THE EFFECT OP TWO METHODS OF PROORAMMIKG UPON

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ORCHESTRA

IN A SECONDARY SCHOOL

APPROVED!

Graduate Cofwaltte#t

jw rmewwp -j

"*?•!»"•« r1 '••Mr'r.'crrr*11111"'' 111 1111 • rami ttee Mtaio®2*

;ominittee Member Comal fEli#'' M@a|

15ei n'"' "of'1 of 'ifepali' on"'

D»»n of1 tJU Bradria te School

THE EFFECT Of TWO METHODS OF PROGRAMMING UPON

THB DEVELOPMENT OF THE OEGHESTRA

I I A SECONDARY SCHOOL

DISJiERTATIOH

fx*© s e a t e d t o the Gradua te Couno i l of t h e

Nor th Texas S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y l a P a r t i a l

F u l f i l l m e n t of t h e Requi rementa

Fo r t h e Degree of

DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

%r

Joan Boney, B» S«, M. Mi

Denton, Texas

J u n e , 1966

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

MET OF TABU© . . . i t

Chapter

I . INTRODUCTION 1 Foreword Statement of the Problem Hypotheses D e f i n i t i o n of Terms L imi ta t ions of the Study Basic A sunup t l o n s Method

I I . SURVEY OF RELATED LITERATURE 18

Musics ! Percept ion A t t i t u d e s

I I I . METHOD . • 4 8

Subjec t s I m p l e w u t i n g Device® Measuring Debtees Procedure

IV. RESULTS

Findings D i s c u s s i o n

V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND BBCOMHBHIMTXOHB . . . 83

APPENDIX

BIBLIOGRAPHY

i l l

LIST OF TABLES

Table • - Peg®

I* Results of the Musi eel Memory Teat For the Con-trol Group and the Experimental Group . * • • 65

II* Result# of the Musical Discrimination Test For the Control Group and the Experimental Group 66

III. Results of the Pre-Tesfe and Post-Teat Attitude Scores of the Experiment® 1 Group 67

IV, Results of the Pre-Test end Post-Test Attitude Scores of the Control Group # • * • • • « • „ 68

V, Attitude Mean Gains of the Control Group and the Experimental Group 69

Iv

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Foreword

Among Issae® of concern to raaaic ©duostors today Is the

development, expansion, and continuation of secondary school

orchestras throughout the United States* Much effort is

currently being expended in the public schools to provide

instruction in s wide range of musical activities for young

people in the hope that they may develop an understanding

of, and an appreciation for, various types of music. Howev-

er, according to the string committee of the Music Educators

National Conference (23), secondary school orchestras, in a

great many cases, exist on a yesr-to*ye#r basis depending

primarily upon the Interest of the student body in orchestra

as is evidenced through enrollment figures, the number of

sections of orchestra classes per school, and concert at-

tendance figures*

While it is possible thst the musical listening experi-

ences provided in the school and the community are suffi-

cient for the training of an appreciation of lighter forms

of music, suoh as those compositions which frequent the band

and choir repertoire, there is some doubt that the students

are, for the most part, developing an appreciation of the

s

raore complex form® of music which are typical of orchestral

performances.

The fact that curriculum workers recognize the need for

the development of an Increased public appreciation of the

arte is exemplified in curriculum bulletins through state-

ment® such as the following)

'fiie arts should raise critical standards and widen the area and depth of public appreciation* The commit* WM*fc to raise critical standards is so important to our national goals thet ite solution cannot be left to forces outside formal education* There is a need for scholarly research to know more shout how judgments of taste and beauty are developed and need in varied ex* peri®noes# W® need to know more about perceptive lie* tening and seeing and how these can b© provided for In the curriculum (22, p. 13),

There is general agreement among music educators and

professional musicians (7, 10, 12, 18, 16, 24) that an un-

derstanding of certain basic musical elements usually pre-

cede® an appreciation of classical forms of music. Some of

the specific element® listed are (1) the ability to follow

a melodic line through a variety of keys and rhythms, 12)

the ability to follow the musical form of a composition, and

(3) the ability to identify tone qua lit leg of musical In-

struments.

Upon recognising that a student body may leek the nec-

essary training leading to an appreciation of the mora com-

plex forms of music thet ore frequently associated with

orchestral performances, public school orchestra directors

have sometime8 taken one of the fol lowing opposing p o s i t i o n s

concerning programming f o r publ ic school audiences* (1)

music i s programmed f o r the en ter ta inment of the s tudent

body audience with l i t t l e r e ^ r d f o r the q u a l i t y of the mu-

s i c , or (2) music i s programmed according to the q u a l i t y of

the music with l i t t l e regard f o r the l e v e l of music appre-

c i a t i o n of the student body audience .

One of the e a r l i e s t recorded a t tempts toward f i n d i n g a

so lu t ion to t h i s programming problem was made in the 1890*8

by Walter Damrosch, the conductor of the New York P h i l h a r -

monic Orchestra (4, p . 210) . Damrosch introduced a type of

" i n s t r u c t i o n a l programming11 designed f o r the purpose of be-

ginning with music c h a r a c t e r i s e d by c l e a r n e s s of melodic

l i n e and s i m p l i c i t y of musical form and leading toward an

unders tanding o f , and an app rec i a t i on f o r , more complex

melodic l i n e s and musical forms# This type of programming,

r e f e r r e d t o in the present s tudy aa demonstrat ion program-

ming, was used in the specie 1 concer t s presented to school

age c h i l d r e n and was mode a r e g u l a r p a r t of the concer t sea-

son by the lew York Philharmonic Orches t ra .

Since i t s i n t roduc t ion by Damrosch, demonstrat ion pro-

gramming has f r e q u e n t l y been employed by conductors of the

p r o f e s s i o n a l symphony o r c h e s t r a s as a method of i nc rea s ing

the musical percep t ion and a p p r e c i a t i o n of audiences com-

posed of young people . However, s ince these young audiences

4

a r e primarily composed of a majority of we l l - s choo led musi-

oa 1 l i s t e n e r s , the quest ion concerning the a d v i s a b i l i t y of

using the demonstration type of programming, performed by

school orchestras , f o r public school audiences remains to be

answered.

I f the development of musical perception of student '

aud iences end f a v o r a b l e a t t i t u d e s toward orchestra a s a

school a c t i v i t y e r e two of the major o b j e c t i v e s of o r c h e s -

t r a l programming, the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of methods of program-

ming in a t t a i n i n g these o b j e c t i v e s should be invest igated#

I f i t i s d iscovered that one method of programming I s more

s u c c e s s f u l than another in formulating musical percept ion

and a t t i t u d e s in a s e l e c t e d secondary s c h o o l , knowledge of

t h i s method could lead to addi t iona l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of the

e f f e c t of t h i s method in other secondary schoo l* thereby

leading to a r e v i s i o n in thinking as to the method and con-

tent of orchestra l programing for pub l i c school orches tras .

Statement of the Problem

The present study was designed for the purpose of com-

pering the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of two methods of orches tra l pro-

gramming, demonstration and non-deraonatration, upon (1)

the musical perception of the members of a student body au-

dience , and (2) the a t t i t u d e s of the members of a student

body toward orchestra a s o school subjec t . This comparison

of demonstration and non-demons t ra t ion programming involved

the question concerning the e f fec t iveness of Instructive

l i s t e n i n g a s compared with f r ee l i s t e n i n g In the development

of Musical perception and att i tudes . The problem of the

present study la, presented In the following ma jor areasJ

(1) musical perception, end (2) at t i tudes . T h* development of musics 1 perception, according to mu-

s ic educe tora (7, 15, 16, 24), appeals to be re Is ted to the

student's ab i l i t y to discriminate between variations of the

elements of melody, harmony, and rhythm In musical composi-

t ions end to hie ab i l i t y to follow a melodic l ine through

variations of notes, keys, and rhythms.

If the recognition of spec i f ic musical elements la of

significance in the development of musical perception, s tu -

dents who are t ra ined in the recognition of variations of a

musical passage through alteration In the notes of the melo-

dy, the key of the passage, or the rhythm should have s ig -

n i f icant ly greater so ores on musical perception t e s t s then

students exposed to performances of intact music without the

benefit of verbal and musical I l lus trat ions . I f this i s the

case, the students exposed to demonstration programming

should show s ignif icant ly higher scores on tes t s of musical

perception than would students exposed to non-demonstratlon

programming. Therefore, the present study was designed for

the purpose of compering the e f f e c t of demonstration and

non-demonstration programming upon the members of an audience

In t h e i r a b i l i t y to i d e n t i f y changes i n the s p e c i f i c mus ica l

elements of v a r i a t i o n s In n o t e s , keya, and rhythms and In

the i r a b i l i t y to s e l e c t the more a p p r o p r i a t e use of these

n-usicul elements In musical examples.

A re la ted ques t ion in the a rea of musical perception

concerned the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of i n s t r u c t i o n a l programming,

re ferred to in the present study as demonstration program-

ming, when pre sen ted to e large group of students in an sts-

dience s e t t i n g .

Separate s tud ies xave been conducted by Andrews {1} and

Peplnsky (19) concerning the development or musical pe rcep-

t i o n among public school s tudents grouped In small c l a s s e s

ranging in sine from twenty to th ir ty students per c lass*

The r e s u l t s of eoch of these s t u d i e s l e d the i n v e s t i g a t o r s

to conclude, in s e p a r a t e r eport s , that the development of

musical perception i s more o l o s e l y re la t ed to musical t r a i n -

ing than to rousioal apt i tude , socio-economic background, in -

t e l l i g e n c e , s c h o l a s t i c achievement, or persona l i ty . These

s tud ie s , conducted by Andrews (1} and Pepinsky ( 1 9 ) , I l l u s -

t r a t e the pos i t i on that a student*s l e v e l of musical percep-

t ion my be s i g n i f i c a n t l y a f f e c t e d by means of s p e c i a l

uualoel t ra in ing pre sen ted during c l a s s e s composed of a l im-

i t e d number of s tudents . Unfortunately, the s i c e s of the

c l a s s e s used by Andrews and Pepinsky tend to l i m i t the f i n d -

ings of t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e s t u d i e s ©s they r e l a t e to the

deve lopmen t of t he r m e i c e l p e r c e p t i o n of a s t u d e n t body &a &

g r o u p . T h e r e f o r e , t h e . f o l l o w i n g r e 1- t e d q u e s t i o n was d e v e l -

oped a s 0 p e r t o f t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y i Can m u s l c n l p e r c e p t i o n

be s i g n i f i c a n t l y a f f e c t e d , t h r o u g h t h e us® of i n s t r u c t i o n a l

p rogramming , when s t u d e n t s ©re i n s t r u c t e d I n l a r g e g r o u p s

c o n s i s t i n g of a p p r o x i m a t e l y one hundred s t u d e n t s p e r g r o u p ?

Tha second me J o r a r e a of t h e pre- s e n t s t u d y we® c o n -

c e r n e d w i t h t h e a t t i t u d e s of members o f a s t u d e n t body

toward o r c h e s t r a a s a s c h o o l s u b j e c t # Remrcers ( 2 0 } d e f i n e s

an a t t i t u d e a s an " e m o t i o n ® l i z e d t e n d e n c y , o r g a n i z e d t h r o u g h

e x p e r i e n c e , t o r e a c t p o s i t i v e l y o r n e g a t i v e l y t o w a r d a p s y -

c h o l o g i c a l o b j e c t . * 1

^ r o ^ r a x m i n g I n v e s t i g a t i o n s ( 3 , 8 , 9 , 21) have p r o v i d e d

the b e s t s f o r t h e t h e o r y t h a t t h e a t t i t u d e s o f s t u d e n t s

toward a m u s i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n may be a f f e c t e d by t h e p r e s e n -

t s t i o n of musio which i s l i k e l y t o be a c c e p t e d by t h e s t u - •

dorit body a u d i e n c e . The r e s e a r c h e r ® c o n d u c t i n g tbess©

i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a g r e e d t h a t a m a j o r i t y o f s t u d e n t s i n t h e

s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l p r e f e r p o p u l a r mus ic t o c l a s s i c a l m u s i c .

I t l a recommended by Baurramn ( 5 ) , l i r n o s t o n ( 6 ) , end Eog»

e r a ( 2 1 ) t h a t t h e deve lopmen t o f a f a v o r a b l e a t t i t u d e

toward a p e r f o r m i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n end an a p p r e c i a t i o n of more

complex f o r m s of mus i c s h o u l d have i t s b e g i n n i n g i n t h e p r o -

gramming of t h a t mus ic w h i c h I s most a c c e p t a b l e t o a u d i e n c e s

composed o f s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s t u d e n t s and t h a t p rogramming

e

should be designed so that the complex forms of music might

b© introduced ©long with the l i f t e r types of music*

The second Kajor purpose of the present etudy wi.: the

investigctiou of the effect of two types of programing,

demonstration end non-denonatration, upon the attitudes of

the members of student body audiences in a selected second-

ary school* Concerning attitudes, the major questions which

were to be investigated in the present etudy were es fol-

low a;

1* V;hfe t ic the a ttitudinal effect of the programming

of popular end seai-clsasicel male with aumples of classi-

cal music by meens of non-deraonetro tion programming?

2* iilmt Is the atcitudinal effect of the programming

of popular and 5emi-claaaici>l kusIc with sample a of classi-

cal muaic by means of demonstration programming?

I^potheses

The general hypotheses in the present study were (1)

demonstration progresnlng will cause a change in the group's

level of musical perception and will foster a positive group

attitude toward orchestra ae a aohool subject, and (2) son..

demonstration programming will foster a positive group atti-

tude toward'orchestra as a school aubjeot, but the group*a

level of musioal perception will be significantly lassr than

the level of musical perception of the1 demonstration pro-

gramming group*

9

The specific hypotheses to be tested were

1. The musical memory scores of the group of students

exposed to demonstration programming will he significantly

greater, in » positive direction, than the musical memory

scores of the group of students exposed to the non-demon-

stration programming.

2. The musical discrimination scores of the group of

students exposed to the demonstration programming will be

significantly greater, in a positive direction, than the

muslc&l discrimination scores of the group of students ex-

posed to the non-demonstretion programming.

5. The post-test attitude scores of the group of stu-

dents exposed to the demonstration programming will be sig-

nificantly greater, in a oositlve direction, than the

pre-test attitude score as of the group of students exposed

to the demonstration programming,

4» The post-test attitude scores of the group of stu-

dents exposed to the non-demonstration programming will be

significantly greater, in a positive direction, than the

pre-teat attitude scores of the group of students exposed

to the non-demon a tra t i on programming*

8. A similar change in attitude will occur for the

group of students exposed to demonstration programming end

the group of students exposed to non-demonstra tion program-

ming so that there will be no significant difference in the

10

change of a t t i t u d e s c o r e s between groups ©s rceesurod toy the

e©Bn d i f f e r e n c e a of the p r e - t e s t and p o s t - t e s t .

D e f i n i t i o n of ' f e rn s

1 . Programming—This term r e f e r s t o the s e l e c t i o n of

music f o r presenta t ion t o a n audienoe and t o the arrangement

of s e l e c t i o n s of music according t o c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s *

2* Demonst ra t ion programming—Thls term r e f e r s to the

i l l u s t r a t i o n , by l ec ture and performance, of the primary a s -

p e c t s of the music or c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the orchestra *

2* Xon-deiaonstretion programming—This term r e f e r s to

the presenta t ion of music i n formal concer t s t y l e w i t h v e r -

ba l or w r i t t e n program n o t e s of a b iographica l nature .

4« Musica l p e r c e p t i o n — f h i s terra r e f e r ® t o f a c t o r ®

which »r® u s u a l l y cons idered to be n e c e s s a r y , but n o t a lways

s u f f i c i e n t , f o r the development of an apprec ia t ion of music*

These f a c t o r s are o p e r a t i o n a l l y d e f i n e d a s (1 ) the a b i l i t y

to r e c a l l a e l o d l e passage® and t o r e c o g n i s e v a r i a t i o n s l a

the s p e c i f i c e lements of n o t e s , key, and time) and ( 2 ) the

a b i l i t y to d i scr iminate between a raasterwork and an a d a p t a -

t i o n of a master* or a: in ifc loh an a l t e r a t i o n has been made i n

e i t h e r the melody, the harmony, or the rhythm.

5 . Melodic l ine—This term r e f e r s t o a musical u n i t ,

convent iona l ly f o u r measures i n l eng th , although I t may be

shorter or longer , which l a terminated by a cadence*

XI

8 . Popula r , s e i n l - o l s s s l o a l , and c l a s s i c ® ! music—Thisse

t e r » s w f e r t o tli© music c l a s s i f i e d a s "popular ,® Baeml~

c l a s s i c a l , ® end " c l a s s i c a l " in the l i s t s of recommended o r -

c h e s t r a music prepared by the American S t r i n g Teachers Asso-

c i a t i o n ( a , 17 ) .

L i m i t a t i o n s of the Study

This s tudy wos s u b j e c t t o the f o l l o w i n g l i m l t a t i o n s i

1* A l l s t u d e n t s used i n t h i s s tudy were from one s e c -

ondary s choo l , the l a b o r a t o r y School a t North Texas S t a t e

U n i v e r s i t y , w i th c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which a r e no t nee*

e s s a r i l y r©pr®sentatlv® of a l l o the r secondary schools#

2 , The c r i t e r i o n of mus ica l p e r c e p t i o n and a t t i t u d e

was r e s t r i c t e d t o the a s s u r i n g in s t rumen t s used and was

l i m i t e d by the v a l i d i t y of those ins t ruments*

Basic Assumptions

The fo l l owing assumpt ions were b a s i c to t h i s s tudy}

1# I t was assumed, s ince t h e s t u d e n t s were randomly

a s s i g n e d through the technique of s t r a t i f i e d s e l e c t e d sam-

p l i n g t o the expe r imen ta l and c o n t r o l g roups , t h a t CD

t h e r e would no t be s s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e a t the beg inn ing

of the experiment i n the a b i l i t y of the expe r imen ta l and the

c o n t r o l groups to r e t a i n a melodic l i n e and t o d i s c r i m i n a t e

between a masterworic and I t s a d a p t a t i o n ; and (2) d i f f e r e n c e s

which might a r i s e d u r i n g the study between the exper iments1

12

end control groups In the ir a b i l i t y to r e t a i n # melodic l i n e

and to discriminate between 8 masterwork and i t s adaptation

would not be s i g n i f i c a n t l y a f f e c t e d toy spools 1 radio or

t e l e v i s i o n program# or by regular ly scheduled i n s t r u c t i o n in

the general music c l a s s .

2* It- ma assumed that the a s s t e r of ceremonies would

be capable of oosaaani eat ing favorably with the student body

audiences of both groups.

3# I t was assumed that the performance l e v e l of the

orchestra would not be of s i g n i f i e s n o e i n the study beosuse

of the f a c t that siusic was s e l e c t e d for the performances s o

cording to the performedce l e v e l of the organisat ion and the

type of music s e t for th in the programing standards recon-

mended by musio eduea tors (2, 10, 12, 14 ) .

Method

The fo l lowing introductory psragrsphs provide a summary

of the method used i n o o l l e o t i n g and t e s t i n g the data for

the present study» A d e t a i l e d scoount of the method en-

ployed i s recorded in Chapter I I I .

fh@ subjec t s f o r the present study were the Members of

the junior high school student body of the f o r t h Texas labo-

ratory School s t Denton, Texas. The s tudents were ass igned

to the experixaental and the contro l groups socordlng to

t h e i r grade l e v e l s and sec t ion number®* A t o t a l of s i x sec -

t i o n s of s tudents were ass igned to the experimental group

and s i x s e c t i o n s of s tudents to the contro l group*

13

Ba©h group heard » series of two orchestra programs of

thirty minutes in length, performed by the Laboratory School

Orchestra. The programming for both groupa wa a basod upon

the programming stead©rd® recommended by ouslo ©duostors <2,

8, 17, 14, 25). The experimental group wss exposed to the

demonstration programming and the control group was exposed

to the non-dcraonatrstlon programming* Duplicate musical •

selections were presented to the group* •

A post-teat was given to measure the musioal perception

of each group* A pre-test and a post-teat was given to

measure eaoh group's attitude toward orchestra as a school

subject. The following tests were used in the present

studyi (1) The Drake feat of Mafileel Memory. (2) The Oregon

^®#t of Music Discrimination, and (5) Attitude Test Toward

Any School Subject*

The t test for independent samples wss used to deter-

mine the significance of the mean differences between the

control group and the experimental group in hypotheses one,

two, and five• The t test for non-independent samples was

used to determine the significance of the mean differences

between the oontrol group and the experimental group in hy-

potheses three and four.

