The Crimean WarThe Crimean War

One of first major political developments in Europe One of first major political developments in Europe following Year of Revolutions was following Year of Revolutions was Crimean WarCrimean War

With the With the Ottoman EmpireOttoman Empire in a in a weakenedweakened state, state, RussiaRussia incr.incr. began to began to press demandspress demands on its on its southern neighboursouthern neighbour, incl., incl. for special rights for special rights concerning Empire’s Orthodox Christian population concerning Empire’s Orthodox Christian population & Orthodox places of worship in Holy Land& Orthodox places of worship in Holy Land

The Ottomans resisted these demands & The Ottomans resisted these demands & RussiaRussia then then occupiedoccupied the nominally Ottoman provinces of the nominally Ottoman provinces of Moldavia & WallachiaMoldavia & Wallachia

The Crimean War (2)The Crimean War (2)

Ottoman EmpireOttoman Empire, by 1854 , by 1854 supported by Britainsupported by Britain & & FranceFrance, & then by , & then by PiedmontesePiedmontese forces too, forces too, declared wardeclared war on Russia on RussiaMost of fighting centered around Crimean peninsula, Most of fighting centered around Crimean peninsula, ((thereforetherefore the name the name Crimean WarCrimean War))Though neither side fought Though neither side fought v.v. effectively effectively the the RussiansRussians, (partly fearful of domestic repercussions , (partly fearful of domestic repercussions from a war-weary population), ultimately from a war-weary population), ultimately conceded conceded defeatdefeat & were forced to make imp & were forced to make impt.t. concessions at concessions at an an international conferenceinternational conference held held in Paris in Paris in March in March 18561856

The Crimean WarThe Crimean War

Consequences of the Crimean WarConsequences of the Crimean War

Perhaps even more impPerhaps even more impt.t. than details of the than details of the Crimean War or specific conditions of the Crimean War or specific conditions of the Treaty of Paris were consequences of the Treaty of Paris were consequences of the war. These included:war. These included:

1)1) PerceptionPerception of Russia as of Russia as anan invincible colossus invincible colossus that hadthat had existed before the war was erasedexisted before the war was erased

2)2) Russian prestige in the Balkans decreasedRussian prestige in the Balkans decreased

3)3) The Concert of Europe seriously damagedThe Concert of Europe seriously damaged

The Unification of ItalyThe Unification of ItalyIncr. Incr. weakening of Concert of Europeweakening of Concert of Europe & lessening faith in & lessening faith in need to preserve Vienna settlement, (partly because states need to preserve Vienna settlement, (partly because states had been successful in suppressing revolution & so not now as had been successful in suppressing revolution & so not now as fearful of prospect of new revolutionary uprisings), fearful of prospect of new revolutionary uprisings), encouraged further dramatic changeencouraged further dramatic change in Europe after in Europe after Crimean War, most importantly substantial re-drawing of Crimean War, most importantly substantial re-drawing of European political map following national unification of Italy & European political map following national unification of Italy & Germany.Germany.

Italian uprisings of 1848/1849, led largely by romantic Italian uprisings of 1848/1849, led largely by romantic republicans, failed to achieve objective of Italian unification. republicans, failed to achieve objective of Italian unification. Yet, only a decade later, to an impt. extent as consequence of Yet, only a decade later, to an impt. extent as consequence of leadership & diplomatic maneuvers of Count Cavour of leadership & diplomatic maneuvers of Count Cavour of Piedmont, a new, united kingdom of Italy was successfully Piedmont, a new, united kingdom of Italy was successfully established.established.

The Italian Peninsula –The Italian Peninsula – post 1848 post 1848

Count Camilo di CavourCount Camilo di CavourCavour appointed Prime Minister Piedmont in 1852 by new king Cavour appointed Prime Minister Piedmont in 1852 by new king Victor Emmanuel II. Cavour liberal, but also loyal to monarchy.Victor Emmanuel II. Cavour liberal, but also loyal to monarchy.

Cavour supported Cavour supported national unification of Italynational unification of Italy so long as it so long as it was unified was unified under Piedmontese leadershipunder Piedmontese leadership. To this end he . To this end he backed establishment of backed establishment of pro-Piedmontese ‘National Society’pro-Piedmontese ‘National Society’ in many different Italian states.in many different Italian states.

