the impact of technostress components on the employees

DOI: 10.4018/JGIM.2019070104

Journal of Global Information ManagementVolume 27 • Issue 3 • July-September 2019

Copyright©2019,IGIGlobal.CopyingordistributinginprintorelectronicformswithoutwrittenpermissionofIGIGlobalisprohibited.

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The Impact of Technostress Components on the Employees Satisfaction and Perceived Performance:The Case of QatarMuna A. Al-Ansari, Qatar Petroleum, Doha, Qatar

Khaled Alshare, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar

ABSTRACT

Thepresentstudyinvestigatestheeffectsoftechnostresscreatorsandinhibitorsonjobsatisfaction,organizational commitment and perceived performance. A research model derived from theTransaction-BasedModelofStressandCopingTheorywasdevelopedandtestedusingaweb-basedsurveyquestionnaire.Thevariablesconsideredaretechnostresscreators,technostressinhibitors,jobsatisfaction,organizationalcommitment,andperceivedperformance.AStructuralEquationModelusingaconveniencesamplefromQatarpopulationwasusedtotestthemodel.Theresultsshowthatorganizationalcommitmenthasasignificantpositiveeffectonperceivedperformance.Jobsatisfactionhasasignificantpositiveeffectonorganizationalcommitment.Technostresscreatorshaveasignificantnegativeeffectonjobsatisfaction.Technostressinhibitorshaveasignificantpositiveeffectonjobsatisfaction.Implicationsformanagersandresearchersarereported.

KEywoRdSEmployees Performance, Employees Satisfaction, Organizational Commitment, Qatar, Technostress Creators, Technostress Inhibitors, Transaction-Based Model of Stress and Coping Theory

1. INTRodUCTIoN

AdoptingnewICTinorganizationshasbecomeindispensable.The21stcenturyhasexperiencedsignificantadvancesconcerningInformationandCommunicationsTechnology(ICT).Thishas,inturn,aprofoundeffectontheday-to-dayactivities/workandthelivesofemployees.AsindicatedbyRaišienėandJonušauskas(2013),companieshavealsobenefitedfromadvancesinICTastheyexperiencegreatadvancesinproductionandtheireffectivenessoftheiremployees.However,accordingtoBrillhart(2004),valuableastheseadvancementsare,theyhavebroughtsomechallenges,suchasstressandhealthproblems.ICTisadouble-edgedsword(LeiandNgai,2014);itresultsinincreasedcommunicationbyusingcollaborativetechnologiessuchasinstantmessagingandvoicemails,boostsproductivityinorganizations,andfacilitatesaccesstoinformationfordecision-making(Riedl,2013).Atthesametime,ithasadarkside,whichmayresultinnegativeoutcomes(Tarafdaretal.,2011;

Thisarticle,originallypublishedunderIGIGlobal’scopyrightonApril5,2019willproceedwithpublicationasanOpenAccessarticlestartingonJanuary13,2021inthegoldOpenAccessjournal,JournalofGlobalInformationManagement(convertedtogoldOpenAccess

January1,2021),andwillbedistributedunderthetermsoftheCreativeCommonsAttributionLicense(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)whichpermitsunrestricteduse,distribution,andproductioninanymedium,providedtheauthoroftheoriginalworkandoriginal

publicationsourceareproperlycredited.


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ZhengandLee,2016).ICTmaymaketheemployeesfeelcompulsiveaboutbeingconnectedallthetime,forcedtorespondtowork-relatedinformationintime,andresignedaboutfrequentupgrades,whichcausestress,jobdissatisfactionandhealth-relatedproblems(Tarafdaretal.,2010;Çikrıkci,2016).Thiscanleadtoatypeofstressknownas“Technostress”.

FuglsethandSørebø(2014)definethenegativepsychophysicaleffectsbroughtaboutbytheuseofICTas“technostress”.Similarly,Ragu-Nathanetal.(2008),indicatethat“Technostress”,aterminventedbyBrod,aclinicalpsychologist,in1984,referstotheinabilitytocopeordealwithICTinahealthymanner.Ragu-Nathanetal.,(2008)goontosaythat“Technostress”isatermusedto represent thenegativeeffects that technologycancause toaperson’spsychological state; forexample,lossofconcentration,inabilitytosleep,headache,andmanyothersymptoms.Technostress,therefore,isoneofthefalloutsofanenduser’sattemptstodealwithICTandthechangingcognitiveandsocialobligationsrelatedtotheiruse.AsoutlinedbyTarafdaretal.,(2010),technostresseffectshaveappearedmoreoverthepastfewyearswiththerapidexpansionofICTintheworkplace.

Eventhoughthetopicofstresshasbeenstudied,researchontechnostresshasbeenverylittle.Tarafdaretal.,(2010)andRagu-Nathanetal.,(2008)conductedstudiesonthissubjecttoisolatetheessenceoftechnostressandillustrateitseffects.Inrelationtotheirstudies,theyclaimthatpeoplesufferingfromtechnostresshavealowerjobfulfillmentlevelandoutput,andarelesscommittedtotheircompanies.Althoughsuchresearchersexposetheessenceoftechnostress,theydonotclearlyillustratethespecifictechnologicalcharacteristicsthatleadtosuchstress.Itissuchconceptualizationthatbasicallyenvelopstheconceptoftechnostress,makingtherelationshipandboundariesbetweenstressandtechnologicalcharacteristicsunclear.Forinstance,techno-overloadisamongtheaspectsused to capture technostress.This aspect emphasizes that technologybrings a heavier workload(Tarafdaretal.,2010).