Summary

In Chapter I the statement of the problem, the hypothe-

aea* t h e definition of terms, the limitations of the study,

14

the bas ic assumptions, and the method ©f c o l l e c t i n g and

t r e a t i n g the data were presented#

In the chapte r which fo l lows , studies- w i l l be pree«nt«4

which are re1event t o the present s tudy .

CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY

1« Andrews, Dorothy L., "Comparative Study of Two Methods of Developing Muaicel Listening Ability in Element*• ry School Children, * Journal of Research in Km sic Education, XL (Spring, 1962),"T>9»64.

2. Barton, Harry, "Performance or education," Mualc Educa-tion in Action, edited by Archie Jones, Bonton, Allyn and Bacon, line., I960*

5. Baumann, ?• H., "Socioeconomic Status and the Music Pre fur© sac® s of Teen-Agers,® unpublished doctoral dis-sertation, Department of Education, Univeraity of Southern California, Loa Angeloa, Oallfornla, 1958.

4* Birge, Edward Bailey, History of Public School laale in the United States, Bryn Mawr, Pen'riaylviTHIa, oilier

5. Buroa* Oscar Kriaen, editor. Fifth Mental Meeaurementa Yearbook, Highland Park, Hew Jeraey, Gryphon Press,

6. Erneaton, Nioholas, "A Study to Determine the Effects of Musical Experience and Mental Ability on the Formulation of Musical Taate," unpublished doctoral dissertation, Department of Music, Florida Stat© Univeraity, Tallahassee, Florida, 1961.

7. Finney, Theodore M., Hearing Kuaic, Kew York, Hercourt, Brace end Company, 1941.

8. Fitts, Muriel, Selected String Probe stra Literature, CJrbana, 1111 noie, American string Teechera Aaaoeia-tlon, 1963.

9# Gerow, Maurice, "A Study of the Relation Between the Criteria Used for Chora1 Concert Program Building at the College Level and An Analysis of the Element a of Mualc Structure Found in Choral Kuaic," unpublished doctoral dissertation, Department of Mualc, Michigan State Univeraity, East Lansing, Michigan, 1961.

15

16

10. Orant, Parks, "Music Appreciat ion," Music Education In Act ioa , e d i t e d toy a r c h i e Jones , Boston, Al lyn end feeeoii, l a c * , I960.

11. Here, Robert Ye t e e , *The Pedagogical P r i n c i p l e s of Mu-s i o Appreciat ion," unpublished dootoral d i s s e r t a t i o n * Department of Musio, S ta te Univers i ty of lows, low# Ci ty , Iowa, 1*59.

12. House, Robert W„, instrumental Music for Today*& Schools, Englewodd Cliffs,"lew J e r s e y , P r e n t l c e - H e l l , tr io . , 1*966 .

13. Lambert, E. L . , "Here Are the Fac t s ," Oroheatre News. XL (October, 1963) , 8 - 1 1 .

14 . Leeder, Joseph A. end Willi©® S. Haynle, Music Educa-t i o n i n the High School , Englewood c 1 ifta, tfew J e r -»Sy7 ?reiiiToe-Ha 11, S c . , 1958.

15. Leonhard, Charles, "Evaluation in Music Education,'* Basic Concepts i n Music Education, F i f t y - s e v e n t h f ea i^ook , Part" T~ SHfeago, N a t i o n a l S o c i e t y f o r the Study of Education, 1988*

16 « Machlis , Joseph. The Enjoyment of Mualci An Introduc-t i o n to Perceptive* Listening,"^ew ifork, f 7 FTJo.7"l*a55.

17, Ma teaky, Ralph, A Compendium of Recommended School Or-chestra L i t erasure # fifyFa ae'»"Hrillnols, ifoae r ioan '"String S a e S r a ^ i s o o I ' t t ' H o n , 1966.

18. l a s h , Louis P h i l i p , "The Enjoyment of Mmiic by Junior High School Students i Their Responses to Five Meth-ods of Present ing Recorded Musio,* unpublished doc-tors 1 d i s s e r t a t i o n , Department of Education, Univers i ty of C a l i f o r n i a , Berkeley, C a l i f o r n i a , 1962.

I d . Pepinsky, Minerva, "Sixth-Grade Chi ldren ' s A t t i t u d e s Toward Musio of Gluok, Haydn, ttosart and Toward Other Music," unpublished doctora l d i s s e r t a t i o n , Department of Music, Indiana U n i v e r s i t y , Bloomington, Indiana,

• 1959.

20 . Reiamera, H. H., tf» L. Gage, and J . Franols Rummel, A P r a c t i c a l Introduct ion to Measurement and Eva luat ion .

Harper end Brothers , 1950. * ~

17

21. Hogorti, Vincent , " ch i ld r en 1 s Expressed Musical P r e f e r -ences a t Se lec ted Grade Levels ," unpublished do©tor® 1 d i s s e r t a t i o n , Deportment of Music, Syracuse Univers i -t y , Syracuse, New York:, 1956,

22, Sudlow, Don E , , w,fhe A r t s , " lew Curriculum Develop-taents, e d i t e d by Glenys G. Udruh, Vteahijngton, D. C«, Assoc ia t ion f o r Supervision and Curriculum Develop-mant, 1365.

23* Von der Heide, Henry J* , Music i n thf Senior High School, Washington, D. 0 . , Musicl^duca'tor@ Net 1 oriel Conference, 1958.

24. Wheelwright, S t e r l i n g , "Aids f o r Music Apprec ia t ion ," Music Education in Act ion , e d i t e d by Archie Jones,

Aliyia and Bacon, I n c . , I960,

25, Zahr t , Morton, "music f o r Tod&y•a Schools," Music Edu* ca t i on in Action, e d i t e d by Archie J one a , Boston, Allyn end fteoon,' I n c . , I960,

CHAPTER 11

SURYBY 0? PIS&ifBD

Sb» survey of the l i t e r a t u r e re levant to the present

study i s divided in to the following sec t ional CD musical

perception sad (2) a t t i t u d e s .

Sine© 1955, pesMPCh concerning musical perception and

a t t i t u d e s 1ms been conducted on an Increasing scale , In

t h i s same period, there has been an even l a rge r number of

a r t i c l e s devoted to some aspect of rausical perception and

a t t i t u d e s in which log ica l arguments are made but in which

no ac tua l Inves t iga t ions are reported* The following r e -

views a re re pre senta t lve of both the log ica l arguments and

the Inves t iga t ions concerning l eve l s of musical perception

of s tudents a t ©©looted grade level® and a t t i t u d e s of s tu-

dents toward music and performance o rgan isa t ions .

Musical Perception

Musical percept ion, as r e l a t ed to the present study,

r e f e r s to f a c t o r s whioh are usually considered to be neces-

sary, but not always s u f f i c i e n t , fo r the development of an

apprecia t ion of music# These f a c t o r s are opera t iona l ly de-

f ined s i ' (1) the a b i l i t y to r e c a l l melodic passage® and to

recognise va r i a t ions in the s p e c i f i c elements of notes , key,

18

19

and t l w e j a w l ( 2 ) t h e a b i l i t y t o d i s c r i m i n a t e be tween a mas -

t e r * a r k a n 1 a n a d a p t a t i o n of a raasterwork i n wh ich an a l -

t e r a t i o n l i a s been made i n e i t h e r t h e me lody , t h e ha rmony , o r

t h e rhythm# A c c o r d i n g t o t h i s ope re t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n of mu-

s i c a l p e r c e p t i o n , t h e r e l a t e d l i t e r a t u r e would d e a l w i t h ,

f o r t h e most p e r t , t h e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n p r o c e s s e s i n l e a r n i n g .

R o b e r t I# ** T r a v e r s ( 2 8 ) o f f e r # t h e f o l l o w i n g e x p l a n a -

t i o n of t h e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n p r o c e s s e s *

Young i n f a n t a h a v e v e r y l i t t l e c a p a c i t y f o r d i s -c r i m i n a t i n g one s t i m u l u s f r o m a n o t h e r * S l o w l y , d i s -c r i m i n a t i o n s a r e l e a r n e d , and by s i x m o n t h s t h e i n f a n t I s l i k e l y t o be a b l e t o d i s c r i m i n a t e be tween h i s mo th -e r * s f a c e end t h e f a c e o f e s t r a n g e r * be tween a b o t t l e o f m i l k and o t h e r o b j e c t s s i m i l a r I n s h a p e , c o l o r , and s i z e * L a t e r t h e c h i l d l e a r n s t o d i s c r i m i n a t e s h a p e s , t h e s o u n d s of d i f f e r e n t w o r d s , and so f o r t h * l o t o n l y d o e s he l e a r n a l l of t h e s e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s , b u t he d e -v e l o p s s k i l l i n d i s c r i m i n a t i n g s o t h a t new d i s c r i m i n a -t i o n s ar® r a p i d l y made. He may become a s p e c i a l i s t i n making c e r t a i n k i n d s o f d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s * a s when, f o r e x a m p l e , h e grows u p t o b® a v i o l i n i s t a n d m i s t mate® f i n e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s i n J u d g i n g w h e t h e r a n o t e i s c o r -r e c t l y p l a y e d . » » . t h e l e a r n i n g of d l s c r t m l n a t l o n s I s one o f t h e commonest l e a r n i n g t a s k s and r e p r e s e n t s a p r o c e s s wh ich o p e r a t e s i n a d i r e c t i o n o p p o s i t e t o t h a t of g e n e r a l i s a t i o n . I n d i s c r i m i n a t i o n l e a r n i n g , t h e s u b j e c t l e a r n a t o r e s p o n d o n l y t o a na r row r a n g e of s t i m u l i a n d t o i g n o r e o t h e r r e l a t e d s t i m u l i w h i c h l i e o u t s i da of t h a t r a n g e . P a v l o v t r a i n e d d o g s t o r e -spond by s a l i v a t i n g t o a g i v e n n o t e , s t y m i d d l e 0 , by p r o v i d i n g food f o l l o w i n g t h e sound of t h i s n o t e . The d o g s t h e n l e a r n e d n o t t o s a l i v a t e when o t h e r no t e a were s o u n d e d . The l a t t e r was done by s o u n d i n g t h e n o t e and t h e n n o t p r o v i d i n g f o o d ( 2 8 , p p . 1 2 4 - 1 2 5 ) .

f h e c o n c e p t of c a t e g o r i s i n g b e h a v i o r h a s b e e n expanded

by B r u n e r , Ooodnow, and A u s t i n i n t h e i r book e n t i t l e d A

S t u d y o f T h i n k i n g ( 5 ) . B r u n e r eJC a l . s u g g e s t t h a t t h e s u b -

j e c t d o e s n o t p e r c e i v e and r e s p o n d t o t h e l a r g e number o f

20

objects and events In hi a environment &a I f each one were

separa te oral d i s t i n c t , for tie h&n already ca t egor ized them#

Objects &re categorised In terns of a t t r ibute s . Tli© process

of I d e n t i f y i n g the a t tr ibutes tlu*t characterize & particular

category i s r e f e r r e d to a s the prooesa of "concept a t t a i a -

stent*"

A oc or ding t o Treves* a (20) , the proses® of concept a t -

tainment may proceed a long the fo l lowing l i n e s i

1 . Suppose the c h i l d i s taken for a walk In t i n perk by h i s mother. On t h i s walk he encounter a a num-ber of animals* inc luding dogs, ca ta , ho r se s , squlrrles, and o t h e r s , These a r e "exemplars* of the category "dog" and exemplars of the oat©gory other than dog, ka each exenplar i s encountered# the ch i ld might make a dec is ion , s ad , i f the dec i s ion i s t h a t the animal is-® dog, then the c h i l d might say "dog." The d e c i s i o n of the c h i l d in eaoh cos® would he e i t h e r endorsed or c o r -r e c t e d by h i s mother.

2 . through the making of such dec i s ion# and through the informs t ion provided the c h i l d by h i a moth-er , the c h i l d l e a r n s to respond to c e r t a i n a t t r i b u t e s r a t h e r than t o o t h e r s i n dec id ing whether an animal i a or i s not a dog. Early i n the process of concept a t -tainment he may be reacting mainly to the sis® of the animal . Snail animals are c a l l e d dogs, while l a r g e r aniroals are ca l led something e l s e , ku learning pro-ceeds and dec i s ions are made with many exemplars, the chi ld shows through h i s d ec i s ions Want he i s responding more and more prec ise ly to the a t t r i b u t e s that d i s -criminate the ca tegory dog from the ca tegory non-dog*

3« The dec is ions that the ch i ld makes as he i s faced wi th a s e r i e s of exemplars in the a t t a inment of a concept provide information concerning the "strategy" which the chi ld i s fo l lowing. A strategy i s def ined a s an observed regularity in the decision-making process. In a t ta in ing h i s concept of a dog, the ch i ld may re -spond to a l l aninals by saying e i ther Bdog* or not dog," or he may s e l e c t out certain animal® for making these dec i s ions . These two s e t s of behavior r ep re sen t di f f erent s t ra teg i e s (28, pp. 127-129).

21

frsver® mjs that soa® concepts sr® much more difficult

to attain than other concepts* Therefor®, concepts way to©

conveniently classified Into the categories of conjunctive,

disjunctive, and relational. The following examples are

presented for each classification*

1* Conjunctive conceptsI In a conjunctive concept all

of the attributes must to© present at the saae tine* If on®

of them is lacking, then the object belongs in a different

category* For example, the trombone is Identified as being

(1) a wind instrument, (2) made of brass, and (3) played by

extending the allde« If an instrument Is not characterised

by all of these properties or attributes, then it is not s

trombone* It would appear that conjunctive concepts are

some of the simplest concepts to acquire and retain.

2* Disjunctive concepts! In a disjunctive concept

there Is ©Iweya an ©ither-or element# For example, in t*a®»

ball a strike is either a ball which is above the plate and

between the batter's knee and shoulder levels or a ball

which the batter attempts to hit or does hit* In comparison

with conjunctive concepts, disjunctive concepts are dlffl*

cult to learn.

3* Relational conceptss An exaapl® of a relational

concept is the us© of the phrase wto th® south of*" The

concept involve a the relationship of two positions on a map

and alao the relationship of the positions of these objects

22

to the orientation of the map itself# Suoh relational con-

cepts may be very difficult.

According to fiilgard and Marquis (14), the general

method required to produce a discrimination involve* the ex-

tinction of generalised response® by n on-rein fore ement,

while the strength of the response to some particular stimu-

lus 1® maintained toy reinforcement# Two of the more specif-

ic procedures used in discrial nation studies are the method

of successive presentation and the method of simultaneous

presentation*

The method of successive presentation of stimuli is

Pavlov's method of contrasts and 1# used in the study of

discrimination In the classical conditioning situation* The

reinforced (positive) and non-reinforced (negative) stimuli

are presented on randomly alternated trials, but never to-

gether, Under this procedure the animal gradually comes to

respond on trials with the positive stimulus. Experiments

on discrimination of the instrumental conditioning variety,

using the method of successive presentation, have been con-

ducted by Elder (6), t'endt (51), Verplank (29), and Antartr»t-

tl (2), The results of these studies are summarised in the

following paragraphi

Elder teu#it ©himpansee® to react to a telegraph key following a ready signal, provided a tone was pres-ent# The animals learned to refrain from response af-ter the ready signal when the' ton# was absent* In Wendt's study, monkeys learned to open a drawer which contained food following the positive suditory stimulus.

23

The drawer was looked following-tils® negative (that i s , a b s e n t ) stimulus, and the animals l e a r n e d t o w i t h h o l d reaction* Antoninetti's experiment, In which rata were used aa subjeots, waa s i m i l a r in conception* F i r s t the animal® learned t o open a door containing a b l a c k c a r d to get out of a starting box and obtftin food* Follow-l a g this initial training, discrimination learning be-gan* The black card continued to be followed by reinforcement, but on randomly a l t e r n a t e d trials a white card was substituted and this card was not rein-forced* As a result of this training a discrimination gradually developed* The rats responded very q u i c k l y to the black door, but they responded slowly or refused to leave the s t a r t i n g box on trials with the white door* Verplank's procedure was similar to Antonlnet-t i ' s , e x c e p t t h » t t h e a p p a r a t u s was the Oraham-Oagne runway and reinforced and non-re inforced t r i a l s were alternated a c c o r d i n g to the regular schedule (28, pp. 362-365}*

In the method of simultaneous presentation of stimuli,

the r e i n f o r c e d and non-re inforced c u e s a r e p r e s e n t e d at the

same time, and the situation is arranged so that the animal

may r e spond to one of them by approaching it or manipulating

it. If the subject responds to the stimulus arbitrarily des-

i g n a t e d a s correct ( p o s i t i v e ) , I t 1® rewarded* Using adap-

t a t i o n s of this b a s i c d e s i g n , s e v e r a l different kinds of

apparatus end reactions have been used in studies of dis-

crimination learning* Subjects have been trained to pull a

string on the left or right, which will bring food if c o r -

r e c t ( 1 8 ) , to open one of two p o s s i b l e boxes t o secure f ood •

(27) , to jump through an opening (19), and to push open a

door (23)*

According to Hilgsrd and Marquis (14), there are two

important d i f f e r e n c e s between the s u c c e s s i v e and simaltsmaouis

24

procedures f o r s tudying diserial isat ion learning* These d i f -

ferences a re reported as f o l l ows ! {1) Sine® the two s t imul i

are presented simultaneously In the method of simultaneous

presentation, the re la t iona l charaoter i s t ios of the stimuli

may b© e a s i e r f o r the sub jec t to notice than when the stimu-

l i are presented separately* (2) In simultaneous discrimi-

nation the choice i s usually between two react ions rather

than between reaction and re s t ra in t . These d i f f erences are

repor ted us fo l lows i

In the osae where the st imuli to be discriminated are presented simultaneously and in s i tuat ions involv-ing choioe r e a c t i o n s , a re la t iona l theory of d i s c r i m i -na t ion seems poss ib l e . This re la t iona l theory, which i s c l o s e l y re lated to the cognit ive view of learning, holds t h a t the development of a d i s c r i m i n a t i o n depends upon a comparison of the stimuli to be d i s c r i m i n a t e d , and that the response of the ©rgpmlaa i s to the r@la» t ionship between them. The most importsnt empirics 1 predict ions to which th i s theory l e ads are ths t ( s } simultaneous presentation of s t imul i , which favors the act of comparing s t imul i , w i l l lead to the more rapid development of a d i s c r imina t i on than the successive presentation of atlmullj and (b) s ince the d i s c r imina -t i o n i s a response to a re lat ionship transposit ion, or transfer , the response w i l l occur to p a i r s of st imuli not involved in the or ig inal discrimination but stand-ing in the same re lat ionship to each other <14, p» 374)•

In summary, the central conception in re la t i ona l theory

i s that the te ernlng of a discrimination Involves an act ive

ac t of comparison, e i ther between stimuli which are physi-

c a l l y present or between one s t imulus which i s present and

the memory trace of another*

Discr iminat ion learning would appear to be re lated to

the development of many of the bas ic musical recognition®

28

which music eduesfeors, c i t ed in feto@ fol lowing reviews, f r e -

quently re fer t o s i the development of an "appreciation" of

music*

Charles Leonard (21) def ines music appreciation as f o l -

lows I Appreciation I s the apprehension and enjoyment of

the aesthet ic Import of music* Appreciation includes the f ee l ing fu l responsiveness of a l l the expressive elements of music, such as rhythm, harmony, melody, t e x t u r e , timbre, tonal i ty , and form. I t would appear t ha t ftcnos musical understanding i s e s s e n t i a l to appre-c i a t i o n since sn important ingredient of appreciation i s the adequate expectation of what Is to happen as the music unfolds (CI, p* 310)*

According to Parks Grant (10) , the term "appreciation"

actual ly implies the goal of the coursej therefore, he be-

l i e v e s t ha t one cannot taaoh appreciation but can only teach

toward appreciation in the hop© that the student w i l l a t ta in

the goal* He o f f e r s the following description of apprecia-

tion*

Appreciation i s en ut ter ly intangible thing; i t may or may not take place, and I f i t does not, l i t t l e has been gained* Appreciation i s fundamentally an a t -titude—a s t a t e of mind—rather than a fund of knowl-edge* Knowledge can contribute t o and Increase appreciation, but i t remains quite d i s t i n c t from i t . Appreciation i s not suscep t ib le to t es t ing* Related f a c t s can be t e s t e d , but not apprec ia t ion I t s e l f (10, pp. 119-120).

