009,reprintedinNewAvengers:TheReunion,2010).(TonyStarkofferedClintthetitleinFallenSon:TheDeathofCaptainAmerica#3,July2007,reprintedinFallenSon:TheDeathofCaptainAmerica,2008.)20.WestCoastAvengers,vol.1,#1(September1984),reprintedinAvengers:WestCoastAvengersAssemble(2010).21.WestCoastAvengers,vol.1,#4(December1984),reprintedinAvengers:WestCoastAvengersAssemble.22.TaoTeChing,chapter66.23.SeetheflashbacksceneinHawkeye:Blindspot#2(May2011).ForatextbookexampleoftoughlovefromCapwhenClintisparticularlydownonhimself,seeHawkeye&Mockingbird#6(January2011).24.Avengers,vol.3,#75(February2004),reprintedinAvengers:TheSearchforShe-Hulk(2010).25.Avengers,vol.3,#6(July1998),reprintedinAvengersAssembleVol.1(2004).26.Hawkeye:Blindspot#2.FormoreonCaptainAmerica’smodesty,seemychapter“CaptainAmericaandtheVirtueofModesty”inSuperheroes:TheBestofPhilosophyandPopCulture,ed.WilliamIrwin(Hoboken,NJ:JohnWiley&Sons,2011).27.Hawkeye,vol.1,#4.28.TaoTeChing,chapter69.ThisissimilartotheteachingsofSunTzuinTheArtofWar,consideredtobeaTaoistclassicinitsownright.29.Avengers,vol.3,#502(November2004),reprintedinAvengersDisassembled(2005).30.TaoTeChing,chapter7.31.YoungAvengers#12(August2006),reprintedinYoungAvengers:FamilyMatters(2007).32.Formoreonsuperheromantles,seethechapterbyStephenNelsontitled“SuperheroIdentity:CaseStudiesintheAvengers”inthisvolume.

33.TaoTeChing,chapter74.34.Hawkeye,vol.3,#1–6(December2003–May2004).35.HouseofM(2006).36.ClintfindstheScarletWitchinNewAvengers,vol.1,#26(January2007),appears(unidentified)asRonininissue#27(April2007),andisshown(inflashback)assumingtheRoninidentityin#30(July2007),allreprintedinNewAvengersVol.6:Revolution(2007).HebecomesHawkeyeoncemoreinEntertheHeroicAge(July2010),reprintedinHawkeye&Mockingbird:Ghosts(2011).37.ChuangTzu,chapter2,65,inTheTaoistClassics.AsimilarargumentwasputforwardbyphilosopherRenéDescartes(1596–1650)toquestionourknowledgeofreality;seehisMeditationsonFirstPhilosophy(1641),Meditation1.Andit’snottoomuchofastretchtoextendthistotheSkrullwhoimpersonatedMockingbirdforsomanyyears!(ForMockingbird’ssideofthestory,seeNewAvengers:TheReunion.)38.Ibid.,64.39.Hawkeye&Mockingbird#1(August2010).40.TaoTeChing,chapter77.

APPENDIX

WhyAreThereFourVolumesofAvengers?

Since there are so many Avengers titles, which seem to be relaunched orrenumberedasoftenasIronManupdateshisarmor,hereisa“simple”guidetodelving into the Avengers canon, covering the main ongoing titles (and bynecessityleavingoutmanyminiseriesandone-shots).The firstvolumeofAvengers started inSeptember1963and lasted forover

fourhundredissues(andannuals)untilSeptember1996.In1984,theWestCoastAvengers appeared in a self-titledminiseries (anobviousploy togetHawkeyeout ofAvengersMansion), followed in 1985 by an ongoing series that lasteduntil1994(afterchangingitstitletoAvengersWestCoast in1989).Inordertokeep busy, Hawkeye also headlined the Solo Avengers title (which featuredanotherAvengerinthebackupstory)startingin1987andlastinguntil1991(alsochangingitstitletoAvengersSpotlightin1989).The first Avengers run ended when the Avengers were “Heroes Reborn,”

