The Development of British Columbia

Horizons Ch. 6 p. 204-239

Learning Outcomes

By the end of the chapter students will:• Assess the impact of the Caribou Gold Rush on the development of British

Columbia• Identify factors that led to the expansion of Canada to include British Columbia,

including issues involving the Oregon Territory.• Describe the shift in British Columbia’s trade patters from north-south and

overseas, to east-west within Canada• Evaluate the influence of immigration on the society of British Columbia, and

relate the status of ethnic minorities to societal influences at the time.• Discuss the contributions of immigrants to Canada’s development• Describe the components of the British Columbia provincial government.

The Oregon TerritoryHorizons, Ch. 6 p 206-209

The Oregon Territory

British Columbia before the 1800s• no roads, bridges, boundary lines or ferries.• Inhabited by 80- 100,000 FN people.

During the 1800s• Home to an intense and lucrative fur trade.• The trade brought dramatic changes to the region.

49th Parallel

• In 1819, the British and American governments agreed that the boundary would be set at 49ᵒ N latitude. • What was remained to the west between the Rockies and the Pacific

was called Oregon Territory.• Both countries wanted to use the Oregon Territory to their advantage.• The HBC, already operating in the area had no interest in encouraging

settlement

Manifest Destiny

• The U.S. now established a policy of aggressive settlement of the west known as Manifest Destiny.

• The U.S. government actively encouraged people from the east to move west.

• By the 1830s, the population of the area was rapidly growing.

HBC in the Oregon Territory

• In 1824, HBC manager George Simpson toured the HBC’s Oregon Territory posts.• He felt that the company was not making the most of it’s resources.• Decided to build a new fort- Fort Vancouver• Fort Vancouver became the HBC’s main trading post in the Oregon

Territory.• John McLoughlin was put in charge; capable, efficient administrator;

attempted to limit American competition• By offering supplies and money, he encouraged American homesteaders

to settle south of the Columbia River.

• By the 1830’s there was a strong American presence in the region.• The HBC did have competition from the Russians .• By 1839 The HBC and the Russians agreed that the Russians would

not operate south of 54ᵒ 40’ N • In exchange, the HBC would supply the Russians with food from their

farms around Fort Vancouver

• In 1841, George Simpson revisited the HBC forts in the Pacific coast region.

• He was disappointed that the fur trade had not expanded as much as he had hoped.

• He decided to cut costs by closing all the trading posts along the coast with the exception of Fort Simpson.

An Official Boundary

• .Rising population of Americans in the Oregon Territory finally caught the attention of the HBC and the British government.• In 1843, Simpson ordered Fort Vancouver’s chief factor, James

Douglas to establish a fort on Vancouver Island.• Fort Victoria was established.• James Polk won the U.S. election in part because of the campaign

slogan “54 40 or fight”• Negotiations extended the 49th parallel boundary west. Vancouver

Island was the exception.

The Colony of Vancouver IslandHorizons, Ch. 6 p. 210-212

The Colony of Vancouver Island

• In 1848 the British government realized it needed to establish an official British presence on the Pacific coast to solidify its claim on the region.• The crown colony of Vancouver Island was created.• Britain gave the trade monopoly to the HBC.• James Douglas was appointed Governor and for 10 years was also

chief factor of Fort Victoria.• Land - $5 an acre- minimum of 20 acres.

• During the 1850s the colony steadily grew.• Coal was discovered and mines were developed in Nanaimo and

Cumberland.• A British Naval base was established near Victoria.• The Royal Navy soon became important to the emerging social life of

Fort Victoria.

James and Amelia Douglas

James• Born in Guyana, son of a Scottish merchant and free black woman.• Educated in Scotland.• Rose through the ranks of the HBC• Became governor of the new Vancouver Island colony; “Father of British Columbia”

Amelia• Métis daughter of Chief Factor William Connolly• Married James Douglas when she was 16; they had 13 children• Well known in the fur trade circles• Self reliant; head of one of the most powerful families in the colony.• Rarely took part in the social scene of the colony; due to the prejudice of others.

The Douglas Treaties.

• Negotiated between Douglas and the FN of Vancouver Island.• If European immigration was going to succeed, Douglas believed he had to

gain title to land officially occupied by FN people.• 14 treaties negotiated in 4 years.• Douglas decided that the FN could choose where their reserves would be.• The size of reserves would be left up to FN. Range lands for cattle and horses

were included.• FN were able to keep their traditional hunting rights and fishing rights.• Aboriginal title established when Douglas paid for the land.• Were not honoured by subsequent governments.