Segerdless of e recognition of the vagueness of the

w r a "tsubIc appreciation" by many music educators, the term

i s s t i l l widely used to descr ibe many of the f a c t o r s neces-

sary for musical perception. Therefore, many of the

28

following reviews will refer to music appreciation with the

same operational meaning m the present study's meaning of

the term "music perception."

Harry Burton, In a compendium of articles by music edu-

cator# (3), criticised directors of musical organisations

for having discarded educational philosophies as being ex-

tra neoua and impracticable in the public schools because of

the demand for high contest-ratings and frequent public per-

formances.

Often they (music directors) have been so busy teaching th® student® to perform wslo that they have never cxaetly explained why th© students should learn music. Even *h«n th# objectives hove been defined, teaching methods and procedures have failed to point toward th® desired results. Performsnoe Is no guaran-tee of appreciation* The teaching of a selection must be directed toward appreciation If appreciation Is taught. Understanding of the music will come from the method of teaching rather than as 8 guaranteed by-product of performance (3, p, 360).

Sterling Wheelwright (32) seya that the problem of the

musical layman in trying to understand raasterworks of music

ii basically that of ear-training and cultivation of re-

sponse to total aesthetic patterns.

Th® major musical works,•so long fesr«d by the musical layman, now become as familiar ao a road map, if hi cart be guided along th# tbr«@-lloe aeor# of organ music as he hears some really fine recording played on suitable hlgh-fldellty equipment* These devices are merely for "learning-practice listening." Th© trained «>ar will cow to differentiate th© main themes of a symphonic movement, the major structural divisions *nd cadences, and the solo voices, and to appreciate the mind and methods of the composer as this study contin-ues* Ths trained listener is on® who can recognize in the music "whst happens, and whan it happen*" (52. pp* 128-126)*

27

In the book, fleering Kg sic (3), Theodore Finney »t-

tempted to present music to the listener m that he might

understand it intelligently. Finney believed that much of

the "biographical informstion thot can be lecrned about muai©

end musicians is of no concern to the listener as a pert of

the technic of his listening# F!amj describes the signifi-

cant fee tors In listening to music aa followsj

Tone-color, rhythm, melody, harraony--these are the composer1# resources* the bsaie materials out of which he nmlmu music. The se ere, in consequence, the things which those who desire a reel spprecia tlon of music mi at have a "listening" « ©que in, tans® (8, p« 9}«

Joseph Machlia wrote a guide to perceptive listening

entitled The Enjoyment of Musici kn Introduction to Percep-

tive Listening (22) in «hlch he says that it will heighten

the listener's perception If he knows something about the

elements of which nusic Is composed and the ways that com-

posers go about organizing the tones into patterns end

forms.

To understand music is to perceive its underlying unity. Tb® nature music lover has no fe»r of music®! knowledge* He realises that the true source of the mu-sical experience 1® not in hiranelf but in the sound#. Consequently, whatever brings him closer to the sounds heightens his musical perceptions and his enjoyment* His information need not be as technical as thet of the professional musician, but it demands some knowledge of the rules of the gam®, la effect, we listen percep-tively j and that is the one sure roed to the enjoyment of music (22, p. 7).

Ln 1959, Robert Yates Here (11) conducted a study of

the pedagogical principles of music appreciation. The

m

purpose of h i s s tudy was to Investigate© the b a s i c f a c t o r s of

music a p p r e c i a t i o n and the method whereby iioisie a p p r e c i a t i o n

might be taught a t the c o l l e g e l eve l#

The r e s u l t s of Hare • s s tudy o f f e r e d ev idence in a g r e e -

ment w i t h the theory t h a t the development of mus ica l t e s t e

and a p p r e c i a t i o n l a r e l a t e d t o musica l knowledge. The s tudy

d i s c l o s e d the fo l lowing p o i n t s which, acco rd ing to Hare , a r e

of Importance In deve lop ing a program of atudy f o r music ap>

p r e c l e t i o n i

1 . Awareness and unde r s t and ing of the a t t i t u d e s and sen t imen t s of s t u d e n t s a re v i t a l t o e f f e c t i v e t e a c h i n g of rauslc a p p r e c i a t i o n . P rogress ion should move from the f a r a l l i t r to the u n f a m i l i a r .

2 . The I n s t r u c t o r of music a p p r e c i a t i o n should be g e n e r a l l y educa ted a s w e l l as mus i ca l l y educa ted , and should be a s t uden t of the p r i n c i p l e s of l e a r n i n g .

In 1969, Minerva Peplnsky (24) conducted a atudy to i n -

v e s t i g a t e the r e l a t i o n s h i p between s i x t h grade c h i l d r e n ' s

e x p e r i e n c e s a t school w i th the nua i c of Gluck, Haydn, and

Moaart and the c h i l d r e n * a l i k i n g f o r (1) s e l e c t e d i t e m s ,

(2) o t h e r music of these composer a , end (3) music in genera l .

Pepinaky p r e s e n t e d a c u r r l c u l a r program of Gluck,

Haydn, end Moaart music d a r i n g d a l l y twenty-minute music

p e r i o d s f o r one semester to o c l a s s of twen ty - fou r s i x t h

grade c h i l d r e n a t McMurry Labora tory School a t Nor thern

I l H a o l e U n i v e r s i t y .

A music a t t i t u d e t e s t , dev laed by Peplnsky, was given

b e f o r e end a f t e r the experiment t o determine the effectiveness

29

of the curriculum# The finding® substantia ted her hypothe-

s i s tha t the c h i l d r e n ' s a t t i t u d e s toward music of Oluck,

Haydn, Mozart end totmi-d other music would be more c lose ly

r e l a t ed to rauaicel experiences than to musical ap t i tude ,

socio-economic background, i n t e l l i g e n c e , scholas t ic achieve-

ment, and pe rsona l i ty .

Dorothy Andrews (1) conducted a comparative study of

two methods of developing m s i c e l l i s t e n i n g a b i l i t y in e l e -

mentary school ch i ldren .

The Andrews study wsa designed to determine the ex le t*

#iia® of any d i f f e rence in development in both achievement

and a t t i t u d e r e s u l t i n g .frost d i f f e r e n t methods of present ing

l i s t e n i n g materia 1B. The subjec ts w©x»a two f i f t h grade

e lesses in the Lincoln Elementary School a t Chieholn, Minne-

sota#

The r e s u l t s of the date obtained in the Andrews study

supported the be l i e f t ha t the a b i l i t y to appreciate music 1®

educeblo end that i t i a an outgrowth of experience#

At t i tudes

Retainer*, Qege, and Rumtel (25) say tha t a t t i t u d e s m j

be informally def ined ©s f e e l i n g s f o r or age Inst something.

The phrase 11 f o r or against" expresses the d i r e c t i o n a l i t y of

a t t i tudes* The word Hsomething" s i g n i f i e s tha t a t t i t u d e s

«re not merely mental irasges or verballs«d ideas but tha t

they take on w>«nl&g only when considered in r e l a t i o n to

8mm spec i f i c or general ised ob jec t , s i t u a t i o n , or s t imulus.

50

E®ffla@rs says th&fc a x'urther c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a t t i t u d e s i s

t h a t they o f t en hav# so gre&t an e f f e c t on behavior t h a t the

a t t i t u d e enables the predic t ion of o t h e r behavior* Another

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c mentioned concern ing a t t i t u d e s i s the f a c t

t h a t s t t i t u d e s are learned. These a u t h o r s o f f e r the f o l l o w -

ing summary concern ing the d e f i n i t i o n of the term a t t i t u d e ® !

Jin a t t i t u d e may "be d e f i n e d ue an emotional ised tendency, o rgan i sed through experience , t o r e s e t p o s i -t i v e l y o r negat ive ly toward a psychologica l o b j e c t . I n t e r e s t s , a s observed , a r e presumable the r e f l e c t i o n 01' a t t r a c t i o n s and a v e r s i o n s i n b e h a v i o r , or f e e l i n g s of p l e a s a n t n e s s end unpleasantness, l i k e s and d i s l i k e * A d i s t i n c t i o n may be made between a t t i t u d e s and i n t e r -e s t s in t h a t i n t e r e s t s merely ind ica te the degree to which an indiv idual p r e f e r s to hold an object before h i s consciousness whether he r e a c t s approvingly or disapprovingly toward i t , whereas a t t i t u d e s ind ica te h i s reac t ion In terms of i t s d i r e c t i o n , p leasantness or unpleasantness, agreement or d isagreement (2b, pp. 287*283)*

According to Robert M* f » Travers ( 2 8 ) , a t t i t u d e s are

r e l a t e d t o approach and avoidance t e n d e n c i e s which bee©®©

wore nasserou© a s age advances . Some of these t e n d e n c i e s a r e

re ferred to as "at t i tudes" while o thers ere c a l i e d " i n t e r -

e s t s . " Travera sugges t s that a d i s t i n c t i o n commonly made

between s t t i t u d e e and i n t e r e s t s i s the t " i n t e r e s t s r e f e r to

Matters of preference f o r a c t i v i t i e s , while a t t i t u d e s r e f e r

to a p o s i t i v e approach or negat ive avoidance of ideas and '

;Vbje-ifca (28 , pp. o71-£72) »M '.trovers goes on to aey t h a t

tooth i n t e r e s t and a t t i t ude ) involve the concept of r e j e c t i o n

or acceptance, and both involve some kind of a f f e c t i v e , or

a i

f e e l l n g f u l , re sponse t o the o b j e c t I n v o l v e d . A t t i t u d e s ere

c l a s s i f i e d by Travers a s f o l l o w s i

a t t i t u d e s a r e n o t d i r e c t l y o b s e r v a b l e phenomena, but are c o n s t r u c t s i n t r o d u c e d t o account f o r b e h a v i o r a s I t I s o b s e r v e d , , . . Fran behav ior on a t t i t u d e l e i n f e r r e d which a c c o u n t s f o r the c o n s i s t e n t t r e a d i n b e h a v i o r . The a t t i t u d e t h u s i n f e r r e d r e p r e s e n t s a n i n t e r v e n i n g v a r i a b l e which o p e r a t e s on bebavior# . . • A t t i t u d e s r e p r e s e n t 3e arned c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the hu-men organism. 'i'he lews which d e s c r i b e the c o n d i t i o n s under which they are l e a r n e d a r e presumed t o be s i m i l a r t o t h e laws i n v o l v e d i n the l e a r n i n g of o t h e r c h a r a c -t e r i s t i c s . Re in forcement , I m i t a t i o n # and o t h e r p r o c -e s s e s • » • are c o n s i d e r e d to r e p r e s e n t the p r o c e s s e s i n v o l v e d i n the l e a r n i n g o f a t t i t u d e s ( 2 8 , pp. 575-374).

Ka t z and S t o t l a n d ( 1 7 ) have r e c e n t l y a t t e m p t e d t o d e -

f i n e the major components Involved i n the f o r m u l a t i o n o f e t -

t l t u d e s . These w r i t e r s r e j e c t e d the Idea t h a t a t t i t u d e s a r e

mere ly approach or wi thdrawal t e n d e n c i e s * end s u g g e s t e d t h a t

a t t i t u d e s i n c l u d e t o some degree each one of the f o l l o w i n g

components*

1 . A f f e c t i v e components . These c o n s i s t ins I n l y o f

p o s i t i v e or n e g a t i v e a f f e c t s or f e e l i n g s . A t t i t u d e s raay 4

d i f f e r i n the e x t e n t t o which they Invo lve a f f e c t i v e compo-

n e n t s . Some a t t i t u d e s are e x t r e m e l y i r r a t i o n a l and i n v o l v e

l i t t l e e x c e p t t h i s a f f e c t i v e component. I t would appear

t h o t t h e s e a f f e c t i v e a t t i t u d e s a r e e a s i l y l e a r n e d and t h a t

most p e r s o n s are c h a r a c t e r i z e d by xaany a t t i t u d e s t h a t ar e

f7*iro r i l y o f t h i s c h a r a c t e r .

2 . C o g n i t i v e ©oaponenta. i t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t a t t i -

t u d e s d i f f e r i n the e x t e n t t o which they i n v o l v e a body o f

38

knowledge# Some attitudes ere said to be highly lntellectu-

allzed. For example, a person may take a position on an is-

sue because the evidence at hand would Indicate that this

position i® the most acceptable of the choice©* The effec-

tive component may be of little consequence in this choice*

On the other hand, it is possible for hie attitudes to be

intellectual while having a strong affective component, for

the cognitive component and the affective component may in-

teract although they are still classified as independent

components* The term "cognitive" implies knowing and is

used to refer to the component of an attitude that is based

on knowledge#

3* Action components* It is possible that an ex-

pressed attitude saay bear little relation to the subject's

behavior; thus the action component may be independent of

the affective and cognitive components* The action system

of an attitude may have little support from the cognitive

component, and yet the action may take place. This also may

work in the opposite direction—-the affective component may

be strong without producing any action on the part of the

subject* It is stated that the manner whereby relationships

©r© established between the cognitive component® of atti-

tudes and action systems is not presently known*

Several studies (12, 13, 16, 50) have been designed for

the purpose of investigating the effect of communication up-

on attitudes of individuals and groups* These studies have

33

demonstrated that I t I s . p o s s i b l e t o change a subject's atti-

tude by p rov id ing information wi th r e s p e c t t o the issues in-

volved. The usual procedure taken in designing studies of

t h i s type i s to measure the a t t i tude® of the subjec ts in «

pre-test, to administer the treatment, and to measure the •

attitudes of the subjects in a post-teat# The g e n e r a l trend

of the results of these studies is that a communication is

most e f f e c t i v e in changing a t t i t u d e ® when it represents a

position not too different from that of the recipient* h

summary of the results of studies conducted by Weiss (30),

Hovland, Harvey, and Sherif (16), He 1 son, Blake, Mouton, and

Olastead (15), end Harvey and Rutherford (12) is provided in

the following paragraphs.

Weiss (30) concluded that the labeling of a communica-

t i o n by the recipient as extreme may inhibit the change in

attitude that otherwise might appear* In a study similar to

t h a t of the Weiss study, Hovland, Harvey, and Sherif (16)

concluded that attitudes change most in those subjects who

begin with a position relatively close to that of the commu-

nication#

According to He 1 son, Dlaice, Mouton, and 01mstead (13),

t he subject's attitude toward a communication may be slg-

n l i i c s n t l y effected by the presence of an extreia® amount of

social pressure. Kelson et al. conducted a study in which

s o c i a l pressure was e v e r t e d on the Individual by a group#

34

The conclusion was t h a t the degrse of sh i f t ; from a p r iva te

opinion was a func t ion of the discrepancy between the opin-

ion held by the l i s t e n e r and th® opinion expressed by the

group. The g rea te r the discrepancy, the g rea t e r was the

s h i f t in the I n d i v i d u a l s a t t i t u d e . The r e s u l t s of the

Helson e t a l . experiment was 8ccounted f o r by the r e sea rch-

era by suggesting t ha t a t t i t u d e s are not genera l ly f i rmly

anchored phenomena, and hence the iwnediate soc i a l s i t u a t i o n

provides anchorage.

In providing communications designed to change a t t i -

tudes an important r e l a t e d problem i s the quest ion of wheth-

e r the communications designed to change a t t i t u d e s should

begin by taking a pos i t ion c lose to that of the person whose

a t t i t u d e i s to be changed and then gradual ly move away from

tha t pos i t i on in the d i r e c t i o n of the ohangs to be made or

whether the i n i t i a l pos i t ion of the communication should d i -

verge g rea t ly from tha t to be changed. Harvey and Ruther-

ford (12) conducted a study pe r t a in ing to t h i s ques t ion .

Their r e s u l t s genera l ly do not favor the approach to a t t i -

tude change whereby the communicator begins with a p o s i t i o n

s imi la r t o tha t of the persons whose a t t i t u d e i s to be

changed and then gradual ly s h i f t s . Within the l i m i t s of

t h e i r experiment, the recommended approach i s t h a t the com-

municator take a pos i t ion divergent from tha t of the person

whose a t t i t u d e was to be changed f o r both weak and s t rong

m

position® of a t t i t ude* However, l a a review of t h i s exper i -

ment, Travera 1,28) cautions egainst over -ganera i l sa t ion from

th« Harvey and Rutherford experiment becauae of I t s apeols l

na ture , which Travers deacribea a a follow at

The very specia l nature of the experimental s i t u a -t ion (of the Harvey and Rutherford study} l i m i t s tha genera l i sa t ions t h e t oan be moda from I t* • • • Since t he i r research repreaenta an Indi rec t a t t ack upon tha problem, eome explanation l a neceesary of t h e i r proce-dure* Their beale technique Involved what l a known as the autokinet io e f f e c t * The phenomenon la l l l u a t r a t e d by the pro jec t ion of a small spot of l i g h t onto the wall of a darkened room. When t h i s apot of 110it l a observed, i t may appear to move, and d l f f e r e n t observ-e r s w i l l r epor t d i f f e r e n t smounts of movement# The amount of movement reported i s s l t e r e d by suggestion end by group pressures* A person in a group of persons who s t a t e tha t they see the l i g h t move one to two f e e t i s l i ke ly to repor t a s imi la r movement, and I f the group repor t s a movement of only a few inches, then the observer I s l i ke ly to r epor t a movement of only a few inches* By repeated exposure to such s s i tuat ion, , a person asy develop s s t rong concept of how much move-ment takea place* Fewer exposures w i l l produce a weak-e r concept# • * . The experiment needs to be repeated in d i f f e r e n t contexts* At t h i s time the r e s u l t s oan be considered only suggestive (28, pp* 535-386)*

Merton Zshrt , in s compendium of s r t l c l e s by music edu-

ca tors (33) , reminds the music d i r ec to r tha t the a t t i t u d e s

of the s tudents toward musical se lec t ions must be considered

to have a r e l a t ionsh ip with tha a t t i t u d e s of the s tudents

towsrd the performing organisa t ion . Zabrt recommends the

use of the following general p r inc ip l e s in se l ec t ing music

f o r public school performing organisat ion f o r the purpose of

public presenta t ion to a student body sudlence*

m

1. Know your student® end community. Only through an understanding 'of their needs Is I t possible to s e l ec t suitable materials*

2 . Begin a t the l e v e l which the student oan u n d e r s t a n d s ^ I s m . l T Z T t o l ^ x > ~ At f i r s t — e l e c t music that wl i lTnaure successful participation and ac-complishment to develop the confidence of the student# Examplei s p i r i t u a l s for vocal groups; l i v e l y marches for instrumental groups#

3. Apply the knowledge the s tudent hag alretjdy acquired to « new compoalifori "wftE' i ' lmfIsr ®lSS'nis>' " »ep in"mlrKi~"tha't growtlri cannot"be forced.

4 . A wide variety of forms, s t y l e s , and musical

or more sfrallarTEema should be encouraged, to aid in the development of musical dlscr trainstion.

5* Ho natter tihat the form or s t y l e , the best possible rausloal examples that are within the perform-ing and/or appreciative c a p a b i l i t i e s of the group at

tgrn^.wJm 'II I'iiiiiMii'if m m iwi .-jw(Minf»'iwwi>wi > , i w ^ w w i w r n l i i w i A wyiig**1 «MM«NNMt rnSmwmitmii n«Ww immuMi „

he ad shouldbe ohosen. Only music within the technlca1 competence"' oT""the per former s1 should be used (35, pp. 356-359).

In addition to the consideration of the a t t i tudes of

the students toward spec i f i c musical se l ec t ions , Leeder and

Haynle (20, pp. 184-213) state that the musical director

w i l l need to consider, in program building, the sequence of

se lec t ions to be used on a program. These authors say that

the sequence and order of "heavy* and "light* music may be

arranged In several d i f f erent ways which may be represented

by the fol lowing symbols;

1, —- — "" 1M# type of program begins

with l i ght music and movea toward the heavy music in the

middle of the program. The heavy music I s followed by a

gradual return to l ighter music.