thrown intoapocketdimensionofdistortedanatomyandevenworsecostumedesign. The second volume ofAvengers mercifully lasted only thirteen issues(fromNovember1996toNovember1997).Youwillnoticethatthisrunisnevercited in this book—for a reason. (’Nuff said.) The third volume of Avengersstarted in February 1998 when our heroes returned to the normal MarvelUniversewithanear-classiclineup(andtheAvengersspotlightnowfocusedonthe Scarlet Witch’s navel). In September 2004, the series was renumberedstartingwithissue#500toreflecttheoriginalvolume’snumbering(asifithadbeenfollowedthroughoutallthevolumes).However,thiswasalsothebeginningof“AvengersDisassembled,”astheteamandmansionweredecimatedbyaveryangry ScarletWitch. (You connect the dots,my friend.) Then the fun started:aftermuchsoul-searchingonthepartofIronManandCaptainAmerica,thefirstvolumeofNewAvengerslaunchedinJanuary2005(yes,thesamemonththattheoriginal Avengers disbanded forever!). It was followed by Young Avengers inApril 2005, which lasted a year and told the story of a group of second-generation heroes (including another upstart archer). Then the Civil Warhappened in 2006, and the New Avengers reemerged afterward as anundergroundragtagbandofrenegadesfightingagainstsuperheroregistration—

andyes,ClintBartonwasthere.Butthepro-registrationforces,ledbyIronMan,had their own team.TheMightyAvengers title started inMay 2007, followedsoonbyAvengers:The Initiative in June2007, detailing the trainingof youngheroes(notincludingtheYoungAvengers,whocontinuedoninaseriesofone-shotsandminiseries).After theSkrulls’Secret Invasion ended in January2009, the lineupsof the

New andMighty Avengers were shaken up (but the titles continued, withouteven renumbering them!).More important,Dark Avengers launched inMarch2009, featuring evil doppelgängers for key Avengers like Hawkeye and Ms.Marvel, and led by none other thanNormanOsborn.AfterOsborn’s Siege ofAsgard in summer 2010, all the Avengers titles—New, Mighty, Dark, andInitiative—ended.InthenewHeroicAge,notonlywasasecondvolumeofNewAvengerslaunched,butwealsosawafourthvolumeofAvengersastheclassictitlewasrevivedfor thefirst timeinfifteenyears.Addto thisSecretAvengers(SteveRogers’sblackopsteam,laterheadedbyHawkeye),AvengersAcademy(thelatestyoung-heroes-in-trainingtitle),andAvengersAssemble,whichbeganinMarch2012—nottomentionthelive-actionmovie,cunninglytitledAvengers,and the animated TV showThe Avengers: Earth’sMightiest Heroes—and theAvengersaretrulyEarth’smightiestcomics,television,andfilmfranchise.

