THE BOOK OF ERRORS: A CRITICAL EDITION AND STUDY OF

KITĀB AL-AGHĀLIT BY ABŪ ‘ABD AL-RAHMĀN AL-SULAMĪ (D. 412/1021)

by

JAWAD ANWAR QURESHI

(under the direction of Dr. Kenneth Honerkamp)

ABSTRACT

The Kitāb al-aghāliṭ (The Book of Errors) by Abū ‘Abd al-Raḥmān al-Sulamī (d. 412/1021)

elucidates a number of errors in both thought and practice that a traveler of the Sufi path might

fall into. This study presents a critical edition of the Arabic text of Kitāb al-Aghāliṭ produced from

four manuscripts (three of which were previously uncatalogued), a detailed synopsis of the book,

and addresses questions of authorship and the relationship between Kitāb al-aghāliṭ and the

Kitāb al-luma‘ of Abu’l Naṣr al-Sarrāj (d. 378/988). The main manuscript used in forming the

critical edition treats the Kitāb al-aghāliṭ as a section of another Sulamī work previously thought

lost – Miḥan mashāyikh al-ṣufīyah (The Trials of the Sufi Masters) – a critical edition of which is

included as an appendix.

INDEX WORDS: Islam, Sufism, Malāmatīya, Abū ‘Abd al-Raḥmān al-Sulamī, Abu’l Naṣr

al-Sarrāj, Kitāb al-aghāliṭ, Miḥan mashayikh al-ṣufiyah, Kitāb al-luma‘ Ghalatāṭ al-ṣūfiya.

THE BOOK OF ERRORS: A CRITICAL EDITION AND STUDY OF

KITĀB AL-AGHĀLIT BY ABŪ ‘ABD AL-RAHMĀN AL-SULAMĪ (D. 412/1021)

by

Jawad Anwar Qureshi

A.B. University of Missouri-Columbia, 1999

A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of The University of Georgia in Partial

Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree

MASTER OF ARTS

ATHENS, GEORGIA

2002

© 2002

Jawad A. Qureshi

All Rights Reserved

THE BOOK OF ERRORS: A CRITICAL EDITION AND STUDY OF

KITĀB AL-AGHĀLIT BY ABŪ ‘ABD AL-RAHMĀN AL-SULAMĪ (D. 412/1021)

by

Jawad Anwar Qureshi

Approved:

Major Professor: Kenneth Honerkamp

Committee: Kenneth Honerkamp Alan Godlas Sandy Martin

Electronic Version Approved: Gordhan L. Patel Dean of the Graduate School The University of Georgia August 2002

vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................... v

A NOTE ON DATES, QUR’ĀNIC REFERENCES, AND FOREIGN WORDS.................................ix

PREFACE ........................................................................................................................................ 1

CHAPTER

1 Abū ‘Abd al-Raḥmān al-Sulamī and the Kitāb al-aghāliṭ........................................ 3

Sulamī: Scholar and Sufi Shaykh ............................................................. 3

Title of the Aghāliṭ and its Relationship to Other Sulamī Texts............... 11

Authorship and a Comparison with Sarrāj’s Kitāb al-luma‘..................... 13

Conclusion .............................................................................................. 17

2 Synopsis of Kitāb al-aghāliṭ.................................................................................. 18

Introduction ............................................................................................. 18

Errors that occur in terms of doctrine...................................................... 21

Errors that occur in terms of social transactions and Sufi practices ....... 26

Errors that occur in terms of spiritual states ........................................... 30

3 The Arabic text of Kitāb al-aghāliṭ ........................................................................ 37

The Manuscripts ..................................................................................... 37

Method of the critical edition ................................................................... 39

Images of the manuscripts...................................................................... 41

Kitāb al-aghāliṭ - Critical Edition.............................................................. 49

CONCLUDING REMARKS ............................................................................................................ 69

APPENDIX – Miḥan mashayikh al-ṣūfīya....................................................................................... 71

viii

Concerning the text................................................................................. 71

Images of the manuscripts...................................................................... 72

Miḥan mashāyikh al-ṣūfīya – Critical Edition........................................... 74

REFERENCES............................................................................................................................... 79

ix

A NOTE ON DATES, QUR’ĀNIC REFERENCES, AND FOREIGN WORDS

All dates are indicated in accordance with both the Islamic ḥijrah calendar (A.H.) and the

Common Era (C.E.), with the two dates separated by a slash. Verses from the Qur’ān are in

italics, with the chapter and verse numbers indicated in brackets. All transliterations have been

standardized in accord with the Library of Congress guidelines. Common words in Islamic

studies such as Qur’ān, ḥadīth, Sufi, shaykh, sunnah, shari‘ah, etc have not been placed in italics.

Plurals of such words will be made so by adding an “s” as is done in English. Thus, ḥadīth is

pluralized ḥadīths instead of the Arabic aḥādīth, shaykh as shaykhs instead of mashāyikh or

shuyukh, and so on.

1

PREFACE

The text that is the focus of this study, the Kitāb al-aghāliṭ (The Book of Errors), is

dedicated entirely to the mistakes that occur with the Sufis. While many books have been written

by opponents of Sufism to this same end, the Aghāliṭ has a unique perspective in that the author,

Abū ‘Abd al-Raḥmān al-Sulamī (d. 412/1020), was one of the leading Sufi shaykhs of his age.

The text was thus written not against Sufis but for them.

The objective of this thesis is to produce a critical edition of Sulamī’s work based on the

available manuscripts, address the question of authorship, and show Sulamī as not a mere

compiler of Sufi sayings and lore but as an authorized teacher of Sufism who has produced

writings in this capacity. This thesis will consist of three chapters. The first chapter entitled Abū

‘Abd al-Raḥmān al-Sulamī and the Kitāb al-aghāliṭ will consist of three sections, the first will serve

as an introduction to Sulamī, surveying his life and works and emphasizing his place as a Sufi

teacher. The second section will establish the correct title of the text (scholarship hitherto

referred to it as Ghalatāt al-ṣūfīya). The third will address the charge laid by A.J. Arberry against

Sulamī for plagiarizing a section of the Kitāb al-luma‘ of Abu’l Naṣr al-Sarrāj (d. 378/988).1 In

doing so, it will also present a summary comparison with the Kitāb al-luma‘. The second chapter

will present a synopsis of the Aghāliṭ. The third chapter will deal specifically with the text,

including a description of the manuscripts used in this study, the method used in presenting

critical edition, images of pages from the manuscripts, and finally a critical edition of the Arabic

text.

While preparing this critical edition, it was found that the oldest of the four manuscripts

included the Aghāliṭ as a section of another Sulamī work, the Miḥān mashāyikh al-ṣūfīya (The 1 See Arberry’s “Did Sulamī Plagiarize Sarrāj?” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1937): 461-465.

2

Trials of the Sufi Shaykhs). From the content of the two works, it is clear that they are separate

books and the Miḥan was thus not included in the critical edition of the Aghāliṭ. It is however

presented as an appendix to the present study.

The Kitāb al-aghāliṭ has been edited before but the previous editor had only one

manuscript at his disposal and the published edition has a number of mistakes.2 Since then,

three more manuscripts of the Aghāliṭ have come to light – one coming from a collection that was

copied sixty years after Sulamī’s passing, making it the oldest collection of Sulamī works

available. Furthermore, Arberry’s charge of plagiarism has never been thoroughly addressed.

For these reasons a new edition and study of the Kitāb al-aghāliṭ is justified.

2 See Abū ‘Abd al-Raḥmān al-Sulamī, Usūl al-malāmatīya wa ghalaṭāt al-ṣūfīya, ed. ‘Abd al-Fattāḥ Ahmed

al-Fāwī Maḥmūd (Cairo: al-Irshād, 1985).

3

Chapter 1

Abū ‘Abd al-Raḥmān al-Sulamī and the Kitāb al-aghāliṭ

Sulamī: Scholar and Sufi Shaykh

Abū ‘Abd al-Raḥmān al-Sulamī was one of the foremost scholars of Sufism and ḥadīth in

eleventh century Khurasān. His full name is Muḥammad ibn al-Ḥusayn bin Muḥammad ibn Mūsā

ibn Khālid ibn Sālim ibn Zāwiyya ibn Sa‘īd ibn Qabīṣa ibn Sarrāq al-Azdī al-Sulamī. Sulamī’s

student and scribe Abū Sa‘īd Muḥammad ibn ‘Alī al-Khashshāb (d. 456/1064) wrote a biography

of his teacher which is perhaps the best source for our knowledge of Sulamī’s life.1 Sulamī was

born in Nishāpūr in 325/937 to a family of Arab stock that settled in Khurasān, from the Banū Azd

on his father’s side and the Banū Sulaym on his mother’s. When his father left Nishāpūr for

Mecca Sulamī was left to the care of his maternal grandfather Abū ‘Amru Ismā‘īl ibn Nujayd (d.

366/976), who raised his grandson and saw to his education. It is for this reason that Abū ‘Abd

al-Raḥmān took the name of his maternal tribe – Sulaym. When Ibn Nujayd passed away, Sulamī 1 A manuscript of this work survives and is in the possession of M.J. Kister. With the exception of Khatīb al-

Baghdādi’s entry on Sulamī in the former’s Tārīkh Baghdad (Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-‘Ilmīyah, 1965), 2: 248-

249, biographical dictionaries have drawn heavily on Khashshāb’s work and is quoted by Shams ad-Dīn

Muḥammad al-Dhahabī in his Siyar a‘lām al-nubalā’ (Beirut: Mu`assassat al-Risālah),17: 247-255 (hereafter

referred to as Dhahabī). Tāj al-Dīn al-Sūbkī builds on Dhahabī’s information on Sulamī and includes some

his own comments in his Ṭabaqāt al-shāfi‘iyah al-kubra (Cairo: ‘Isa al-Bābī al-Ḥalabī), 4:143-147 (hereafter

referred to as Subkī). The Risala of Abū’l Qāsim al-Qushayrī contains a number of stories involving Sulamī

as well as sayings from him. For a list of Sulami’s writings, see Fuat Sezgin, Geschichte Des Arabischen Shrifttums (Leiden: E.J. Brill), 1:671-673. This information was bought together by Nūr al-Dīn Shurayba in

the introduction to his critical edition of Sulamīs Ṭabaqāt al-ṣufīyah (Cairo: Dār al-Kitāb al-Nafīs, 1986). This

list of writings and biographical material was updated and incorporated into Suleyman Atesh’s introduction to

his Tis‘at kutub fi uṣūl al-taṣawwūf wa’l zuhd li Abī ‘Abd al-Raḥmān al-Sulamī (Riyadh: al-Nāshir, 1993), 54-

64 (here after referred to as Atesh). In English see Gerhard Böwering’s “The Qur’an Commentary of al-

Sulami,” in Essays Presented to Charles J. Adams, ed. Wael Hallaq and Donald P. Little (Leiden: E.J. Brill,

1991), 41-56 (hereafter referred to as Böwering); and also Rkia Cornell’s Early Ṣūfī Women, (Louisville:

Fonsvitae, 2000), 31-42.

