the effects of self talk

Running head: THE EFFECTS OF SELF-TALK IN FITNESS

The Effects of Self-Talk in Fitness

Mikenna Kossow

William Jessup University

THE EFFECTS OF SELF-TALK IN FITNESS 2

Abstract

The purpose of this research was to understand self-talk in order to change negative and

unwanted thoughts. Self-talk is a complex topic to study because of the differences in cognitive

nature. No one person is the same, but everyone uses self-talk; everyone talks to themselves.

Various research has found benefits to using positive self-talk. Negative self-talk can be

motivational to some people but should be reduced. Self-talk has many forms and functions. The

key to changing unwanted self-talk is recognizing the negative talk and becoming aware of its

use and content. Creating a self-talk plan will aid in creating a more attractive form of self-talk;

attractive meaning the type that makes someone better rather than worse. Negative self-talk

impacts most people. The findings presented will help in the understanding of this topic.

Keywords: self-talk; motivation; mental-training; positive self-talk; negative self-talk;

self-talk strategies; thoughts; mental preparation; psychological skills training;

awareness; fitness; sports psychology


Imagine a client standing in front of a plyometric box. It is her first time doing a weighted

box jump. As she stands in front of the daunting obstacle with small weights in her hand she

begins to think to herself, “I cannot do this”. Self-talk is a prominent factor in our ability to act,

achieve, and make progress. The words someone says, whether spoken out loud or in thought,

have the potential to impact progress in any aspect of life. In fitness, the use of the word “can’t”

can be very detrimental. Because the client already told herself she could not do the task, it has

already been decided that she will not be able to do it. Therefore, when the client went to

perform the move, it resulted in failure. However, her chances of succeeding the exercise

challenge may have increased if she believed she could do it.

The concept of self-talk has many dimensions whether it is overtness, functional or is

either positive or negative (Hardy, Roberts, and Hardy, 2009). It is important to understand how

people incorporate self-talk in their daily lives. For example, an obese person may use negative

or positive self-talk as a coping response to the stigma of obesity (Myers and Rosen, 1999). Will

the positive phrases enable someone to perform well? Does negative self-talk impact a person

more than positive self-talk? What are some ways self-talk practices increase health and fitness

in society? These are questions to think about as self-talk is dissected and the negative self-talk

in exercise is resolved.

Statement of Problem

Many people today lack the time, confidence, money, and mentality to focus on exercise.

In an already obese nation, the statistics are only going to rise with lack of exercise. Yet, it does

not have to be this way. The problem is this: so many people make excuses for why they cannot

exercise whether it is a whole workout or just a specific movement. It all comes down to


mentality and self-talk. The purpose of this study is to understand self-talk in order to figure out

what is behind the excuses and to incorporate ways we can change the mindset of those lacking

the motivation to exercise.

Body of Literature Review

Self-talk, otherwise known as intrapersonal communication, is a widely researched topic.

It refers to the internal communication people have with themselves (Weinberg and Gould, 2015,

p. 223). This type of communication has major impact on whether or not someone will be

motivated to exercise. This concept has been used as a tool to better performance and mental

strength in all aspects of life. Foundations of Sport and Exercise Psychology breaks down self-

talk in to three categories: negative self-talk, positive self-talk, and instructional self-talk

(Weinberg and Gould, 2015, p. 387). This review will focus on positive and negative self-talk as

the factors affecting exercise. It is important to note the majority of self-talk research is directed

toward sports and athletes but can be correlated with basic exercise behavior.

Determining the origins of self-talk, although not well researched, could be the starting

point for understanding and changing self-talk (Zourbanos, Papaioannou, Argyropoulou, and

Hatzigeorgiadis, 2014). When it comes to being aware, understanding, and assessing self-talk,

some researchers have suggested developing a foundation for self-talk. In other words, what is

the functionality of self-talk? One group of researchers based their study of the use of self-talk

around the 4 W’s (where, when, what, and why). The study was done using a 3 part

questionnaire administered to 150 varsity athletes; men and women (Hardy, Gammage, and Hall,

2001). The main component of the questionnaire essentially asked athletes these 4 questions:

1. Where do you use self-talk?

2. When do you use self-talk?


3. What do you say to yourself?

4. Why do you use self-talk?

Each question had different categories with subcategories such as competition (before or after),

miscellaneous (alone or all the time), nature (positive or negative), or structure (cue words or

phrases). The study, ultimately, demonstrated a functional framework to be able to describe

individual self-talk. However, the questions presented above could bring researchers closer to the

origins of self-talk. It is a stepping stone in creating awareness and better understanding of the

thoughts that can affect a person’s behavior and performance.