Contributors

AvengersAcademyAdam Barkman has a PhD from the Free University of Amsterdam and isassociateprofessorofphilosophyatRedeemerUniversityCollege inAncaster,Ontario. He is the author of C. S. Lewis and Philosophy as a Way of Life,ThroughCommonThings,andAboveAllThings,and is thecoeditorofMangaandPhilosophyandThePhilosophyofAngLee.However, tohiskids,Heather(Waspie-Turtle) and Tristan (Hulk-Puppy), he is simply known as Thor-Lion,andthis is theirsong:“Avengers:Assemble!Always,wewill fightasone, thebattleboo-boo-boo...”ArnoBogaertsiscurrentlyfinishinghisstudiesinphilosophyandethicsattheVrije Universiteit Brussel in Belgium, where he has written several essaysfocusingon the superhero and its genre.He alsowrites for theBelgian comicbooksiteBrainfreezeandwill contributeachapter to theupcomingSupermanand Philosophy. Convinced that Belgian beer can easily beat the best meadAsgardhas tooffer, he andhisbuddiesplan to challengebothThor andTonyStarktoalocaldrinkingcontest.Roy T. Cook is associate professor of philosophy at the University ofMinnesota–TwinCities,aresidentfellowattheMinnesotaCenterforPhilosophyof Science, and an associate fellow at the Northern Institute of Philosophy–University of Aberdeen, Scotland. He is the author of A Dictionary ofPhilosophical Logic, editor of The Arché Papers on the Mathematics ofAbstraction, and has published numerous academic articles on paradoxes, thephilosophy of logic, the philosophy of mathematics, and, more recently, theaesthetics of comics. He is also coeditor (with AaronMeskin) of The Art ofComics: A Philosophical Approach. Despite the best efforts of artists andwriters, his early romancewith JenniferWalterswas censored by the ComicsCodeAuthority,andasaresultthesteamydetailswillforeverremainasecret.SarahK.Donovan is an associateprofessor in theDepartmentofPhilosophyandReligiousStudies atWagnerCollege inNewYorkCity.Her teaching andresearch interests include feminist, social, moral, and Continental philosophy,and she has coauthored articles for books in the present series on Batman,Watchmen, IronMan, andGreenLantern.While performing researchwith theDarkAvengers, shebecamefriendswithLindyReynolds,butnowfeelsguiltyaboutassuringherthathelicopterridesarecompletelysafe.

AndrewZimmermanJones is thephysics guide atAbout.com and author ofStringTheory forDummies.He lives in central Indianawithhiswife and twoyoungsons,occasionallywritingessaysinaugustcollectionssuchasHeroesandPhilosophyandGreenLanternandPhilosophy.Inhissparetime,hesearchesforJonesParticles,theoreticalparticlesthatwillshrinkyourwaistline.CharlesKlaymanisaterminstructorofphilosophyatJohnA.LoganCollegeinCarterville,Illinois.SinceXavier’sInstituteforHigherLearningrejectedhisapplication,heiscompletinghisdoctoralstudiesatSouthernIllinoisUniversityCarbondale. His research interests include classical American philosophy andaesthetics. Despite possessing the ability to befuddle minds, he was deniedAvengersmembership; apparently, carrying a thickphilosophybook isnot thesameascarryingamysticalhammeroranindestructibleshield.DanielP.MalloyquittheAvengersinprotestaftertheScarletWitchmarriedtheVision,maintaining(againstKlayman’schapter)thatwalkingtoastersdon’thavetheright tomarry.TherewasalsoaslightdisputewithJarvis,whichhassincebeensettledoutofcourt.Since then,Danielhasspenthis timeasa lecturer inphilosophy atAppalachian StateUniversity, teaching introductory courses andwritingabouttheintersectionsbetweenphilosophyandpopularculture.Louis P. Melançon dresses like Captain America and asks for super-soldierserumateverymedicalappointmenthehas.Sofar it’sonlyresultedinfluandanthraxvaccinations.Whilehehasnoexperience (yet) in fighting theSkrulls,Kree,orany time-travelingvillainsbentonworlddomination,asaU.S.ArmyofficerLouishashadawidevarietyof tactical and strategic combat armsandintelligenceexperience.HehasbeenawardedtheBronzeStarMedalandholdsmaster’s degrees from the Joint Military Intelligence College (now NationalIntelligenceUniversity)andKing’sCollege,London.Hisgreatestachievement,however, is teachinghis two-year-olddaughter to identifyall thePetAvengersbyname.StephenM.NelsonisaPhDcandidateintheDepartmentofPhilosophyattheUniversity of Minnesota. He teaches courses in a variety of areas, and hisresearch centers on the philosophy of language, philosophy of logic, andmetaphysics. Being a direct descendant of Odin through his Icelandic side(whichhecanprovewithdetailedgenealogicalrecords),Stephenhasalwaysfelta distinct—almost brotherly—bond with Thor, and, by extension, the ragtagbandofsuperheroesThorrunswith.RobertPowell—or“Troy”whenhe’sundertheinfluenceofaspecialtop-secretserum—is a master’s candidate in the Conflict Analysis and ManagementProgram at Royal Roads University in Victoria, British Columbia, with an