2» . ———""" ' •—•—H Thls type of program places

the heavy music a t the beginning and the end of the program

with the l i g h t music in P.m middle.

37

5, ~ m type of program begins

w i t h 11ght music and work© p r o g r e s s i v e l y toward a c l i m a x of

heavy mus ic .

4 . ' T h i s type o f program b e g i n s

w i t h heavy music end works p r o g r e s s i v e l y toward light music*

5# "**' •*- T h i s type of program i n t e r -

sperses light and heavy music,

Leeder and Hsynie recommend t h e t e i t h e r the f o u r t h or

the f i r s t type o f programming be u s e d , In © m a j o r i t y o f

c a s e s , f o r p u b l i c s c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n order t o a v o i d

the p h y s i c a l s t r a i n t h e t c o u l d r e s u l t i f a l l heavy music was

s c h e d u l e d toward the end o f the program*

In 1961 , Maurice Oerow ( 9 ) oonducted a s tudy a t M i c h i -

gan S t e t e U n i v e r s i t y f o r the purpose o f i n v e s t i g a t i n g the

r o l e t l o n s h i p between the c r i t e r i a u s e d f o r c h o r a l o o n c e r t

program b u i l d i n g and an a n a l y s i s of the e l e m e n t s found i n

c h o r a l music# The s tudy proceeded t o g a t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n

r e l a t i n g t o two q u e s t i o n s : One, what c r i t e r i a gu ide the

conductor i n b u i l d i n g a c o n c e r t ? Two, what are the r e a s o n s

f o r v a r y i n g d e g r e s s o f s t r u c t u r a l monotony i n the music

programmed?

In the Oerow s t u d y , n ine Southern C a l i f o r n i a c o l l e g e s

end u n i v e r s i t i e s p o s s e s s i n g r e l a t i v e l y s i m i l a r c h a r a c t e r i s -

t i c s ruralshed the source o f d a t a . I n f o r m a t i o n was g a t h -

e r e d by p e r s o n a l i n t e r v i e w s from the c h o r a l c o n d u c t o r s i n

each of the c o l l e g e s s t u d i e d .

38

Ct&rom ana lyzed each s i t u a t i o n i n te rms of t hose e x t e r -

n a l o r i n t e r n a l f a c t o r s which might i n f l u e n c e the conduc-

t o r 1 s chotoe and a r rangement of s e l e c t i o n s . I n f o r m a t i o n was

o b t a i n e d r e l a t i v e t o the purpose of t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n and i t®

subsequent home c o n c e r t s , th© e x p e r i e n c e s and i n f l u e n c e s

which c o n t r i b u t e d moat t o the p rocedu re s of b u i l d i n g c h o r a l

programs, and those f a c t o r s which s e r i o u s l y l i m i t the con-

d u c t o r from f r e e l y s e l e c t i n g and p r o g r a m i n g music#

Gerow r e a c h e d the f o l l o w i n g c o n c l u s i o n s c o n c e r n i n g the

f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g program b u i l d i n g :

1* Th® purpose which was r e v e a l e d a s of h i g h e s t impor tance was the va lue of the c h o r a l o r g a n i s a t i o n as an e d u c a t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e f o r the p a r t i c i p a n t s * Other purposes i n o r d e r of t h e i r impor tance were an e d u c a -t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e f o r t h e c o l l e g e a u d i e n c e , and t h e fact t h a t the college places a h i g h degree of lmp®r» feenee on t h e c h o r a l a c t i v i t i e s and t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n ® toward t h e c u l t u r a l l i f e of the c o a a u n i t y .

2 . Those e x p e r i e n c e s end i n f l u e n c e s which con-t r i b u t e d most to th® procedures u sed by the conductors l a b u i l d i n g programs c o n s i s t e d of e x p e r i e n c e in program b u i l d i n g , r e s e a r c h i n l i b r a r i e s , and a t t e n d a n c e a t o t h e r c o l l e g e c o n c e r t s .

3* In s e l e c t i n g i n d i v i d u a l c o m p o s i t i o n s f o r u s e , f o u r g e n e r a l c r i t e r i a were he ld t o be h i g h l y I m p o r t a n t . Thea® c o n s i s t e d of the o v e r - a l l wor th of the mus i c , th© l i t e r a r y wor th and s u i t a b i l i t y of t h e t e x t , the I n c l u -sion of s e l e c t i o n s of a l i g h t or humorous n a t u r e , and the n a t t e r of the o v e r - a l l p robab le a p p e a l of t h e music for the performers and audience#

4# I n combining i n d i v i d u a l compos i t i ons in o r d e r t o form groups , those s p e c i f i c c r i t e r i a h e l d t o be Im-p o r t a n t were t h e f o l l o w i n g s t r u c t u r a l e loraonta : tempo, mood, dynamics, q u a l i t y of sacred o r s e c u l a r , rhythm, harmony, and m e t e r .

The r e s u l t s of the study, a c c o r d i n g t o Oerow, showed

t h a t (1 ) the m a j o r i t y o- conduc to r s do no t g ive s u f f i c i e n t

59

a t t e n t i o n to the d e t a i l s of music atrueturn1 elements or a r e

no t aware of t h e i r Importance f o r a t t a i n i n g © high degree of

var ie ty and c o n t r a s t in music in teres t , and {2} other th ings

being equal , i t i s reasonable to expect that 8 concert con-

ta in ing « high amount of var ie ty and contrast In the musical

elements studied w i l l have a high degree of musics 1 i n t e r -

est*

There appears to be & g e n e r a l agreement among music

educators (5» 3* 15, 20, 35) that programming can have a

s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t upon the a t t i t u d e s of members of an a u d i -

ence and that educational programming should begin a t the

music appreciat ion l e v e l of the student body audienoe and

should progress through a var ie ty of musical forms and media

with emphasis p laced not only upon the s e l e c t i o n of music

but a l s o upon the grouping of music for s p e c i f i c audiences*

These t h e o r i e s have provided th® tosses f o r s e v e r a l c o r r e l a -

t i o n a l s t u d i e s concerning the musica l p r e f e r e n c e s o f s t u -

d e n t s end the fac tors r e l a t e d to mus ica l preference* The

f a c t o r s analysed in the musical preference s tud ies inc lude:

CD *ge and grade l e v e l , (2) s ex , (3) musical experience ,

(4) mental a b i l i t y , and (5) socio-economic l e v e l .

A study designed for the purpose of i n v e s t i g a t i n g the

musical preferences of s tudents at s e l e c t e d grade l e v e l s and

the f ac to r® r e l a t e d to these musical p r e f e r e n c e s was con-

duc ted by Vincent Robert Kogers (26)•

40

l a order t o t e s t t he m u s i c a l p re fe rence® of students,

Rogers c o n s t r u c t e d s f i f t y - s e v e n I tem p a i r e d - c o m p a r i s o n

t e s t . Items on the test c o n s i s t e d of two e x c e r p t s of forty-

five seconds esoh f rom various reoordlngs. The music u sed

In this t e s t wee categorised a s folio*si (1 ) serious clss-

slcal mus i c , (2) popular classical music, ( 5 ) dinner music,

and (4) popular music. The child was told to listen to the

two excerpts snd to decide which of the two he liked better.

Rogers' test wss administered to 635 fourth, seventh,

ninth, end twelfth grade students from six different school

system® in Sew York s t a t e . Approximately t w e n t y - f i v e t o

thirty c h i l d r e n were randomly s e l e c t e d « t each grede level

within each system. The test was administered in three ces-

sions of one and one-half hours each.

Rogers reeched the following conclusions based upon the

statistical s i g n l f l c m e e of the t e s t results!

1# There I s an overwhelming and I n c r e a s i n g pref-erence for popular music at all grade levels, and w i t h e l l groups r e g e r d l e s s of type of s c h o o l , B®X$ o r s o c i o -economic s t a t u s .

2 . With I n c r e a s e d a g e , children exhibit s t e n d e n -cy to conform more and more to a single pattern of mu-sical p r e f e r e n c e ® .

3. Physical maturity is a factor, though indi-rectly, in determining one1 a musical preferences. The earlier sexual maturation of girls apparently influ-ences their m u s i c a l p r e f e r e n c e s s imply because the popular music (which the s even th and ninth grade girls p r e f e r to a much g r e a t e r degree than do t h e boys) heerd by these g i r l s has taken on a new social meaning.

4 . i h i l e socio-economic s t a t u s i s n o t a strong enough f a c t o r t o break the b a s i c pattern of p r e f e r e n c e s displayed by all children on thia test; 1 . e . , an in-creasing preference for popular music with Increasing

41

age, I t i s apparently s t r o n g enough t o etas® differ-ence a in p r e f e r e n c e s , ©a evidenced by the c o n s i s t e n t l y l a r g e r number of ohotoea made In favor of olaaalcal music by the upper elsa® group#

' I n 1968# V. H. Baumann (4) oonducted a study s i m i l a r to

the Rogers study* Baumana i n v e s t i g a t e d the f a c t o r s r e l a t e d

to the mus ica l p r e f e r e n c e s of California teen-agers. The

following conc lus ions were reached by Baumaim concerning the

musica l preference a of teen-agers in hie atudyt

Popular music la the kind of music teen-agera l i ke* Hock f n ' roll, which was the current fad, was s i g n i f i c a n t l y more popular with younger t e e n - a g e r s than with older one®#

Young people presumably l e a r n their musical p r e f -e rences where they enjoy hearing their favorite kinds of music. Radio was the favorite means of hearing mu-s i c , with phonogrsph next and television well behind them. Must. c c l a s s e s and assembl ies ranked extremely low.

Whatever the causes, popular music selections proved to be most a ccep t ab l e to all t#®n«®gersf young-e r end o l d e r , r i c h or poor , male or female*

Assuming t h a t p re fe rence ladle©ted a s to rehouse of musical knowledge with which the high school s tuden t i s familiar, all current educational programming should begin with this teen-age Interest. If teacher® are to take students where they are and guide them to more ma-ture and s a t i s f y i n g expe r i ences , t h i s is where the mu-s i c teacher will find the majority of a high school body. Jass and current song hits osn furnish meaning-ful i l l u s t r a t i v e m a t e r i a l and the b e s t of i t can be worthy of performs nee • The ability to perform it ahould help the teaoher approach music from the teen-ager's s t a n d p o i n t .

The relstionship of mus ica l exper ience and mental

ability in the formulation of musical taate wae investigated

in a study conducted by Nicholas Erneaton (7). I t was the

purpose of t h i s s tudy to determine A e t h e r o r not musical

42

exper ience and mental a b i l i t y a f f e c t e d acquired mus ica l

t a s t e *

jfcrneston o p e r a t i o n a l l y d e f i n e d m u s i c a l t a s t e a s a com-

b i n a t i o n of a t t i t u d e toward music , musica l pre ference a , and

a b i l i t y t o d i s c r i m i n a t e magical ly* S e p a r a t e t e a t s were u t i -

l i s e d t o measure t h e s e q u a l i t i e s , t h e r e s u l t s of which were

c o r r e l a t e d wi th t ypes and amounts of m u s i c a l e x p e r i e n c e and

w i t h s c o r e s of mental a b i l i t y t e a t s . The e n t i r e f r e shman

c l a s s of 780 s t u d e n t s a t Appa lach ian S t a t e T e a c h e r s C o l l e g e

a t Boone# Worth Caro l ina , comprised t h e t e s t group*

I t was found, i n ^rnes ton 'b s tudy, that a l though s i g -

n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s were e v i d e n t between e x p e r i e n c e d g r o u p s

on a t t i t u d e toward mus ic snd music d l s c r i m i n a t l o n , no s i g -

n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e a e x i s t e d between groups i n mus ica l p r e f -

e r e n c e . An a n a l y s i s of v a r i a n c e r e p e a l e d t h a t h i g h l y

s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s (beyond the *01 l e v e l of c o n f i d e n c e )

e x i s t e d between t a s t e score® of s t u d e n t s iflio had n o t experi**

enced any m u s i c a l a c t i v i t i e s w h a t s o e v e r and t h o s e of s t u -

d e n t s who had been a c t i v e i n m u s i c , r ega rd less? of t h e t y p e

of m u s i c a l a c t i v i t y o r the amount* These f i n d i n g s s u g g e s t e d

t h a t m u s i c a l e x p e r i e n c e i s e s s e n t i a l t o t h e f o r m u l a t i o n o f

m u s i c a l t a s t e * Ho ev idence was d i scovered l i n k i n g sny par-

t i c u l a r t ype of m u s i c a l e x p e r i e n c e w i th a h igher l e v e l of

a c q u i r e d t a s t e *

According to Erneaton, one of the most s i g n i f i c a n t of

the f i n d i n g s i n h i s study i s t h e t m e n t a l a b i l i t y does not

43

appear to be 8 factor in teste development among inexperi-

enced persons, but i© a highly significant factor among ex-

perienced persons.

&nmmmr*y

Musical perception la related to discriminatlon learn-

ing in that the development of musical perception involved a

response to a narrow rang© of stimuli and a non-response to

other related stimuli which lie outaide of a specified

rung®. The concept of categorising behavior has been ex-

panded by Bruner, Ooodnow, and Austin (&)• The process of

identifying the attributes that characterise a particular

category Is referred to aa the process of concept attain-

ment. Some concepts are more difficult to attain than other

concepts# Travera (28) classified concepts into the follow-

ing categories} conjunctive concepts, disjunctive conoepte,

and relational concepts.

Music educators (3, 3, 10, 21, 22, 32) agree that the

acquisition of an appreciation of music and musical forms

may be attributed, in part, to the musical perception of the

individual. It is generally sgreed that appreciation in-

clude s the feellngful responsiveness to all the expressive

elements of music, such as rhythm, harmony, melody, texture,

timbre, tonality, and form. Although these authors recog-

nise the probability that musical perception cannot guaran-

tee musical appreciation, it is believed that some musical

44

understanding of the basic ©leaente of music Is essential to

an appreciation of music.

Attitudes are Informally defined by Reamer®, Gage, and

Rummel (26) a® feelings "for or against something.* Atti-

tude a talc® on meaning only whan considered in relation to

some specific or generalized object, situation, or stimulus*

On® important characteristic of attitude® 1® that attitudes

ar® learned by the subject, fravera (28) say® that atti-

tudes are related to approach and avoidance tendencies whloh

become more numerous as age advances. Kats and Stotland (17)

suggest that attitudes include, to some degree, each of the

following componentsi affective components, cognitive com-

ponent®, and action components* Thee# components way work

together in the construction of the subject's attitude, or

they may be independent of one another*

Zahrt (33) suggested that the attitudes of students are

of importsnee in selecting music for performing organisa-

tion® and set forth a group of general principle® for the

selection of music for public school program®#

Separate studies (4, 3, 24, 26) concerning the musical

preferences of students at various age levels agreed that

the major factor determining preferences Is the musical ex-

perience of the student®. Bach of the studies concluded

that a majority of teen-agers prefer popular music to clas-

sical music.

CHAPTER BIBLlOQRkPHY

1. Andrews, Dorothy L., "Comparative Study of Two Me thods of Developing Musical Listening Abi l i ty In Element#ry School Chi ldren/ Journal of Heaearoh in Music Educa-t ion. XL (Spring, 1962), 59-64.

2. Antonlnetti , J. A. , "The Kffect of Dlscriminetion Training Upon Oeneralisatlon, unpublished doctoral d i sserts t ion, impertinent of Psychology, Yale Univer-s i t y , lew Haven, Conneoticut, 19§0«

3. Barton, Kerry, "Performance or Education," Ma a le Kduca-t lon in Aotion, edited by Archie Jones, Boaion, ikilyn end Be ©on, Inc . , 1960.

4 . B&uaann, V. H., * Socioeconomic Statue and the Music Preference® of feen-Ager®,1* unpublished doctoral d i s -s e r t a t i o n , Department of Education, Univers i ty of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, 1958.

5. Bruner, J. s . , J , J. Goodnow, and 0. A. Austin, A Study of Thinking* lew York, Wiley Publishers, 1957.

6. Elder, J. H%, "Auditory Acuity of the Chimpansee,* Journal of Comparative Psychology, Vol. IV (Spring, m i r ;

?• Erneston, Nicholas, "A Study to Determine the E f f e c t s of Musical Experience and Mental Abi l i ty on the For-inula t lon of Musical Taste," unpublished doctoral d i s -sertat ion, Department of l u s i e , Florida S ta te Univer-s i t y , Tallahassee, Florida, 1961.

3. Finney, Theodore M„, Hearing Music» Sew York, Harcourt. Brace and Company, 1941#

9# Qero®, Maurice# "A Study of the Re la tlon Between the C r i t e r i a Used for Choral Concert Program Building at the College Level and An Analysis of the Elements of Music Structure Pound in Choral Music," unpublished doctoral d i s ser ta t ion , Department of Music, Michigan State University, Bast Lansing, Michigan, 1961#

10. Grant, Parks, "Music Appreciation," Music Education In Action, edited toy Archie Jones, Boston, i ' ityn ®"nl Bacon, Inc . , 1960.

48

46

11. Here, Robert Yates, "The Pedagogic®! Principles of Ma-si© Appreoiation," unpublished doctoral dissertation, Department of Music, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, 1959.

12. Ifervey, 0• J. sad J* G. Rutherford, "Gradual and Ab#o-lute Approaches to Attitude Changs," Socloaetry. XXI (Pall, 1958), 61-68,

15» Helaon, H. R•, K« R« Blake, J• i>» Mouton, and J• a» Olmatead, "Attitudes as Adjustments to Stiraulua Back-ground and Heaidual Factors," Journal of Abnormal and Social PgyohoXoar. H I CSpringTTWJ^li^SBT^ _

14# Hilgard, Erneat R* and D* G. Karquis, Conditloning and learning, reviaed by Gregory A, Kimbel, ifew Y'ork, Applefcon-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1961.

15. House, Robert W«, Instrumental Musio for T&d»yfs School&, Engl mood Glififa, "tew" Jersey,' 0-Ha 11,

10,

17,

13.

19 »

eo.

21.

Hovland, C. I., 0. J. Harvey, and J. J* Sherif, "As-similation and Content Effects in Reaction to Cores*-nicetion and Attitude Change,H Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. LV (i?s11"," )

Kate, D. J", and E. C. Stotland, "A Preliminary State-ment to H Theory of Attitude Struoture and Changa,* Psychologys A Study of a Science, edited by S» Each, I&w York, KoGraw-Hiil, "

Kluver, K. A», Behavior Mechanisms in University of Chicago Preae,

!, Chicago,

Lasfcutey, K. S», "The Jfeehania® of Viaion: I. A. Method for Rapid Analysis of Pattern-Vision in the Rat," Journal of genetic Psychology. XXXVII (Spring, 1930), 45S-4€

feeder, Joseph A. and William S# Haynie, Music Educa-tion in the High School» Englewood C1 i11a, few' 3®r-sey, l^enti oe-Ha11, Inc., 1953*

Leonhard, Charles, "Evaluation in Music Education,* Baaic Concepts in Music Education, Fifty-seventh YesFSottk," i«si*t T; gHTcago, National Society for the Study of Education, 1958.

47

2 2 . Btaohlls , J o s e p h , The f n j o y m e n t of Music: An I n t r o d u c -t i o n to Peroept lv® ListTeninjg,HRew x o r k , $ . WTaoFioa I^5o,7*l"95S. 1

23. Jftmn, N. L . , "An A p p a r a t u s f o r T e s t i n g V i s u a l D i s c r i m i -n a t i o n In Animals ,* J o u r n a l of Gene t i c Psychology, • XXXIX ( S p r i n g , 1951) , 342-368.

24 . Pep insky , Minerva, "S ix th -Orade C h i l d r e n ' s A t t i t u d e ® toward Music of a l u c k , Haydn, Mozart and Toward Other Music, '1 unpub l i shed d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , Department of Music, Indiana U n i v e r s i t y , Bloomingtoa, I n d i a n a , 1959.

25 . Remmers, H# H. , «• h* Sage, and J . F r a n c i s Ruramel, A P r s o t i c a l I n t r o d u c t i o n t o Measurement and E v a l u a t i o n , New York, Harper and B r ^ h e r a , t$60.

