The Effects of Technostress on Doctoral Students

Kristin Blanton, Beth Cannon, Kellie Gebhardt, Torri Jackson, and Anitra Patrick

EDUR 9131: Doctoral Research Methods

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Introduction

Computer usage and technological advances have increased over the years and have led

to concerns about the social-emotional health of a growing population of users. The need for

information from the Internet has transformed computer usage from mainly word processing to

primarily researching on the World Wide Web for both work-related and personal reasons.

Internet usage is defined as the amount of time an individual utilizes the Internet (Monetti,

Whatley, Hinkle, Cunningham, Breneiser, & Kisling, 2011). While internet usage includes

activities for educational, personal and job-related purposes, a certain degree of competency is

necessary to complete tasks on the Internet. Computer competence is the term associated with

“being able to handle a wide range of varying computer applications for various purposes” (van

Braak, 2004, p. 300). The current prevalence of internet usage and the need for computer

competency could impact the stress levels of users on a professional and personal level. This

type of stress is called technostress, and it refers to the unhealthy physiological, emotional, or

mental impact of technology usage (Brooks, 2015).

Research studies have shown that approximately 240 million people have access to the

Internet and over three-fourths of the United States population use the Internet regularly (Monetti

et al., 2011). Computer competence is vital to individuals’ success in almost all aspects of daily

life such as education, work, and home. Any semblance of incapability to navigate the Internet

and related applications for work or personal purposes could lead to frustration and anxiety

(Shuster & Pearl, 2011). Concerning the impact of technology on social-emotional health,

Brooks (2015, p. 26) states “…extended use of a technology can lead to greater stresses. These

technostresses can lower an individual’s well-being.”

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The purpose of this study was to determine if the constructs of computer competence and

internet usage had any effect on the level of technostress experienced by doctoral program

students. The findings of this study are vital to future technology requirements and usage of

graduate students in hybrid courses. University faculty will be empowered to make informed

decisions concerning the impact of technology usage, competency, and stress on the work of

graduate students and adjust program course work accordingly. Further, by analyzing the

findings based upon the feedback from doctoral students of various backgrounds, graduate

program faculty may discover additional factors related to technology that could affect student

performance.

Literature Review

Technostress is an adverse psychological state caused by the introduction of technology

or the usage of technology in both one’s personal life and one’s professional workplace.

According to Tacy (2016), technostress is an emergent psychological disorder experienced by

individuals who use technology,” (Abstract, paragraph 1). Technostress, coined by psychologist

Brod (1984), can negatively impact one’s attitudes and behaviors as a result of using technology

both directly and indirectly, (Tacy, 2016). With the ever presence of technology in one’s

personal life and the push for technology in the workforce, technostress can potentially have

adverse impacts on one’s work life and personal life.

An individual’s technostress is thought to be associated with one’s internet usage and

one’s perceived level of computer competence according to Brod (1984). Brod (1984) also states

that technostress “may manifest itself in the struggle to accept computer technology, and by

overidentification with computer technology (paragraph 2, lines 3-4). With the rise in technology

and technological advances, it is nearly impossible to steer clear of technology. With the rise in

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technology comes the rise in the pressures to continue to assimilate and learn new software,

programs, etc., which can therefore result in technostress.

According to Brooks (2015), the more technology one uses, the higher one’s technostress

is which can result in lowering one’s sense of well-being. Consequently, with increased internet

usage, it may have a negative impact on one’s emotional state and may additionally have

behavioral consequences (Monetti, D., Whatley, M., Hinkle, K., Cunningham, T., Breneiser, J.,

& Kisling, R., 2011). A behavioral consequence can result in a loss of focus in the workplace.

The more time one spends on the Internet, the less productive workers report to be in the

workplace (Kelly Services, 2012).

With the rise in technology, there has been a significant increase in the percentage of

those using the Internet. Since 1995, there has been a 54% increase in internet usage worldwide,

with 54.4% of the population using the Internet as of December, 2017 (Internet World Stats).

This ever-increasing percentage of internet users worldwide may have significant impacts of the

psychological well-being of those accessing the Internet. The impacts of internet usage have

been widely studied with growing literature on the negative emotional implications associated

with internet usage.