undergraduatebackgroundinpsychologyandphilosophy.Troyisalsoaresearchanalyst with the Sentinel Project for Genocide Prevention, a Toronto-basedNGO,workingonanopensourceearlywarningsystemforgenocide—orwhatTroy likes to think of as the “Cerebro of ethnic conflict.”What fewer peopleknowisthatTroyissecretlyworkingonanupgradetotheserumthatcreatedtheSentry,believingweallmust learn torein inourdarkernaturesbeforewecanriseandshineasheroesoftheworldinourowndomains.NicholasRichardson is an associate professor in theDepartment of PhysicalSciences at Wagner College in New York City, where he teaches general,advanced inorganic, and medicinal chemistry. He has coauthored articles forbooksinthepresentseriesonBatman,Watchmen,IronMan,andGreenLantern.He was initially asked by Norman Osborn to join the Dark Avengers, butsomehowthepaperworkgotlost,andOsbornhadtostepinatthelastminutetobecometheIronPatriothimself.ChristopherRobichaudisalecturerinethicsandpublicpolicyattheHarvardKennedySchoolofGovernment.TheAvengersoftenconsulthimonmattersofmoralandpoliticalphilosophy.Well,NickFuryforcesthemto.CaptainAmericapolitelylistens.IronMantotallyignoreshim.BlackWidowthreatenstokillhimifhedoesn’t shutup.Hawkeyeechoes that sentiment.Thorsimply laughsandinviteshimoutforabeer.AndHulk,mercifully,nevershowsup.Jason Southworth is an adjunct professor of philosophy at Fort Hays StateUniversity inHays,Kansas.Hehaswrittenchapters formanyPhilosophyandPopCulturevolumes, includingoneson Inception,X-Men, andFinalFantasy.HeiscuriousabouttheapplicationprocessforthePetAvengers;ifMissLionisamember,surelyitwasamistakenottoinviteHepzibah,thefiercedefenderoftheSouthworth-Tallmanhousehold.TonySpanakoswasneverinvitedtojointheAvengersdespitebeingrecognizedbyhiswife,friends,andstudentsas“positivelyinhuman.”HavingemergedfromtheTerrigenMistswithnousefulpowerotherthantheabilitytoreaddrytextscomfortably on a crowded subway car, he has pursued scholarship for severalyears, teaching politics atMontclair StateUniversity inNew Jersey andNewYorkUniversity. He published a number of articles on political economy anddemocratization in Latin America before being called to join the Defenders.WhileholdingoutforanAvengersgig(ifHankPymcandoit,whynothim?),he haswritten essays forBatmanandPhilosophy,Watchmen and Philosophy,IronManandPhilosophy,andtheforthcomingSpider-ManandPhilosophy.RuthTallman is an assistant professor of philosophy at Barry University inMiami Shores, Florida. She haswritten chapters for other popular philosophy

volumesonSherlockHolmes,theRollingStones,andChristmas.She’snotwildabouttherelationshipbetweenTigraandHankPymbecauseitsendsthewrongmessage to impressionable young cats likeHepzibah, the fearless protector oftheSouthworth-Tallmanhousehold.Andrew Terjesen earned his PhD in philosophy from Duke University andtaughtforanumberofyearsatAustinCollege,WashingtonandLeeUniversity,andRhodesCollege.Hisphilosophicalinterestsincludemoralpsychology,earlymodernphilosophy,andthephilosophyoflaw.Healsoenjoyswritingabouttheintersectionsofphilosophyandpopculturewithessays in thisseriesabout theX-Men, Watchmen, Iron Man, Green Lantern, Spider-Man, and Superman.Andrew has recently enrolled in law school, but was disappointed that hiscriminallawprofessordidnotcovertheissueoftranstemporaljurisdictioninthelandmarkcaseofKangv.Immortusv.ScarletCenturionv.RamaTut. (Andrewsuspects that the professor is a Skrull.)Mark D. White is the chair of theDepartmentofPoliticalScience,Economics, andPhilosophyat theCollegeofStaten Island/CUNY, where he teaches courses that combine economics,philosophy, and law. He is the author of Kantian Ethics and Economics:Autonomy,Dignity,andCharacter(Stanford,2011),andhasedited(orcoedited)books for the present series onBatman,Watchmen, IronMan,GreenLantern,andSuperman. If hehad theScarletWitch’s ability to alter reality, he’dmakesurehegottoeditthisbooktoo.