4

inherited his library which he turned into a lodge (duwayra) for Sufis. Sulamī was buried there

years later when he too passed away.

Nishāpūr was the cultural capital of Khurasān during Sulamī’s time and saw heavy

internal strife amongst her scholars which was a key factor in her eventual collapse.2 Though

Nishāpūr had virtually every school of Islamic thought in her midst, the main combatants were the

Shāfi‘ī and the Ḥanafī schools who were aligned along theological lines as well, the former with

the Ash‘arites and the latter with the Mu‘tazilites.3 A third party that was also significant in the

milieu and who were popular with the lower-class of Nishāpūr and at times some very influential

leaders of Khurasān were the Karrāmites – an extreme ascetic group that emphasized the literal

aspects of revelation for which they were accused of anthropomorphism.4 The Karrāmites were

found throughout the Near East and were one of a number of different forms of Islamic piety and

mysticism. Another form of Islamic piety present in Nishāpūr, and that was almost indigenous to

Khurasān, was the Malāmatīya (the People of Blame). Besides the Karramites and the

Malāmatīs, Nishāpūr also had teachers of Iraqi Sufism. Virtually all the Sufis of Khurasān came

from the Shāfi‘ī-Ash‘arī faction,5 of which Sulamī was a leading figure – all of his teachers were

Shāfi‘ite and it is said that he met the great Ash‘arite scholar Abū Bakr al-Bāqillanī (d. 403/1013)

when the latter visited Shiraz. Though Sulamī was a high standing member of the Shāfi‘ite-

Ash‘arite tradition, his main scholarly interests were not jurisprudence or theology but Sufism and

2 For a detailed socio-political study of Nishāpūr, see Richard Bulliets The Patricians of Nishapur. For the

relationship between the ‘ulemā’ and the ruling class, see Bulliets “The Politico-Religious History of Nishapur

in the Eleventh Century.” In Islamic Civilisation 950-1150. ed. D. S. Richards, 71-91. Oxford, 1973. 3 For more on the Shafi‘ī and Hanafī disputes, see Bulliet The Patricians of Nishapur, 28-46. 4 On the Karramites and their place in Khurasān, see C. E. Bosworth, “The Rise of the Karāmiya in

Khurasān,” Muslim World (1960) 6-14. 5 On the relationship between the Sufis and the Shāfi‘ī madhhab in Nishāpūr, see Margaret Malamud’s “Sufi

Organizations and structures of authority in medieval Nihsapur,” IJMES 26 (1994), 427-442.

5

ḥadīth, as the honorifics that Dhahabī mentions suggest: “the imām, the master of ḥadīth (al-

ḥāfiẓ), the ḥadīth scholar (al-muḥaddith), the Shaykh of Khurasān, the elder of the Sufis.”6

In the field of ḥadīth, Sulamī traveled to various parts of the Islamic world including Rayy,

Merv, Hamādān, Baghdād, and the Hijāz. Subkī mentions that Sulamī taught ḥadīth for over forty

years through dictation and recitation.7 He was accused of being untrustworthy in transmitting

ḥadīth (ghayr thiqa) by a jealous opponent of the Nishāpūr’s Ḥanafī-Mu‘tazilite faction,

Muḥammad ibn Yūsuf al-Qaṭṭān. However, Subkī repudiates this charge and state that he was

indeed trustworthy.8 Furthermore, Sulamī composed a number of questions to the ḥadīth master

Abū’l Ḥasan al-Daraquṭnī (d. 385/995) concerning the soundness of ḥadīth narrators (jarḥ wa

ta‘dīl) about which Dhahabī says, “They are questions of one who knows [this field] (su’āl ‘ārif).”9

He also compiled a collection of forty ḥadīth which the later Shafi‘ī jurisprudent and ḥadīth master

Sharaf al-Dīn an-Nawawī (d. 676/1277) mentions in the introduction to his own popular

collection.10

With regards to his mystical training, Sulamī’s first teachers were his father and maternal

grandfather Isma‘īl Ibn Nujayd. The latter was a member of the Malāmatīya and had

accompanied Abū ‘Uthmān al-Ḥīrī (d. 298/910). Sulamī received khirqah (robe of investiture) and

permission to initiate novices from the Shāfi‘ī shaykh Abū Sahl al-Su‘lukī (d. 369/980).11 He also

also received the khirqah from Abū’l Qāsim al-Naṣrābādhi (d. 367/977-8) and accompanied him

on the Hajj. Naṣrabādhi’s chain of teachers includes some the most prominent figures of Iraqi

6 Dhahabī (17: 247) 7 Subkī, (2: 144). 8 Ibid. and Khaṭīb, (2: 248). 9 Dhahabi, (17: 252). For the questions see Su’alāt Abi ‘Abd al-Raḥmān al-Sulamī lil-Daraqutni fi jarḥ wa al-ta‘dīl, ed. Sulayman Atesh (Riyadh: Dar al-‘Ulūm li’l-Tibā‘ah wa’l-Nashr, 1988). 10 For Sulamī’s forty ḥadīth, see Muḥammad ibn ‘Abd al-Raḥmān al-Sakhāwī’s checking in the latter’s Takhrīj al-arba‘īn al-Sulamīya fi’l ṭaṣawwūf, Ed. ‘Alī Ḥasan ‘Alī ‘Abd al-Ḥamīd (Beirut: al-Maktab al-Islāmī, 1986). 11 Böwering incorrectly states that al-Su‘lūkī was a Ḥanafī. Subkī (3:137) gives his full name as Ḥanafī due

to descent from the the Banū Ḥanīfa and not madhhab affiliation.

6

Sufism: Abū Bakr al-Shiblī (d. 334/946), Abū’l Qāsim al-Junayd (d. 295/910), Sarī al-Saqaṭī (d.

253/867), Ma‘rūf al-Karkhī (d. 200/815) and then back to the Prophet through ‘Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib.12

Sulamī was thus not only affiliated with the Khurasānian tradition of the Malāmatīya and Iraqī

tradition of Sufism but he was qualified by some of the highest authorities of both forms of Islamic

mysticism to transmit this teaching to others.

With regards to his writings on Sufism, scholarship has seen fit to provide three

categories that he contributed to.13 The first of these is Sufi hagiography, where he authored

three important works: Tārīkh al-ṣūfīyah (The History of the Sufis) which is lost, though parts

remain extant in the numerous later hagiographical works that draw from it; Dhikr al-niswa al-

muta‘ābidāt aṣ-ṣūfiyyāt (A Memorial of Female Sufi Devotees);14 and the Ṭabaqāt al-ṣūfīyah (The

Successive Generations of the Sufis), the latter being his most important and lasting contribution.

Sulamī’s Ṭabaqāt served as an essential resource for later Sufi hagiographies.15 The second

category of Sulamī’s writings is the genre of Sufi commentary on the Qur’ān, where he compiled

the Ḥaqā’iq al-tafsīr (The Realities of Qur’ānic Exegesis) and an appendix to this work titled

Ziyādat al-ḥaqā’iq al-tafsīr (Appendix to the Realities of Qur’ānic Exegesis). 16 Sulamī’s Ḥaqā’iq is

an encyclopedic collection of the Sufi commentary on the Qur’ān and incorporated much of the

literature to his time. Like the Ṭabaqāt, the Ḥaqā’iq served as a major source for future works in

the field, in particular the ‘Arā’is al-bayān (Brides of Elucidation) of Ruzbihān Baqlī (d. 606/1209). 12 See Mohammad Ebn-e Monavvar, The Secrets of God’s Mystical Oneness [Asrār al-Towḥid], trans. John

O’Kane (New York: Mazda Publisher, 1992), 100. 13 For this classification of Sulamī’s writings, see Böwering, “Qur’an Commentary of al-Sulamī,” 45. 14 See Rkia Cornell’s Early Sufi Women (Louisville: Fonsvitae, 2000) for a critical edition and translation of

this book. For an earlier Arabic edition that is not quite up to par, see Maḥmūd Muḥammad al-Tanāhi’s

edition (Cairo: Maktabat al-Khanji, 1993). 15 There are two good scholarly editions of the Ṭabaqāt al-ṣūfīyah by Nur al-Din Shurayba (Cairo: Dār al-

Kitāb al-Nafīs, 1986) and Ed. J. Pederson (Leiden: Brill, 1960). For a study of the Ṭabaqāt, see Jawid

Mojaddedi’s The Biographical Tradition In Ṣufism, (Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press, 2001), 9-40. 16 For a critical edition of the latter, see Gerhard Böwering’s The Minor Qur’ān Commentary of Abū ‘Abd al-Raḥmān as-Sulamī (d. 412/1021) (Beirut: Dar el-Machreq Sarl Editeurs, 1995).

7

The third category of Sulamī’s writings is compilations of sayings and stories of early Sufis on

particular themes or manners and customs. There are a number of treatises by Sulamī to this

end, of particular note are ‘Uyūb al-nafs (The Faults of the Lower-Self), Jawami‘ al-ādāb al-

ṣūfiyyah (Compendium of Sufi Comportment), Adab al-suḥba (The Proper Conduct of Keeping

Company), Risālat al-malāmatīya (The Epistle of the People of Blame) and many other shorter

works.17

Though Sulamī has made lasting contributions to Sufism, some experts have questioned

Sulamī’s Sufi affiliations. One scholar, comparing him to Farīd al-Dīn al-‘Aṭṭār (d. 586/1190), says

that ‘Aṭṭār was “like Sulamī, actually no Sufi himself.”18 He was characterized as being “not an

original author, but a compiler of Sufi biographies, anecdotes and sayings, who copied his

sources extensively, supplementing the materials with oral information,”19 and as “unoriginal and

uninspiring.”20 Recent scholarship has re-assessed this view of Sulamī and after examining his

writings closer has seen fit to add a fourth category – that of Sulamī as a Sufi master.21 Sulamī’s

writings were thus aimed at specific audiences – on the one hand, a general audience for whom

the text was an apology for Sufism, and on the other, a more erudite audience within the Sufi

community for whom Sualmī’s writings were indeed compilations of the efforts of previous

masters. This new category addresses a more specific audience: Sufi initiates.