With 6% of the population suffering from internet addiction, internet usage can cause

social isolation which adversely impacts a person’s interpersonal relationships (Monetti et al.,

2011). The average worker receives approximately six to eight technology related interruptions

at work each day (Brooks, 2015). Consequently, it then takes around twenty-five minutes for the

worker to return to their original cognitive state prior to accessing the interruption, which can

result in work-related inefficiencies (Brooks, 2015). One’s internet usage can therefore have

negative implications on one’s production and quality of work while on the job.

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An additional potential correlation to technostress is computer competence. Computer

competence is one’s ability to successfully navigate a computer by accessing different programs

and software successfully while using a computer for either personal or professional use. With

approximately 3.9 million students enrolled in a minimum of one online class , computer

competency is needed to access, navigate, and be successful in those online programs (Shushter

& Pearl, 2011). With low computer competence, accessing online courses can be a challenge and

cause extra stress for the student enrolled.

As Du (2017) states, “Computer competency, or technology literacy, may influence

students’ satisfaction with their performance within an individual course and with their general

experience of web-based learning in general,” (pp. 5-6). With a statistically significant

correlation between computer competence and students’ enjoyment level , it can be determined

then that a lower computer competence score would result in a students’ enjoyment level being

lower, too (Du, 2017).

The purpose of this study is to determine whether the construct of technostress extends to

self-reported internet usage and computer competence. As previously mentioned, it is determined

that researchers believe that there is a relationship between technostress and the usage of internet

and perceived computer competence one has. This study provides an empirical analysis of the

relationship between technostress, internet usage, and computer competence. In addition, this

study extended research by specifically examining the relationship between technostress and

internet usage and technostress and computer competence in both a professional setting and a

personal setting to determine whether or not one’s technostress varies between one’s personal

and professional use or if it appears to be compatible.

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Method

Participants

This study was conducted at a university located in southeast Georgia with approximately

20,418 students. The participants for the study consisted of 13 Educational Leadership doctoral

students enrolled in an advanced educational research course. These students are predominately

white (76.9%) and female (53.8%) ranging from 25-54 years old.

Instrumentation

The questionnaire begins with a set of demographic questions regarding sex, age, and

race/ethnicity. Using a variety of published instruments (Brooks, 2015; van Braak, 2014;

Monetti, Whatley, Hinkle, Cunningham, Breneiser, & Kisling, 2011), questionnaire items were

developed and revised to address the issues of doctoral student technostress, internet usage, and

computer competence. A total of 28 items were developed. 10 items measured technostress, eight

items measured internet usage, and 10 items measured computer competence. For 24 items,

participants responded on a Likert scale ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree. For

two items, participants indicated the time they spend accessing technology by responding on a

Likert scale ranging from less than 1 hour a day to 10 or more hours a day.

In addition to the responses on the Likert scales, two open-ended items were included to

better assess how technostress affects internet usage and computer competence. The specific

questions were: “Can you describe how you feel when you are given a work-related task that

involves the use of new software or application?” and “Technostress is defined as a negative,

psychological state cause by the introduction of technology in life and/or workspace. Using this

definition, how would you describe your current level of technostress?” The instrument is

presented in the Appendix.

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Content validity for the questionnaire items was addressed in different ways. When

constructing the items, dimensions of technostress, internet usage, and computer

competence were identified in the literature (e.g., Brod, 1984; Du, 2017; Shuster & Pearl, 2011;

Tacy, 2016) and corresponding items were written for each. Items from other instruments

(Brooks, 2015; van Braak, 2014; Monetti, Whatley, Hinkle, Cunningham, Breneiser, & Kisling,

2011) designed to measure technostress, internet usage, and computer competency were

reviewed. Wording from the instruments was used to ensure consistency with other researchers’

construction and views of technostress, internet usage, and computer competence. After the

initial draft, the instrument was shared with a small group of doctoral students enrolled in the

same advanced educational research course and the course instructor for feedback. Based on the

feedback, the demographics section and open-ended questions were added, and some terms were

defined for clarity.

Using data from the 13 students who completed the questionnaire, Cronbach’s alpha was

calculated for technostress (𝛼 = -.063), internet usage (𝛼 = .692), and computer competence (𝛼 =

.859). Based on these numbers, there was a lack of internal consistency in the responses to

technostress internet usage, but acceptable internal consistency in responses to computer

competence. The correlation between technostress, internet usage, and computer competence

provides evidence for construct validity. As reported in the results, the correlation between

technostress and computer competency was positive and consistent with other research of how

technostress affects computer competency. Although the literature reveals the stress related to

internet usage, a significant correlation was not shown between internet usage and technostress

in this study.