INDEX

FromJarvis’sSecretFilesAlcibiades (Plato)allegory of the caveAmericanmonomythAnscombe,G. E.M.Ant-Man.SeeLang,Scott;O’Grady,Eric;Pym,Henry“Hank”appreciative-loveAquinas,SaintThomasArendt,HannahAresarête,AristotleAsgardians.Seealso Siege ofAsgardAugustine, SaintAustin, TerryBanner,Bruce.SeealsoHulkBarnes,Bucky.SeealsoCaptainAmericaBarton,BarneyBarton, Clint. See also HawkeyeBeetle Ben,Uncle Bentham, JeremyBishop,Kate (Hawkeye) Black Knight (DaneWhitman)Black Panther BlackWidow.SeealsoRomanova,NatashaBlondePhantombody theoryBorBowie,David Braddock, Brian (Captain Britain) Braddock, Elizabeth (Psylocke)Bradley,Eli(Patriot)Bradley,Isaiah.SeealsoCaptainAmericaBrotherhoodofEvil Mutants Bullseye Butler, Bishop Joseph Byrne, John Cabal Cage, Luke(PowerMan)Campbell,JosephCaptainAmerica

changeandcharacterandethicsandforgivenessandidentityandjusticeandpoliticalcommunityandrehabilitationandself-awarenessandTaoismandtimetraveland

CaptainMarvelCarter,Sharon(Agent13)cave,allegoryoftheCelestialsChaosKingcharacter

accountabilityandchildhoodexperienceandmoralexemplarismandparentalresponsibilityforrehabilitationand

Cho,AmadeusChronology Protection Conjecture ChthonChuang Tzu closed

timelike curves Collector Contact (Sagan) Coogan, Peter Cooper, ValerieCrimsonDynamoCrossfire CrystalDakenDanvers, Carol (Ms.Marvel)DarkAvengers

changeandjusticeandpoliticalcommunityandpowerandrehabilitationandvaluesand

DeadpoolDeathdeontologyjustwartheoryand

Derrida,JacquesDevakdivinegift-loveDoctorDoomDoctorStrangedoctrineofdoubleeffectDoris,JohnM.DreamingCelestial Einstein,Albert Eisenhardt, Magda Eisenhardt, Max ErosEternity

ethics.Seedeontology;utilitarianism;virtueethicseudaimonia,Fantastic, Mr. (Reed Richards) Fantastic Four Foot, Philippa Forever Crystalforgiveness

avengingandofferingparadoxofpredicamentofirreversibilityandredemptionandrepentanceandthird-partyforgivenessunforgivablecrimeand

Forms(Plato)Freeman,DuaneFritzFrost,ByronFrost,LorettaFury,NickGaeaGalactusGiant-Man.SeealsoPym,Henry“Hank”gift-love Glaucon Gödel, Kurt Goliath. See also Barton, Clint GorgiasGrandmasterGravitonGreenGoblin.SeealsoOsborn,NormanGremlinGyges,ringofH.A.M.M.E.R.Hand,VictoriaHate(Sire)Hawkeye

changeandcharacterandforgivenessandidentityand

justiceandpowerandrehabilitationandTaoismandvaluesandSeealsoBarton,Clint

Hawking, Stephen Heimdall Hela Hera Hercules hero’s journey Hill, MariaHoodHulkHyde,Mr.