17 Jawamī‘ ādāb al-ṣūfiyya and ‘Uyūb al-nafs wa-mudawatuhā. Ed. Etan Kohlberg (Jerusalem: Jerusalem

Academic Press, 1976); also Atesh 183-290. For the Kitāb al-Futuwwah, see The Book of Sufi Chivalry.

Trans. Tosun Bayrak (New York: Inner Traditions International, 1983). Risālat al-malāmatīya. ‘Affifī’s al-Malāmatīyah wa’l ṣūfīyah wa ahl al-futūwah (Cairo: Dār Iḥyā Kutub al-‘Arabīyah, 1945). 18 Böwering, 55. 19 Böwering, 50. 20 Julian Baldick, Mystical Islam (New York: University of New York Press, 1989), 85. 21 For this particular development in Sulamī studies, see Kenneth Honerkamp’s “The Principles of the

Malāmatīya: Study, Critical Edition, and Translation of Two Texts by Abu ‘Abd al-Rahman al-Sulami (d.

412/1021),” (master’s thesis, University of Georgia-Athens, 1997).

8

As for Sulamī’s credentials as a Sufi shaykh, we have already mentioned that he was

raised under the watchful eye of his Malāmatī grandfather ibn Nujayd and that he received the

khirqah from Naṣrabādhi and Su‘lukī, which should be sufficient to establish his authority as a

Sufi shaykh. There are other facts that also show him in this capacity. Abū Sa‘īd ibn Abi’l Khayr

(d. 440/1049), who was extremely influential in the development of Sufism, was ordered by his

shaykh to go to Sulamī to receive the khirqah.22 The celebrated Sufi Abū’l Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d.

465/1072) was also a disciple of Sulamī after the former’s shaykh Abū ‘Alī al-Daqqāq (d.

405/1014 or 412/1021) passed away. Though Qushayrī was Sulamī’s disciple for a short period of

time, his Risāla is nonetheless filled with sayings from Sulamī. Also, Sulamī’s contemporaries

held him in high saintly esteem – Muḥammad ibn ‘Abdullah al-Naysābūrī (d. 405/1014) said, “If

Abū ‘Abd al-Raḥmān [al-Sulamī] is not of the abdāl, then God has no saints upon this earth.”23

After Sulamī’s passing, his grave became a site for pious visits, Khatīb al-Baghdādī himself

having traveled to it to seek its blessing.24 Furthermore, within the later Sufi tradition, Sulamī is

praised by no higher a figure then Muḥyī al-Dīn ibn ‘Arabī (d. 638/1240) in the latter’s al-Futūḥāt

al-makkiya.25 Given the above evidence, Sulamī’s position as a Sufi shaykh of high caliber

should be without doubt. What remains is to consider the texts that he produced in this capacity.

Sulamī’s writings as a Sufi shaykh have yet to be studied in depth however a few general

remarks can be made about them at present. The key feature of these works is that Sulamī

speaks from his own authority as a Sufi shaykh and does not rely on the teachings or sayings of

past masters. The main sources for these writings are the Qur’ān and ḥadiths. These texts are

22 See Ebn-e Monavvar, The Secrets of God’s Mystical Oneness [Asrār al-Towḥid], trans. John O’Kane

(New York: Mazda Publisher, 1992), 100. 23 In his introduction the Ṭabaqāt al-Ṣufiyah (p. 46), Shurayba quotes this saying from Sibṭ ibn al-Jawzī,

Mir’āt al-Zamān, vol. 11, fol. 3, events of 412 Hijrī. 24 Khatīb, (2: 247). 25 See al-Futūḥāt al-Makkīya (Cairo, n.d.) 1: 201 and 2:.261. Ibn ‘Arabī’s encounter with Sulamī and the high

esteem that ibn ‘Arabī held him in will be looked at further in chapter 2.

9

generally replies to questions posed to him by disciples on fine points of belief and practice or a

discussion of a particular point pertaining to the Path. In the few instances where he does use

the authority of past shaykhs it is only to sum up a particular point that he is making. A good

example of such a work is his Manāhij al-‘ārifīn (The Paths of the Gnostics).26 In the Manāhij,

Sulamī outlines the general stages of the Sufi path from beginning to end in a short and concise

manner, mentioning the most important developments that the novice will go through and the

necessary inner attitudes at each stage. In doing this, he uses fewer then ten sayings of past

shaykhs and relies extensively on the Qur’ān and ḥadīths (over 20) to make his point. The

Darajāt al-ṣādiqīn (Stations of the Righteous)27 also covers the entirety of the Sufi path but with a

stronger emphasis on the spiritual-states (aḥwāl) “from ‘repentance’ (tawba) to the loftiest degree

of ‘gnosis’ (ma‘rifa), culminating in ‘extinction’ (fanā’), and followed in certain cases by the return

of the traveler to creation, as a guide and example to others.”28 Zalal al-fuqarā’ (Mistakes of the

Poor)29 presents a lucid discussion of one of the greatest dangers on the Path – spiritual

pretension. The text was written after Sulamī saw how a number of Sufi aspirants were using

their status as fuqarā’ (poor) as a source of arrogance. He goes to great lengths in discussing

mistaken notions of spiritual impoverishment (faqr) and the reality of being impoverished to God

and its consequences with respect to belief, comportment, character, and religious practices. In

the same capacity, Sulamī wrote the Adab majālisat al-mashayikh (The Proper Conduct of Sitting

with the Shaykhs),30 which discusses the proper conduct that the aspirant must have with his

shaykh. He states that the authority of the shaykh is derived from the authority of the Prophet,

which in turn is derived from God Himself. The gathering of the brethren links the aspirant to the 26 See Etan Kohlberg’s Manāhij al-‘Ārifīn: A Treatise on Ṣūfism by Abū ‘Abd al-Raḥmān al-Sulamī (Jerusalem: Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam, 1979); also Atesh, 141-164. 27 See Atesh, 377-389. Also, see Honerkamp for a critical edition, synopsis, and translation of this text. 28 Honerkamp, 87. 29 Ibid. 30 Manuscript in possession of Dr. Ken Honerkamp of the University of Georgia-Athens.

10

blessing of the shaykh which links the aspirant to the blessing of the Prophet which in turn links

the aspirant to the presence of God. Throughout this text, he emphasizes the proper conduct in

the presence of a “shaykh of instruction and training” (ta‘līm wa tarbīyah).31 Similarly, another

work, the Maḥāsin al-taṣawwuf (The Beauties of Sufism) was written in response to someone that

complained to Sulamī about a scholar that censors Sufi practices. Unlike his Muqaddima fi’l

taṣawwūf (Introduction to Sufism)32 which consists entirely of sayings from past masters, the

Maḥāsin presents a detailed apology for Sufism using few sources besides the Qur’an and

ḥadīth. Lastly, the most explicit text that shows Sulamī as a Sufi shaykh is his Fuṣūl fi’l tasawwūf

(Passages Concerning Sufism),33 which contain fifty-one of his discourses (mudhākarāt) on a

variety of subjects. In each of these works, Sulamī speaks largely from his own authority based

mostly on passages from the Qur’ān and the ḥadīth, and rarely the saying of a previous Sufi.

These books are perhaps best referred to as teaching texts of Sulamī.

The different writing styles that Sulamī employed – one as a collector or compiler of

sayings and the other as an original author – was done out of consideration for the audiences that

he was addressing. His original essays were certainly directed towards people that were already

initiated into the Sufi path. His writings as a compiler allowed him to serve as an apologist for

Sufism, asserting that its way is based on the traditions of the pious forefathers going back to the

Companions and the Prophet himself, as well as provide a service to the scholarly community.

There is a more subtle reason behind this use of different writing styles which is made

apparent when we keep in mind that Sulamī was also a part of the Malāmatī tradition. Part of the

Malāmatī way is to constantly blame one’s self and not to draw the attention of others in fear of 31 When Fritz Meier wrote his article on the centrality of Khurāsān to the notion of shaykh of instruction and

training this book remained unknown. It contains a great deal of material that can further nuance Meier’s

thesis. See “Khurasān and the End of Classical Sufism.” In Essays in Islamic Mysticism and Piety. Ed. and

trans. by Berndt Radke and R.S. O’Fahey (Leiden: Brill, 2000), 189-219. 32 Op. Cit. ed. Yusuf Zaydan, Cairo, 1978. 33 Manuscript in possession of Dr. Ken Honerkamp of the University of Georgia-Athens.

11

ostentation. For the general audience, Sulamī thus emphasized the Malāmatī ethic and acted as

a compiler, thus not drawing attention to his own spiritual rank. For his specialized audience

however we see Sulamī making full use of his rank and authority as a Sufi shaykh. It would seem

that these teaching texts of Sulamī – texts that draw attention to his authority – were perhaps not

circulated as widely as his other works and were perhaps even limited to his direct students. It is

in this capacity, as a Sufi scholar as well as a Malāmatī, that Sulamī penned the Aghāliṭ.

Title of the Aghāliṭ and its Relationship to Other Sulamī Texts

Before the present study, scholarship on the Aghāliṭ had access to one manuscript of the

text from the Dār al-Kutub library in Cairo.34 This particular manuscript comes from compilation of

works on Sufism and contains a copy of the Sulamī’s Risālat al-malāmatīya. At the end of the

Risāla, a section appears titled Ghalaṭāt al-ṣūfīya (The Errors of the Sufis), and presents the text

of Kitāb al-aghāliṭ. Two studies have been carried out on the Dār al-Kutub manuscript, one by

Abu’l ‘Alā’ al-‘Affifī, titled al-Malāmatīya wa’l ṣūfīyah wa ahl al-futūwa,35 which presented a critical

edition of Sulamī’s Risāla but did not include the Ghalaṭāt al-ṣūfīya in it. A second study was

carried out on the same manuscript by ‘Abd al-Fattāḥ Ahmed al-Fāwī Maḥmūd and published

under the title Usūl al-malāmatīya wa ghalaṭāt al-ṣūfīya.36 As it is clear from his title, he

considered the Ghalaṭāt to be a section of the Risāla. The focus of both of these studies however

was not the text of the Ghalaṭāt but the Risāla. The correct position with regards to whether the

Ghalaṭāt is a section of the Risāla is ‘Affifī’s, namely that it is not. The main evidence for this

comes from the fact that editions of the Risāla based on other manuscripts end where ‘Affifī

34 See chapter 2 for information on all of the manuscripts mentioned in this section. 35 Op. cit., Cairo: Dār Iḥyā Kutub al-‘Arabīyah, 1945. 36 Op. cit., Cairo: al-Irshād, 1985.

12

ended his.37 However, Maḥmūd’s position is not without foundation – the Ghalaṭāt starts abruptly

without the basmallah, preamble, opening supplication, or anything of the sort, which is very

uncharacteristic of Sulamī’s books. Also, the Ghalaṭāt does start off as a faṣl (section) and is

followed by three more, suggesting that the Ghalaṭāt is an addendum of sorts to the Risāla.

