The Dark Legend of the 18th C:

Origins and Sources

Origins:

• Mughal sources from the perspective of the imperial court in New Delhi

• English Histories authored by Employees of the East India Company such as Alexander Dow, William Bolts, Franklin during late 18th C

• Modern Historians like Sir Jadunath Sirkar writing at the beginning of the 20th Century

• Marxist historiography from Aligarh Muslim University in India during the 1950s-1960s

Characteristics of these theories:

• All are based on the political collapse of the Mughal Empire (1526-1720s)

• However, the authors in different time periods had different motivations for emphasizing decline

• To understand their outlook, we will read their histories as primary texts—our job is to historicize the historians

S. Asia, 1708Mughal territoriesIn Green

Questions these works leave unanswered

• What impact did the political collapse of the empire have on the vast majority of S. Asians who were not nobles?

• What was life like in the new successor states?

• How were peasant groups such as the Marathas, Sikhs, Jats able to create kingdoms in such a short time?

Dow’s perspective c.1770s(review)

• The English East India Company had conquered Bengal in 1757and was considering expansion into the hinterland of India.

• News of the Company’s shady dealings in Bengal, corporate malfeasance, and corruption reach Britain

• Shareholders, the public, and some members of parliament want an investigation of the affairs in Bengal

• Huge public interest in Indian affairs leads to a demand for new works on Indian history and politics.

State of Colonial society in 18th C.

• Early 18th C. very few colonial officers, most there for only a short time to make forutnes

• many others adapt to local custom and stay longer

• Have Indian wives, partners, business connections

• Their “going Native” is seen in an ambivalent way by other Europeans

Late 18th C changes in colonial society

• Growing disapproval of cultural adaptation after Bengal conquest

• Attempts made to retain a British identity in India—in marriages w/ european women, raising of children, social segregation by race

Discuss Dow’s text and motivation

Why do Orientalist histories persist into the modern period?

• The British colonial government in India created the educational networks in which India’s new historians were trained, Dow’s history continues to be influential

• Most, like Sir Jadunath Sarkar were from very wealthy elite families—their perspective is shaped by educations that emphasize European concepts of “modern” history

• From the late 19th c. growing polarization of Hindus and Muslims leads to a re-conceptualization of the late Mughal period as one in which religious tensions cause imperial decline

Why did religious polarizaiton occur?

• Colonial government creates different legal codes for each religious community—for census and other official processes everyone has to register their religious/caste affiliation

• Sense of competition b/w communities for government jobs, limited employment opportunities for the educated elite

• New reform movements begin within Hinduism and Islam—both stress literacy, a return to the textual practices of the “original texts”

• The shared culture fostered between communities during the Mughal period collapses

Influence of this on Sarkar

• Sir Jadunath Sarkar (1870-1958) was born in a progressive Hindu Brahmin family in Bengal.

• Educated in the English colonial school system, however, he became more conservative than his family.

• Greatly influenced by “Whig” view of history—i.e. the idea that human civilization is constantly progressing, and that modern European countries were the acme of this model.

• Believed that colonialism would save India from the dark chaos that was created by Mughal collapse.

Sarkar’s work

• Fascinated by the most famous Mughal Emperors-Akbar and Aurangzeb

• Later in life, influenced by right-leaning Hindu groups such as the Hindu Mahasabha and works on the history of Shivaji, the first important Maratha ruler

• Attributes Mughal decline to a civlizational collapse

Mughal Rulers

• Babur (r. 1526-30) est. Mughal empire

• Humayun( 1530-1540, exiled, comes back in 1555)

• Akbar “The Great” 1556-1605*

• Jahangir, 1605-1627

• Shah Jahan, 1628-1658

• Aurangzeb, 1658-1707*

Akbar and Aurangzeb

Sarkar’s approach:

• Sees Akbar as the creator of Mughal tradition—energetic, broadminded, secular, multi-talented

• Sees Aurangzeb as the last great Mughal—his intolerance and discrimination against non-Muslims, for Sarkar, creates the conditions for a collapse

• Why?

Sarkar’s sources

• Looks primarily at Persian court records and European sources from the 18th c.

• Aurangzeb did create policies that were discriminatory—increased taxes for non-Muslims (jizya), created a policy of constant expansion into the south

• Many of his political foes (primarily former peasant groups) were Hindu

Problems:

• Mughal administration, even under Aurangzeb, was hybrid. Official were ethnically and religiously diverse—More Hindus worked for Aurangzeb than for any other Emperor, many in very important posts.

• Aurangzeb’s largest military campaigns in the south (the Deccan) were against Muslim rulers

• Not all Muslims shared Aurangzeb’s views—many in the nobility openly criticized his policies

For next class:

• Download Sarkar and Srivastava readings

• Download question sheet for “week1-tues”

• Take lots of notes as you read