Cavour realized Piedmont could only defeat Austria with Cavour realized Piedmont could only defeat Austria with support of a Great Powersupport of a Great Power - specifically he saw - specifically he saw FranceFrance, now , now under leadership of pro-Italian Napoleon III as potential ally under leadership of pro-Italian Napoleon III as potential ally **

Cavour’s first impt. diplomatic move was to Cavour’s first impt. diplomatic move was to take Piedmont into take Piedmont into Crimean WarCrimean War, thereby incr. Piedmont’s prestige among Italians , thereby incr. Piedmont’s prestige among Italians & gaining good-will/respect of Britain & France& gaining good-will/respect of Britain & France

* Keep in mind Napoleon III was also someone seeking fame & glory, hoping to return France to great days of his uncle, & saw Piedmont as potential ally vis-a-vis Austria

The ‘Pact of Plombieres’The ‘Pact of Plombieres’

July 1858 Napoleon III & Count Cavour met at July 1858 Napoleon III & Count Cavour met at Plombieres-les-bains where they formulated a Plombieres-les-bains where they formulated a secret deal, signed later in December 1858 & secret deal, signed later in December 1858 & known as the ‘known as the ‘Pact of PlombieresPact of Plombieres’’

France promised to help Piedmont against France promised to help Piedmont against AustriaAustria, & in return for its help would receive , & in return for its help would receive provinces of provinces of Nice & Savoy from PiedmontNice & Savoy from Piedmont..

In line with agreement, Cavour mobilized army In line with agreement, Cavour mobilized army on border of Austrian controlled Lombardyon border of Austrian controlled Lombardy

The Rise of PiedmontThe Rise of Piedmont

Cavour’s decision to mobilize on the border of Lombardy was Cavour’s decision to mobilize on the border of Lombardy was designed to antagonize Austria & find a designed to antagonize Austria & find a pretext for going to warpretext for going to war. . Unaware Piedmont was in secret agreement with France, Austria Unaware Piedmont was in secret agreement with France, Austria gave Piedmont an ultimatum, which Piedmont rejected, leading to gave Piedmont an ultimatum, which Piedmont rejected, leading to Austria declaring war & appearing the aggressor.Austria declaring war & appearing the aggressor.

With backing of France, Piedmont heavily defeated Austrian forces With backing of France, Piedmont heavily defeated Austrian forces in the battles of Magenta & Solferino in in the battles of Magenta & Solferino in June 1859, took over June 1859, took over Lombardy & was about to occupy Venetia tooLombardy & was about to occupy Venetia too..

Meanwhile, encouraged by defeat of Austria, Meanwhile, encouraged by defeat of Austria, revolutionary revolutionary uprisings calling for Italian national unification under uprisings calling for Italian national unification under Piedmontese leadershipPiedmontese leadership were initiated throughout much of Italian were initiated throughout much of Italian peninsula. Everything appeared to be going right for Cavour...peninsula. Everything appeared to be going right for Cavour...

The Treaty of VillafrancaThe Treaty of VillafrancaThen, to Cavour’s surprise & disappointment, Then, to Cavour’s surprise & disappointment, Napoleon IIINapoleon III changed course, & changed course, & now signed the now signed the Treaty of Villafranca with AustriaTreaty of Villafranca with Austria (July 11 (July 11thth 1859),. 1859),. France would withdraw its support from Piedmont & France would withdraw its support from Piedmont & Piedmont would get only Lombardy, not Venetia.Piedmont would get only Lombardy, not Venetia.

Why had Napoleon III abandoned Cavour?Why had Napoleon III abandoned Cavour? Perhaps Perhaps a combination of the following:a combination of the following:

i) i) lackedlacked resolve resolve (unlike his uncle)(unlike his uncle)

ii) ii) feared entry of Prussiafeared entry of Prussia in war on side of in war on side of AustriaAustria

iii) becoming iii) becoming concerned Piedmont might become concerned Piedmont might become tootoo powerful powerful a southern neighbour for France a southern neighbour for France

GaribaldiGaribaldiFor a while Cavour was helpless, but forces of Italian For a while Cavour was helpless, but forces of Italian nationalism had been set in motion & by end of the year nationalism had been set in motion & by end of the year several several central Italian states had voted in plebiscites to central Italian states had voted in plebiscites to unite with Piedmontunite with Piedmont..