The issue of whether or not the Ghalaṭāt was a separate text by Sulamī is further

complicated when we look at the Sulamīyāt manuscript (see next chapter for description). This

collection includes the Ghalaṭāt but gives a different title to the book –Fi’l ghalaṭ al-ladhī waqa‘ li’l-

qawm (Concerning the Errors that Occurred with the Sufis) – and is given as a section of another

of Sulamī’s works, not the Risāla but a previously unknown work Miḥan mashāyikh al-ṣūfīya (The

Trials of the Sufi Shaykhs). Even though this collection treats the books as being a part of the

Miḥan, it is clear from their content that they should not be treated as one book. The Miḥan lists

the trials of twenty-six Sufi shaykhs and should be considered another contribution by Sulamī to

hagiographical literature.38 The Aghāliṭ, however is not hagiographical in the least bit and like a

number of other Sulamī works (such as Jawāmi‘ ādāb al-ṣufiyah, ‘Uyūb al-nafs, Risālat al-

malāmatīya, and other) presents it’s contents in list form.

That the text is to be treated as a separate work by Sulamī, one not attached to any other

of his writings, is made clear when looking at the two remaining manuscripts, the Moroccan and

the Bin Yusuf manuscripts. Both present the text as an independent work and also clarify the

correct title of the book. The Moroccan manuscript has the title Gharā’ib min ‘ulūm al-ṣufiya, and

the Bin Yusuf manuscript gives a fuller title: Kitāb al-aghāliṭ fihi gharā’ib min ‘ulūm al-ṣufiya (The

Book of Errors, Containing Oddities from the Science of the Sufis). Kitāb al-aghāliṭ then is the

proper title because this is the only manuscript that actually refers to it as a book. Also, Ghalaṭāt

(which was used in the Dār al-Kutub manuscript) is an incorrect form of the plural of the Arabic

37 Hartmann’s edition of the Risālah, in Der Islam, (8) 157-203. 38 See the appendix of this thesis for an edition of the Miḥan.

13

word ghalaṭ; the correct plural of which is aghāliṭ. Lastly, this title is corroborated by an external

source, namely a reference to the book by Ibn ‘Arabī in his Jawāb al-mustaqīm, where he

mentions a work by Sulamī titled Aghāliṭ al-ṣufiya.39 Because ibn ‘Arabī does not mention the

Miḥan along with it, this provides further support that the Aghāliṭ is a separate work of Sulamī.

Authorship and a Comparison with Sarrāj’s Kitāb al-luma‘40

Khurasān in the 3rd/9th century saw the writing of the earliest apologies for Sufism, one of

the earliest being Abu’l Naṣr al-Sarrāj’s (d. 378/988) Kitāb al-luma‘ (The Book of Flashes).

Sarrāj’s Luma‘ ends with a section titled “Chapter: Mentioning those that erred in Sufism, from

whence the error occurred, and how one cures this.” When comparing the Luma‘ to Sulamī’s

Aghāliṭ, A.J. Arberry wrote that the latter was “to be described as a wholesale plagiarism of

Sarrāj’s text, committed without the slightest acknowledgement or excuse,” and then gives

samples of the similarity that “amply prove the charge of plagiarism.”41

Before addressing this charge, let us first point out that the concept of plagiarism does

not fit the medieval era or Islamic scholarship in particular. Traditional Islamic scholarship

emphasizes orthodoxy through the transmission of knowledge from recognized authorities as

opposed to the development of innovations. Because of this, making extensive use of one’s

authorities in no way takes away from ones scholarly acumen. For example, Qushayrī copied the

biographical entries in his Risālah fi’l taṣawwuf almost word for word Sulamī’s Ṭabaqāt without

this affecting his reputation as a scholar in the slightest. We should also remember that Sulamī

39 See Osman Yahya’s edition, printed in his edition of Ḥakīm Tirmidhīs Kitāb khatm al-Awliyā’ (Beirut: al-

Maṭba‘at al-Kathilūkīya, 1965), 144. 40 I would like to acknowledge the assistance rendered by Jean-Jacques Thibon in this section for providing

a chapter from his doctoral thesis at the University of Aix–en Provence, France (proposed date of defense,

2002). Though he did not have access to the manuscripts that I worked with, his comments on Arberry’s

charge of plagiarism and his comparison with Luma‘ have been extremely valuable. 41 Arberry, 461-462.

14

was a recognized and accomplished scholar of his time who was accepted by scholars, the

masses, and even political rulers. With the exception of the accusations of Muhammad ibn Yusuf

al-Qaṭṭān (which, as I noted earlier, were considered baseless), Sulamī’s reputation is flawless.

Lastly, while he is in the habit of being quite liberal in copying his sources, we see from his other

writings that he never copied them in toto.

With these points in mind, we shall see that Sulamī was not plagiarizing Sarrāj but was in

fact presenting an abridgement of the latter’s text. As Arberry noted, the two works cover the

same material and there is a high degree of correspondence in terms of how the material is

presented and even how the text is phrased. What Arberry failed to note however is that the

section of Luma‘ is significantly longer and contains much more material then is found in Aghāliṭ.

To illustrate this point, a translation of the beginning sections of the Luma‘ and the Aghāliṭ is given

below. The section from Luma‘ begins:42

The Shaykh said (God have mercy with him): I heard ibn ‘Alī al-Karkhī say: I head Abū

‘Alī al-Rudhbārī (d. 322/935) (God have mercy with him) say: “We have come to a place

in this matter like the edge of a sword: if we said like this, we are in the Fire; and if we

said like that we are in the Fire!” He means that if we make a mistake in the states that

we are in then we will become people of the Fire. [The reason for this] is because an

error in everything is of lesser consequence then an error in Sufism and its science,

because it consists of spiritual-stations (maqāmāt), states (aḥwāl), volitions (irādāt), degrees (darajāt), and indications (ishārāt). Whosoever advances in this with what he

does not [properly] have has acted adversely to God and God becomes his enemy. If He

wills He will forgive him and if He wills He will punish him, with what He wants and how

He wants. Everyone that takes on the way of this faction [i.e. the Sufis], claims for

himself a foothold in this matter, or thinks that he has some of the proprieties (ādāb) of

this group but does not establish his foundations upon three things is deluded, even if he

floats in the air, speaks with wisdom, or is accepted by the elect and the common-folk.

These three things are: firstly, distancing ones self from that which is forbidden, the major

and minor of it. Secondly, fulfilling all of the religious obligations, the easy and the

difficult of them. The third is leaving the world (dunya) to the people of the world, the

42 Sarrāj, 409-410.

15

large and small portions of it, except what is necessary from it for the believer, which is

what is narrated from the Prophet (God bless him and give him peace) that he said, “Four

things are in the dunya but not of it: a portion of food with which you satisfy your hunger,

clothing that covers your nakedness, a home that you reside in, and a pious wife that you

find repose with.” Everything else besides this – from gathering, prohibiting, clinging to,

love of increase and boastfulness – all of this is a severing veil that cuts the slave off

from God. Anyone that claims a state of the elect, or thinks that he has traversed a

station of the people of the Bench (ahl al-ṣafwa), and he has not established his

foundations on these three things, then he is closer to error then he is to his objective

with respect to all that he invites to, claims, or gives as an example. The knowledgeable

one (‘ālim) is established while the ignorant one makes claims.

Now compare Sulamī’s presentation of the same passage:43

[1] He [i.e. Sulamī] said: Ecstatic utterances (shaṭḥ) occur with the Khurasanians because

they speak about their states and about the realities (ḥaqā`iq), [whereas] the Iraqis

describe the states of others while the describer is not ecstatic. The error that occurs

with the Sufis is due to their attaining a place in knowledge (‘ilm) and spiritual-state (ḥāl) one slip therein would drop them from their rank, as Abu ‘Alī al-Rudhbārī said: “We have

come to a place in this matter like the edge of a sword – if we said like this, then we are in

the Fire!” This is because of the fineness of station (maqām) and fineness of spiritual-

state. [2] The foundations of this matter are built on three things: the first of which is

distancing ones self from that which is forbidden, the second, fulfilling religious

obligations (farā’iḍ), and the third, leaving the world (dunyā) to its people.

From this sample we see a number of features of both texts. The discussion in the Luma‘

contains greater detail, including words or phrases for emphasis or explanation (such as when

discussing the foundations of the path), explaining key words and concepts (the saying of

Rudhbārī and the meaning of the word dunyā), as well as adding segue ways to the next issue

discussed (the move from Rudhbārī’s saying to the foundations of the path) adding to the overall

size and readability of the text. What is significant to note regarding the Aghāliṭ is its conciseness

and focus: Sulamī leaves out all of the glosses and explanatory material and retains only the

43 The bold numbers that appear in brackets refer to the paragraphs of the Arabic edition (see chapter 3).

16

discussion points. What Sarrāj spends an entire page discussing, Sulamī summarizes in two

paragraphs. Throughout Sulamī’s recension of the text he adopts this method – all anecdotes

and sayings of the Sufis of the past are cut out with little exception, as are the explanatory

sections that Sarrāj includes. While Arberry is correct in noting that there is a relationship

between the two texts, he was too quick to level the charge of plagiarism and failed to notice the

differences between the works, namely how Sulamī is presenting an abridgement of a section of

Sarrāj’s Luma‘.

Fuat Sezgin, who lists the Aghāliṭ in his Geschichte Des Arabischen Shrifttums, was of

the opinion that Arberry was mistaken in his charge of plagiarism. According to Sezgin, Sulamī

and Sarrāj were presenting recensions of a book by Abū ‘Alī al-Rudhbārī.44 Sulamī does narrate

from Rudhbārī regularly in his other writings, as does Sarrāj in the Luma‘. Sezgin’s position

would settle the issue of authorship by attributing the text to Rudhbārī but Sezgin does not

present any evidence for his claim. Presumably he came to this conclusion from the fact that

both Sulamī and Sarrāj quote Rudhbārī in the beginning of their texts and he assumed that

everything that followed was part of that quote. However, it is clear from both texts that Sarrāj

and Sulamī are quoting only one saying of Rudhbārī’s and that the remainder of the text is not

from him.

The only question that remains is why Sulamī saw a need to abridge Sarrāj’s work

instead of composing his own text? Perhaps the only real answer that can be posited at this point

can come from remembering Sulamī’s Malāmatī ethic when composing his books. His other

works written with this ethic came from a desire to hide his state as a Sufi shaykh. To discuss the

mistakes of the Sufis – and not simply mistakes made at the beginning of the path, but mistakes

made at the highest levels – would certainly call to mind his own degree and spiritual state,

44 Op. cit., Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1967, 1:673. Helmut Ritter also takes Sezgin’s position; see his review of

Shurayba’s edition of Sulamī’s Ṭabaqāt al-ṣūfīya in Oriens 7 (1954): 397-399.