The Cariboo Gold RushHorizons, Ch. 6 p. 213- 219

• In the 19th century thousands of people influenced by the dream of instant wealth immigrated to Canada or the U.S.

• This optimism was fueled by the gold rushes in North America

• California Gold Rush -1848. • Few made it rich, but many stayed in the West.

The Fraser River Gold Rush

• In 1857, a HBC trader arrived in Victoria with gold dust and nuggets he had panned along the Thompson River.• He presented his find to Governor Douglas.• The thought of a gold rush worried Douglas, because he was well

aware of the problems the California Rush had caused for the government there.• He feared the news of gold in the colony might lead to its annexation

by the U.S; he communicated his concerns to London.• Annexation- the act of adding another territory to one’s own.

• His fears became real during the winter of 1857-58.

• Prospectors arrived from Washington and Oregon, and discovered gold on the banks of the Fraser and Thompson rivers.

• Word soon reached California, and by the end of the summer 10 000 men, mostly American, were working claims along the Fraser Canyon.

The Fraser Canyon War

• While Douglas made an effort to control the number of miners entering the Fraser Canyon he could never have been completely successful.• Determined miners couldn’t be stopped, and the numerous

newcomers into the area led to conflict.• FN groups living in the regions faced numerous conflicts with miners• Though militia groups sent to resolve the situation were met

peacefully by the FN, Douglas was concerned because the miners had organized themselves and acted on their own.

Ned McGowan’s War

• British control of the mainland was challenged again.• Gold miners from California split into two opposing groups- the

Vigilance Committee and the Law and Order Party.• Long history of conflict with each other.• McGowan was the leader of the Law and Order Party and became

frustrated with a local official Richard Hicks.• Hicks was corrupt and McGowan wanted him gone.

• Douglas appointed Justice Whannell to keep an eye on Hicks.• Unfortunately people hated him even more than Hicks.• The boiling point was reached when a British man was shot by an

American during a fight.• The American went to McGowan for protection.• The Vigilance Committee (McGowan’s enemies) suggested it was time

for them to take control.• Whannell issued arrest warrants for two of McGowan’s men.• But McGowan persuaded another judge to arrest Whannell

• Though he was only fined, Whannell was humiliated….and MAD.• He wrote Douglas asking for a military force to be sent to the area to put down

what he called “a Rebellion”.• This suggested the colony was in danger.• Douglas sent a group of soldiers, as well as government officials. (Matthew

Begbie and Colonel Richard Moody)• McGowan asked his men to send for the American military.• Luckily Begbie and Moody were able to calmly settle the dispute without

further violence, and fired Hicks.• The presence of the soldiers calmed everyone down, and British rule was

maintained.

Think about it.

What sort of challenges did Douglas face in his attempts to control the mainland?

Could he have done anything else to prevent this conflict?

The Colony of British Columbia

• In 1858, the colony of British Columbia was created on the mainland.• It extended from the 49th parallel to 54ᵒ 40’ N.• James Douglas was made governor.• The Colonial Office sent a contingent of Royal Engineers, who arrived

the next year.• They were to provide a military presence, survey the region and assist

in laying out new towns and roads.• Matthew Begbie was to be the Chief Justice for the new colony.• He was known to be tough and fair, and would uphold the law.

• Gold miners soon began working their way up the Fraser, searching for the mother lode.• By 1870, the leading edge of the northward movement had reached

the Quesnel River.• Several large deposits of gold were discovered.• The Cariboo Gold Rush was underway

The Cariboo Wagon Road

• Getting to the gold was difficult, as there were no easy inland routes.• Most miners carried their supplies on their backs, or used pack horses

over old HBC trails.• Douglas hired the miners to widen the trail in the Fraser Canyon.• However, a better route was needed both to ease travel and provide

an effective government presence.• In 1862, Douglas ordered construction of the Cariboo Wagon Road.• Eventually it was almost 650 km long, took three years to build and

cost $75 000.

• Ironically, by the time the road was finished, the gold rush was in decline.• The tax benefits from the gold rush that the government had hoped

for were far lower than anticipated.• The colony of British Columbia was deeply in debt.