Then, in May 1860, veteran Then, in May 1860, veteran republican nationalist Giuseppe republican nationalist Giuseppe GaribaldiGaribaldi, (a leader of nationalist uprisings 1848), landed in , (a leader of nationalist uprisings 1848), landed in SicilySicily taking over island held by king of Naples & later taking over island held by king of Naples & later proceeding to take proceeding to take NaplesNaples itself. itself.

Fearing Italy might now unite as a republic, or that Garibaldi Fearing Italy might now unite as a republic, or that Garibaldi might provoke Roman Catholic states in Europe by attacking might provoke Roman Catholic states in Europe by attacking Rome, Rome, Cavour pre-empted Garibaldi’s movement further Cavour pre-empted Garibaldi’s movement further northnorth. He sent troops south, taking over remaining central . He sent troops south, taking over remaining central Italian states controlled by Pope (i.e. papal states), but being Italian states controlled by Pope (i.e. papal states), but being careful to avoid the region around Rome.careful to avoid the region around Rome.

Italian Unification & RomeItalian Unification & Rome

Cavour’s caution Cavour’s caution regarding Romeregarding Rome was a was a consequence of 2 factors:consequence of 2 factors:

i) He i) He didn’t want to didn’t want to offend Catholicsoffend Catholics

ii) Rome was ii) Rome was protected by French protected by French troopstroops

POPE PIUS IX (1846-1878)

The Kingdom of ItalyThe Kingdom of Italy

Potential for war between Cavour & Garibaldi’s respective Potential for war between Cavour & Garibaldi’s respective forces, the former defending a united Italian kingdom under forces, the former defending a united Italian kingdom under rule of King Victor Emmanuel II, the latter preferring a united rule of King Victor Emmanuel II, the latter preferring a united Italy as a republic. Garibaldi, however, apparently so as not to Italy as a republic. Garibaldi, however, apparently so as not to jeopardize national unification of Italy by fighting against forces jeopardize national unification of Italy by fighting against forces of Piedmont, accepted that a united Italy could be a kingdom & of Piedmont, accepted that a united Italy could be a kingdom & in late 1860 people of Naples & Sicily voted in a plebiscite to in late 1860 people of Naples & Sicily voted in a plebiscite to unite with Piedmont.unite with Piedmont.

1717thth March 1861 Victor Emmanuel II was crowned king March 1861 Victor Emmanuel II was crowned king of of the newly united Italy. Less than 3 months later Cavour had the newly united Italy. Less than 3 months later Cavour had died. But for died. But for 2 major exceptions2 major exceptions ( (Venetia & RomeVenetia & Rome), Cavour ), Cavour had lived to see his dream come true.had lived to see his dream come true.

The Kingdom of ItalyThe Kingdom of Italy (2) (2)

Cartoon showing Garibaldi help Victor Emmanuel II wear the “boot” of a united Italy.

The Formation of a United Italy (1)

The Formation of a United Italy (2)

German UnificationGerman UnificationUnification of Germany could be Unification of Germany could be regarded as most significant European regarded as most significant European development till World War I, one that development till World War I, one that greatly affected the political, economical greatly affected the political, economical & military balance of power. It was & military balance of power. It was achieved largely through military achieved largely through military power & diplomatic maneuverspower & diplomatic maneuvers, , rather than through idealist liberalism rather than through idealist liberalism of participants in earlier Frankfurt of participants in earlier Frankfurt Assembly. Leading role played by Assembly. Leading role played by Otto Otto von Bismarckvon Bismarck, the great Prussian , the great Prussian statesman first appointed Prime statesman first appointed Prime Minister in Sept. 1862 by the new King Minister in Sept. 1862 by the new King of Prussia of Prussia William IWilliam I..

OTTO VON BISMARCK

Otto von Bismarck (1)Otto von Bismarck (1)

Bismarck was more of a Bismarck was more of a Prussian patriotPrussian patriot rather than a German nationalist, who aimed to rather than a German nationalist, who aimed to strengthen Prussia & make sure the people strengthen Prussia & make sure the people remained remained loyal toloyal to their their kingking & conservative & conservative institutionsinstitutions rather than follow the liberals who rather than follow the liberals who had begun to dominate Prussian parliament.had begun to dominate Prussian parliament.