17

something that the Malāmatī ethic seeks to lower. By giving his abridgement of Sarrāj’s book

Sulamī manages to get his ideas across without being pretentious and making claim to having the

rank of someone so advanced that they are able to point out the mistakes of others.

Conclusion

This chapter has given a sketch of Sulamī’s life and when looking at his scholarly

contributions has sought to show Sulamī as being more then a compiler and collector of Sufi lore

but a recognized Sufi not only in his own time but in the later tradition as well. It has also

established the correct title of the book in question. Lastly, it has dealt with the charge of

plagiarism laid against Sulamī by Arberry and has shown that Sulamī was not plagiarizing Sarrāj,

but was abridging his work.

18

Chapter 2

Synopsis of Kitāb al-aghāliṭ

Introduction

Kitāb al-aghāliṭ lists roughly forty errors that are made on the Sufi path from the

perspective of belief, practice, as well as spiritual realizations.1 The text itself consists of a listing

of the mistakes followed by three short sections dealing with types of knowledge, ecstatic

utterances (shaṭḥiyāt), and a reply to statements concerning divine-indwelling (ḥulūl). The

mistakes are not given in any particular order, nor are they explained in detail. Rather, the point

of this book is to give a concise listing of key mistakes that a traveler of the Sufi path might make,

the source of the mistake, and the correct position on the particular issue addressed.

Before listing the particular errors, it is important to note Sulamī’s classification of

knowledge and who he sees as having a legitimate position to censor a Sufi when the latter errs.

[40] Sulamī states that knowledge of shari‘ah is divided into four types: knowledge of transmission

such as ḥadīth (riwāya) and history (āthār), knowledge of rulings (aḥkām), knowledge of analogy

(qiyās) and proofs (iḥtijāj), and lastly knowledge of spiritual realities (ḥaqā’iq) and spiritual stations

(munāzilāt). These types of knowledge are ranked in the order given with the highest form of

knowledge being of the haqā’iq and the foundational knowledge being that which is transmitted

from the previous generations going back to the time of the Prophet. Given this hierarchy of

knowledge, the scholar in a lower tier of knowledge can not censor someone that errs in a tier

above them – thus, the scholar of ḥadīth can not censor the scholar of jurisprudence, and the

1 Bold numbers appearing in brackets throughout this chapter refer to paragraph numbers of the Arabic, in

the next chapter. Quotes in this chapter that are not referenced refer to the Arabic text of the paragraphs of

the Aghāliṭ.

19

jurisprudent can not censor the scholar of proofs, and likewise a scholar of the three sciences just

mentioned can not censor the scholar of the ḥaqā’iq, because it is the highest form of shari‘ah

knowledge. The only one that can justifiably take to task one that errs in the science of the

ḥaqā’iq is a scholar who is realized in the ḥaqā’iq. One can not be a scholar of the ḥaqā’iq except

after having mastered the three foundational sciences that he mentioned. If all four of these

sciences are gathered together in one person, he is “the imām kāmil (the perfected leader), the

proof, and he is the pole (quṭb).” Sulamī then suggests that such a master exists in all ages and

mentions the saying of ‘Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib, “The earth will not be devoid of one that is established to

God as a proof so that His signs (ayāt) are not invalidated or His proofs disproved. Such are few

in number but great in estimation with God.”

That Sufism – the science of the ḥaqā’iq – is based on the previous three sciences is

established by Sulamī in many of his other texts. His definition of a Sufi is summarized in the

following passage from the Manāhij al-‘ārifīn:2

One is not a Sufi who is ignorant of the rulings of God the exalted, and the rulings of the

Prophet (God bless him and give him peace). Whoever does not consolidate the outward

rulings (aḥkām al-ẓāhir) is not suited for refining the inner rulings (aḥkām al-bāṭin). God

the Exalted said: As for those that struggle in Us, We will guide them to Our path. [29: 69]

How can one who gives little consideration to the outward rulings of proper habits be

trusted with the haqā’iq and spiritual secrets (asrār)? Rather, none is realized [in the

ḥaqā’iq] but a spiritual wayfarer (sālik). As for one that lacks wayfaring (sulūk) and

struggling (ijtihād), how will he be realized and in what? Therefore, one that is ignorant of

the outward rulings of God the Exalted is not a Sufi. [Similarly,] one whose state differs

from [shari‘ah] knowledge is not a Sufi. Al-Junayd (the mercy of God be upon him) said

to ibn ‘Alwān: “Knowledge should be your companion and the spiritual-states will enter

into you, for God the Exalted said: Those that are firmly guided in knowledge say, ‘We believe in it.’” [3:7] As for one whose spiritual states differs from sunnah, he is not a Sufi.

It is narrated that the Prophet (God bless him and give him peace) said: “The one who

holds firm to my sunnah during the corruption of my people is like one holding onto

2 See Kohlberg, Manāhij al-‘Ārifīn: A Treatise on Ṣūfism by Abū ‘Abd al-Raḥmān al-Sulamī, (Jerusalem:

Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam, 1979), 32.

20

burning coal.” As for one whose character and comportment is not upon what the Book

and the sunnah oblige, he is not a Sufi.

It is also worth noting that Sulamī did not consider the various other forms of Islamic piety and

mysticism that were current in his time as different systems of mysticism. Rather, he considered

them stages of the Sufi path. His book Darajāt al-ṣādiqīn (The Degrees of the Righteous) is a

response to a question on the difference between Sufism, the way of blame (malāma), and the

way of the people of love (sabīl ahl al-maḥabba). He responds to this question by saying: “Know

well… that these three names refer to outward characteristics of differing spiritual stations and

varied ‘points of view,’ when in fact the way of blame and the way of love are each a spiritual

station and innate characteristic experienced in Sufism.”3 Lastly, from the Aghāliṭ, [2] Sulamī

states that Sufism is based on three things: distancing ones self from that which is forbidden,

fulfilling ones religious obligations, and leaving the base aspects of the world (dunya) to its folk.

For Sulamī Sufism is the field of Islamic learning that represents the experiential aspect of the

shari‘ah and is the realization of a direct knowledge of God. Furthermore, it is the proper name

for that particular knowledge encompassing all of the sound forms of Islamic piety. By sound, it is

clear from the Darajāt that Sulami has in mind traditions such as the Malāmatīyah and not a

movement like the Karrāmites who were never accepted by the Sufis because their unorthodox

beliefs.

The text of the Aghāliṭ begins with an explanation of why mistakes occur [1]. Errors occur

with the Sufis because they have reached a state of knowledge and spiritual degree where one

mistake therein would lower them from their spiritual rank. Abū ‘Alī al-Rūdhbārī indicates the

precariousness of such a state: “We have reached a place in this matter like the edge of a sword;

if we said something like this, then we are in the Fire!” Sulamī notes that this is so because of the

fineness of their spiritual station and the fineness of their spiritual state. 3 Honerkamp, 107.

21

He then gives three types of people that had made mistakes. [3] Those that make

mistakes because they lack the foundations (uṣūl) of the shari‘ah, concerning whom al-Junayd

said, “They are prevented from attainment (wuṣūl) because of their lacking the foundations

(uṣūl).” [4] Those that make mistakes in the branches (furū‘), which Sulamī defines as propriety,

good character, and the spiritual stations (maqāmāt). This type of occurs because of a lack of

knowledge of the foundations of shari‘ah, following the pleasures of the lower-self (nafs), and

from not learning propriety from a shaykh. The shaykh would prevent them from following their

lower-self by lowering for them its pleasures, showing them its blameworthy aspects, and through

guiding them to the right path. [5] Lastly, there are those whose mistakes are mere lapses. If

their mistake is made clear to them, “they return to the path of guidance, noble character, and

lofty spiritual states. Their lapse does not cause them to be lowered in rank, nor does it darken

their spiritual lights.”

This classification can be organized as follows: mistakes made in doctrine (uṣūl al-shar‘),

mistakes made in general societal interactions (what Sulamī calls comportment and character)

and Sufi practices (furū‘), and lastly mistakes made with regards to spiritual states (aḥwāl and

maqāmāt). This categorization will present some problems because the nature of Sufism is that

beliefs, practices, and spiritual stations are all interlinked. Because of this, an error that comes

about because of a deviant belief can appear in a Sufi’s practices, or a mistaken action will have

as its foundation in a mistaken understanding of a spiritual state, and so on. Be that as it may,

the categorization of the errors into beliefs, social interactions, and spiritual-states remains a

useful way of outlining Sulamī’s text.

Errors that occur in terms of doctrine

The first doctrinal error of the Sufis that Sulamī addresses occurred with those that

believed that sainthood (wilāya) is higher and more complete then prophethood [28]. The source

22

for this rests in their mistaken reading of the Qur’ānic narrative of the prophet Moses and the

saintly figure Khiḍr [18:65-82]. They understood from this narrative that Khiḍr’s state is higher

then Moses’ because of the latter’s recourse to him. The mistake occurs because “they do not

realize that God favors whom He wishes with what He wishes.” Sulamī then gives the following

examples of Gods distinguishing some people over other at certain times: prophets were favored

by being given miracles whereas the rest of creation was not in the Qur’ān; Mary was given the

miracle of food being provided for [19:24-26] yet no prophets are known to have received this

miracle; Āṣif ibn Barḥiya brought the throne of Bilqīs the queen of Sheba before Solomon, yet Āṣif

was not a prophet nor does this prove that he was somehow better then Solomon. The last

example he gives is from the Prophet where certain companions are favored over others. The

Prophet said that the Companion Zayd was the most knowledgeable in terms of inheritance laws,

Mu‘ādh ibn Jabal the most knowledgeable in terms of lawful and prohibited, and that none was

more truthful then Abū Dharr al-Ghifārī. To this, Sulamī says: “We should not doubt, nor should

the doubter doubt, that Abū Bakr was more truthful then Abū Dharr and superior to him, and that

‘Umar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb and ‘Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib were more knowledgeable then Mu‘ādh (God be

pleased with them all). These are favors and do not prove superiority.”