identitybodytheoryofjusticeandmantletheoryof“psychology”theoryofself-awarenessandvaluesand

IlluminatiImmortus.SeealsoKangInvisibleWoman(SueRichards) IronLad.See also Kang IronMan. See also Stark, Tony Iron Patriot (Norman Osborn)Jameson, J. Jonah Jarvis Jenkins, Abner Jesus Jewett, Robert Jones, JessicaJones,RickJuggernautjustice

beingandbeliefandevilandidentityandknowledgeandmetaphysicsand

justwartheorycauseandconsequentialismandjustificationandmoralityandvaluesand

Kang Kant, Immanuel Kirby, Jack Klaw, Ulysses Kooky Quartet. See alsoCaptain America; Hawkeye; Quicksilver; Scarlet Witch Kree Kronos Lang,Cassie (Stature)Lang,Scott (Ant-Man)LaoTzuLawrence, John Shelton Lee,StanLeFay,MorganLehnsherr,Erik.SeeMagnetoLewis,C.S.LiberatorsLivingTribunalLocke,JohnLokiLordNightmarelove

appreciative-lovefriendshipandgift-loveneed-loveontologyandpersonhoodandpragmaticmaximandunreciprocated

Love(Mistress)Love-Himselflyingsecretsand

MACH-1MadameMasqueMagnetomantletheoryMarvel,Ms..SeealsoDanvers,CarolMar-Vell.SeealsoCaptainMarvelMason,Louise“Weezie,”Mason,MarkMasque,MadameMastersofEvilMaximoff,DjangoMaximoff,MaryaMaximoff,Pietro.SeeQuicksilverMaximoff,Wanda.SeeScarletWitchMcCloskey,DeirdreMephistometaphysics

identityandjusticeandself-awarenessand“metafiction,”

MGH (Mutant Growth Hormone) Mighty Avengers Milgram, StanleyMockingbird (Bobbie Morse) Modok Moonstone (Karla Sofen) moralexemplarism moral goodness Morse, Bobbie (Mockingbird) Namor theSubmariner Narcissus need-love Nefaria, Count Luchino Nefaria, Giulietta(Madame Masque) negative duties Nelson, William Nicomachean Ethics(Aristotle)Niebuhr,ReinholdNoh-Varrnumerical identityOdinO’Grady, Eric(Ant-Man)Omni-WaveProjectorOnslaughtontology

definitionsasequalopportunityGodandgodsmoralgoodnessand

Order,MasterOsborn,Normanchangeandethicsandjusticeandpoliticalcommunityandpowerandrehabilitationandvaluesand

paradoxofforgivenessParker,Peter.SeealsoSpider-ManPatriot (EliBradley)Peirce,CharlesS.philia,PhobosPlatopoliticalcommunity

arêteanddefinedeudaimoniaandphiliaandpolis,definedsocietyandzoonpolitikon,

PolusPopeyepositivedutiespowerauthenticityandresponsibilityandsophistryand

Power Man. See Cage, Luke pragmatic maxim, love and predicament ofirreversibilityPunisherPym,Henry“Hank”

changeandcharacterandethicsandforgivenessandidentityandpoliticalcommunityandrehabilitationandTaoismand

valuesand

QuicksilvercharacterandforgivenessandidentityandrehabilitationandTaoismandtimetravelandvaluesand

RagnarokRamondaRedSkullrehabilitationcharacteranddefinedpunishmentandassecondchanceviceandvirtueand

relativity,theoryofRepublic(Plato)“retcon,”Reynolds,LindyReynolds,Robert.SeealsoSentryReynolds,RichardRhodes,James Richards, Reed (Mr. Fantastic) Richards, Sue (Invisible Woman)RingmasterringofGygesRogers,Steve.SeealsoCaptainAmericaRomanova,Natasha. See also Black Widow Ronan the Accuser Ronin. See also Barton,ClintSagan,CarlScarletWitch

characterandforgivenessandloveandrehabilitationandTaoismandtimetravelandvaluesand