For Bismarck For Bismarck successful politicssuccessful politics was not was not basedbased on ideals or principles or debates or on ideals or principles or debates or democratically made decisions, but democratically made decisions, but on on effective exercise of powereffective exercise of power..

Otto von Bismarck (2)Otto von Bismarck (2)

““The great questions The great questions of the day will not be of the day will not be decided by speeches decided by speeches & majority decisions – & majority decisions – that was the mistake that was the mistake of 1848-1849 of 1848-1849 – – but but

by by iron & bloodiron & blood.”.”

German Territorial UnificationGerman Territorial Unification

3 Wars in the Process of3 Wars in the Process ofGerman UnificationGerman Unification

Prussia+Austria vs. Denmark Prussia+Austria vs. Denmark 1864 1864

Austro-Prussian War Austro-Prussian War 1866 1866

Franco-Prussian War Franco-Prussian War 1870-71 1870-71

Through the process of 3 major wars in less than a decade, Bismarck ended up engineering the unification of Germany

War with Denmark - 1864War with Denmark - 1864

War with Denmark began as result of the War with Denmark began as result of the Schleswig-Holstein Schleswig-Holstein ProblemProblem. These 2 duchies, though not officially part of the Danish . These 2 duchies, though not officially part of the Danish state had come under domination of Denmark even though they had state had come under domination of Denmark even though they had substantial German populationssubstantial German populations (a majority in Holstein) & though (a majority in Holstein) & though Holstein was a member of the Bund.Holstein was a member of the Bund.

1863 Denmark tried to annex1863 Denmark tried to annex these territories. Germans these territories. Germans everywhere were outraged & call rose for pan-German war. everywhere were outraged & call rose for pan-German war. Bismarck resisted this call because he didn’t want smaller German Bismarck resisted this call because he didn’t want smaller German states to gain prestige, & instead arranged for war with Denmark to states to gain prestige, & instead arranged for war with Denmark to be fought by Prussia in alliance with Austria.be fought by Prussia in alliance with Austria.

Denmark was quickly defeated & in Denmark was quickly defeated & in Convention of GasteinConvention of Gastein it was it was agreed that Austria would administer Holstein & Prussia would agreed that Austria would administer Holstein & Prussia would administer Schleswig.administer Schleswig.

Austro-Prussian War of 1866Austro-Prussian War of 1866

Bismarck now Bismarck now looked for an opportunity to attack looked for an opportunity to attack AustriaAustria, he needed to develop right circumstances. , he needed to develop right circumstances. First he purposefully First he purposefully increased tensionsincreased tensions between the between the two states two states over administration of Schleswig-over administration of Schleswig-HolsteinHolstein, incr. these tensions further when he felt , incr. these tensions further when he felt international circumstances had become suitable.international circumstances had become suitable.Bismarck had already Bismarck had already gained friendship of Russiagained friendship of Russia by supporting Russian suppression of new uprising in by supporting Russian suppression of new uprising in Poland in 1863. He Poland in 1863. He now convinced France to now convinced France to remain neutralremain neutral in war with Austria & in war with Austria & made a deal made a deal with Italywith Italy in April 1866, promising it Venetia if it gave in April 1866, promising it Venetia if it gave its backing.its backing.

Austro-Prussian War of 1866 (2)Austro-Prussian War of 1866 (2)

When in When in June 1866 Austria appealed to Bund June 1866 Austria appealed to Bund over Prussian activities in Schleswig-Holsteinover Prussian activities in Schleswig-Holstein, , Bismarck declared that according to Treaty of Bismarck declared that according to Treaty of Gastein the issue was between the two great Gastein the issue was between the two great powers, not a matter for Bund; a new German powers, not a matter for Bund; a new German confederation should be formed, one that this time confederation should be formed, one that this time excluded Austria. Bismarck (as he had planned), excluded Austria. Bismarck (as he had planned), had had tested Austrian patience too muchtested Austrian patience too much, & the , & the Austrians now declared war against Prussia.Austrians now declared war against Prussia.Known as ‘Known as ‘Seven Weeks WarSeven Weeks War’, ’, Austria was Austria was quickly defeatedquickly defeated by superior Prussian military by superior Prussian military forces (& technology – incl., e.g., the ‘forces (& technology – incl., e.g., the ‘needle gunneedle gun’)’)