[29] Another mistake occurred on this issue of prophethood and sainthood the source of

which was the claim that prophets received revelation from God through an intermediary whereas

for the saint there is no intermediary. Sulamī corrects this error by stating that prophets received

revelation from God in both ways – mediated and non-mediated. Furthermore, the spiritual

openings that a saint receives have an element of uncertainty or possibility of deception in them

whereas prophecy is absolute certainty. The qualitative difference between the knowledge of the

saint and the knowledge of the prophet is because sainthood in general and in its highest form

(siddiqīyah) is derived “from the lights of prophethood and from the blessing of following the

prophetic way.” Bringing this discussion on sainthood and prophethood to a close, he returns to

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the narrative of Moses and Khiḍr and says: “If Khiḍr met with an atom’s weight of what Moses

saw, he would perish such that nothing of him would remain.”

The next doctrinal mistake that he addresses is the issue of divine-indwelling (ḥulūl) [31].

Sulamī defines ḥulūl as “God choosing a body and dwelling within it, meaning divine lordship, and

that its state of being a human has ceased. Anyone that says this,” he continues, “or is realized

in this state, or supposes that divine unity (tawhīd) has opened up to someone (based on the

indications of their sayings) is a disbeliever.” The source of this error rests in not differentiating

between the power that is an attribute of the Powerful and the signs of God that point to the

power of the Powerful. Believing or assenting to the idea of ḥulūl in any fashion is “misguidance,

disbelief.”

Sulamī deals with ḥulūl further in a separate section (faṣl) dedicated to this issue [42]. He

begins by saying, “None of the leaders of the Sufis, their shaykhs, nor those they rely upon for

their religion have spoken about ḥulūl. However, a group from amongst the people of Syria has

uttered these words but they have neither rank in Sufism nor any mention with the shaykhs.” He

then proves this point by mentioning the sayings of previous Sufi masters regarding ḥulūl, al-

Junayd, Dhu’l Nūn al-Miṣrī (d.245/859), Ibn ‘Aṭā’ (d.309/922), and Abū ‘Amru’l Dimashqī. Perhaps

most important quote for Sulamī’s purpose comes from Ḥusayn ibn Manṣūr al-Hallāj (d.309/922),

who said, “God the exalted created these forms (hayākil) on the pattern of defect, essentially as

being contingently existent. As for the spirits that reside in these forms [they exist] for a decreed

amount of time and overtaken by death. Even in the spirits’ state of perfection it is deficient. The

attributes of God are transcendent beyond these attributes in all manner. How is it possible that

God manifest in what He brought into creation with these deficiencies and imperfections?”

Sulamī then uses two verses from the Qur’ān to show that the essential nature of creation is as

slaves to God: I did not create man and jinn save to worship Me,[5:56] and Indeed everything that

is in the heavens and the earth will come to the Merciful as a slave. [19:94] He then asks, “How

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is it possible that God dwell within what He has necessitated as having the deficient attribute – ie

slavehood – such that [if He did dwell in it] He becomes the worshipper and the worshipped?”

Another group of Sufis made the mistake of claiming that they could see God in this world

by their hearts in the same way that He will be seen in the Hereafter [33]. Two groups had made

this claim, one from Syria that Abū Sa‘īd al-Kharrāz (d.283/896) mentions in an unnamed book,

and the other were from Baṣrah of the companions of al-Ṣubayḥī. Though this is a theological

mistake, it comes about because of a mistake made in their practices – namely, their lacking a

shaykh. This mistake came about when their “spiritual struggles, wakefulness, hunger, isolation,

seclusion, and contemplation became great,” at which point complacency set in and Satan made

attractive to them states that they had not attained and lead them to make claims about states

that they did not possess. If they had a shaykh “who could point out their mistakes to them and

guide them to the right path” this would now have occurred. The importance of a shaykh in

preventing such mistakes is made clear in a story concerning Sahl ibn ‘Abdullah al-Tustarī

(d.283/896). One of his students told him that he sees God every night with his own two eyes.

Sahl responsed by telling his student to spit upon what he sees the next night. When the second

night came, the student did as Sahl had commanded and from the third night onward he did not

see anything. He thus “returned to his path and left his delusion.” The correct position regarding

seeing God in this world is that it is essentially having a state of absolute certainty in Him.

Sulamī does make the point that seeing God in this world is possible with the heart. This

comes about through “a witnessing faith, the reality of unity, and pure certainty.” He proves that

this occurs through absolute certainty by referring to the ḥadīth of al-Ḥārithah ibn Mālik, which he

does not give in full but which is in his Arba‘īn as follows: 4

4 See al-Arba‘īn fi’l taṣawwūf in Sakhāwī’s Takhrīj al-arba‘īn al-sulamīya fi’l taṣawwūf (Beirut: al-Maktab al-

Islāmī, 1986), 64. For a commentary on this ḥadīth from a Sufi perspective see ibn ‘Aṭā Illah al-Iskandarī’s

Laṭā’if al-minan (Cairo: Dār al-Ma‘ārif, n.d.), 140-146.

25

On the authority of al-Ḥārithah ibn Mālik (God be pleased with him) that he passed by the

Messenger of God (God bless him and give him peace) and he said to him, “How did you

wake up this morning, O Hārithah?” He said, “I awoke a believer in God in truth

(mu’minan haqqan).” He said, “Watch what you say for every truth has a reality! So what

is the reality of your faith?” He said, “I have shunned myself from the world,5 and it is as

though I am looking at the people of paradise visiting one another, and it is as though I

am looking at the people of the fire suffering.” He said, “O Ḥārithah, you have known, so

persist with this (‘arafta falzim)!”

Another saying along the same lines as al-Ḥārithah’s is the saying of ‘Āmir ibn ‘Abd Allah al-

Qays, “If the cover were lifted I would not increase in faith.” Such statements are said only in a

state of realization (taḥqīq) and comes to the slave in state of overpowering, drunkenness, and

enjoyment. From such visions by the heart higher degrees of certainty come to the recipient, in

accordance with the statement from the Prophet, “Hearing is not like seeing.”

The last major error in matters of doctrine that Sulamī gives concerns the spirit (rūḥ) [39].

A number of groups made claims concerning the spirit: one claimed that it is the light of God’s

essence and therefore uncreated; another that it was the life of His essence and also uncreated;

another that the spirits are created but that the Holy Spirit (al-rūḥ al-quds) is uncreated; another

that spirit of the common-folk is created and that the spirit of the elect is uncreated; and another

group that claimed that the believers have three spirits, the non-believers one, and the righteous

saints (siddiqīn) have five. “All of this,” says Sulamī, “is wrong and false. The sum of the issue is

what God – exalted is His mention – said: They ask you concerning the spirit; say: ‘The spirit is of

the affair of my Lord. [17:57] It is His affair, it is created and that between it and God there is

neither derivation, nor relation.”

5 This can also be read in the passive as “My self has been shunned from the world.”

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Errors that occur in terms social transactions and Sufi practices

[14] One of the most detrimental mistakes that can hinder the Sufi progress to their goal a

state of idleness or losing spiritual aspiration (ḥāl al-fatrah). This lack of aspiration occurs when

some of the seekers hear of the spiritual struggles of those that came before them and how God

extolled their names and raised their measure amongst creation. This causes them to exert great

efforts to mimic the past masters. However, when the matter becomes prolonged for them and

they do not see the fruits of their efforts, they become lazy in their spiritual struggles. One can be

saved from this error if they are fortunate enough that God attracts them back to Him and returns

them to spiritual struggle (mujāhada). If this happens, then this break from their spiritual

struggles and exercises becomes a period of relaxation that occurs from time to time to the hearts

and bodies of those struggling. Otherwise, if they do not return to mujāhada, then they are

deluded. Abu ‘Alī al-Rudhbārī said: “The end is like the beginning and the beginning is like the

end – whoever leaves something at the end that he did in the beginning is deluded.”

[11] Of those that erred in social transactions were those that made a mistake in expanse

in this world (tawassu‘ fi’l dunya). Expanse and increase in the world is justified only for prophets,

saints, or the siddiqīn for they can be established in worldly means justly. Their sign is that they

do not find repose with what their hands possess, nor do they seek increase in it. To them,

possessing a little or a lot is the same. They do not find pleasure in giving or withholding and

know the correct perspectives and rights in both; they take with permission and give with

permission and do not err in either.

[12] Another mistake was made by the people mortification (taqashshuf) and decrease

(taqlīl) who held that any form of leniency to the lower-self (nafs) would lower them from their

spiritual degree. A slave should not mortify themselves or seek decrease except in the beginning

of their spiritual disciplining, or through intense spiritual striving, or when impropriety manifests

itself from the lower-self. However, if he then finds pleasure in creation seeing him discipline

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himself, he should leave these spiritual exercises and return to normal practices with regards to

eating and clothing.

[15] It was a common practice for Sufis to travel great distances to meet various shaykhs

in order to learn from them. This too became a source of errors for some Sufis. The correct

intention for traveling to meet the shaykhs is to learn propriety, take knowledge from them, obey

their commands, and preserve their honor. The mistake that was made occurred when a group

of Sufis wanted to meet the shaykhs for the sole purpose of bragging to others that they had met

such-and-such who had said such-and-such, making their travels and visiting with shaykhs a

source of pride, arrogance, and ostentation instead of a source of humility and knowledge.

Worse still is the traveler that seeks the acceptance of the shaykh (qubūl al-shaykh) or wants the

shaykh to honor him. Such a persons journey amounts to “a travel from knowledge to ignorance,

and he will never benefit from [his travel] ever.”

[16] Another group made a mistake when giving in charity (infāq). They supposed that

the goal was nothing more then the act of giving and being generous. This is a mistake. For the

Sufis, possessions and attachment to worldly means are a veil between them and God. Thus, to

lift the veil, the Sufis gave of what they possessed and “worked in cutting themselves from worldly

causes (qat‘ al-asbāb) in hopes of reaching the Causer (al-musabbib).”

Three groups made mistakes in trying to free themselves from the afflictions of the lower-

self. [18] One group attempted to do so by leaving food for a period of time. Their mistake is that

they thought that if the lower-self were subjugated by leaving food it would be overcome and they

would be protected from its incitement. However their mistake is that “the path of overcoming the

lower-self and breaking it be taken from the shaykhs and teachers such that evil is not produced

from the good that is desired of it [i.e. overcoming the lower self]. If evil is produced from the path

of good it is impossible to correct it.” There is also a practical aspect to not leaving food for a

period of time it could weaken the aspirant such as to cause a break to occur in fulfilling religious

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obligations. We should remember that for Sulamī, the Sufi path is founded upon fulfilling religious

obligations and thus “a deficiency that occurs in religious obligations is evil in all cases.” Sulamī

provides a rule that the Sufi should adhere to with regards to eating based on the sunnah of the

Prophet: “It is obligatory upon the slave that he not eat that which will encourage him to base

desires (shahwāt), and he should not leave eating in accordance to what will weaken his

obligations. He should use the sunnah according to what the Prophet (God bless him and give

him peace) said, ‘A third for food, a third for drink, and a third for air.’”