26# Kogers , V incen t , " C h i l d r e n ' s p r e s s e d Musical P r e f e r -e n c e s a t S e l e c t e d Grade L e v e l s , " u n p u b l i s h e d d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , Department of Music, Syracuse U n i v e r s i -t y , Sy racuse , Hew York, 1956•

27 . Spenoe, X. t U t " V i s u a l Acui ty and I t s He la t l o n t o ' B r i g h t n e s s i n Chimp®nsee and Man," J o u r n a l of Cora-

p n r » t l v e Psychology, XVIII ( F e l l , l iB¥T7™l3l -3H7

2 8 . T r a v e r s , Rober t M. E s s e n t i a l s of L e a r n i n g , New York, Hacmil lsn Co. , 1^63.

29 . Verp lenck , W. S . , "The Development of D i s c r i m i n a t i o n i n a Simple Locoaotor H a b i t , " J o u r n a l of Exper iments 1 Psychology, XXXI ( S p r i n g , 19413), '44X^464.

50 . We i s s , W. J., "The R e l a t i o n s h i p Between JudgaentG of a CocHTJunlcetor's P o s i t i o n and E x t e n t of Op in ion , " J o u r -n a l of Abnormal and S o c i a l Psychology, LVI ( F e l l ,

31 . 'Vendt, G* H . , "Aud i to ry Acui ty of Monkeys," Comparatlve Psychologic** 1 Monograph, X, No. 49 ( 1 9 3 4 ) .

32 . Wheelwright , S t e r l i n g , "Aids f o r Music a p p r e c i a t i o n , " Music i ' duce t ion i n A c t i o n , e d i t e d by Archie J o n e s ,

t# A l iyn "and Bacon, I n c . , 1960.

33 . 2 a h r t , Merton, "Music f o r Today' s S c h o o l s , " Music Kdu-c a t i o n in A c t i o n , e d i t e d by Archie J ones , Bos ton , Ai'lyn ami Bacon, I n c . , I 960 .

CHfcPTBR I I I

METHOD

I n t h i s c h a p t e r a Method of i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s p r e s e n t e d .

f o r t h e pu rpose o f compar ing t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of demon a t r a -

t i o n programming a n d n o n - d e m o n s t r a t i o n programming upon mu-

s i c a l p e r c e p t i o n and a t t i t u d e s of t h e members o f a s t u d e n t .

body a u d i e n c e #

D e s c r i p t i o n s ®r® p r o v i d e d of t h e s u b j e c t s , t h e I m p l e -

m e n t i n g d * v i a e a , t h e m e a s u r i n g d e v i c e s , and t h e p r o c e d u r e ,

S u b j e c t s

The s u b j e c t s f o r t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y were t h e members o f

t h e j u n i o r h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t body of t h e N o r t h T e x a s Labo-

r a t o r y S c h o o l a t D e n t o n , T a x e s . A t o t a l o f 338 s t u d e n t s

were a s a i g n e d t o t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l and t h e o o n t r o l g r o u p a c -

c o r d i n g t o t h e i r g r a d e l e v e l s and s e c t i o n n u m b e r s .

At t h e L a b o r a t o r y S c h o o l , s t u d e n t a i n t h e s e v e n t h g r a d e

were a s s i g n e d t o s e c t i o n s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r s c o r e s o b t a i n e d

on t h e S t a n f o r d Ach ievement f e a t , S t u d e n t s I n t h e e i g h t h

and n i n t h g r a d e s were a s s i g n e d t o s e c t i o n s a c c o r d i n g t o

t h e i r s c o r e s o b t a i n e d on t h e C a l i f o r n i a T e s t of S o h o l e g t l e

P r o g r e s s . The s e v e n t h g r a d e s c o r e s r e n g e d f r o m 3 . 2 tJ i rough

1 1 . 0 w i t h a med ian of 7 . 4 and © mean of 7 . 3 . The e i g h t h

48

49

grade h»d a range of 36-73 with a median of S3 end s mean of

53. The ninth grade had a range of 37-75 with © median of

§6 and a mean of 55.7.

Each grade, at the Laboratory School, contained four

sections of student®, two sections of which were composed of

studenta scoring in the upper half on the test and two sec-

tion® composed of students scoring in the lower half on the

test# The upper sections and the lower section® for each

grade were ssslgned to the experimental and the control

groups so that each group had a total of three sections of

upper scores snd three sections of lower scores, & total of

six sections were assigned to the experimental group and six

sections to the control group.

At the beginning of the study, there were one hundred

nineteen studenta In the experimental group and one hundred

thirteen students in the control group. Fourteen students

from the experimental group and fifteen students from the

control group were absent whan one or more of the concerts

were presented? therefore it was necessery to eliminate them

from the experiment, The test results used in the final

analysis included the following number of studentss one

hundred five students in the experimental group, end ninety*

eight students in the control group. From the total group

of students, one hundred two students were boys, one hundred

one students were girls, seventy-seven students were seventh

50

graders, sixty-six students were •lgbth graders, and sixty

students were ninth grsders.

Implementtag Devices

The following devloea were used in the study I (1) the

orchestra, (2} a master of ceremonies* sad ($) scripts for

esoh musical presentation.

The Orchestra

The orchestra consisted of s total of twenty-sewn stu-

dents with the following Instrumentation! eight violins,

two violas, three cellos, two string basses, two flutes, two

clarinets, two frenoh horns, two trumpets, two trombones,

one tuba, and on© percussion.

The string students participating in the orchestra were

members of the seventh, eighth, end ninth grade string or-

chestrs of the Laboratory School, The average number of

years of group Instruction per student was two year® end

ssven months# Three of the string students were studying

privately at the time of the experiment. The string stu-

dents met orchestra, class five days @s>ch week for ® period

of fifty-five minutes during the regularly scheduled school

y®sr. The wind students, who accompanied the string players

on the selections arranged for full orchestra, were from the

North Texas School of Music.

51

Master of Ceremonlee

The master of ceremonies f or the concer t s presented to

both the experimental group and the c o n t r o l group was 0 jun-

i o r tousle major and orohestra 1 s tudent a s s l s tant from the

North Texas School of Music.

His training In voice production consisted of the regu-

lar program of vocal study prescribed by th® School of Mualc

a t North Texas St©te University for the degree of Bachelor

of Music with a Concentration in Instrumental Music*

The master of ceremonies1 ccezmunloatlon with both au-

diences was re s t r i c t ed to the scr ip t s (pages 91-103) which

were prepared f o r each of th® concerts*

A t o t a l of fou r s cr ip t s , two demonstr&tlon programming

scr ip t s and two non-demonstration programming s c r i p t s , were

written for the present experiment and were used by the mas-

t e r of ceremonies. The programing used in each of the four

scr ip t s was based l a rge ly upon the p rog raming guide recom-

mended by i e r t o n Zshrt (&)• Z a h r t ' s recommendations nay be

seen by r e f e r r i n g t o pages 35-3© In Chapter XI*

Th® sequence of heavy and l i g h t music was arranged so

that each program would begin with l i g h t music, move toward

heavy music in the middle of the program, snd return to

l i g h t music for the program's conclusion. This order of mu-

s ic i s described by Leeder and Haynie (4) as Type 1

m

programming. The c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s of types of programing,

acoordlng t o Leeder and Haynie, my be seen by re ferr ing to

pa gas 56-57 in Chapter I I .

Since the type and sequence of programming are bel ieved

to have a s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t upon the a t t i tudes of students

toward the performing organisetion, these elements were con-

t r o l l e d m that each of the scr ipts would contain ident i ca l

elements*

The rosin d i f ference in the scr ipts was in the descrip-

t ion of the music's 1 se lec t ions# Each of the s e l e c t i o n s in

the non-demonstration programming scr ip t s (see appendix,

pages 91-94) were descr ibed in non-musical terms* That i®,

the announcements were of a biographical type*

The demonstrat ion programming s c r i p t s (see Appendix#

pages 95-103) were designed f o r the purpose of i l l u s t r a t i n g

the musical elements involved In a composition. In demon-

s t r a t i o n programming, scr ipt one, (pages 95-99), i l l u s t r a -

t i o n s were provided showing the use of the fol lowing musical

elements! (1) melody, (8) harmony, (3) rhythm, and (4) form#

In demonstrat ion programming, s c r i p t two (pages 99-103),, i l -

l u s t r a t i o n s were provided showing the techniques used by the

oomposer in arranging for a variety in the sound of a s ing le

theme of a composition. I l l u s t r a t i o n s were presented show-

ing d i s e r i a l n a t i o n In the v a r i a t i o n of the musical elements

of n o t e s , key, and time within a s i n g l e them®.

55

Each of the scripts for the demonstration programs mad®

references to charts (page 101) which were used to illustra te

the musical elements of the compositions. Th® students la

the demonstration programming group were given printed pro-

grans containing blank speoes In which they were to provide

answers according to the directions given toy the master of

ceremonies* The programs used by the students rosy be seen

by referring to page 90 of the Appendix.

Measuring Devise®

The following tests were used for the purpose of com-

paring the effect of demonstration programming and non*

demonstration programming upon the musical perception end

the attitudes of the members of the experimental and the

control groups} (1) The Drake feat of Musics1 Memory, (2)

The Oregon Test of Musical Dlscrlalnetlon, and {3) Attitude

Scale Toward Any School Subject. The following descriptions

are provided concerning the purpose of each of the measuring

devices and their use in the present study.

(1) The Drake Test of Musical Memory (DTMMj—This test

was used la the present study for the purpose of measuring

the ability of the pupil to retain a melodic line then lis*

tenlng to music. It was administered as a post-test to the

experimental and control groups to determine the presence or

absence of a significant difference between the experimental

and control groups in their sblllty to retain a melodic line.

54

The DTMM measures the student* a a b i l i t y t o remember

two-bar melodies . In the t e s t , the subjec t s h e a r a two-bar

melody which they must r e c a l l f o r comparison with other

melodies . I f the new melody i s the seme e s the f i r s t on®,

they put S i n the appropriate answer boxj the same melody In

the new key I s Indicated by K; a change In time by Tj and ®

change of notes by N.

The s p l l t - h B l f r e l i a b i l i t y scores for music student#

were #93 and f o r non-music students . 8 5 . The t e e t was v a l i *

dated against est imated m u s i c e l l t y and musical examination,

and r e c e i v e d c o e f f i c i e n t s of #49 t o .67• For t he purpose of

v a l i d a t i o n , an external c r i t e r i o n of "talent" was used and

def ined In terms of express ion in playing and rap id i ty l a

learning music.

The DTMM has been reviewed In Buros' f i f t h Mental Meas-

urements Yearbook {2, pp. 379-580) by Robert wt Lundln, As-

s o c i a t e P r o f e s s o r of Psychology, Hamilton Col lege , Cl inton,

Mew York, and by James Mainwaring, formerly Lecturer in

Psychology and Music, Dudley Training Col lege , Birmingham,

England.

According to Lundln (2 , p. 579) , the Drak» t e s t i s su-

perior to other current ly a v a i l a b l e t e a t s "such as the Sea-

shore Measures of Musical T a l e n t and the KwaIwa as er-Dykema

Music Tests*1*

Ample pract ice e x e r c i s e s are provided before the t e a t s proper a r e taken. The number of each t e s t i t em

55

i a announced on the phonograph record t o prevent the subject from l o s i n g h i s pise©# . . . A wide range of d i f f i c u l t y i a presented, and the herder i tems w i l l prove a chal lenge for the nos t musica l ly soph i s t i ca ted Indiv iduals . . » • In general , i t would seem that these t e s t s a r# a v a l u a b l e and much needed a d d i t i o n t o the f i e l d of musical apt i tude measurement. On the ba-s i s of evidence so f a r reported, they ere superior to o thers previously a v a i l a b l e ( 2 , pp. 379-390}*

la lnwarlmg (2) says that t he conc i senes s of the Drake

t e a t , i t s ease of adminlstrat lon, and i t s evo lut ion from

Drake*s long experience in the f i e l d of t e s t i n g makes the

t e s t both prac t i ca l and. a u t h o r i t a t i v e , and in h i s opinion,

r e l i a b i l i t y scores are s u f f i c i e n t grounds for the placement

of the tea t h igh among e x i s t i n g group t e s t s i n music*

Edwin Gordon (3) conducted ®o experimental study t o

determine the e f f e c t s of t r a i n i n g and pract ice on the Drake

Musical Aptitude Test scores . As a part of t h i s study,

Gordon inves t iga ted the e f f e c t of tra in ing and mental a b i l i -

ty upon the s tudent ' s performance on the Drake Musical Memo-

ry Test . A f t e r the administrat ion and scoring of the prs-t»st»

f i v e of the high scor ing students and f i v e of the low scoring

s t u d e n t s wer# ae leoted a t random to se rve a s the exper imenta l

group and to r e c e i v e t ra in ing . The remaining ten students

comprised the control group and rece ived no t r a i n i n g . The

t ra in ing period cons i s t ed of twenty l e s s o n s , each one-half

hour. The l e s s o n s extended over a period of one month. At

the end of the month, both groups were re teated on the Mu-

s i c s ! Memory Test . Data for the two groups were a l s o t r e a t -

ed Independently to t e s t the s i g n i f i c a n c e of the gain from

56

p r e - t e a t to post-test. The experimental group and the i n i -

t i a l l y h i g h a o o r i n g s t u d e n t s «®d© t h e g r e a t e r g a i n s a f t e r

training and p r a c t i c e . Tiw> e x p e r i m e n t a l g roup made statis-

tically s i g n i f i c a n t gelna on t h e musical Memory feat a t t h e

f i v e p e r c e p t l e v e l of c o n f i d e n c e .

( 2 ) The Ore son 'feat of Music P i a c r lmina t l o n (OTMD)—

T h i s test was used i n t h e p r e a e n t s t u d y f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f

measuring m u s i c a l d i a c r l m i n a t i o n . I t was a d m i n i s t e r e d as a

p o e t - t e a t t o t h e experiman t a l and c o n t r o l g r o u p s t o d e t e r *

mine t h e presence or absence of a significant difference be-

tween t h e g r o u p s i n t h e i r a b i l i t y t o d i s c r i m i n a t e b e t w e e n a

masterwork and its adaptation.

The Of MD c o n s i s t a o f s h o r t e x c e r p t a from m u s i c a l compo-

sitions# The test la so designed that the student is re-

quired t o make a musical p r e f e r e n c e judgement as well a s a

musical d i s c r i m i n a t i o n judgmen t . F o l l o w i n g t h e p r e s e n t s t i o n

of two m u s i c a l example s, t h e s t u d e n t must d e c i d e w h e t h e r o r

n o t s difference exists between the examples, and i f so t h e

s o u r c e of t he difference and which of t h e two example s i s

t h e more appropriate.

Thm o r i g i n a l Oregon Music D i s c r i m i n a t i o n feat was pub-

l i s h e d i n 1934 by Kate Hevner and J . L. L a n d s b u r y . The 1934

test was w i thdrawn f rom the marke t when RGA V i c t o r abandoned

78 r p a r e c o r d s f o r l o n g - p l a y i n g discs. The r e v i s e d t e s t had

not been p u b l i s h e d u t t h e t ime of t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y a l t h o u g h

th® s t a t i s t i c a l d a t a had been c o m p i l e d by t h e a u t h o r s , Ktete

57

Hevner and Kewell K. Long* The test w®« used toy special

permission of the authors# The laasical example® were repro-

duced by mesas of a tape recording.

(3) Attitude Scale Toward Any School Subject (Rea-

mers)—This teat was used in the present study for the pur-

pose of measuring the attitudes of the members of the

student body concerning the orchestra as a school subject*

It was administered a® a pre-teat end m post-test to the ex-

perimental a ad control groups to determine the presence or

absence of a significant difference between the groups in

their attitudes toward the school orchestra#

The coefficient® of reliability (Form A versus Form B)

rang# from #71 to .92. The scale was validated against

Thurstone attitude scales and was checked for its validity

in differentiating among attitudes known to differ among

various groups in their liking for school subjects*

The attitude scale has been reviewed in Buros* Fourth

gfenta1 Met surewents Yearbook (1) by Dons Id T. Campbell, As-

sistant Professor of Psychology, University of Chicago, and

Kenneth E. C3a rk, Associate Professor of Psychology, Univer-

sity of Minnesota.

Campbell (1, p» 91) saysi

There la one type of problem for which generalised scales ore essential) this is the sociological problem of the relative repj.tationsl standing of social ob-jects. In the Remmera series, this use Is illustrated in the studies of attitudes toward school subjects*

58

Clark (1 , pp« 91-92) describe* the a t t i tude scale aa

being a spec ia l typo of Thuratone seal©, designed to reduce

the amount of labor o r d i n a r i l y r equ i red to develop the

aca l e , Clark aaya t ha t "The assumption ia made, and demon-

s t r s t e d to fee reasonable , that a a ingle s e t of i tems may be

aoa led by Thuratone methods and then uaed in the measurement

of a t t i t u d e s toward an ent ire c l a s s of object#,"

Procedure

The following topioe provide an explanation of the pro-

cedures uaed in the present studys (1) i n i t i a l arr&ngementeb

and {H) treatment of groups#

I n i t i a l Arrangements

The i n i t i a l arrengementc included (1) a pre-teat of the

students1 a t t i tude a toward orchestra aa a school subject ,

and (2) a period of vocabulary orientat ion of musical terms.

The Attitude Scale Towfard Any School Subject wee admin-

i s t e r e d aa a pre-teat to the experiments 1 and control groups

prior to the t reatment of groups. This pre-teat was given

on September 16, 1965, during home-room per iods at the Laho-

re tory School. A d e s c r i p t i o n of the Attitude Scale Toward

Any School Subject waa presented on pa gee 57-58 of the pres-

ent chapter,

A vocabulary orientat ion of muaical terms waa presented,

a t Recital Hall at the School of Music at North Texas State

69

Univers i ty , t o both the experlraental end the c o n t r o l groups

d u r i n g e spec ia l aasembly. The vocabulary of musical terns

was i l l u s t r a t e d by means of a tape r e c o r d i n g which w©® p r e -

sen ted to the groups f o r the purpose of showing the use of

the terms "melody,* Bhbnnony,w and 9rhythm'* In connection

wi th the musical sounds# The in terp lay between the element®

of melody, heraony, end rhythsi was i l l u s t r a t e d by moans of

o r i g i n s ! lraislcal exanples showing the tonal e f f e c t ach ieved

by ho ld ing two of the v a r i a b l e s constant whi le changing thfi

t h i r d v a r i a b l e . The tape r e c o r d i n g cons i s t ed of f i f t e e n mu-

s i c a l examples showing v a r i a t i o n s of raelody, harmony, and

rhythm.

Treatment of Groups nilnjiii i

'During ® per iod of e i g h t weeks, the experimental and

c o n t r o l group® heard two separate assembly c o n c e r t s of

t h i r t y minutes l a l e n g t h , performed by the Labora tory School

Orchestra# The programming f o r both groups was baaed upon

the p r o g r a m i n g standards recommended by musics e d u c a t o r s ( 4 ,

5 ) • The fo l lowing i d e n t i c a l musical a e l e c t i o n s were per-

formed for the s u b j e c t 0 in each groups

1 . Concert Ones The Syncopated Clock,by Leroy Ander-

son, Concerto Grosso, by Margaret Fariah, and Snow Whit® Fen-

taay, by Frank Churchill , were performed on October 14, 1965,

in the aud i to r ium of the Labora tory School . Two perform-

ance a were p r e s e n t e d . Performance number one was p r e s e n t e d

60

f rom 9i00 t o 9 i 3 0 a.m. t o the subjects In the c o n t r o l g r o u p .

Performance number two was presented from 9i30 to 10 a 00 a . m .

to the subjects In the experimental group.

2 . Concert Twot Song of Jupiter, by 0. P . I f t a d e l ,

Variations on a French Polk Tune, by J. Holeaousky, and

H i g h l i g h t g f rom My Fair Lady# by Lamer and Hurfurth were

performed on Hovember 4, 1965, In the auditorium of the

Laboratory School. Two performancea were given. Perform-

ance number one we® presented from 10100 to 10i30 a.m. to

t he subjects in the control group. Perform® ce number two

wan presented from 10i30 to Ili30 a.m. to the subjects In

the experimental group.

The c o n c e r t s d i f f e r e d In the method of jrogvtsa&lng u s e d .

Th® experimental group heard the d e m o n s t r a t i o n programming

end the control group the non-demonstratlon programming.