Barkerville

• Largest town of the Cariboo Gold Rush• Named after Billy Barker, who had struck gold in nearby Williams Creek.• Life in a mining town was hard.• Bringing in supplies by pack animals was slow and difficult.• This meant that only the “bare necessities” were affordable.• The town consisted of two streets and wood frame buildings touching

each other; miners shacks and a network of flumes surrounded the town.• Flumes= artificial water channels

• By the mid 1860s about 5000-10,000 people lived in Barkerville.• When the Cariboo Wagon Road opened, businesses thrived.• The town had general stores, boarding houses, a post office, a

drugstore, the Theater Royal and the Cariboo Literary Society.• People from all over the world were attracted by the gold rush.• Barkerville had a vibrant nightlife.• The “Hurdy Gurdy Girls” were dancers brought “direct from

Germany”; they were employed to dance with the miners and got a percentage of every drink sold.

The End of Gold

• On September 16, 1868 most of Barkerville was destroyed by fire.• Within three months the town was rebuilt, but by the early 1870s

most of the easily mined gold had been removed.• Only large mining companies with hydraulic equipment were able to

stay in business.• By the 1880s the towns population had significantly dwindled, and by

the 1920s it was almost a ghost town.• In 1958, the B.C. provincial government decided to restore the town

as a tourist attraction.

The Creation of British Columbia

• Until 1856, James Douglas had almost exclusive control of Britain’s colonies on the Pacific Coast.

• There was no elected legislative assembly, and the legislative and executive councils were appointed by Douglas.

• He even made his brother-in-law chief justice.

• This autocratic approach led to protests.

• In 1856 Douglas was ordered to create a 7 member legislative assembly for Vancouver Island.• He insisted that only those who owned property could vote.• This included only about 40 of the colony’s male citizens.• Douglas remained in control, because while the legislative assembly

could pass resolutions, they had no authority to enforce them• The governor could, and did, ignore any resolutions the he did not

like.

Changes in Population

• A census of Vancouver Island was taken in 1855.

• It showed a non-FN population of 774, and a FN population of at least 30,000.• However, the total FN population along the coast was probably closer

to 60,000

The Smallpox Epidemic

• In the spring of 1862, a miner from California brought smallpox to Victoria.• The disease spread quickly.• It particularly devastated FN communities, where it caused an

epidemic.• While colonists were vaccinated, the local FN were merely

quarantined.

• Many FN had come to Victoria hoping to find work in the gold rush.

• They were now ordered to go home.• They took the disease back with them.• On Haida Gwaii, over 70 percent of the population died in the

summer of 1862, and villages the had existed for thousands of years were suddenly empty.• By the time the epidemic had run its course, over half of the coastal

FN had died.

Immigration

• During the Fraser and Cariboo Gold Rushes, more than 35,000 people arrived from all over the world.• The increase to the population was only temporary.• By the 1860s, as gold ran out, the population dwindled to fewer than

10, 000 people.• This meant fewer people to pay taxes, so government revenue

dropped.• By 1865 the colony of Vancouver Island was over $300 000 in debt,

and the colony of British Columbia owed more than one million dollars.

• By 1866, both colonies had sought bank loans to pay their employees, but the banks refused.• The only solution was to unite the colonies.• The British Colonial Office agreed because they did not want to

subsidize two colonial governments.• On August 6, 1866 the two colonies officially united and became the

colony of British Columbia.

Provincial Government in British Columbia• When the colonies united, a legislative council of 23 members was

created.• Only nine were elected members; others were appointed.• Victoria was selected as the capital, much to the dismay of the

population of New Westminster.• When British Columbia joined Confederation in 1871, a provincial

legislative assembly of 25 members was created.• A Lieutenant-Governor was appointed by the Crown.

• Until 1903, there were no political parties in the legislative assembly.• As a result there was little political stability- no less than 15 premiers

held office during those years.• Today the legislature of British Columbia is made up of the

Lieutenant-Governor and 79 elected Members of Parliament (MLAs)• Each MLA represents a constituency.• Constituency = a district that is represented by and elected person.• Canadian citizens over the age of 18 and who have lived in the

province for more than 6 months can vote and run for office.