[19] Another group tried to protect themselves from the lower-self by “isolation (‘uzlah),

entering into caves, and seclusion in mountains and open deserts.” They thought that this will

protect them from their desires and that God will bring them to the stations that He brought His

saints to. The foundation for this practice is found in the life of the Prophet who used to seclude

himself in Mount Hira for days at a time before the beginnings of revelation. Those that embark

on this program without the pre-requisite states make a mistake that could cause them great

harm. The Sufis that carried out the practice of isolating themselves from society did so because

of attractions (jadhb) from God – He attracted them to Him and thus freed them of needing others.

They were freed from the needs of creation because God had enriched them through Him.

[20] A third group tried to free themselves from physical desires by castrating themselves.

The mistake here – besides being a blatant contradiction of the tenets of Islam – is that they do

not realize that the source of desires is not physical organs but the heart. Even if they were to

castrate themselves, they would still be afflicted as long as the desires exist in the heart. Instead

of severing the genitalia they must severe these base desires from the heart.

Other mistakes occurred due to a mistaken understanding of two of the most outward

signs of Sufism, wearing wool clothing and attending sessions of audition (samā‘a). [22] The first

group put on wool clothing and patched frocks and then learned a few things about the science of

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the Sufis and by doing this felt that they became one of them. However, “putting on airs and

imitating others,” he says, “has nothing to do with spiritual reality (haqiqa).”

[24] The other group felt that Sufism was nothing more then “recitation (qawal) [of songs],

dancing (raqṣ), audition (samā`a), solo recitals (taqsīm), poetry (qaṣā’id), taking invitations, and

attending gatherings.” What lead them to this position was that they saw some of the shaykhs

enjoying themselves during sessions of samā‘a. What is hidden from them though is that every

soul has something of the idleness and forgetfulness in it and that for such souls samā‘a is not

healthy and perhaps even unlawful, the latter being more likely. Junayd said: “If you see an

aspirant (murīd) that loves samā‘a, then know that something of idleness remains in his soul.” In

deeming that for some people audition is impermissible Sulamī’s position suggest that that he

was against the practice. This is far from the case and it should be pointed out that Sulamī has

written on samā‘a and defended it showing it’s Prophetic origins. Also, a few of the stories

narrated in the Risāla of Qushayrī concerning Sulamī have to do with samā‘a, and one in

particular of how Sulamī was censored by other Sufis and scholars for frequenting such

gatherings.6

One of the cental ideas of Sufism where both thought and practice are intricately linked is

in the state of relying upon God (tawakkul) and two groups made mistakes here. [13] The first

committed and error with regards to earning an income (kasb). A group of Sufis earned their

income and censored those that did not, and another group that did not earn an income censored

those that did. Both of these are mistakes because the state of earning an income is a

dispensation from the sunnah. Tawakkul (which Sulamī defines as “trusting that God will deliver

on what He has promised) on the other hand is obligatory upon all believers who are commanded

6 For this story in particular see Risālah Qushayrīyah under the section of Firāsa (236-237 of the Ma‘rūf

Zarīq and ‘Alī ‘Abd al-Ḥamīd Abu ‘l-Khayr edition). Also, see the section on Ḥifdh qulūb al-mashāyikh (p.

334), for how Sulamī questioned that a session of Qur’ān recital under the guidance of his shaykh Abū Sahl

al-Su‘lūkī was changed to session of singing.

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to do so in the Qur’ān: And trust in God if you are believers. [5:5] Sulamī recognizes that there are

those that can not live up to this obligation and must take the dispensation of earning an income.

For those people, the following conditions are given to protect them from the faults inherent in

earning: they should not rely upon their income; their work should does not keep them from

fulfilling religious obligations in their appointed times; they should learn enough knowledge of the

shari‘ah to prevent them from taking that which is illicit; they should not earn anything that is

based on figurative interpretations (ta`wilāt); and they should give to their brothers that are unable

to earn and support them.

[21] The second mistake that occurred regarding the state of tawakkul happened with

those that wandered aimlessly in the valleys and mountains without food, water, or provisions for

the path. They supposed that through this they would reach the station of the truthful-saints

(siddiq) concerning the reality of tawakkul. The mistake occurs because those saints that did this

were people that were immersed in spiritual exercises and were well-established in their spiritual

states – they were not bothered by lacking material goods, nor were they bothered by loneliness.

This occurs when opposite states, such as poverty and self-sufficiency, honor and debasement,

and so on, are one to the Sufi. “Whoever embarks on this plan of action without these beginnings

and exercises,” he says, “makes a mistake and ruins his moment (waqt) and state.”

Errors that occur in terms of spiritual states

A number of mistakes were made with respect to the states of spiritual poverty (faqr) and

self-sufficiency (ghina). Their foundation is in the Qur’ānic verse: O mankind! You are the poor in

your relation to God and God is the Rich, the Owner of Praise! [35:15] This verse emphasizes the

absolute impoverishment of all that is other then God (which is how Sufis define the world) to Him

and the absolute independence of God from any other. Sulamī wrote an entire text, Zalal al-

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fuqarā’ (The Mistakes of the Sufis),7 detailing the fine points of faqr and the mistaken notions that

a number of Sufis had regarding it. In the Aghāliṭ however, he limits his discussion to the

following groups: [6] one group that preferred ghina over faqr, their argument being that they are

not enriched through worldly means but are enriched through God instead of being in need of

Him. [7] One faction made the mistake of assuming that the Sufis were enriched by the base

aspects of the dunya and not God. This lead them to narrate false narrations justifying their

position. However, this is far from the intended meaning of the Sufis when they gave preference

to ghinā over faqr.

[8] Another group spoke about impoverishment to God (iftiqār ila Allah) and its reality and

claimed that it meant owning few things, being in desperate need, and having patience during

times of affliction. A faction of those that claim to be Sufis claimed that the faqir that is in need

and that lacks patience and contentment has neither merit nor reward in his poverty. They are

mistaken because “the faqir that is patient and content has a degree over the faqir that is

destitute and in need, and the faqir that is destitute and in need has a rank above the affluent one

whose affluence is based on the dunya.”

[9] Another faction of them claimed that poverty and affluence are two states of the slave

and that he does not have to find repose with either one of them. Rather, he should consider

them, but not find repose with them nor stop at them. This is at the ends [of the path] and the

realities (haqa`iq). A group of them supposed that this is an equivocation of poverty and

affluence, but this is not so. Rather, for the one realized in these states, his state makes the two

opposites one to him. They are not the same in essence, but his state makes them the same.

[10] A group claimed that what is meant by faqr is lacking material things only, so they

busied themselves with this and lost the reality of faqr. Sulamī emphasizes that by faqr the Sufis

were not talking about possessions but an ontological state of the slave with respect to God. 7 See Honerkamp.

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Advising those that think that faqr simply entails lacking material goods, he says, “It was hidden

from them that seeing ones poverty in a state of poverty is a veil to the faqir to the realities of

poverty. In faqr, there is no state lower then lacking material goods for beggars share this state

as well; it is not a praised state nor do beggars have any degree (rutbah).”

A series of mistakes occurred with regards to understanding the Sufi states of freedom

(hurrīya) and slavehood (‘ubūdīya). [25] One group held that “the slave is not truly a slave until he

is free (hurr) from everything besides his Lord,” which, Sulamī says is the correct position. Part of

the incorrect understanding comes from those that disapproved of hurrīya and censored it by

saying that if the free person acts he does so seeking compensation. The slave however does

not seek reward or compensation from his Master – if He gives then He gives graciously, and if

He does not then the slave does not deserve anything. The root of the problem lies in the idea

that somehow the Sufis status as a slave is lifted at some point, such that he is no longer a

worshipper of God. [26] Sulamī says: “A group of them erred and supposed that as long as there

is distance (bu`d) between the slave and God he is called a slave. If the slave attains to

knowledge of God then he is called free (hurr), and if he becomes free then his slavehood ends.

This is a major mistake.” Slavehood (‘ubūdīya) is more perfect and more complete then that of

hurrīya because:

God named his friends His slaves, and He named His angels His slaves, and His

prophets His slaves. The prophet (God bless him and give him peace) chose slavehood

over prophethood in the tahiyyah and said: “I bear witness that there is no god but God

and I bear witness that Muhammad is His slave and messenger.” There is no station

higher then the station of the Prophet (God bless him and give him peace); he used to

pray until his ankles swelled, he was asked about this and said: “Should I not be a slave

that is thankful?” So understand and do not err!

[27] Another group made a mistake in understanding the nature of sincerity (ikhlāṣ) which

caused them to break with societal norms. What lead them to this was their misunderstanding

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something that the shakhs said regarding sincerity: “Sincerity is not attributed to one until nothing

of the sight of people remains with the slave.” By believing that the slave becomes sincere only

after he loses all concern for what others say lead them to go against societal norms, differing

with them whether they right or wrong. Those that made this error were veiled from the fact that

one who truly possesses sincerity is “propitious, well-mannered, distances himself from sins,

turns towards acts of obedience, and who is joined with the states and stations until these lead

him to the purity of sincerity.”

Another error that lead to breaking societal norms occurred in the idea of the annihilation

of ones humanness (fanā’ al-basharīya) [32]. This particular error occurred when the Sufis spoke

about the states of annihilation (fanā’) and subsistence (baqā’) and lead them to leave food and

drink. They did this in an effort to lower their essential humanity, believing that this would lead to

annihilation in God. Those who hold this viewpoint also held that it is possible for the slave to

take on the attributes of God. The correct position regarding annihilation of the slave’s humanity

is that the slave’s base characteristics cease and the slave moves “from a state of ignorance to

knowledge, from heedlessness (ghaflah) to remembrance (dhikr), from vanity to seeing grace.”

[34] Another group made a mistake in understanding the state of purity (safa) and

cleanliness (tahāra) thinking that the two can apply absolutely and perpetually to a slave.

According to them, when they are cleansed of faults and blemishes they mean that the distance

between them and God is overcome. However, the correct position is that the slave is never

purified perpetually but rather for periods of time. Also, what the slave is cleansed of is not

distance from God rather it is that the heart (qalb) is cleansed of base attributes such as malice,

hatred, deceit, and so forth. The nafs however is the locus of faults and will never be emptied of

them.

The mistake made in purity and cleanliness is the notion that the separation between

God and the slave can be overcome. This error manifests itself in misunderstandings of two

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other key Sufi terms, namely union (jam`) and separation (tafriqah). [35] The only people that

speak about the reality of these states are the righteous-saints (siddīq) and the unbelievers

(zindīq). Those that make mistakes in understanding union and separation do so because they

lack knowledge of the foundations of this path, and therefore also lacked knowledge of its

branches, both of which lead them to make gross mistakes when it comes to understanding these

states. This in turn lead them to leave society, violate societal laws, and eventually Divine Laws.