The demonstration programming c o n s i s t e d of verbal and

m u s i c a l Illustrations of the following elemental (1) melod-

i c * harmonic, and rhythmic interests of musical compositions;

( 2 ) v a r i a t i o n s in the melody through the manipulation of

notes, time, and keyj and (3) methods of following a melodic

l i n e . The scripts for the demonstration concerts may be

seen on pages 95-103 of the appetxl ix*

The n o n - d e m o n s t r a t i o n programming consisted of the

p r e s e n t a t i o n of the m u s i c a l s e l e c t i o n s in formal concert

s t y l e with verbal program notes of a biographical nature.

The scripts for the n o n - d e m o n s t r a t i o n concerts may be seen

on pages 91-94 of the- a p p e n d i x .

61

During %lm week following the treatment of the exper!-*-

am tal and the control groups, post-to ate were given to da-

te rain® the effect of the two methods of programming upon

musical perception and attitude* The musical compositions

used in the concerts were not duplicated In the musical per~

ceptlon and discrimination tests* The post-tests adminis-

tered in the present study wer© (1) The Drake Test of

Musical Memory« (2) The Oregon Teat for Has!on1 Discrimina-

tion. and (3) Attitude Scale Toward Any School Subject*

Sixmmry

In Chapter III a description was provided of the sub-

jects, apparatus, measuring devices, and procedure used In

conducting the present study*

The subjects for the present study were the weathers of

fche Junior high school student body of the North Texas Labo-

ratory School at Denton, Texas* Students were assigned to

the experimental and the control groups according to their

grade levels and section numbers* A total of six sections

of students to the control group.

The Implementing device used in the study consisted of

an orchestra, a master of ceremonies, and scripts for each

musical presentation*

The following tests were used for the purpose of com-

paring the effect of demonstration programming and non»dem«

onafcration programming upon th® musical perception and the

62

attitudes of the members of th® experimental sad the control

groupsi (1) The Drake Test of Musical Memory» (2) The Ore-

gon Teat of Musical Piscrlmlna tion., and (3) Attitude Soul®

Toward Any Sohool Subjeot.

Prior to the treatment of the experimental end the con-

trol groups, a voosbulfary orientation wes presented to both

groups# The orientation period was presented to the groups

for the purpose of illustrating th© use of the *drda "melo-

dy," "harmony," and "rhythm" in oonneotion with the musical

sounds# The musical examples were presented by ®e»ms of a

tape recording.

The following procedures were used in administering the

experimental treatment and the control treatment. Each

group heard two programs of thirty minutes in length per-

formed by the Laboratory School Orchestra. The experiments 1

group was exposed to the demonstration programming and the

control group to the non-demonstration programming* Dupli-

cate musical selections were presented to the groups.

Post-tests were given to measure the students* levels

of musloal perception. The musical examples on the musical

perception post-tests consisted of different music from

that music performed on the concerts. A pre-test and post-

teat were given to neasura the students* attitudes toward

the orchestra as a school subject.

CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY

I* Buros , Oscar" ICrlsen, editor. F o u r t h Meat#I Measurementa Yearbook, Highland Pstrk, New Jersey, ffryphon Press,

2, Bur o s , Osesr ICrleen, edl to r . F i f t h Mental Measurements • Yearbook. Highland Park, New J e r s e y * Gryphon P r e s s ,

3# Gordon, Edwin, nA Study t o Determine the E f f e c t s of Training and Practice on Drake Musical Aptitude Teat Scorea, unpublished doctoral dlseertation. Deportment of Education, State Unlreraity of Iowa, Iowa C i t y , low®, 1958•

4. Leeder, Joseph A. and William S , Haynle, Music Education In t h e High School, Englewood Cliffs, New J e r s e y , Prentice-Hall, I n c . , 1968.

6 . Zahrt, Merton, "Music for Today* s Schools, " Music feduca-tlon In Action, edited by Archie Jones, Boston,' Allyn and Bacon, Inc«, 1960*

63

CHAPTER IV

HBS'UMS

The r e s u l t ® of feh© p r e s e n t s tudy a r t r e p o r t e d i n the

f o l l o w i n g a « c t l o n s t (1) f i n d i n g s , and (2) d l s o u s s I o n .

F i n d i n g s

The f i n d i n g s of the p r e s e n t s tudy &m p r e s e n t e d i n the

a r e a s of mus i ca l p e r c e p t i o n and a t t i t u d e . The Jb t e s t f o r

independent samples waa used t o de te rmine the s i g n i f i c a n c e

of t h e s e s n d i f f e r e n c e c between the c o n t r o l group end the

e x p e r i m e n t a l group i n h y p o t h e s e s one, two, and f i v e . The Jb

t e s t f o r non- independen t samples was used, t o de te rmine the

s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e mean d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e c o n t r o l

group and the e x p e r i m e n t a l group i n hypo these s t h r e e and

f o u r . For a l l s t a t i s t i c a l t e s t s , the . 0 5 l e v e l of s i g n i f i -

cance was adopted as the l e v e l of c o n f i d e n c e . An a n a l y s i s

of the da t e r e l e v a n t t o the p r e s e n t s tudy y i e l d e d the f o l -

lowing r e s u i t s .

Hypothes i s On®

Hypothes i s one was s t a t e d s s f o l l o w s : The musical

memory s c o r e s of the s t u d e n t s exposed t o d e m o n s t r a t i o n p ro -

gramming w i l l be s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r , in a p o s i t i v e

64

68

d i r e c t i o n , than the musical memory score a of the s tuden t s

exposed to the non-demons t r a t i on programming.

The p o s t - t e a t scores of the c o n t r o l group and the ex*

per lmental group, a® measured by the Drake Test of Musical

a re presented In Table I .

The mean nua i ca l memory score f o r the c o n t r o l group was

25*59* The mean musical memory score f o r the experimental

group was 27• 16• The d i f f e r e n c e between the means f o r the

con t ro l group and the experimental group was 1 .57 . This

d i f f e r e n c e y i e lded a t value of 1 .50 . Since t h i s d i f f e r e n c e

TABLE I

RESULTS OF THE MUSICAL MEMORY TEST FOR THE CONTROL GROUP AND THE

EXPERIMENTAL GROUP

Item Control Group

Experimental Group

Number in the Group 91 100 Rang© of Scores 9»4§ 10-47 Median Score 24.81 27.60 Mean Score 26.59 27.16 Standard Deviation 8.18 8.56

Di f fe rence i n Means fc Value

1.57 1.50

between the means of the groups f a i l e d to reach the .05 lev-

e l of s i g n i f i c a n c e , hypothesis one was re fu ted#

66

Hypothesis Two

Hypothe si s two was stated as followsi fib® musical dis-

crimination mores of the students exposed to demonstration

programming will be significantly greater, in a positive di-

rection* than the musical discrimination scores of the stu-

dents exposed to the non-demonstre tion programming.

The post-test scores of the control group and the ex-

perimm tal group, as measured by the Oregon Test for Musical

Dlscrlmination, ere presented in Table II,

The mean musical discrimination score for the control

group was 26.64. The mean musical discrimination score for

the experimental group wts 29.16, The difference between

the mean® for th© control group and the experimental group

was 2.52, This difference between the means yielded a t

TABLE XI

RESULTS OF THE MUSICAL DISCRIMINATION TEST FOH THE. CONTROL GROUP AND THE

IXFEKIiaSKTAL GKOUP

Item Control Group

Ixperijae&tal Group

Humber in the Group Range of Scores Median Soore Mean Score Standard Deviation

91 7-46 26,00 186.84 3.27

100 12—48 23,54 29.16 7.94

Difference in Means t ?alu®

«**•#

2.62 2.14

6?

value of 2.14 f o r a l e v e l of s i g n i f i c a n c e g r e a t e r then *05.

The r e sea r ch hypo the al a was accepted .

Hypothesis Three

Hypothesis th ree was a t e t ed as fo l lows t The p o s t - t e s t

a t t i t u d e 3cores of the s tudents exposed, to th© deraonstrat lon

programming w i l l be s i g n l f i o e n t l y g r e a t e r , In © p o s i t i v e d i -

r e c t i o n , than the p r e - t e s t e t t l t u d o scores of the s t uden t s

exposed to the demonstrat ion programming.

The p r e - t e a t end p o s t - t e s t acoree of the exper imental

group, s a measured by th© A t t i t u d e Seal® Toward Any School

Sub jec t , a r e presented in fable- I I I#

The seen p r o - t e s t a t t i t u d e score f o r the exper imental

group wos 65 .56 , The mean p o s t - t e a t a t t i t u d e score f o r the

exper imental group wss 07 .67 . The d i f f e r e n c e between the

TABLE I I I

RESULTS OF THti PRE-TEST AND POST-TEST ATTITUDE fin CORES OF THE EXPKRIfcBKTAL GROUP

Item Pre* t e s t Scores

P o s t - t e s t Soores

Number in the Qroup 105 105 Range of Soores 22-85 24-87 Median Score 68.05 66.50 Kesri Score 65.56 67.67 Standard Deviat ion 15.67 13.19

Dif fe rence in Means t Value

2 .11 . a s

68

means f o r the pre-test score and the post-test score was

2 . 1 1 . T h i s d i f f e r e n c e yielded a Jfc value of .85. Since this

difference between tha means failed to reach tha #05 level

of significance, tha research hypo tha al a was rejected.

Pour

Hypotheala f o u r waa s t a t e d a s follows* Tha post*teat

attitude scores of the students exposed to the non-demon-

atratlon programming will be significantly greater. In a

positive direction, than the pre-teet attitude soores of tha

s t u d e n t a exposed t o the non-demonatra ti on programming*

The p r e - t e s t and post-test s c o r e s of the control group,

as neaaured by tha Attitude Sca l e Toward Am Sahool Subject,

a r e p r e s e n t e d In Tab le IV•

The mean pre-test attitude aoore for the control group

was 66.49. The mean post-test attitude score for the ccntrcO.

TABLE IV

RESULTS OF THE PRE-TEST AND POBT-TKST ATTITUBE SCORES OP THE COHTROL GROUP

I t e n P r e - t e a t Scores

Poft*tast Soores

Number in tha Qroup 98 98 Range of Scorea 22-87 43-8? Median Score 68.10 75.75 Mean Score 6 6 . 4 9 73.12 Standard Deviation 15.42 9.26

D i f f e r e n c e in Means t Value

6.63 2.01

69

group was 73.12, The d i f f e r ence between the mesas f o r the

p r e - t e s t score end the poa t - t e s t score was 6*63* This d i f -

ference yielded B t value of 2#01 f o r a l eve l of s i g n i f i -

cance grea ter then .06 . Therefor©, tlx© resesroh hypothesis

wss accepted.

Hypothesis Five

Hypotheaia f ive was s ta ted as fol lows! A s imi lar change

in a t t i t u d e w i l l ocour fo r the students exposed to demon-

s t r a t i o n programming end the students exposed to non-demon-

s t r a t i o n programming so tha t there w i l l be no a igp i f ioan t

d i f f e r ence in the change of a t t i t u d e soores between groups

as measured by the mean d i f f e r ences of the p r e - t e s t and

pos t - t e s t*

The mean gain a t t i t u d e soores of the control group and

the experimental group, as measured by the At t i tude Scale

Toward Any School Subjec t , are presented in Table V,

» b m v

ATTITUDE mm GAINS OP THE CONTROL GROUP AND THE EXPERIMENTAL GROUP

Item Control Experianaa t a l Group Group

Number in the Group 98 105 Mean Gain Scores €.56 2,10 Standard Beviation 12.38 11.05 Difference in Means 4.46 t> Value 2,70

YD

The tmm gain a t t i t u d e score fop the contro l group was

8*5G« The mmn gala a t t i t u d e so ore for the experiments!

group wis 2 . 1 0 . The d i f f e r e n c e between the mean gain scores

for the contro l group and the experiment®! group w«s 4 . 4 6 .

This d i f f erenoe between the aesn gain# y i e l d e d • t value of

2 . 7 0 . Therefor®* the research hypothesis wee r e j e c t e d .

Research hypotheses two and four were accepted while

reseeroh hypotheses one, three , and f i v e were r e j e c t e d .

Dissuasion

The present study was oonduoted f o r the purpose of ob-

ta in ing Information concerning the comparative e f f e c t i v e n e s s

of demonstration programming and non-demonstration program-

ming upon the development of the orchestra in a secondary

school#

The f ind ings of t h i s study provided p a r t i a l support f o r

the general hypothese% in that (1) the s tudents exposed t o

demonstration programming had s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher scores on

musical d i scr iminat ion t e a t s than did the students exposed

to the non-demonstration programming? and (2) the contro l

group had a s i g n i f i c a n t increase from p r e - t e s t to p o s t - t e s t

in the favorsbleneas of the ir a t t i t u d e s toward orchestra as

a school subjec t .

The remainder of t h i s chapter w i l l be devoted to a d i s -

cuss ion of the f ind ings of the present study as they r e l a t e

to musics 1 perception and a t t i t u d e .

71

Muileal Perce ptlon

The f i nd ings of the p resen t afcudy Indieste t ha t I t i s

poss ib le , through demonstration programming, t o s i g n i f i c a n t -

ly e f f e c t on® of two of til# factors involved In the develop-

ment of the muaies i perception of an audience composed of

secondary school students. The comparative r e s u l t s of the

musical d i sc r imina t ion t e s t s y ie lded a Jb value of 2*14 for a

l eve l of s igni f icance In excess of the *08 probabil i ty of

chance occurrence. This s i g n i f i c a n t d i f ference between the

mean scores of the groups was In f avor of the experimental

group. These r e s u l t s provide support for the pos i t ion that

desaonstration programming can he e f f e c t i v e l y used with large

groups in the development of musical perception as i t i s r e -

l a t e d to d i s c r im ina t i on .

This r e s u l t , however, did not emerge c l ear ly for the

musicsl memory portion of the question concerning the devel -

opment of musicsl perception. The r e s u l t s of the musical

memory test® did not show a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f -

ference between the mean scorea of the groups. However, i t

should be pointed out that the mean di f ference between the

groups did y i e l d a t value of 1.50 in the d i r e c t i o n of the

experiment®! group.

Several re lated fact or a a s y account for these d i f f e r e n -

t i a l r e s u l t s . F i r s t , i t i s poss ib le that the development of

musical Memory, as used In the present s tudy, ©al ls for more

12

highly develop® i skills in recogni t ion , d iscr iminat ion, and

re tent ion than does the development of auaica l d iaor ia ina-

t i o n . Therefore, muoioul riwmory iaay develop at a slower

rat© tlian does musical d iscr iminat ion. The movement in the

d irec t ion of s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e would seam t o indicate

that i t i s poss ib le that addi t ional t ra in ing , In the form of

an inc reased number of c o n c e r t s in ifaioh mus ica l i l l u s t r a -

t i o n s are presented, way be necessary i n the development of

musical memory, Thl® would suggest the p o s s i b i l i t y of ®

need f o r r e p l i c a t i o n s of the present study l a which an a d d i -

t i o n a l number of c o n c e r t s are presented.

Second, I t I s pos s ib l e that musical memory, a a r e la ted

to the present study, may only appear t o develop a t a s lower

rate than does musical discrimination* The b a s i c d i f f e r -

ences between the t e s t s used in the present study may ac-

count for the apparent d i f f e r e n c e in the rate of the

development of musical memory and d i s c r i m i n a t i o n .

The Drake Musical Memory f e a t c a l l e d for the recogni-

t ion of var ia t ions of notes , key, and time in two-bar mu-

s i c a l examples. The t e s t i s designed to progress from

examples in which the o r i g i n a l melody I s fol lowed by two

musical passages , a s shown i n b lanks one and two of the an-

swer sheet on page 105, to the f i n a l series* which contains

an o r i g i n a l example fol lowed by seven musical passages . The

f a c t t h a t ©sab. of the or ig ina l melodies and the examples @r®

73

two measureft i s l eng th provides a d d i t i o n a l d i f f i c u l t y In a l -

lowing the l i s t e n e r to have time t o group the note® of each

example i n t o a c l e a r l y re cognisable them®, a® would frequent-

ly be the case in l i s t e n i n g t o a c t u a l musical themes wi th in

compositions*

By c o n t r a s t , the musical example s presented in the Ore*

gop, f e a t of Musical Pi3ariralna11 on are approximately e igh t

measurea i n l eng th , thus a l lowing, in most c a s e s , f o r the

p r e sen t a t i on of a complete musical theme* There fo re , in the

d i s c r im ina t i on t e s t , the l i s t e n e r has more t ime, dur ing each

example, i n which to perceive a 3?e©ogni sab le grouping of

notes* This f i n d i n g would suggest the need fo r f u r t h e r r e -

search concerning the e f f e c t of the l eng th of a u s i c a l pas-

sages upon r ecogn i t i on , d i s c r imina t i on , and r e t en t i on*

Probably the most s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t of the musical

percept ion por t ion of the present study was the f i n d i n g t h a t

demonstrat ion programming was more e f f e c t i v e than non-demon*

s t r a t i o n programming in the development of musical d i s c r i m i -

nation* I t would appear t h a t t h i s f i n d i n g e n t a i l s two major

imp l i ca t ions concerning the method of programming and musical

perception* F i r s t , t h i s f i n d i n g would i nd i ca t e t h a t i n -

s t r u c t i v e l i s t e n i n g l a more b e n e f i c i a l than f r e e l i s t e n i n g

in the development of musical d i sc r imina t ion* However, i t

i s poss ib le t h a t t h i s f i n d i n g may be l i m i t e d , i n p o r t , t o

the background of the l i s t e n e r * For example, i t l a poss ib le

74

tha t l n a t r u c t l v e l i s t e n i n g m j be p re f e r ab l e so long SJS the

ma te r i e l 1® r e l a t i v e l y new to the l i s t e n e r . Past t h i s

point, the l i s t e n e r might f ind the f r e e l i s t e n i n g to be of

more consequence In the continued development of musical

perception* Further researoh should be conducted, wi th r e -

gard to the development of musical percept ion , f o r the pur-

pose of comparing the musical knowledge of the l i s t e n e r with

the type of l i s t e n i n g experience*

Second, since the a c t of musicsl d i sc r imina t ion ca l l ed

fo r a preference Ind ica t ion , on the p a r t of the s tuden t , In

the use of bas ic musical elements *& th in musical examples, i t

would eppeer t h a t the s tudents i n the experimental group of

the present study had begun not only to recognise the v a r l a -

t l ons of the elements but a l s o to r e l a t e the use of the e l e -

ments In proport ion to each o ther a s they were presented as

« musical group. The impl ica t ion of t h i s f i n d i n g Ind i ca t e s

the need f o r f u r t h e r research i n which the c o r r e l a t i o n of

musical percept ion and a t t i t u d e s toward c l a s s i f i e s t l o n ® of

music l a studied* Since music educator® (1 , 4 , 5* 6) be-

l i eve tha t musical perception i s a major f a c t o r a f f e c t i n g a

a tudent 1 s a t t i t u d e toward a musical ae l ec t ion , I t would ap-

pear tha t a c o r r e l a t i o n would e x i s t between a high l e v e l of

mualcal percept ion and preferences f o r more complex musical

oomposltions« If f u r t h e r research Ind ica te s such a c o r r e l a -

t i o n , demonstration programming ahould provide one method

75

whereby the orchestra d i r e c t o r might coaununlcate w i th the

s tudent body# I t would to© in teres t ing to see f i n d i n g s con-

cerning the a t t i t u d e s of members of a s tudent body toward •

more complex music before end a f t e r demonstrat ion program-

ming. Therefore, i t i s suggested t h a t , in future research, ,

demonstration programming might provide the bas is for a

method of t e s t ing some o£ the theories concerning not only

the development of musical pe rcep t ion , but a l s o the devel-

opment of favorable a t t i t u d e s toward nor« complex musical

compositions*

A t t i t u d e s

Hypotheses three, f o u r , m d f i v e concerned the e f f e c t

Of two types of programming upon the a t t i tudes of two groups

of secondary school students toward orchestra as a school

s u b j e c t .

I t was hypothesised that the a t t i tudes of both groups

toward orches t ra as e school sub jec t would show a s i g n i f i -

cant cheng® in a favorable d irect ion from the pre- tes t to

the pos t - t ea t . I t *as further hypothesised that there would

be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f ference in the amount of a t t i tude

change between groups.