• MLAs are responsible for debating and voting on proposed laws, and approving the provincial budget.• The Lieutenant-Governor asks the leader of the provincial party with

the most seats to form a government.• Like the Governor General, the Lieutenant-Governor is appointed by

the Crown on the advice of the Prime Minister.• The leader of the second largest arty becomes leader of the opposition.• The Premier chooses elected members to form a cabinet of ministers

who are in charge of various departments, known as ministries. ( finance, education)

A Common Language: Chinook

• On the Northwest coast, the challenging geography often led to isolation of Aboriginal communities.• Speaking different languages often made communication difficult.• As a result, a common language evolved.• Called Chinook, it included vocabulary from various groups.• The fur trade solidified Chinook as the common language of the coast.• When Europeans arrived, some French and English words were

added.

• Some traders learned the language, so by the early 19th century Chinook became the common trade language on the coast, spoken from northern California to Alaska.• It was simple and easy to learn.• Even during the gold rush, Chinook survived and prospered.• By the 1880s, one third of the total population of the area could speak

Chinook.• However, with the arrival of the CPR and rapid population growth, the

language quickly declined.• By 1962 fewer than 100 people in British Columbia could still speak it.

Think About It.

• Explain the significance of the smallpox epidemic on FN populations in British Columbia.• Describe how the emergence of the Chinook language was essential

to the development of British Columbia.• Is loss of a language linked to loss of culture? Relate this question to

your own experience. Consider your family’s roots, language and culture.

The Confederation Debate

What advantages would joining Confederation bring to British Columbia?

• Uniting the colonies did little to solve their economic woes.• The colony still needed more people, more money and better access to

markets.• Not everyone agreed that joining Confederation would resolve these

issues.• Debate was frequent and bitter.• Elected representatives on the mainland were strongly in favor,

members from Vancouver Island were strongly opposed.• A third group, mostly Victoria merchants, favoured annexation by the

United States.

Arguments For and Against

• In 1868, the mainland representatives called confederationists, adopted resolutions that described how ands why British Columbia should join.• They wanted: 1. The Canadian government to become responsible for B.C.’s debt. 2. A wagon road to be built from Lake Superior to New Westminster. 3. Responsible government.• Their resolutions were defeated in the legislative assembly, but

continued to be promoted in the press.

• Anti-confederationists: 1. Wanted to maintain ties to Britain. 2. Mistrusted Canadians

• Annexationists: Those in favour of joining the United States felt it was a better economic deal for British Columbia.

1. Canada was far away; nearby Washington and Oregon were prospering. 2. Annexation would ensure permanent links to the American market.

• When the governor of the colony, Governor Seymour died suddenly, the British Colonial Office appointed Anthony Musgrave.• Musgrave was a personal friend of John A Mcdonald and saw his

opportunity to act.• The British government was tired of supporting the colony and was in

favour of Confederation.• Their instructions to Musgrave were simple- get British Columbia to

join Confederation as soon as possible.

• Annexationists quickly circulated a petition in favour of joining the U.S.• However in Victoria, a town of 3,000 they were only able to collect

125 signatures.• Musgrave asked the anti-confederationists for their support by asking

them to join with him on a policy of union.• They agreed to write out a “wish list” that they were sure would be

rejected.• However the Canadian government agreed to virtually all of their

terms.

It’s Official

• On July 20, 1871, British Columbia officially joined Canada.

Amor de Cosmos

• Birth name= William Smith• A photographer during the California Gold Rush.• In 1854, he proclaiming his “love of order, beauty, the world, the

universe.” he changed Amor de Cosmos.• Moved to Victoria in 1858; started the newspaper the British Colonist• Supporter of responsible government• Began attacking James Douglas; considered him to be a tyrant

• Douglas responded by trying to shut down the Colonist.• De Cosmos supported Confederation and this made him unpopular.• He helped organize the Confederation League, which actively

campaigned for Confederation and responsible government.• Elected one of British Columbia’s first Members of Parliament.• Later became British Columbia’s second premier.• Believed that FN and Chinese people were inferior.• Disagreed with Aboriginal land title- called the land unoccupied and

recommended that FN be prosecuted for trespassing on colonial property

• Was eventually defeated by an even more prejudiced opponent- Noah Shakespeare.• De Cosmos became a paranoid recluse, terrified of anything run by

electricity.• Died in 1897.

The Emergence of Vancouver

• Vancouver is the youngest major community in British Columbia.• Almost all other major centers in the province can trace their origins

to either the fur trade or the gold rush.• However, Burrard Inlet is not fed by a major river and the peninsula

was originally covered by thick forest.• This discouraged people from settling there.