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Procedures

The instrument was administered to doctoral students enrolled in an advanced

educational research course. An anonymous questionnaire link was emailed to the participants

for completion. The questionnaire was created through Qualtrics and consisted of both selected-

response and open-ended questions related to technostress.

Scores for technostress, internet usage, and computer competence were formed by

averaging responses on the Likert scale for each construct. The average response to items 1-9, 28

measured technostress, items 10-15, 25, 26 measured internet usage, and items 16-24, 27

measured computer competence. For the open-ended questions, codes were developed to sort and

analyze the data. Open reading allowed for data to be coded descriptively and make analytical

and theoretical memos (Saldaña, 2015). The memos were used to code and organize the data

related to the responses, make connections to the literature review, and identify themes. The

coding process created general themes and an understanding of the relationship among

technostress, internet usage, and computer competence.

Results

Two open ended questions were asked to gather an understanding of participants’ level of

technostress and its impact on internet usage and computer competence. Responses address

students’ feelings surrounding the incorporation of technology in work related tasks. One

question asks, “Can you describe how you feel when you are given a work-related task that

involves the use of new software or applications?” When given a work related task that involves

the use of a new software or application, the majority of the participants reported that they felt

either excited or neutral. Specifically, 15% of the participants scored excited, 46% reported that

they felt neutral. Only 38% of participants were worried when tasked with a new software

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application. The second open ended question asked, “Technostress is defined as a negative,

psychological state caused by the introduction of technology in life and/or workspace. Using this

definition, how would you describe your current level of technostress?” When describing their

current level of technostress, the vast majority of participants scored low stress. Sixty-nine

percent of participants scored themselves low in stress, and 15% expressed that they felt no stress

related to technology. Only 15% of participants expressed a high level of technostress. When

combining the scores from the two questions it is clear that the majority of participants are open

and willing to try new technologies. There is a consistent theme that technology is a necessary

component of the participants’ professional life.

Table 1 shows summary statistics including mean and standard deviation of responses to

technostress (M=4.633, SD=.498), computer competence (M=5.957, SD=.562), and internet

usage(M=3.923, SD=.959). A Pearson correlation as calculated in SPSS shows the correlations

among these constructs. A significant correlation was found between technostress and computer

competence. The p value being less than .05 indicated this significance.

Table 1: Descriptive Statistics and Correlations among Technostress, Computer Competence,

and Internet Usage

Variable Correlations

Techno-stress Internet Usage Computer Competency

Technostress ---

Internet Usage .026 ---

Computer Competency .517* .071 ---

Mean 4.633 3.923 5.957

SD .498 .959 .562

Note. n = 13

* p < .05

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Discussion

Du (2017) suggest that lower computer competence leads to less student enjoyment, thus

more stress; however, results indicate the opposite. The data show a strong positive correlation

between techno-stress and computer competency. As computer competency increases,

technostress increases. A higher perceived computer competence is presumably due to a rise in

individual’s breadth and depth of technology use. This is in line with the literature in that the

acceptance, use and growing identification with computer technology produces technostress

(Brod, 1984). The more technology is used in a myriad of ways, the greater the opportunity for

technostress. Although the literature reveals the stress related to internet usage, a significant

correlation was not shown between internet usage and technostress in this study.

Of the survey participants, 38% described feeling worried when given a work-related task

that involves the use of new software or applications. When asked about their current level of

technostress, 85% of the participants described having some level of technostress. Although the

majority of participants feel neither worried or excited by the introduction of new software or

applications for work-related tasks, the new technology may still contribute to a level of

stress. This use of the technology itself and potential issues with incorporating the use leads to

stress (Shuster & Pearl, 2011).

Brooks (2015) explains that stress related to extended use of technology impacts an

individual’s well-being. Because the study indicates that most of the participants deal with some

level of techno-stress, it can be surmised that student well-being is impacted. This information is

useful to instructors and education practitioners as they design course structures. It could be

beneficial to include reductions in technology or space to adequately deal with or learn new

technology in an effort to reduce stress. Offering separate classes or workshops to introduce new

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technology outside of regular course material may also help to compartmentalize the stress so

that students are not managing technostress and stress related to learning course material at the

same time.