The hypotheses concerning a l i k e amount of a t t i tude

change for both groups were thus s t a t e d because of the con-

t r o l l e d type of programming used in both the deiaonstratioa

concerts and the non-dsmonstratlon concerts . The programming

76

standards used In the present study, for both groups, were

bated upon recommendation* made by Merton Zahrt ( 7 ) , Leeder

and Haynle (3 ) , and Msurice Gerow ( 2 ) , Each of these music

educators stated t h a t programming should have a s i g n i f i c a n t

e f f e c t upon an audience^ at t i tude toward the performing or-

ganisation and that a change in audience at t i tude should be

made possible by adhere ace to general principles of program-

ming.

The r e s u l t s of the present study yielded a s i g n i f i c a n t

d i f ference in at t i tude from the pre*test to the p o s t - t e s t

for the control group (beyond the .05 l e v e l of confidence) ,

but f a i l e d to show a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f ference in the amount of

at t i tude change from the pre- tes t to the p o s t - t e s t for the

experimental group. The maa gpin score f?om pre*teat to

poet - tes t showed a a t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t gain between

groups at the .05 l e v e l in favor of the control group.

These f indings would indicate that , since non-demon-

strat ion programming was more e f f e c t i v e than demonstration

programming in inf luencing the group at t i tude of a student

audience, the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of the type of programming used

la dependent, in part, upon the method of presentation.

The s l i g h t mean change in the a t t i tude scores of the

experimental group from pre- tes t to post*test would Indicate

that one, or a combination, of the fol lowing factors I s a f -

f e c t i n g the a t t i tudes of the members of the student body

77

audience toward orohestra as a school subjects CD the

method of programming, or (2) the type of programming.

She method of programming, demonstration versus non-

demon s t r u t ! on, mj have affected attitudes as a result of .

the following reasons. F i r s t , demonstration programming i s

placing the student in a position of tension througjh. the

presence of a challenge in the form of oorreot and incorrect

participation. The situation msj have provided a perceived

successful or unsuccessful experience for the student. It

is possible that the non-reinforcecl students would experl-

©no® little, if any, a t t i t ude change in a fa voreble direc-

tion.

Second, demonstration programming requires the student

t o exert energy in listening to musical compositions. The

student may find it nor© difficult to accept this method of

prograiming due to a conditioned expectanoy concerning mu-

sical presentat ions. It is possible that the student ex-

pects to attend the concert as a spectator# He may wish to

be left, during the presentation, to hia own thoughts, which

a»y or may not Include the musical selections. The illus-

trations presented in the deiiionstratlon programming direct

t h e attention of the listener to specific elements of the

musical compositions. Therefore, it Is possible that the

listener does not experience the freedom found in other

methods of programming.

78

The type of programming, cons i s t i ng of the s e l e c t i o n

and grouping of musical compositions, may have e f f e c t e d the

a t t i t u d e s of the experimental group a s a r e s u l t of the f o l -

lowing reasons! The programing s tandards used in the p r e s -

ent study were based upon Z a h r t ' s (7) theory t h a t educational

programming should begin with programs which are composed

pr imar i ly of music t h a t i s l i k e l y to be accepted by the au-

dience* The concert s e r i e s should then progress , in a gradu-

a l wanner, to programming which c o n s i s t s of a sample of

compositions which are more complex In musical forsu While

t h i s type of programming was apparent ly e f f e c t i v e with the

cont ro l group, i t was not e f f e c t i v e in producing a s t a t i s -

t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t change in the a t t i t u d e s of the expe r i -

mental group*

I t i s poss ible tha t a combination of the type of music

programmed and the number of concer t s in the s e r i e s may ac -

count, in p a r t , f o r the a t t i t u d e s of the experiments 1 group*

Demonstration programming i s designed f o r the purpose of

helping the l i s t e n e r in h i s understanding of the use of seme

of the s p e c i f i c musical elements wl th in a musical composi-

t i o n . This ac t ive approach to l i s t e n i n g i s bel ieved to be

of s ign i f i cance in the development of an understanding of

more complex forms of music* However, the music used in the

two ooncer ts of the present study was, f o r the most pa r t ,

cha rac t e r i s ed by s impl ic i ty of melodic l i n e and form* There

70

wore two reasons f o r the use of t h i s type of w a l e . F i r s t ,

the progrsomlng standards (2, 3 , 7 ) , upon th loh the present

study was baaed, indiested that the programming should begin

with simple musical forms. Second, the Illustration of the

musical elements n e c e s s i t a t e d the us® of wwsl® cha rac t e r i zed

by c l a r i t y of melodic line and musics1 form#

The students in the experimental group were hearing mu-

sic w h i c h they could have, for the most part, found to be

llstensble without access to a d d i t i o n a l information concern-

ing the use of the elements of melody, harmony, rhythm, and

form* The students may not have r e c o g n i s e d a need for the

type of listening to which they were being exposed* There-

fore, i t 1# poss ib le that a d d i t i o n s ! conce r t s are needed f o r

the purpose of p rogress ing to more complex musical compos!**

tions. F u r t h e r research should be conducted for the purpose

of comparing method® of programming with the type of music

programmed# It would be interesting to see a study c o n d u c t -

ed in which th© s e r i e s of concer t s I s expanded to four pe r -

formance®, and in which the first two concer t s a r e presented

in the ssme manner as those of the present study with addi-

tional concerts consisting of progressively more complex mu-

sic.

A point should be p r e s e n t e d concerning the possible

s e v e r i t y of the implies felon concerning th# r e s u l t s of the

attitude tests for b o t h groups. The sttltude scale used in

80

the present study 1® ao deaigned tha t the favorableneaa or

unfavorableneaa of a t t i t u d e s may be determined In addi t ion •

to the degree of change from p re - t ea t to pos t* t e s t . The

point of ind i f fe rence on the acale i a the aeore s i x t y .

Score a f a l l i n g below sixty are conaidered to be unfavorable

in a t t i tude* Scorea above s ixty ore favorable . The mean

p re - t ea t acorea of the groups were j (1) cont ro l group--

66*49; and (2) experimental group—65,56. Bach of the

groups diaplayed a favorable a t t i t u d e toward orchestra as a

school aubject a t the beginning of the preaent study# The

wean pos t - t en t scores of the group® weres (1) control

group—73,12; and (8) experimental group—67,67, The poet*

t e a t f o r each of the groups ahowed a gain in favorablenesa

of a t t i t u d e . The gain of the control group waa s t a t i s t i c a l -

ly s i g n i f i c a n t . The gain of the experimental group waa not

a t a t i a t i o a l l y a i g n i f l e a n t . Both groupa had a favorable a t -

t i tude toward orchestra ae a achool aubject on both the pre-

t ea t and the poa t - t e a t , These r e s u l t s are of s ign i f icance

in that the membera of the experimental group appeared to

accept the demonstration programming although there waa no

s i g n i f i c a n t change in t h e i r a t t i t u d e , aa a group, toward or-

chestra aa a achool aubjec t .

Summery

In Chapter IV the r e s u l t s of the preaent study are r e -

por ted. In the f i r a t sec t ion of the chapter , the s t a t i s t i c a l

81

f ind ings of the hypotheses are c i t e d . t?hes© finding® »r®

followed, l a sect ion two, by e discussion of the r e s u l t s of

the present study ®s they r e l a t e to the ®r#es of musical

perception, a t t i t u d e , and the f indings presented i n other

s tud ies . Recommendations for f u r t h e r research ere msd«# a t

the conclusion of esch major point in the discussion sec-

t ion .

CHAPTER BXBLIOGRaPHY

1* Finney, Theodore M*, Hearing Music, lew York, Harcourt , Brace end Company,

2, Oerow, Maurice, "A Study of the Relat ion Between the C r i t e r i a Used f o r Choral Concert Program Building a t the Colleg® Level and An Analysis of the Elements of Music S t ruc tu re Found In Chore 1 Music," unpublished doc to ra l d i s s e r t a t i o n , Department of Musis, Michigan S ta te Univers i ty , East Lansing, Michigan, 1901.

5, Leader, Joseph A. and William S. Haynie, Music Education i n the High School. Englewood C l i f f s , lew """Jersey, w??... rr&r -- jj- lwlTn HT,mi

""'FZZ'*? H Q

Fx*©n tie®-*!!# XX $ Ino * ^ X958* 4« Leonhard, Cbarle s , "Evaluation in Music Education,"

Basic Concepta in Music Eduoa t l o n . F i f t y - s e v e n t h Year-book, Part"!,"1"Chicago, National" Society f o r the Study of Bduoatlon, 1958.

5. Sfiachlls, Joseph, The Enjoyment of Muslo: An Introduo-« 2 S F G 6 £ * R O E * " ve a •5IHH,_S.W York, W7 i i . iiorton h

6 . Wheelwright, S t e r l i n g , "Aids f o r Muslo Apprec ia t ion ," Muslo .Education in Action, ed i t ed by Archie Jones , $osfon, Allyn and Bacon, Xnc•, I960.

7 . Zahr t , Merton, "Muslo f o r Today*a Schools ," Music Educa-t i on in Act ion . ed i t ed by Archie Jones , Bosion, Allyn and 'Bacon, I n c . , I960.

02

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AID RECOMMENDATIONS

The purpose of the present study ws>s to compare the ef-

fectiveness of demonstretIon end non-demonstration program-

ming upon (1) the musical perception of the members of the

student body audience as determined by their ability to re-

tain a melodic line and by their ability to discriminate be-

tween a aiisterwork and an adapts tion of a masterwork; and

(2) the attitudes of the members of the student body toward

orchestra as a school subject.

Th® following general hypo theses proved a basis for the

formulation of the study s (1) the students exposed to demon-

stration programming will have significantly higher scores

on musical perception teste than will the students exposed

to the non-demonstra tion programming! and (2) both groups,

the experimental and control, will show a significant in-

crease from pre-test to post-test in the favorableness of

their attitudes toward orchestra as a school subject.

The subjects for the present study were the member# of

the junior high school student body of the North Texas Labo-

ratory School at Denton, Texas* Two hundred thirty-two stu-

dents were assigned to the experimental and the control

group® according to their grade levels and section numbers.

83

84

A to ta l of s ix sections of s tudents were assigned to the ex-

perimental group and s ix sections of student® to the control

group.

The Implementing devices used In the study consisted of

the laboratory School Orohestra, a master of ceremonie s , and

soripta fo r each musical presentation.

Prior to the experimental treatment, & vocabulary or i -

entation was presented to both the experimental and the con-

tro l groups. The fifteen-minute orientation period was

presented to the group® fo r the purpose of i l l u s t r a t i n g the

ase of the words "melody/ "harmony," and "rhythm" In con-

nection with the musical sounds. The musical example s were

presented by means of a tape recording.

The following procedure w®s used In administering the

experimental treatment and the control treatment. Eaoh

group heard two program® of thirty minutes in l ength , over a

period of eight weeks, performed by the Laboratory School

Orchestra* Th® experimental group was exposed to the demon-

s t r a t i on programming and the control group was exposed to

the non-demonstration programming.

Demonstration programming consisted of I l lus trat ions ,

by lecture and performance, of the primary aspects of the

music. The following basic elements were i l l u s t r a t e d ! (1)

melodic, harmonict »nd rhythmic Intereats of the musical

compositions; (S) v a r i a t i ons in the melody through the

85

manipulation of note a, t ime, sad keyi and (3) methods of

fol lowing a melodie l i n e .

Hon-demonstra t lon programming cons i s ted of the pr©sen-

t a t Ion or siusica 1 s e l e c t i o n s in f onaa 1 concert s t y l e with

verbs1 program no te s of u b iographies1 type.

Duplicate musical s e l e c t i o n s wire pr#§©»ted t o both the

experimental group and the con t ro l group.

Tbe musical percept ion of the groups was measured by

means of the Drake Teat of Musical Memory and the Oregon

Test f o r Musical Discrimination administered In the form of

a p o s t - t e a t .

The a t t i t u d e s of the members of the s tudent body audi -

ence were measured by means of the At t i tude Scsle Toward Any

school Subject administered in the form of a j r e - t e s t and s

p o s t - t e s t .

Ttm t t e s t f o r independent samples was used to determine

the s i gn i f i e snoe of the scan d i f f e r e n c e s between the con t ro l

group and the experimental group in hypotheses one, two, and

f ive* The t t e s t f o r non-independent sample© was used to

determine the s ign i f i cance of the mean d i f f e r e n c e s between

the con t ro l group and the experimental group in hypotheses

th ree and f o u r . For a l l s t a t i s t i c s 1 t e s t s , the .05 l e v e l of

s i gn i f i c ance was adopted as the c o e f f i c i e n t of r i s k . An

a n a l y s i s of the data r e levan t t o the present study y ie lded

the fol lowing r e s u l t s s

80

1# The mean musical memory score of the ©coup of s t u -

dents expo®ed to demonstrat ion programming was g r e a t e r it

vein® of 1.30}# ba t not s i g n i f i c a n t l y greater, than the mean

musical memory score of the group of students exposed to the

non-demonstrs t i on programming.

2, The mean musical discrimination score of the group

of s tuden ts exposed t o demonstration p rog raming was s i g -

n i f i c a n t l y greater {% value of 2.14) than the mean musical

discrimination score of the group of students exposed to the

non-demonstre tion pr ogramming.

3. The mean of the p o s t - t e s t a t t i tude scores of the

group of s tuden t s exposed to the demonstration programming

was not s i g n i f i c a n t l y greater than the mean of the p r e - t e s t

at t i tude scores* The d i f ference between the p r e - t e s t and

pos t - t e s t means yie lded u Jb value of .85 in the d irect ion of

the p o s t - t e s t *

4* The mean of the p o s t - t e s t a t t i tude scores of the

group of students exposed to the non-demonstration program-

wing was s i g n i f i c a n t l y greater ( t value of 2.01) than the

mean of the p r e - t e s t a t t i tude s eo res .

8. The at t i tude mean gain score from pre- tes t to post-

t e s t of the group of students exposed to non-demonstration

programming was s i g n i f i c a n t l y greater ( t value of 2 .70) than

the at t i tude mean gsln score from p r e - t e s t t o p o s t - t e s t of

the group of students exposed to demonstrat ion programming.

87

On tli© b a s i s of the f i n d i n g s obtained In the p r e s e n t

s t u d y , the fo l lowing conclus ions a r e drawnI

1 . Demonstration programming may b® e f f e c t i v e l y used

i n the devslopment of the Musical d i scr iminat ion of a s tu -

dent body aud ience .

2# Demonatration programming may be more e f f e c t i v e l y

used then non-demonstration programing i n the development

of the musical perception of a student body audience#

5n Vihen baaed upon the programming standards used i n

the present study, non-de»onstration programming, as com-

pared w i t h demons t ra t ion programming, may be more e f f e c t i v e

in the improvement of the favorableneas of the group a t t i -

tudes of a s t u d e n t body audience toward the o r c h e s t r a a® a

school s u b j e c t .

4 . A t t i t u d e s toward o r c h e s t r a a s a school s u b j e c t a p -

pear to be a f f e c t e d by both the type of programming and the

method of programming used in musical presenta t ions .

To c l a r i f y some of the f i n d i n g s of the present study

and to e i t h e r r e f u t e or support the t e n t a t i v e conc lus ions ,

i t l a recommended that

! • The s e r i e s of concerts for both groups be extended

in number for the purpose of re-examining the l e v e l s of mu-

s i c a l perception and the group a t t i t u d e s toward orchestra a s

a school subject under condi t ions i n which students have an

opportunity to hear * greater number of concerts composed of

p r o g r e s s i v e l y more complex musical compositions*

38

2 . A study be des igned f o r the purpose of oompuring

doiaonstrst lon sad non-d.-nnonstration programming In the de -

velopment of a t t i t u d e a toward s e l e c t e d mus ica l composit ions*

I t I s recoramended that a c o r r e l a t i o n a l study bo conducted

a long wi th the experimental study and that both musica l per-

cept ion and a t t i t u d e s toward n u s l c e l composi t ions be eoa«*

pa rod w i t h f a c t o r s such ae ego , sex , mental a b i l i t y , i m s l c a l

t r a i n i n g , and s o c i o - e c o n o n i c background*

3 . The present study concerning the e f f e c t of program-

ming upon the s tudents 1 a t t i t u d e s toward orchestra a a s

schoo l s u b j e c t be r e p l i c a t e d i n o ther secondary s c h o o l s

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of s v a r i e t y of environmental backgrounds i n

d i f f e r e n t s e c t i o n s of the United S t a t e s .

4 . The type of programming used In the present study be

compered wi th d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of programming c u r r e n t l y be ing

used by o r c h e s t r a s in secondary s c h o o l s f o r the purpose of

comparing the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of types of programming upon the

a t t i t u d e s of s tudent body audiences toward orches tra as a

schoo l s u b j e c t .

S» A study be des igned f o r the purpose of comparing

the r e l a t i o n s h i p between methods of programming and types o f

music programmed i n r e l a t i o n to an a u d i e n c e ' s l e v e l o f mu-

s i c a l percept ion , a t t i t u d o toward c l a s s i f i e s t i o n s o f music*

and a t t i t u d e toward orchestra a s & schoo l s u b j e c t .

6 . The use of d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of o r c h e s t r a l program-

ming be compered w i t h the a c t i o n component of s t u d e n t ' s

89

a t t i t u d e concerning orchestra 03 e school subjec t s s I n d i -

es ted by CD »n increased enrol lment In o r c h e s t r a l c l a s s e s

i n the secondary s c h o o l , (2 ) an Increased otudent e t tendence

of non-required oroher.tra c o n c e r t s , end <5) an Increased

purohas® of reoorda of o r c h e s t r a l music*

APPENDIX A

PRINTED PROGRAMS FOR. BSMOHSTRATION CONCERTS

Concert I

The Syncope ted Clook Leroy Anderson

Concerto Grosso • • • • . . Margaret Farish

Soloists; Katie Ouatafson, violin Martha Coatee, viola Alex Pancherl, cello James lust, bans

Snow White Fantasy • • • • • • • * . • • • • Frank Churchill

Selectionsa Whlatle While You Work Someday % Prince Will Come Heigh Ho

Concert II

Variations on a French Folk Tune . . . . . . . J. Holesovsky

1£*»-»1EE!!£ • M—SOTBS — _ T—TIME

Song of Jupiter • • • • • • • • • • » . . » Hande1-Anderson

S~«SAIB K--KEY 1—10TSS — — T--TXMS

My Fair Lady (Highlights) . . Loewe-Hurfurth

Selections) Get I@ To The Church On The Street Where You Live I*vo Grown Accustomed To Your Face I Could Have Danced All Hlght

90

APEBHDIX B

SCRIMS FOR NGN-EBM0H5TRATI0N PROGRAMMING

Concert I

Kmoeei

We ere happy to pre seat the first of a series of two concerts featuring the Laboratory School Orchestra, under the direction of Mis® Joan Boney. The Orchestra la accompanied by wind players from the school of mu-sic. I'm your announcer, Alex Psnoherl.

The opening selection of today's concert spoflights a very unusual clock. Instead of sounding tlok-tock, tick-took, tick-took, this crasy mlxed-up clock sounds tick-took, tick-took, (pause) tick (pause) took-tick#

This is the Syncopated Clock* by Leroy Anderson*

Qrohestra i

Syncopated Clock . . . . . . Leroy Anderson

Imcee:

Our next selection, a eonoerto grosso by Margaret Parish, goes back in history to make use of a type of music that we a popular during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

During this tiros—the period of Bach and Handel—con-certs were presented only to members of royal families and their ©jests. Each royal palace had among its em-ployees a number of household servant® who were aaa-ture musicians and were able to sit in with a handful of professional musicians for the purpose of present-ing music for the royal family. Special muslo was written for these concerts so that the easier parts night be performed by the servants and the ®ore diffi-cult parts by the hired musicians. This muslo wss called a concerto gyosso.

•1

92

Jo in ing »® a s s o l o i s t s f o r t h i s p e r f o r m ® m M. 11 to® s tudent t eachers Rat io Gustafsoa, Martha Coatea, and Jamas Bust*

The Concerto Oroaeo l a perforated In three movement®* fher® w i l l be a b r i e f pause be tween M e e n t s *

Orcbaatra i

Concerto Groaao . * * * Margaret Pa r i ah

i&aoeet

For tha f i n a l s e l ec t i on of today*a conce r t , the or* ohest ra w i l l perform a medley of a© age from Walt Dls-nay*a Snow Whita and tha Seven Dwarfa.

In t h i s s e l e c t i o n you w i l l he®r» Whist le While You 7<ork. Some day My Prince ' M i l Corae, and Heigh "lib.