• When Colonel Moody arrived in New Westminster, he was impressed by the potential for Burrard Inlet both as an ice-free port and as a harbour with naval advantages.

• He had the Royal Engineers cut trails through the forest to join the inlet with New Westminster.

Industry Brings Development

• In the 1860s the future site of Vancouver appeared much as it had for thousands of years.• This began to change by 1865.• Captain Edward Stamp built Hastings Mill on the south side of the

inlet.• On the north side American entrepreneur Sewell Moody built a

sawmill.• The mill and its surrounding community were known as Moodyville.

• Both mills specialized in selectively logging “B.C. toothpicks” timber from trees so large that they were prized as sailing masts and exported around the world.

• Both Hastings and Moodyville were officially “dry” ( sale of alcohol was forbidden) until John “Gassy Jack” Deighton arrived in 1867 with his family and a barrel of whiskey.• He opened a very popular saloon, and soon there were other saloons,

as well as businesses in an area officially called Granville, the village became known as “Gastown”

The Railway Arrives

• For the next two decades life in Burrard Inlet continued as before- then the CPR arrived.• In 1881, Port Moody was named the terminus- or end- of the CPR

line.• This shifted activity to the eastern side of the inlet.

• Spectators quickly bought up land.

• In 1884, William Van Horne arrived at Port Moody to establish the exact location of the CPR terminus.• He found the area to be totally unsuitable- the harbour was shallow,

there was not enough flat land to accommodate the rail yards the CPR would need.

• Travelling farther down the inlet he found what he was looking for- a deep water port and flat land.• He named the site Vancouver, and announced it would be the

terminus site.

• Land speculators and people in New Westminster were outraged but there was nothing they could do.

• By the spring of 1886, the CPR was completed and the new city of Vancouver incorporated.

• By 1890 the city had a population of over 5,000; within 10 years it was over 20,000

The Port of Vancouver

• The Port of Vancouver has dominated the wet coast as the primary port for export and imports.

• For much of its existence it has been the busiest port in Canada.• Often referred to as Canada’s “Gateway to the Pacific”• First gained global recognition with the arrival of the SS Abyssinia in

1887. • The Abyssinia was part of a record setting 29 day around the world

delivery

• When the Panama Canal opened in 1914, Vancouver’s port became even busier.• Grain and forest products were shopped not only to Asia and other

parts of Canada, but to the eastern United States and Europe via the canal.

• An influx of imports led to the construction of piers, large rail yards and warehouses.• Facilities for passengers also improved.

• After the Second World War, the Port of Vancouver became more specialized.

• Besides grain and forest products, the port now handled coal, potash, sulphur, copper and raw sugar.

• In the 1970s and 80s the port was expanded and improved with construction of its fist container terminals and facilities for Alaskan cruises.

• In 2006, the federal government created the Asia Pacific Gateway and Corridor Initiative. • Billions of dollars were targeted for building an infrastructure to

improve economic connections to the Asia Pacific and the rest of North America. Through this initiative ties with Asia were strengthened.• The Port of Vancouver continues to grow, develop and be of economic

importance to British Columbia.

New Economic Opportunities for British Columbia• With Confederation and the coming of railway, B.C. was no longer

isolated from the rest of Canada.• Earlier trade had focused on north-south trade with the United States,

now access to other Canadian provinces opened up eastern trade possibilities.

• Exports in natural resources saw an increase following completion of the rail line.• For example, immigration to the Prairies caused a huge demand for

lumber to build new homes.

• The population of British Columbia also began to grow as the railway made travel through the mountains easier.

• Travel for leisure now became an option.

Think About It

• Explain why Vancouver developed later than other areas of British Columbia.

• Describe how geography and the coming of the railway influenced changes in the flow of foods in and out of B.C.

• “Historical figures like Gassy Jack are colourful, but not significant”. Do you agree or disagree with this. Explain why.

A Province of DiversityCh. 6 p. 231-239

The Kanakas

• The first non-European immigrants to British Columbia were the Kanakas who traveled to the west coast of North America from the Hawaiian Islands in the early 19th century.• The first European to visit the Hawaiian Islands was James Cook, who

was killed there in 1779, however British and American vessels continued to use the islands as a convenient stopping point in trips between North America and Asia.• Ships were often short of crew, so Hawaiians were hired to fill the

gaps.