SecretAvengerssecretslyingand

Segar,E.C.self-awareness

identityandmetaphysicsand“metafiction,”timeanddistanceperspective

SentrySerpentShe-Hulk(JenniferWalters)S.H.I.E.L.D.Shuri(BlackPanther)SiegeofAsgardSinSinger,PeterSkaarSkrullsSlott,Dan

Socrates Sofen, Karla (Moonstone) Songbird sophistry soul, love and SpacePhantom speciesism Speedball Spider-Man. See also Parker, Peter Spider-WomanSquadronSupremeSquirrelGirlStark,Tony

changeandcharacterandethicsforgivenessandidentityandjusticeandpoliticalcommunityandSeealsoIronMan

Stature(CassieLang)statusquoStilt-ManSuperHeroes:AModernMythology(Reynolds)SuperhumanRegistrationActsupremeemergency(Walzer)SupremeIntelligenceTaoism

ChuangTzuonheroismandhumilityandLaoTzuonTaoTeChing(LaoTzu)weiwuwei,

T’Chaka(BlackPanther)T’Challa(BlackPanther)ThanosThimbleTheatre,third-partyforgivenessThor

changeandethicsandloveandontologyandpoliticalcommunityandTaoismand

ThrasymachusThunderboltsTigraTimelyComicstimetravelclosedloopsmathematicsofscienceofwormholes

tortureTrickShot twinparadoxUltimatesUltronUrich,BenU.S.Agent (JohnWalker)utilitarianismvanDyne,Janet(Wasp)vanStockum,W.J.VenomVenusvirtuevirtueethicsVisionVoid.SeealsoReynolds,Robert;Sentryvon Strucker, Baron Walker, John. See also Captain America; U.S. Agent

Walters, Jennifer (She-Hulk)Walzer,MichaelWarlock,AdamWasp.See alsoPym,Henry“Hank”;vanDyne,JanetWatcherWaugh,PatriciaweiwuweiWest Coast Avengers Whitman, Dane (Black Knight) Williams, Simon. SeeWonder Man Wolverine Wonder Man (Simon Williams). See also Williams,SimonwormholesWreckingCrewXavier,ProfessorX-MenYellowjacket. SeealsoPym,Henry“Hank”YoungAvengersZemo,Heinrich(Baron)Zemo,Helmut(Baron)Zeus

TableofContentsIntroduction:Earth’sMightiestPhilosophersPartOne:WhatWouldanAvengerDo?Chapter1:SuperhumanEthicsClasswiththeAvengersPrime

TheUtilitarianIronManCaptainAmerica:DutyaboveallElseConvictedHeroesVerily,aFineSegue!EthicistsAssemble!

Chapter2:ShiningtheLightontheDarkAvengersPlatoandtheAncientGreekAvengersDoesMightMakeRight?AretheDarkAvengersEvilorSimplyBold?NoOneNeedstoKnowBeingJustJustHowDarkaretheDarkAvengers?

Chapter3:TheAvengers:Earth’sMightiestFamilyOfFatherandUltronSometimestheApplesDoFallFarfromtheTreeJourneytotheCenteroftheAntTheTiesthatBindTheTorchisPassedSinsoftheFather?LettherebeanEnding!

PartTwo:WhoisanAvenger?Chapter4:SuperheroIdentity:CaseStudiesintheAvengers

It’sallaboutBodies,Right?IlikeyouforyourMind,HonestUnmaskingtheMantleTheoryofSuperheroIdentityCaseStudy1:TheSupersoldierCaseStudy2:PymParticlesAreyoutheNextGoliath?