The Treaty of Prague & the Results The Treaty of Prague & the Results of the Austro-Prussian Warof the Austro-Prussian War

Outcome of Austro-Prussian War determined in Outcome of Austro-Prussian War determined in Treaty of Treaty of PraguePrague, signed between Prussia & Austria on August 23rd , signed between Prussia & Austria on August 23rd 1866. Accordingly:1866. Accordingly:

1) Austria was to give 1) Austria was to give Venetia to ItalyVenetia to Italy

2) 2) Prussia annexed several German statesPrussia annexed several German states which backed which backed Austria in war (incl. Hannover, Hesse, Nassau & Frankfurt)Austria in war (incl. Hannover, Hesse, Nassau & Frankfurt)

3) A 3) A North German ConfederationNorth German Confederation, dominated by Prussia & , dominated by Prussia & headed by the Prussian king was formedheaded by the Prussian king was formed

4) 4) Austria promised not to get involved in German affairsAustria promised not to get involved in German affairs

5) 5) Prussia’s (& Bismarck’s) prestige was further enhancedPrussia’s (& Bismarck’s) prestige was further enhanced. . Greater numbers of Germans now looked to Prussia for Greater numbers of Germans now looked to Prussia for leadership & popular support in Prussia shifted from liberals leadership & popular support in Prussia shifted from liberals towards conservative administration of Bismarck.towards conservative administration of Bismarck.

Crisis of Succession to the Crisis of Succession to the Spanish ThroneSpanish Throne (1) (1)

Bismarck’s final initiative for unification of Germany Bismarck’s final initiative for unification of Germany camcamee with his finding of a pretext to go to war against with his finding of a pretext to go to war against France (which was becoming incr. concerned by France (which was becoming incr. concerned by growing power of Prussia). Bismarck’s excuse growing power of Prussia). Bismarck’s excuse related to related to succession to Spanish thronesuccession to Spanish throne..

Spanish queen Isabella overthrown by a military Spanish queen Isabella overthrown by a military coup in 1868, but for almost 2 years Spaniards could coup in 1868, but for almost 2 years Spaniards could not agree on not agree on a suitable replacement as monarch. a suitable replacement as monarch. Spanish eventually chose Prince LeopoldSpanish eventually chose Prince Leopold who who accepted offer on June 19accepted offer on June 19thth 1870. 1870.

Crisis of Succession to the Crisis of Succession to the Spanish ThroneSpanish Throne (2) (2)

What was special about What was special about LeopoldLeopold was that he was a was that he was a member of the Hohenzollern member of the Hohenzollern familyfamily, the royal family ruling , the royal family ruling Prussia. For France his Prussia. For France his monarchy in Spain was monarchy in Spain was completely unacceptable. completely unacceptable. French did not want another French did not want another neighbouring state ruled by neighbouring state ruled by Hohenzollern family.Hohenzollern family. Prince Leopold

The Ems Telegram (1)The Ems Telegram (1)French ambassador Count Vincent French ambassador Count Vincent BenedettiBenedetti was sent to see was sent to see Prussian king Prussian king William IWilliam I at a place called at a place called Ems Ems to resolve the to resolve the issue. They had civilized gentlemanly discussions, but issue issue. They had civilized gentlemanly discussions, but issue was not yet resolved.was not yet resolved.On 12On 12thth July Leopold’s father withdrew his son’s candidacy for July Leopold’s father withdrew his son’s candidacy for the Spanish throne on behalf of his son. But, not yet satisfied, the Spanish throne on behalf of his son. But, not yet satisfied, Benedetti was sent to meet the king again to ask for secure Benedetti was sent to meet the king again to ask for secure guarantees that there would never again be another guarantees that there would never again be another Hohenzollern candidate. Even though there was no intention to Hohenzollern candidate. Even though there was no intention to support another Hohenzollern candidacy, this demand, William I support another Hohenzollern candidacy, this demand, William I said was not possible to accept.said was not possible to accept.A telegram, later infamously called the A telegram, later infamously called the ‘Ems Telegram’‘Ems Telegram’ was was then sent to Bismarck to explain what had happened.then sent to Bismarck to explain what had happened.