Orchestra a

Snow White Fantasy Frank Church i l l

Kmoeei

We hop® t h a t you have enjoyed today*@ program# We w i l l be looking forward to performing f o r you again dur ing t h i s senaster#

You may now r e t u r n to your f i r a t period clean® ss.

Concert I I

Orches t ra l (Flays while s tuden t s e n t e r audi tor ium)

Syncopated Clock Leroy Anderson

Emms

tfpon en t e r i ng the auditorlum* you heard the o rches t ra p laying a number performed on the assembly program Anderson? l ° O c t o b e r " " * — Clock, by Leroy

The opening s e l e c t i o n of today*a concer t l a a composi-t ion w r i t t e n by one of the major composers of the l a t -t e r seventeenth century and the e a r l y e igh teen th cen tury , George Freder ic Handel.

n

Handel was born In Oermeny in the yeer 1085# 1© l a t e r moved to England and remained there u n t i l h i s death in 1759.

The key to Handel'8 gen ius He® i n h i s ope ras »nd o r a -t o r i o s . Handel's output of vooal compositions has e s t a b l i s h e d h i s g r e a t n e s s far more than the few organ aoiicerfcl, somafcas, and h a r p s i c h o r d p i e c e s b© composed.

The fo l lowing composition, t h e Song of Jupi ter , l a a t ranscr ip t ion of on© of H a n d e l ' s more b e a u t i f u l a r ia® e n t i t l e d . Where 'e r You Walk* This aria i s from the orator io Seme'le. which wbb w r i t t e n in London i n 1743*

In The Song of Jupi ter , we f ind a f lowing melody of simple grandeur theTTa c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of Handel'a musio.

And now, The Song of Jupi ter , by George Frederic Handel.

Orches t ra t

The Song of J u p i t e r • « • • • • • • • Ha nde1-Anderson

Emceet

Composers have long been fasc ina ted by the art of making several v a r i a t i o n s on a s ing le musical theme.

As a musical apoof, the composer. Hole aovsky, took a simple c h i l d r e n ' s tun© and developed i t I n t o s e v e r a l not-so-s imple musical var iat ion*

The tune used i s known to us as Twinkle, Twinkle, L i t -t l e Star* The none of the campoaiiiion 1 s ' ^ a r i a t i o n s on a French Folk Tune.

O r c h e s t r a ;

Var ia t ion® on e French Folk Tune . • . J . Holesovsky

Emcee a

During the » id -19S0*s , a musical p l ay opened on Broad-way t h a t was des t ined t o b reak #11 r e c o r d s f o r world-wide performs nee s«

This musics 1 play has been s u c c e s s f u l l y t rans la ted in -to several languages. The remarkable f a c t about the

94

t r a n s l a t i o n s l a t h a t the play i s a l l about an© l a n -guage, the Engl i sh language*

The concluding s e l e c t i o n of today1® program w i l l to® a medley of numbers from t h i s papular Broadway musical*

And now, s e l e c t i o n s from Lerner and Loewe's. My F a i r Lady.

Orches t ra l

My P a i r Lady (Highl igh ts ) . . . . . . . Loe we-»Hu r f u r t h

Emoe®2

v o hope tha t you h&ve enjoyed t h i s seoond concer t of the f a l l seaes ter*

You a re now dismissed fco r e t u r n to your second per iod elsasea#

AFPE1DIX 0

SCRIPTS FOE iSMONSTRATI 054 PROQRAMJ6X SO

Concert 1

Emcee:

We a r e happy t o p r e s e n t the f i r s t of a s e r i e s of two conoerta f e a t u r i n g the laboratory School Orchestra, under the d i r e c t i o n of Ki s s Joon Boney. The orches tra i f accompanied by wind p l a y e r s from the aehool o f mu-a l o . Um your announcer, A lex Pa richer!.

For the opening s e l e c t i o n of today* a program the o r -ches tra w i l l perform a n o v e l t y number w r i t t e n by the popular composer, Leroy Anderson# This i s The Synco-pated Clock»

Ore he afcra a

Syncopated Clook . . . . . . . . . . . Leroy Anderaon

Emcee t

I f we were to t#sk you what you u s u a l l y hear when you l i s t e n to m u s i c , chancea are that many of you would say the t the main th ing you hear i n music l a the melo-dy or the tune* For example, during our opening s e -l e c t i o n , i f you heard melody more than harmony or rhythm, you heard something l i k e t h i s .

Orchestral (Melody only- -measures 3 to 9)

Syncope ted Clock . . . . . . . . . . . Leroy Anderson

Bmeeei

I f we add o ther tones to t h i s melody, we have heraony. Some of yoa may think you heard most ly harmony* I f s o , you heard something l i k e t h i s *

Orchestral (Measurts 3 to 9)

Syncopated Clock • • • • • • • • • • • Leroy Anderson

d&

96

Kmceei

I imagine several of you heerd most rhythm. Although rhyttaa l a present at a l l t imes, wo can vary the amount of rhythmic i n t e r e s t by emphasising or de-empha s U i n g the amount of motion in a composition# Some passages In music bre more rliythralcel then others because the motion l a emphasised# For example, l i s t e n to th® rhythmic movement In the fo l lowing two pea sages# F i r s t theme As

Orchestrat (Play® meesures 3 to 9)

Syncopated. Clock • • • • « « * • • • * Leroy Anderson

Emcees

How, theme B:

Orohestrei {Plays measures 19 to 23)

Syncopated Clook . . . . . . . . . . . Leroy Anderson

Bmoee*

By now I t should be obvious that whan we l i s t e n to mu-ss! e we r e a l l y hear a l l three musical elementg—melody, harmony, and rhythm—in combination with esch other# f i g h t i n g for our a t t e n t i o n .

"When you f ind that you are aware of the v a r i a t i o n of combinations of melody, harmony, end rhythm you w i l l have achieved the f i r s t s tep i n a m i n g to l i s t e n to music.

However, there i s s t i l l more of which to be aware in l i s t e n i n g to music. A musical composition provides I n t e r e s t not only in the combinetlons of melody, har-mony, and rhythm but a l s o In the musical sentence# w r i t t e n by the composer. When these muaical sen-tences , a l s o c a l l e d phrases or theme a, are combined we say that a composition has musical form*

For example i n Syncopated Clock, the composer used the fo l lowing formula in bui ld ing the composition. Be be-gan the piece with the introduction of the main musi-c a l sentence, c a l l e d theme A.

Orchestras CPlays measures 3 to 11)

Syncopated Clock . . • Leroy Anderson

>37

l a e t e :

A f t e r Vcimm A, the composer b i d t h e orchestra r e p e a t theme A w i t h a change i n Instrument*t ion. L i s t e n t o the d i f f e r e n t sound a s them© A I s r e p e a t e d .

Orchestra a {P lays neasures 11 t o 19)

Synoopated Clock • • Leroy Anderson

Emceei

So that the music can oontlnue t o be I n t e r e s t i n g , the composer adds e new theme, o a l l e d than}# B#

Orchestra: ( P l a y a measu res 19 t o 37}

Syncope ted Clock . . . . . Leroy Anderson

EmceeI

The composer ends the composi t ion by r e t u r n i n g to them© A, In i t s o r i g i n s ! form.

Oroheatrs: ( P l a y s measure© 27 to 36)

Sync ops ted Clock Leroy Anderson

Emcee;

You can l e a r n t o wr i te the a u s i c s l form of e s c h compo-s i t i o n t h a t you hear on today*@ program by c e l l i n g e sch of the musics1 t h e s e s by the l e t t e r ® a s s i g n e d t o the themes.

I f you hftd w r i t t e n t he form o f The Synoopsted Clock, you would hsve had the f o l l o w i n g mus ica l pat tern* (ho lds up cerd w i t h l e t t e r s A, A, B, A, G, 0, A, A)

Follow a l o n g w i th ns a a t h e orchestra r e p e a t s the Synoops ted Clock and I ' 1 1 show you how t h i s mus ica l :omuls worka• the orches tra p l s y s s thesis, I ' l l

p o i n t to i t w i t h t h i s baton. Ready? Here ' s Leroy Anderson* a Syncope ted Clock.

Oroheatrsi (P lays a l l of composi t ion)

Syncopated Clock . . . . . . . . . . . Leroy Anderson

98

Brno©®a

Although most compositions have two or mora themes, I t i s poss ible to wri te en e n t i r e work and to use only on© sa in theme. The coruposer of oar next s e l ec t ion mad© use of t h i s technique*

Her© I s the main them# tha t you w i l l beer repeated throughout the composition*

Orchestra a (Flays aeasures 1 to 6)

Concerto drosso » » * * • • • • • * • Margaret Pa r i sh

Emcee:

Oouni the ntuaber of d i f f e r e n t tixaes you hear t h i s then® as we play the Concerto Grotso by Mergeret Pa r i sh ,

Orchestra s ( F i r s t noveiaent)

(Joacerto C-rosso Merge r e t Pa r i sh

Kraeee:

t h a t s ingle theme was played s i x d i f f e r e n t t imes.

low, f o r s r e e l challenge in l i s t e n i n g to music, l e t * s see i f you osn wr i t e the nua ios l form of our f i n a l se lect ion*

Tsks out your penc i l s end your p r in ted program of today ' s concert* C pause)

I f you w i l l look on your progrem a t the f i n a l se lec -t i o n , you w i l l seo l i s t e d under the- main t i t l e of tfeow Sh i t e fj.ftta.ay the naracs of each of the s e l e c t i o n s which you w i l l "beer played* They a r e ; Whistle While I S i2Sl£* Soaeaey Mjr Prince Wil l Gone, and" l l e l ^ H o r '

t L T ? l B y J : h ® SSOS i M t e Fantasy. wri te the l e t t e r s t ha t show th© siusical formula or each of the three fcunes, be side the naao of the tunes on your p r in ted pro@»ms*

Use the l e t t e r s of th© a lphabet to i d e n t i f y th® d i f -? 5 ! n J u t b e a f a # h B c h o £ fch« «iree song© w i l l begin

Wxth theme A, so you may now writ© the l e t t e r "kn be-side the t i t l e Whist I s While You Work* and beside the

99

title Someday My Prince Will Cone, end bealde the fcitte BeISi t o .

Fill in the other letters a© the orcheatra playa the Snow White Pentam*

Fallowing a four mee sure introduction, you will hear theme A to the first tune, Whletle While You Work.

Qrche stra s

Snow White Fantasy . Frank Churohill

Emceei

Th© correct answer® to each of the co»po®ifelons ®r®i Whletle While Xou Work—For® A, A, B, A Someday Jfy Prince Will Come—Form A, B, A Heigh Ho—Form A, A, B, B, 0, A, A

flean® place your grade and your home room section at the top of your program and leave your program on one of the tablee in this auditorium*

We hope that you have enjoyed today1a program sod v« will look forward to performing for you again during thla semeater#

Pleas© recta in in the auditorium until the bell rlnga for second period ©lessee#

Concert II

Orcheatrai (Play* while etudenta enter auditorium)

Syncopated Clock • • * « • * • • • « • Leroy Anderson

Emcee:

Upon entering the auditorium, you heard the orcheatra playing a number performed on the assembly program presented in October~~Syneopsted Clock, toy Leroy An-deraon. 1

Ae waa demonstrated In the prevloua program, mualcal compositions are desl®aed, bj the composer, to provide Interest in a number of waya.

100

You w i l l r e c a l l tha t a passage which f ea tu res a steady rhythmic accompaniment may change without warning to a smooth passage emphasising the melody and tha harmony*

Or, the composer may w r y the arrangement of tha order of tha d i f f e r e n t theme a giving the composition d i f f e r -ent musics1 forma, such a a A, B, A and A, A 0 B, At,

Part of tha fan i n l i s t e n i n g to music comes through the recogni t ion of the techniques used by the composer to vary the o r ig ina l theme while r e t a in ing mualoal in* te res t* Other techniques used f o r t h l a purpose w i l l be shorn In today1® program*

fhe orchestra w i l l play two measures from Syncopated Clock and we w i l l show you how i t w i l l he posalhl© ' to change these two measures without changing the main theme*

Ift the following example a you w i l l hear the o r i g i n a l melody from Synoopated Clock played In a d i f f e r e n t key* then played with a change In time, then with a ohange in notes , and f i n a l l y played In the tame way as the o r ig ina l example* These words—• key, time, notes , and same—will be abbreviated by the l e t t e r s shown on these charts* (points to char t number one)

Maten cere f u l l y to the o r ig ina l melody and t ry to re* member i t *

Orcheatra s ( P l a y s measures* 3> to 6)

Synoopated Clock * * Leroy Anderson

Emcee i

The melody w i l l now be played In a d i f f e r e n t key*

Orcheatrai (Plays measures 5 to 6 In a new key)

Syncopated Clock Leroy Anderson

Smoee z

To show tha t t h i s example d i f f e r e d from the o r ig ina l melody by a change in KEY, a "K" l a placed In the • f i r s t aqua re on t h i s chart* ( t u rns to char t number two)

Heart, the melody la played wl th a ohange In time*

mi

QrohestraI (Plays steaaurea 3 to 6 with change In time)

Syncopated Clock • • • • * • • » • • * Laroy Anderson

Kmoeei

Sine© that example was played with a change in ti»e# a "T" I® plated la the neat square (ohart number two)*

low the melody is played with a change in the no tea*

Qrobeatrat (Play® measures 3 to 6 wi th change In notes)

Syncopated Clock • • • • • • • • • • • Leroy Anderaon

Emcees

An "N* ia placed in the third aqua re (ohart number two),

low the melody ia played in the sane manner'as it was first played*

Orchestrai {JPlays measures 3 to 6 in original form)

Syncopated Clock Leroy Anderaon

Btacee s

Because that last example wan the mm a® the first example, aa "a" ia placed in the last square on the chart (ohart number two).

through the use of the technique a which we have just demonstrated, a composer nay build a complete ooitpoai-tion around only one or two musieal themes.

Aa example of a composition using these technique a ia a novelty number built around the tune. Twinkle, Twinkle. Little Star* ;r

Let's see if you can write these ©heagon of notes, time, and key on your printed program in the squares underneath the title, Variations on a French Folk

which ia known to us as fwiBSl®.""fjfngleTXlttle

fake out your pencils and your programa (pause).

You will hear the melody played by the orchestra# Lis* ten carefully to the melody and try to remember it#

im

Then l i s t e n m r e f u l l y t o th© melodies t h a t fo l low* and compare each of them w i t h the f i r s t melody*

I f I t I s e x s c t l y the SMSS a s the f i r s t melody* p a t "SM

i n the answer box#

I f I t i s the same melody played In a d i f f e r e n t KEY* put nJS? i n the answer box*

I f tha fXISB h s s been changed, put w1f i n the snswer box.

I f any of the NOTES have been changed, put "H* i n the answer box*

Wri te your answers—S, K, T* o r N—during the s h o r t psuse a f t e r each melody*

Ready? L i s t s n t o the f i r e t melody, and then compere s s o h of the f o l l o w i n g melodies w i th the f i r s t taelody.

Orohes t r a t (Measures 4 to 8)

V a r i a t i o n s on s Prench Polk Tuns , * * * J* Holesovsky

8TO##I

Her© ar® the answers i ( t u r n s to c h a r t number thr®®)

The o r i g i n a l melody was* ( o r o h e s t r a p l s y s melody)

Then the v a r i e d examples werei ( o r c h e s t r a p l s y s each exsmple* d u r i n g pause emoos p o i n t s t o c o r r e c t l e t t e r on c h a r t numbsr t h r ee}

Ls t* s »m i f you osa w r i t e these changes of no tes* t ime, and key f o r s e l e c t i o n number two. The Song of J u p i t e r * by 0* P. Handel* """

L i s t e n to the f i r s t melody* and then compare esch of th© nex t f o u r melodies wi t h the f i r s t melody*

Orches t ra i (Messures 4 to 8)

Song of J u p i t e r Ha nde 1»A nde r son

gwoeei

Here a re the answers t o The Song of J u p i t e r * ( t u r n t o c h a r t number f o u r )

103

$b© original melody wa®t (or© hestr© plays melody)

The a the varied example© were* (orchestra play a each example, during pass® ®ejo©@ points to correct.letter on chart number four)

Tin® concluding selection on today1 a concert features highlights from the Broadway mualoal play, Mj; Fair Lady. In this selection, aa waa done In our laaF*con« cert, I will identify the musical themes by the let-ters of th® alphabet.

As the orchestra plays the songs listed under the Mr Fair tmdr selection on your programs, I will use twTs poster to guide you through th® musical form of each of the selections, {turns to chart number five)

And now, the highlights from the musical play. Sy Fair Lady. " ** *

Orchestras

My Fair Iiady (Highlights) • • • • • . * Loewe^Hurfurth

Biaoee i

1© hope that you have enjoyed this second concert of the fall semester.

Please place your name, grade, and section on the printed program and leave It on on© of the tables*

You are to remain in the auditorium until the bell rings for third period olssa«s«

APPENDIX D

POSTERS USED IH DSHOHSTRAKON PROGRAMMING

Concert 1

Poatej? nanbex» one* A A B A C G A A

Poster numbor one*

Conoert II

K — K E Y T—TIME I—MOTES

Poster number twoi K I N S

Poster number three* N 5 Z I

Poster number fouri I K S N

Poster number five* 1. A A B A 2. A A B A 3* A A B A 4. A A B A

104

APPENDIX E

KOSICAL MEMORY TEST

Directions* Stork in each answer box om of the following

S—SAMB IE—KEY' changed T—TIKE changed M~-NOTES changed

1.

2m

3. _

4 * _ — *

5 . _

6. _ _ 1* . _ 3* _

9. _

10, _ _

11. „ _

12, _

106

APPENDIX F

OREGON TES5 OF MUSICAL D1 SCRIMimTION

(Indians Revision)

Uo-«»Ho difference heard R—Rhythm between A end B

H--Harmony M--M© lody

1*. 1. A B No R H M 29. A B lo R H M

Ix. 2. A B No R H M 30. A B lo R 1 M

Ex. 3. A B M© R H M 34. A B MO R H M

Bx. 4. A B So R If K 35. A 8 lo R 1 II

1. A B Ho R H M OO f A B lo R H H

2. A B 10 11 B K 37. A B I© R H 1

5. 4 B No R H B 38. A B lo R H M

6. A B No R H H 39. • A B Ho R H M

9. A B MO R H 1 40. A B So R H 11

10. A 3 Mo R H M 42. A 3 lo R H M

11. A B *o 1 H M 44. A B Mo R B M

12. A B So R H M 46. A B lo R H M

15. A B So R H M 47. A B Mo n II M

14. A B No K II M 48. A B No R H I

15. A B lo R H M 49. A B No R H M

16. A B lo E H M 50. A B Mo R H M

17. A B No R flf M

22. A B lo R H M

23. A B Mo H H M

106

APPENDIX G

kHfiTum sQkm m m i D t i n .SCHOOL SUBJECT

Inatruct lonss Following i s a l i s t of statements about

orchestra e s a school subject . Place a c i r c l e around the•

number befoi*e each statement with which you agree , Mark on-

ly the statements with which you agree,

1. Mo asstter whet happens* orohestrs a i a school subject always ©oiaes f i r s t ,

2 . I exa a t t r a c t e d to orohestrs a s a subject ,

3 . Orchestra i s p r o f i t a b l e to those who take i t ,

4* Any student who takes orchestra i s bound to b# b e n e f i t -ed*

6* Orchestra i e a good school subjec t ,

8 , A l l l e s son# ®»d e l l methods used i n t h i s subject are c l e a r and d e f i n i t e ,

7* I would be w i l l i n g to spend my t i a e studying t h i s sub-j e c t ,

8 , Orchestra I s a good pest ime.

9, I don' t be l i eve orchestra w i l l do anybody any harm,

10, I haven*t any d e f i n i t e l i k e or d i s l i k e for orchestra ,

11, Orchestra w i l l b e n e f i t only the br ighter s tudents ,

12, % parents never hsd orchestra* so I see no merit in i t ,

15, I am not i n t e r e s t e d i n orchestra ,

14, Orchestra seem# to be & necessary ev i l #

107

10®

16• 1 would no t advise anyone to fcsk® o r c h e s t r a .

16. Oroheatra i s a waste of time*

17 • Orchestra I s a l l bunk*

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