They attributed to the origin that which is properly attributed to the derivative, and attributed to the

state of union that which is properly attributed to the state of separation and thus they did not give

everything its proper place. When such is the case, nothing refrains the zindīq from engaging in

sins because he attributes his ignorance and all of his vile actions to God. The siddīq on the

other hand returns to God in everything after knowing what is required of him from the

foundations and branches of shari‘ah and does not violate any rules of propriety, giving

everything it’s just due.

[36] Sulamī then mentions the mistake that occurs in the station of proximity to God

(qurba). In the Futūḥāt al-makkīya Sulamī is linked to ibn ‘Arabī in this particular state. While in

Ījīsāl in Morocco ibn ‘Arabī mentions that he attained a station that he did not know the name of

and realized that he was alone in this station. He was complaining to a friend about his isolation

when suddenly a shadow appeared to him. He gives the rest of the account as follows:8

I rose from my bed and went towards it, hoping to receive some solace from it. It

embraced me and I looked at it closely and saw that it was Abū ‘Abd al-Raḥmān al-

Sulamī, whose spirit had assumed corporeal form for my sake. God had sent him out of

compassion for me. I said unto him: “I see that you [too] are in this station!” His reply

was: “It was while I was in this station that I was overtaken by death, and I will never

cease to be here.” I told him of my isolation and complained about the absence of any

companion. He said to me: “He who is in exile always feels alone! Now that divinve

8 This translation is taken from Claude Addas’ Quest for the Red Sulphur (174-175). See also Futuḥāt al-makkīya, 2:261.

35

providence has granted you access to this station praise God, for to how many people is

this given, brother of mine? Are you satisfied with the fact that Khaḍir [sic] is your

companion in this station?”… I replied: “Abū ‘Abd al-Raḥmān, I know of no name to

designate this station.” He answered: “It is called the station of Promixity (maqām al-qurba). Realise it in its fullness!”

In Ibn ‘Arabī’s Jawāb al-mustaqīm he states that he did not find this station mentioned in any

other book save the Aghāliṭ by Sulamī.9

The error that occurs in the state of proximity to God (qurb) and delight therein is that

they felt that in their closeness to God they became ashamed in His presence to continue

preserving in the duties that He commanded them to maintain and thus left the proper

comportment that they so eagerly looked over before, as well as the rulings and commandments

of God that they previously persisted in. However they are mistaken, because comportment and

the commands of God are His deposition over His slaves – whenever one is induced to increase

in comportment and fulfilling His commands, or to continue in ones preservation of these acts,

then these are from God and are of the essence of proximity to Him. However, when either ones

comportment or preserving the commandments of God ceases and one thinks that they are in a

state of proximity, this is in reality a state of distance from God.

The last two errors left both deal with the idea of the effacement of the individual as a

result of the Sufis intense spiritual practices. [37] The first of these is the notion of the

annihilation of ones attributes. This occurred with a group from Baghdad that held that once their

own individual attributes are effaced that they enter into the attributes of God. They then

proceeded to speak about this state which caused them to say things that resemble ḥulūl and the

Christian notion of incarnation. The mistake that they make is that they believe that the attributes

of God are God Himself. The correct understanding of the annihilation of attributes is that the

slaves is annihilated from his own personal desire entirely and entering into the desires of God. 9 See Kitāb khatm al-Awliyā’. Ed. ‘Uthmān Yaḥya (Beirut: al-Maṭba‘at al-Kathilūkīya, 1965), 144.

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“He has no desire along with His desire in it, so that whatever God wills, he wills it for himself.”

When the personal whims of the slave are effaced it is not God Himself the dwells in the heart of

the slave, or His attributes; rather it is “His glorification (ta`dheem), awe (haybah), and unity

(tawhid).”

[38] A group of them erred in the annihilation of attributes (fana’ al-awsaf), they are a

group of Baghdadis. Their position is that when they are annihilated from their attributes they

enter into Gods attributes, and they assign to themselves a meaning that leads them, with their

ignorance, to speaking about divine-indwelling and to something similar to what the Christians

say regarding the Messiah (upon whom be peace). The correct meaning of annihilation of

attributes of the slave and entering into the attributes of God is that the slaves annihilation from

his desire entirely, and his entering into the desires of God by it. He has no desire along with His

desire in it, so that whatever God wills, he wills it for himself. This is the annihilation of his

attributes and taking on the attributes of God. They erred because they mistakenly thought that

the attributes of God are God Himself, and this is not so, because He does not dwell in the

hearts, rather his glorification (ta‘ẓīm), awe (haybah), and unity (tawhīd).

41

First page of Aghāliṭ from the Sulamīyāt

42

Last page of the Aghāliṭ from the Sulamīyāt

43

First page of the Moroccan manuscript

44

Last page of the Moroccan manuscript

45

First page of the Dar al-Kutub manuscript

46

Last page of Dar al-Kutub manuscript

47

First page of the Bin Yusuf Manuscript

48

Last page of the Bin Yusuf Manuscript

69

CONCLUDING REMARKS

This study has sought to show Sulamī as a Sufi shaykh in his own right by presenting a

text that he produced in this capacity. This book and other such teaching texts bring to light an

aspect of Sulamī that has not been considered in the past, that of a Sufi shaykh of teaching and

instruction (shaykh al-ta‘līm wa tarbiya). The Kitāb al-aghāliṭ is concise summary of Sarrāj’s

section in the Luma‘ concerning the errors of the Sufis, and provides us with an example of

Sulamī’s Malāmatī tendency of speaking through the person he is transmitting from.

Future studies that this text might lead to would involve looking at other teaching texts of

Sulamī. The Sulamīyāt collection from which the main manuscript used in the critical edition of

the Aghāliṭ contains twenty-six books of Sulamī, not all of which have been edited before. This

collection presents a great find for studies on this key time period for the development of Sufism.

Another question that is raised from this study that requires further pursuit would be how

this text was used by critics of Sufism who stood outside of the tradition. A cursory reading of the

Aghāliṭ and Abu’l Faraj ibn al-Jawzī’s (d.597/1200) Talbīs Iblīs (The Devils Deception) – one of the

earliest and most influential books used by critics of Sufism – shows that both authors list many of

the same errors. Before going any further though, it would be important to see the intended use

of ibn al-Jawzī’s book. It has been characterized as an all out attack against Sufism, but in reality

the book deals with how Satan can delude and deceive people in all aspects of Islamic normative

life – from reciters of the Qur’ān, to ḥadīth narrators, including Sufis. Furthermore, whether or not

ibn al-Jawzī was an opponent of Sufism needs to be addressed as well. It should not be

forgotten that ibn al-Jawzī wrote a significant summary of one of the greatest works of Sufism,

Abū Ḥāmid al-Ghazzalī’s (d. 505/1111) Iḥyā’ ‘ulūm al-dīn. Is ibn al-Jawzī perhaps writing not as a

70

critic of Sufism, but rather as a proponent of a particular type of Sufism – a more Ḥanbalite

oriented Sufism in the tradition of Abdullah Anṣārī of Herat (d.481/1089) and later that of ‘Abd al-

Qādir al-Jīlānī (d.561/1166)? This question would require a study of Islamic piety within the

Ḥanbalite tradition and the place of Sufism therein.

The Aghāliṭ shows Sulamī as a Sufī shaykh, but also shows his Malāmatī teaching as

well. As a list of mistakes made on the Sufi path, it had to have been written by one has

completed the path and was thus in a position to point out these errors. Its brief and concise

nature suggests that it was used by Sulamī as a teaching text, emphasizing Sulamī’s role as a

shaykh of teaching and instruction. In concluding this study, the words of Aḥmed al-Zarrūq (d.

899/1493) – the North African scholar of, ḥadīth, Malikī law, and shaykh of the Shādhilī order –

from his Qawā‘id al-taṣawwuf (The Principles of Sufism) accurately sum up much of what has

been discussed.1

There are many pretenders on this path because of its strangeness, and there is a lack of

understanding because of its subtleties. There is a great deal of rejection of its followers

because of its purity. People giving advice have cautioned against pursuing the path due

to the numerous errors therein. Religious leaders compiled works to refute its followers

because of what heretics have done to it and because of erroneous things attributed to

people on the path. Even ibn ‘Arabī al-Ḥātimī (may God have mercy on him!) said,

“Beware of this path, for most of those who deviate from it are of it. It is but a path of

doom and a path of this world. He who actualized his knowledge, action, and spiritual

state will gain the glory of eternity. He who abandons realization in the Path will be

doomed and will come to an end.” We ask God for well-being through His grace and

generosity!

1 Zaineb S. Istrabadi “The Principles of Sufism (Qawā‘id al-Taṣawwuf): An Annotated Translation with

Introduction.” PhD Dissertation. University of Indiana-Bloomington, 1986. p. 203.

71

APPENDIX

Miḥan mashāyikh al-ṣūfiyyah

Concerning the text

The Miḥan mashāyikh al-ṣufiyyah comes from the Sulamīyāt (79A to 81B) that was

described earlier.1 The text itself is a short addition to Sulamī’s hagiographical works and lists

twenty-three Sufi shaykhs and the trials that they faced. Nūr al-Dīn Shurayba notes that Dhahabī

quotes from it twice in his Siyar a‘lām al-nubala’ in the entries for Dhū’l Nūn al-Miṣrī and Abu ‘Abd

al-Raḥmān Muḥammad ibn al-Faḍl al-Balkhī.2 Dhahabī also quotes from Sulamī in his entry for

al-Ḥakīm al-Tirmidhī but does not mention what book he is using. The quote though parallels

what is found in the Miḥan and is presumably from there. Besides these references to the work

from Dhahabī, there is no other scholarly mention of the book, particularly in the manuscript

catalogs that we have at our disposal. The Sulamīyāt copy is thus a unique manuscript for the

Miḥan.

1 See chapter three. 2 See p. 41 of Shuraybah’s edition of Ṭabaqāt al-ṣūfiyah. For Dhahabi’s quote of the Miḥan see vol. 11, p.

543 of Siyar a‘lām al-nubalā’ for his quote on Dhu’l Nūn al-Miṣrī, and vol. 14, p. 254 for his quote on

Muḥammad ibn Faḍl al-Balkhī.

72

First page of Miḥan mashayikh al-ṣūfiyah from the Sulamīyāt

73

Last page of Miḥan mashayikh al-ṣufiyah from the Sulamīyāt

showing the beginning of the Kitāb al-aghāliṭ

79

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