According to Tod, Hardy, and Oliver (2011), self-talk is believed to be a negative or

positive factor in performance and psychological states. These three researchers reviewed

various journals and articles to examine and make conclusions on the effect of self-talk on

performance. The findings pointed toward 75% of positive self-talk having a positive impact on

an athlete’s performance and no negative self-talk had any impact (Tod, Hardy, and Oliver,

2011). It also examined two other contemporary types of self-talk: instructional and

motivational. Both showed a high percentage of positive impact on performance. Interesting

enough, the authors pointed out only a few studies had been done on positive-talk being better

than negative-talk and other research saw no performance difference between the two (Tod,

Hardy, and Oliver, 2011). These findings highlight negative self-talk not having much detriment

to skill performance. Yet, it is noted in this study that the suggestion could be due to various

reasons such as negative-talk intervention methods, negative-talk being motivational, and

negative-talk being a challenge. Later discussions will provide more insight behind the

implications of negative self-talk.


Positive self-talk has been studied in various lights and by various researchers. One

particular article looked at the effect of self-talk in mental training for performance. Positive self-

talk is used more by successful people than those less-successful (Kahrovic, Radenkovic,

Mavric, and Muric, 2014). The authors studied a number of other research articles as well as

specific sports groups such as tennis, swimming, and basketball. One specific group was split

into an experimental group and control group. The experimental group was given specific

instructions on self-talk in addition to the normal training. The researchers gathered from the

experiment that those who practice self-talk not only perform better but have higher self-

confidence. It was mentioned by the authors that not only do these successful people practice

positive self-talk in athletics but also in everyday life (Kahrovic, Radenkovic, Mavric, and

Muric, 2014). Conclusions can be made based from this particular article that positive self-talk

aids in mental training and is a big part of improving not only performance but the confidence to

act. Those who are not confident in their physical fitness endeavors may benefit from a positive

self-talk strategy.

Hamilton, Scott, and MacDougall (2007) performed a study to assess the effects of both

positive and negative-self talk on endurance performance. The study was done using a stationary

bicycle, and the participants that volunteered were regular exercisers. The test was done over a

20 minute period, twice a week and participants were told to complete as much work as possible

within the time frame. Each volunteer was assigned to different types of self-talk (positive,

assisted positive, or assisted negative self-talk). The study findings showed that positive self-talk

(assisted or not) has quite the impact on performance. Assisted self-talk refers to being told the

positive or negative statements either through audio-tape or a person and then internalizing those

statements. This is an intervention tool that may be used for someone who is not confident or


lacks the motivation to exercise. By aiding the self-talk process in someone who struggles with

mental training, the trainee or athlete may acquire the motivation and self-confidence quicker.

The next finding from the study showed that negative self-talk may not be entirely detrimental.

Two thirds of the participants utilizing the assisted negative intervention actually had better

performance (Hamilton, Scott, and MacDougall, 2007). In contrast to several other research

articles, this suggests negative self-talk can be motivational to not all but some individuals. The

authors provided extra insight to the finding on negative talk. It was suggested that negative self-

talk is viewed as a challenge.

Self-talk is a mental skill in everybody whether they are aware of it or not. It has been

mentioned that 96% of adults have some sort of dialogue (self-talk, conversations, etc.) with

themselves (Zourbanos, Papaioannou, Argyropoulou, and Hatzigeorgiadis, 2014). Regardless of

the type of self-talk a person uses, awareness of such talk is a key to change. Understanding the

patterns, the use, and the effects of self-talk gives an individual the opportunity to take hold and

change what needs to be changed. Conroy and Metzler (2004) discuss the patterns self-talk can

have on anxiety and self-confidence. They suggest that self-talk is central to behavioral and

psychological change (Conroy and Metzler, 2004). The instruments used for this study were

various types of questionnaires [demographic, anxiety (PFAI, FOSS, SAS), and Intrex introject

(introject while failing, introject while succeeding, wished-for introject while performing, and

feared introject while performing)] given to various college students. Overall, the findings from

the data collected point to an association between anxiety and negative self-talk (Conroy and

Metzler, 2004). The study did not associate these findings in a negative light but instead

described the patterns of various anxiety forms with self-talk. For example, fear of failure is


associated with self-blame but had some low-levels of self-affirmations. The implications behind

this information is clear: find the motivational cues behind specific anxiety and self-talk.