The Ems Telegram (2)The Ems Telegram (2)

While conversation between the ambassador & the king had been While conversation between the ambassador & the king had been quite open & frank, it was still civil. Yet Bismarck, the quite open & frank, it was still civil. Yet Bismarck, the opportunistopportunist that he was, saw a chance to that he was, saw a chance to create an excuse for warcreate an excuse for war with with France.France.

Bismarck noticed that by slightly Bismarck noticed that by slightly editing textediting text of telegram, & of telegram, & leakingleaking it to press it to press, he could make a war almost unavoidable., he could make a war almost unavoidable.

By playing with the words of the text, Bismarck made it appear as By playing with the words of the text, Bismarck made it appear as if telegram had spoken of a v. hostile meeting where king was v. if telegram had spoken of a v. hostile meeting where king was v. offensive to representative of French government.offensive to representative of French government.

When telegram, as edited by Bismarck, was released to public, When telegram, as edited by Bismarck, was released to public, Germans felt pride in king’s tough stance, while French felt that Germans felt pride in king’s tough stance, while French felt that their national honour had been attacked. Tensions & pressures their national honour had been attacked. Tensions & pressures built-up & on 19built-up & on 19thth of of July 1870 France declared war ... Just July 1870 France declared war ... Just what Bismarck had wanted!what Bismarck had wanted!

Facsimile of the Abeken Text & Bismarck's editing.*

* Available at http://www.uncp.edu/home/rwb/Ems%20Telegram.htm

The Abeken Text: *Ems, July 13, 1870.To THE FEDERAL CHANCELLOR, COUNT BISMARCK, No. 61 EOD. 3:10 P.M. (STATION EMS: RUSH!)His Majesty the King writes to me: "M. Benedetti intercepted me on the Promenade in order to demand of me most insistently that I should authorize him to telegraph immediately to Paris that I shall obligate myself for all future time never again to give my approval to the candidacy of the Hohenzollerns should it be renewed. I refused to agree to this, the last time somewhat severely, informing him that one dare not & cannot assume such obligations à tout jamais. Naturally, I informed him that I had received no news as yet, & since he had been informed earlier than I by way of Paris & Madrid he could easily understand that my Government was once again out of the matter." Since then His Majesty has received a dispatch from the Prince [Charles Anthony]. As His Majesty informed Count Benedetti that he was expecting news from the Prince, His Majesty himself, in view of the above-mentioned demand & in consonance with the advice of Count Eulenburg & myself, decided not to receive the French envoy again but to inform him through an adjutant that His Majesty had now received from the Prince confirmation of the news which Benedetti had already received from Paris, & that he had nothing further to say to the Ambassador. His Majesty leaves it to the judgment of Your Excellency whether or not to communicate at once the new demand by Benedetti & its rejection to our ambassadors & to the press. [Signed] A[beken] 13.7.70

* Available at http://www.uncp.edu/home/rwb/Ems%20Telegram.htm

The Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71The Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71

With nationalist passions incr. by dispute with With nationalist passions incr. by dispute with France, the southern German states now joined France, the southern German states now joined forces with Northern German Confederation led forces with Northern German Confederation led by Prussia.by Prussia.

The French armies were destroyed relatively The French armies were destroyed relatively quickly, though Paris continued to resist till quickly, though Paris continued to resist till January 1871.January 1871.

Napoleon III was captured by the Prussians Napoleon III was captured by the Prussians following the Battle of Sedan in Sept. 1870 & following the Battle of Sedan in Sept. 1870 & eventually sent into exile in England.eventually sent into exile in England.

The German EmperorThe German Emperor

During the war, often under public pressure, leaders During the war, often under public pressure, leaders of the southern German states had called upon of the southern German states had called upon William I to become emperor of a united, but federal William I to become emperor of a united, but federal Germany, in which they would maintain some Germany, in which they would maintain some authority within their own territories. On 18authority within their own territories. On 18 thth Jan. Jan. 1871, William I was crowned emperor of a united 1871, William I was crowned emperor of a united Germany inGermany in the famous ‘ the famous ‘Hall of MirrorsHall of Mirrors’ in ’ in Palace Palace of Versaillesof Versailles, which had been home to generations , which had been home to generations of French monarchs, (& which therefore was esp. of French monarchs, (& which therefore was esp. humiliating for the Frenchhumiliating for the French – they did not forget! – – they did not forget! – n.b. They sought n.b. They sought revenge after World War Irevenge after World War I))