Chapter5:IamMadeofInk:She-HulkandMetacomicsWhatisaMetacomic?YourCoverisBlown,Jen“There’saReaderOutThereNow!”

Gutter-Hoppin’andMoreAmazingStoriesDon’tMaketheShe-HulkAngry...WhataretheShe-Hulk’sPowers?MaybeJen’sReadingthisChapterRightNow

Chapter6:TheSelf-CorruptionofNormanOsborn:ACautionaryTaleOsborn’sOratoryandtheDarkReignTheSplitOsbornIdentityWagtheGoblinHoistbyhisOwnPetard

PartThree:ShouldtheAvengersDoMoreThanAvenge?Chapter7:ForgiversAssemble!

TimeTravel,Retcons,andForgivenessCanCapForgivetheRestofhisKookyQuartet?WhowillForgivetheMutants?ForgiveMe!ForgivenessintheHouseOfMTheParadoxofForgivenessAvengers,Forgive!

Chapter8:Gods,Beasts,andPoliticalAnimals:WhytheAvengersAssembleAssemblingforNecessityorPerfection?ElementaryGreekLessons(ApprovedbytheComicsCode)Ms.-SingherFriendsGettingherArêteTogetherTheOriginalIrredeemableAnt-ManNeitherGodsnorBeastsButPoliticalAnimals

Chapter9:Cap’sKookyQuartet:IsRehabilitationPossible?CananArcherChangehisTrickArrows?FindingaBalancewithHawkeyeMaybeitReallyisintheBloodOldDogsandNewTricksAvengingorSaving?HopefortheFuture?AvengersRehabilitate!

PartFour:DotheAvengersEverGoTooFar?Chapter10:FightingtheGoodFight:MilitaryEthicsandtheKree-SkrullWar

EntryPointtotheKree-SkrullWarThere’sanIntergalacticWarGoingonandYou’reInvitedWasRonanintheRight?ThoseSneakySkrulls

TorturedLogicAndthewarRageson

Chapter11:SecretsandLies:CompromisingtheAvengers’ValuesfortheGoodoftheWorld

FiguringouttheRulesOccultingtheTruthSorcererSupremeEmergencyShhhhh—AvengersAssemble(inSecret)!BeingWikileakedOn“ThisistheKindofThingthatisGoingtoBiteUSintheButt”

Chapter 12: The Avengers and S.H.I.E.L.D.: The Problem with ProactiveSuperheroics

TheUltimates,theAvengers,andNickFury’sS.H.I.E.L.D.RedandGoldHelicarriers?IDidn’tMeanit,HonestThisChangesEverything(UntilitChangesBack)ButIWanttoHelp!CaptainAmerica’smightyS.H.I.E.L.D....Well,SortOf

PartFive:WhatKindofWorlddotheAvengersLiveIn?Chapter13:CanKangKillhisPastSelf?TheParadoxofTimeTravel

TheScienceofBendingTimeBreakingTimeBuildingaTimeMachineClosedTimelikeKangTimetoEnd

Chapter 14: “No Other Gods Before Me”: God, Ontology, and Ethics in theAvengers’Universe

God,theOne-Who-Is-Above-All—or“Stan,”ForShort“GodsareaBitDifferent”OntologyComics#1DoesGodlinessImplyGoodness?EqualOpportunity—forDeities?

Chapter15:LoveAvengersStyle:CananAndroidLoveaHuman?WhatisLove,Anyway?Friends,Lovers,andSignificantOthersUnreciprocatedLove“NoSisterofMineMayBecomeInvolvedwitha—a—aRobot!”Love:AmericanStyle

Chapter16:TheWayoftheArrow:HawkeyeMeetstheTaoistMasters

Don’tTrySoHard,ClintWhenisaButcherLikeanArcher?Hawkeye,Humble?TheLifeandDeathofaHeroTheWayoftheArcher

Appendix:WhyarethereFourVolumesofAvengers?Contributors:AvengersAcademyIndex:FromJarvis’sSecretFiles