Often times when someone is looking to start an exercise program or improve their port-

specific skills, he or she will set goals. “I want to be able to due 5 pull ups in 4 weeks” or “I want

to improve my mile time in competition by 15 seconds”. Whatever it is, there is usually a goal

behind it. The relationship between goals and self-talk is present. A group of researchers studied

the effect self-talk has on goal-setting. The participants they studied were self-regulated learners

in grade school and the sport was dart-throwing. Regardless of goal-setting, results showed that

those who used self-talk had performance improvements over those who did not (Kolovelonis,

Goudas, and Dermitzaki 2012). The second finding was those who practiced positive self-talk

with particular goal had an even bigger improvement. Earlier it was mentioned assisted (or

instructional) self-talk can have a positive effect on changing the negative function of self-talk

and increasing performance. This particular study pointed out that assisted or instructional self-

talk can increase the attention to a particular motor element in whatever it is they are doing; in

this case, dart-throwing (Kolovelonis, Goudas, and Dermitzaki 2012). In other words, by giving

a person who is lacking motivation and focus a particular cue-word or phrase they may be able to

stick to the task at hand and perform better. Overall this study presents evidence that self-talk can

be used as a technique in a strategy to reach particular goals and improve performance

(Kolovelonis, Goudas, and Dermitzaki 2012).

Before moving to negative self-talk, tools to be aware and change it, it is important to

briefly discuss the more contemporary types of self-talk. Instructional and Motivational self-talk

has been briefly mentioned in some of the research thus far. “Self-Talk and Gross Motor Skill

Performance: An Experimental Approach” discussed these specific forms of self-talk


(instructional and motivational) as merely a function or a mechanism of self-talk. The purpose,

similar to many others, was to understand self-talk effects. The participants were all female and

were subjected to an endurance-based crunch test. The researchers measured self-talk with the

Self-Talk Grid, self-efficacy (confident and how confident), and manipulation check. The

participants were placed into three groups: motivational self-talk, instructional self-talk, and

control groups. Each were given specific instructions on what to say. The first set of results

found that all three groups employed not only the self-talk instructed for each specific group but

also employed the self-talk of the other groups (Hardy, Hall, Gibbs, and Greenslade, 2005). For

example, the motivational group not only say “I can” statements but also employed statements

that the instructional group used such as saying “sit-up”. Previous research has failed to find a

performance difference between instructional and motivational self-talk. This particular study

did not find much indication that instructional (breathe out) or motivational (I can) self-talk had

much impact on performance (Hardy, Hall, Gibbs, and Greenslade, 2005). However, the findings

did point to self-efficacy having an impact on performance. Perhaps the use of motivational or

instructional self-talk can have an impact on confidence in which improved self-efficacy creates

better performance. A personal training client who tells him/herself “I can” statements creates

confidence and that confidence creates the ability to be successful.

In retrospect, the research done thus far suggests negative self-talk needs to be changed

and positive self-talk should be encouraged. Negative self-talk can be a motivating factor for

some but more often than not it is seen as a threat on a person’s behavior and skills. Many

methods and strategies are useful to changing and replacing negative statements. However, as it

has been mentioned, awareness and types of awareness are an important step in reducing

negative talk and the effectiveness of these methods and strategies. Two types of awareness are


mentioned in a study done by J. Hardy, Roberts, and L. Hardy (2009): awareness of use and

awareness of content. In order for any individual to be in control of his/her thoughts he/she must

first be aware of the thoughts being made, the occurrences, and the actual content. Negative

thoughts will not stop unless it is recognized as an unwanted thought by the individual (Hardy,

Roberts, and Hardy 2009). Two methods were chosen as a mode of creating awareness: logbook

and paperclip technique. J. Hardy, Roberts, and L. Hardy (2009) attempted to study the

effectiveness of these techniques on awareness of negative self-talk. For the study, 73 students

were split into three groups: logbook, paperclip, and control group. The logbook method

consisted of answering questions about the type of self-talk used (Hardy, Roberts, and Hardy,

2009). Paperclip is geared toward the amount of occurrences negative self-talk is used (moving a

paperclip from one pocket to another for every occurrence).

The results gathered from the study showed evidence that the logbook was the most

effective for building awareness on the use and content of negative self-talk. The study provided

insight behind how the logbook might be the best technique. It is less disruptive because you are

not having to remove and replace something with every thought unlike the paperclip technique.