Outcomes of theOutcomes of theFranco-Prussian WarFranco-Prussian War

Apart from the key outcome of the formation of a Apart from the key outcome of the formation of a united German national state, & the exile of Napoleon united German national state, & the exile of Napoleon III, the war had certain other significant consequences:III, the war had certain other significant consequences:

In the In the Treaty of FrankfurtTreaty of Frankfurt the French were made to the French were made to accept payment of accept payment of reparations reparations & to give the disputed & to give the disputed territories of territories of Alsace & Lorraine to GermanyAlsace & Lorraine to Germany

German forces of German forces of liberalismliberalism were were out-stagedout-staged by the by the conservative forces led by Bismarckconservative forces led by Bismarck

A A 3rd republic3rd republic was declared in was declared in FranceFrance (The first was (The first was in 1792, the 2nd in 1848)in 1792, the 2nd in 1848)

The Dual Monarchy:The Dual Monarchy:Austria-HungaryAustria-Hungary

Habsburg Emperor of Austrian Empire

Habsburg Emperor of Austria

Habsburg King of Hungary

Nationalities within Habsburg EmpireNationalities within Habsburg Empire

The Magyar – German CompromiseThe Magyar – German Compromise

Dual MonarchyDual Monarchy was basically a compromise was basically a compromise between Magyars & Germans. Empire divided into between Magyars & Germans. Empire divided into 2 autonomous halves, Austria in west (dominated 2 autonomous halves, Austria in west (dominated by Germans) & Hungary in east (dominated by by Germans) & Hungary in east (dominated by Magyars). A critical tie between 2 halves was that Magyars). A critical tie between 2 halves was that they would have same monarch, they would have same monarch, HabsburgHabsburg ruler ruler being simultaneously being simultaneously Emperor of Austria & King Emperor of Austria & King of Hungaryof Hungary. (Technically the new name for this . (Technically the new name for this new arrangement was ‘new arrangement was ‘Austria-HungaryAustria-Hungary’, though ’, though many sources continue to refer to ‘Austrian many sources continue to refer to ‘Austrian Empire’).Empire’).

Reasons for the Habsburg Reasons for the Habsburg Acceptance of the Dual MonarchyAcceptance of the Dual Monarchy

Growing recognition that defeat of Magyar nationalist Growing recognition that defeat of Magyar nationalist demands in 1848 was only temporary & would again surface demands in 1848 was only temporary & would again surface unless Magyars were satisfied.unless Magyars were satisfied.Belief that Belief that MagyarsMagyars (more than e.g. Slavs) were a (more than e.g. Slavs) were a noble & noble & ancient nationancient nation..Inability to rely on further Inability to rely on further Russian supportRussian support. (Russia helped . (Russia helped Habsburgs in 1848, but Austria failed to provide support for Habsburgs in 1848, but Austria failed to provide support for Russia during Crimean War).Russia during Crimean War).Successive military defeatsSuccessive military defeats of Empire (first against of Empire (first against Piedmont (+France) & then especially against Prussia had Piedmont (+France) & then especially against Prussia had increased belief that a domestic reorganization of Empire increased belief that a domestic reorganization of Empire was needed.was needed.

The Abolition of Serfdom in RussiaThe Abolition of Serfdom in Russia

As in Austrian Empire, As in Austrian Empire, abolition of serfdom in Russiaabolition of serfdom in Russia was was again based largely on again based largely on pragmatic politicspragmatic politics, not principles., not principles.

Serfdom in Russia officially ended in Feb 1861. In evaluating Serfdom in Russia officially ended in Feb 1861. In evaluating military failures of Russia during the Crimean War, it was military failures of Russia during the Crimean War, it was decided that a major cause had been decided that a major cause had been low morale & low morale & motivation of serfsmotivation of serfs fighting for Russian armies, defending a fighting for Russian armies, defending a state in which they had virtually no rights.state in which they had virtually no rights.

Though “officially” freed, circumstances of serfs did not improve Though “officially” freed, circumstances of serfs did not improve greatly in short term. Had to pay for compensation given to greatly in short term. Had to pay for compensation given to nobles who had lost their serfs & were not given title to land nobles who had lost their serfs & were not given title to land they worked till compensation was fully paid. So serfs economic they worked till compensation was fully paid. So serfs economic servitude continued by other means.servitude continued by other means.