• These sailors quickly impressed their shipmates with their hard work and excellent sailing and swimming skills.

• By the 1820s the HBC was regularly hiring Kanakas to work at HBC posts, especially around Fort Vancouver.

• By the 1840s there were more than 200 Kanakas working in and near Fort Vancouver, mostly as farmers.• Many married FN women and started family.

• After the border between the United States and Canada was established, the HBC wound up its business south of the border and moved its people north.• Many Kanakas were encouraged to leave the company and start lives

on their own in British Columbia.• Some Kanakas settled in Burrard Inlet where they established a

community in Coal Harbour near what is now Stanley Park.• The largest Kanaka community was centred on Salt Spring Island,

where the Kanaka community continued into the 20th century.

Black Immigrants

• When the news of the Fraser River Gold Rush reached California in 1858, many black citizens, who knew that slavery was illegal in the British Empire traveled north to Victoria to petition James Douglas for permission to settle on Vancouver Island.

• Douglas agreed, and by the end of the summer several hundred Black Americans had left California for the relative freedom of Vancouver Island.

• Douglas encouraged and assisted the newcomers, even finding some members of the Black community employment.

• Although slavery was illegal in the British Empire, Black immigrants still faced discrimination.

• The Gold Rush had caused property values to rise in Victoria and as a result many Black immigrants moved north to farm on Salt Spring Island.

Jewish Immigrants

• First arrived in British Columbia in 1858.

• They came primarily from England and Europe and had already participated in the California Gold Rush.

• Rather than participating in seeking gold themselves, they went into business selling supplies to both gold miners on Vancouver Island and on the mainland.• By 1868 the Jewish community in Victoria was well established.

The Chinese

• The largest group of non-European immigrants to British Columbia in the 19th century were the Chinese.

• They also faced some of the most brutal forms of discrimination.

• The first Chinese immigrants to North America came to California in the 1850s and like many others moved north in response to the news of the Fraser River Gold Rush.

• Realizing their opportunities were limited many Chinese miners started by reworking claims abandoned by European and American miners.

• By the 1870s most of the small claims still operating in British Columbia were worked by Chinese miners.

The Railway Builders

• Part of the railway in British Columbia was built by an American named Andrew Onderdonk who was under contract to the CPR.

• The line through the Fraser Canyon was incredibly difficult and expensive to build and Onderdonk was short of both money and workers.

• He resolved the problem by hiring Chinese workers at low wages.

• Between 1881 and 1885 more than 17, 000 Chinese men came to British Columbia to work on the railway.

• They were paid a dollar a day- half the wage of a European worker.

• They lived in separate camps and paid for food and lodging.

• Their work was dangerous and difficult.

• It has been estimated that more than 600 Chinese workers lost their lives through accident illness.

• However, according to some sources the death toll for Chinese immigrants was actually closer to 1200

• When the railway was finished, many Chinese workers could not afford to travel back to China as they had originally planned.• Many moved to Victoria and Vancouver in search of work.

Discrimination

• The Knights of Labour pressed the government too have all Chinese people removed from Vancouver.

• Some actually physically forced Chinese residents out of town.

• Businesses selling to Chinese often found themselves the targets of boycotts.

• Chinese workers usually performed heavy manual labour.

• They were often hired by an English-speaking Chinese contractor who would bid on a job (e.g. clearing a road) then recruit workers.

• To increase profits, many cheated the Chinese workers.

• By 1900, the ethnic composition of British Columbia was changing.

• Most newcomers to the province were British and wanted to create a British society.

• Non-Europeans were depicted as being inferior and dangerous.

• Amor de Cosmos openly stated that he believed that Chinese people were a threat because they “did not assimilate”

• After a Royal Commission on Chinese Immigration the government legalized discrimination. • In 1885 when the railway was finished and Canada no longer needed

Chinese labour so the government decided to limit Chinese immigration.• Each Chinese immigrant was required to pay a $50 head tax for entry into

Canada and ships were only allowed to carry one Chinese passenger for every 50 tonnes of cargo.• As most ships cold carry about 2000 tonnes, no more than 40 Chinese

immigrants per ship could enter the country at one time• This slowed Chinese immigration and made it almost impossible for Chinese

families to come to Canada together.