A future study may consider the options to reduce technostress by viewing the

relationship between overall student well-being and stress related to technology for usage in

coursework. Knowing more about this relationship may help to determine what aspects of

technology usage spurs technostress in students. Additionally, examining the relationship

between the effects of technology usage for school related tasks, work related tasks, and personal

related tasks will highlight possible differences that are unique to students. It is possible that the

technostress produced in those tasks vary or the aspects of the stress produced vary. Identifying

this specific information can help to enhance course design to alleviate potential technology

related stressors.

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References

Brod, C. (1984). Technostress: The human cost of the computer revolution. Reading, Mass:

Addison-Wesley.

Brooks, S. (2015). Does personal social media usage affect efficiency and well-being. Computers

in Human Behavior, 46, 26-37.

Du, Y. (2017). The relationship between students computer competency and perception of

enjoyment and difficulty level in web-based distance learning. Education Libraries,27(2),

5. doi:10.26443/el.v27i2.201

Internet Growth Statistics. (2018, April 16). Retrieved April 18, 2018, from

https://www.internetworldstats.com/emarketing.htm

Kelly Services (2012). When worlds collide – The rise of social media for professional and

personal use. Retrieved April 16, 2018, from

https://www.kellyservices.com.my/my/knowledge-hub/when-two-worlds-collide--the-

rise-of-social-media-in-the-workplace/.

Monetti, D. M., Whatley, M. A., Hinkle, K. T., Cunningham, T. C., Breneiser, J. E., & Kisling,

R. (2011). A factor analytic study of the internet usage scale. Journal of Research in

Education, 21(2), 14-23.

Saldana, J. (2015). The coding manual for qualitative researchers. Los Angeles: SAGE.

Shuster, G. F. & Pearl, M. (2011). Computer competency: A 7-year study to identify gaps in

student computer skills. International Education Studies, 4(4), 137-148.

Tacy, J. (July, 2016). Technostress: A concept analysis. Online Journal of Nursing Informatics

(OJNI), 20 (2), Available at http://www.himss.org/ojni

van Braak, J. P. (2004). Domains and determinants of university students’ self-perceived

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computer competence. Computers & Education, 43, 299-31

4/22/2018 Qualtrics Survey Software

https://georgiasouthern.co1.qualtrics.com/WRQualtricsControlPanel/Ajax.php?action=GetSurveyPrintPreview 1/3

Appendix

I. Instrument

Summary

The purpose of the questionnaire is to learn about doctoral students’ experiences with technology use. Technology use refers to your use of computers, software, internet, and applications.

Demographics

Age

Race/ Ethnicity

Questionnaire

The following statements refer to your use of technology. Use the scale to indicate how much you agree or disagree with the statement.

Female

agree Agree

Somewhat nor Somewhat Strongly

agree

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9. After sending a work related email, I feel anxious while

awaiting comments/ reactions.

Strongly

agree Agree

Somewhat

agree

Neither

agree

nor

disagree

Somewhat

disagree Disagree

Strongly

disagree

10. I depend on the internet to get me through my day.

11. I receive my news almost exclusively from the internet.

12. Others say I pay more attention to my phone than to them.

13. I use my computer (or tablet, or smartphone) to access the

internet during meals with others.

14. My regular activities (family time, studying, sleeping, etc.)

are often interrupted by my computer (or tablet, or smartphone)

usage.

15. I feel I am expected to remain connected to my work email

outside of work hours.

16. I feel confident in my ability to successfully integrate

technology into my daily routine.

17. It takes me a long time to learn new computer (or tablet, or

smartphone) software or apps.

18. I second guess my ability to successfully complete tasks

when technology is involved.

19. I have not mastered the computer technology skills

necessary for professional use.

20. I am able to learn how to use new computer (or tablet, or

smartphone) software or apps easily.

21. I consider myself to be good with computers (or tablet, or

smartphone).

22. I am able to resolve my computer’s (or tablet, or

smartphone) technical issues/problems.

23. I have the skills to effectively use computers (or tablet, or

smartphone) for personal use.

24. I have the skills to effectively use computers (or tablet, or

smartphone) for professional use.

Indicate the time you spend accessing technology.

Open Ended Questions

27. Can you describe how you feel when you are given a work­related task that involves the use of new

software or applications?

day

day day

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28. Techno­stress is defined as a negative, psychological state caused by the introduction of technology in life and/or workspace. Using this definition, how would you describe your current level of techno­stress?