Also, there can be deeper reflection with the log book because the individual could potentially

discuss the source and uses of the negative thought (Hardy, Roberts, and Hardy, 2009). This

study also discussed another study discussed earlier. The 4 W’s (when, where, what, and why)

may assist alongside the logbook in recognizing the negative thoughts.

The awareness and recognition of negative self-talk has been discussed. The final area

that needs to be understood is the potential impact of self-talk strategies on behavior and

performance; this has been mentioned briefly. Self-talk strategies aim to enhance any behavior,

performance, or skill through the use of particular cues and phrases (Hatzigeorgiadis, Galanis,


Zourbanos, and Theodorakis, 2014). In “Self-Talk and Competitive Sport Performance”, the

researchers observed how effective self-talk strategies were in athletes. However, this could

potentially be transferred to the fitness realm and even just an individual’s life in general. The

participants developed their own self-talk plans. These self-talk plans consisted of different self-

talk cues, motivational self-talk, and instructional self-talk. Evidence from this study suggests the

use and practice of a self-talk strategy, ultimately, creates a systematic habit of self-talk

(Hatzigeorgiadis, Galanis, Zourbanos, and Theodorakis, 2014). The use of a self-talk plan,

whether involving motivational, instructional, or positive self-talk, will contribute to the change

of negative self-talk. Although specific “types” of strategies are not mentioned, it can be

assumed that by developing a plan on self-talk, one may find great success in meeting goals,

enhancing performance and much more.

Conclusion

The overall objective of this paper was to understand self-talk and the impact it has on

our ability to exercise and ultimately live. Although negative self-talk can be beneficial and

motivational to some people, the majority allow this type of self-talk to disrupt and prevent

improvement. It has been suggested that the importance is not whether the self-talk is positive or

negative but it is the way the content is interpreted (Hamilton, Scott, and MacDougall, 2007).

The 4 W’s and logbooks are the first step in changing the interpretation of the self-talk.

Answering the questions associated in those two techniques helps an individual to recognize and

be more aware of the unwanted self-talk. That is the first step to changing negative and unwanted

self-talk. Creating a self-talk plan is the other step to changing self-talk. The individual saying “I

can’t” while attempting a box jump should change that phrase to “I can”. Using that phrase

continually will in turn create a habit of using positive phrases and believing those phrases as the


confidence builds. Self-talk is complex because of its cognitive nature so every individual will

need to create his/her own plan. Everyone talks to themselves, but it is the habitual use and the

understanding of purpose that brings about wanted change (Hatzigeorgiadis, Galanis, Zourbanos,

and Theodorakis, 2014).

Future Research

Self-talk is complicated to research due to the cognitive nature of it and every person

being different. Through the research process, it was noted that many holes are present. First,

“negative” self-talk is briefly noted in some research and has shown to have some sort of impact

on performance. Majority of the studies confirm positive self-talk has positive effects but very

little point to negative self-talk having positive effects as well. Future research should focus on

how and why “negative” self-talk can positively impact performance. By understanding both

“positive” and “negative” self-talk, better practical tools could be implemented in not just fitness

but all areas of life. Second, future research should look at the relationship between self-talk

tools in the performance of fitness and self-talk tools in everyday life. If people are only

practicing self-talk in one area of their lives, could it carry over positively to other areas? Will

lacking positive self-talk in other areas of life affect the area where it is being used?

Clinical Implications

Research makes it obvious to assume that everyone takes part in self-talk. It is in human

nature to talk to oneself and think to oneself. Consequently, those thoughts can be detrimental to

personal success. The issue is everyone thinks differently to some extent, and it can be hard to

pinpoint generalizations of self-talk for the general public. For the sake of research, most cases

negative thinking and “negative” self-talk can prevent progress in many people. By allowing

poor thoughts and affirming those thoughts to oneself a person can become cancerous to


his/herself. Self-awareness is an important place to start in order to change one’s way of

thinking. When a person is more aware of his/her thoughts, self-talk methods will be more useful

in the process of success. Fitness professionals, coaches, and peers can help in the awareness

process by observing and conversing with the client. It is important to note that negative self-talk

can be beneficial and needs to be considered when dealing with the transforming of thoughts in a

person. The way to progress and success is awareness and transforming of self-talk and thoughts.

Without a healthy mind, one may never see that progress.


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