Understandingtheimpactoftechnostressonemployeesatisfaction,commitment,andperceivedperformance is an important step towardsbenefiting fromanadvancedcomputingenvironment.Previousresearchontechnostress(e.g.,LeiandNgai,2014)showsthatthereisanegativerelationshipbetweentechnostressandemployees’satisfactionandperformance.Tarafdaretal.,(2007)showthatthereisaninverserelationshipbetweentechnostressandproductivity.Inaddition,Tarafdaretal.,(2011)showthattechnostresssignificantlyreducesjobsatisfaction,commitment,innovation,andproductivity.EmployeescontinuallyhavetoincreasetheirdailyinteractionwithICTs,whichmayincrease thenegativeeffectof ICTuseon themandenablepeople tobeconnectedanytimeandanywhere(Wangetal.,2008).

Itshouldbenotedthatmostofthepreviousstudiesonthistechnostresssubjectwereconductedin thedevelopedcountries.Tothebestofourknowledge,veryfewstudieshavebeenconductedin developing countries. This study provides a better understanding of the growing technostressphenomenon,especially,inemergingcountrieslikeQatar.ThepresentstudywillcontributetotheemergingliteratureonthenegativeoutcomesofICTusebyhighlightingtheinfluenceoftechnostressonemployee’ssatisfaction,organizationalcommitmentandperceivedperformance.Fromtheotherside, it deals with the power of technostress inhibitors to alleviate the effect of technostress byextendingtheliteratureontechnostress.

Themainobjectiveofthisstudyistoproposeandtestatheoreticalmodel,whichbasedontheTransaction-BasedModelofStressandCopingTheory(Lazarus,1966;McGrath,1976;LazarusandFolkman,1984;Cooperetal.,2001;andTarafdaretal.,2010).Thestudyaimstoinvestigatetheimpactoftechnostressonjobsatisfaction,organizationalcommitmentandperceivedperformanceinpublicandprivatesectorsinQatar.Itisimportanttoinvestigatewaysofalleviatingthenegativeeffects of technostress in order to improve the organizational outcomes by identifying the mostimportanttechnostressinhibitors.Withthisinmind,thefollowingresearchquestionswereidentified:

RQ1: Do technostress creators negatively affect employees’ job satisfaction, organizationalcommitmentandperceivedperformance?


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RQ2: Do technostress inhibitors reduce the negative impact of technostress on job satisfaction,organizationalcommitmentandperceivedperformance?

Thecurrentstudyisorganizedasfollows:thenextsectionreviewstheTransaction-Basedmodel,technostresscreatorsandtechnostressinhibitorsliteratureleadingtotheformulationofhypotheses.Thenamethodologysectionwillshowthedevelopmentofinstrumentsandmethodsofdatacollectionanddataanalysis.Thisisfollowedbytheresultsofthestudyanddiscussionoftheresultsandtheirimplications.Finally,thestudy’slimitationsandfutureresearchpossibilitiesareoutlined.

2. THEoRETICAL BACKGRoUNd

The Transaction-Based Model of Stress and Coping Theory (Lazarus, 1966; McGrath, 1976;Cooperetal.2001)hasprovidedthefoundationforseveralstudiesofstress.MostofthestudiesoftechnostressemployedtheTransactional-BasedModel(TBM)(FuglsethandSørebø,2014;Tarafdaretal.,2010;Tarafdaretal.,2011). It focuseson the interactionofpeoplewithstress inorder topredictstressoutcomes.Therearemanyreasonsforitspopularityamongresearchers.Itcanexplainwhytechnostresscanleadtonegativeorpositiveoutcomes.Itallowsustounderstandandstudythenatureofthedifferenttypesoftechnostress.Inaddition,itcanbeusedtopredictpeople’sadoptionbehaviorwhen anew system is being implemented (Lei andNgai, 2014).TheTBMmodelhasfourmaincomponents,whichincludestressors,situationalfactors(couldreducetheimpactofthestressorssuchassocialsupport,roleredesign,andemployeeparticipation),strain(outcomefortheindividual),andotherorganizationaloutcomes(e.g.,highturnoverandabsenteeism).Stressorsareusuallythefactorsorconditionsthatgeneratestress.Technostressisassociatedwithfivestressors.These stressorsarecalled technostresscreators,which include techno-overload, techno-invasion,techno-insecurity,techno-complexity,andtechno-uncertainty(seeTable3intheAppendix).Thesestressors(duetoroleandtaskstress)leadtoariseinstrainlevel,whichisseenintheindividual’spsychologicalandbehavioraloutcomesinresponsetothestressor(Ayyagarietal.,2011).Thisshowsthepositiverelationshipbetweenthestressorsandstrain.Strainreducesproductivity,increasesjobdissatisfactionlevels,andleadstolessinnovationandcreativityatwork,andpoorerperformance(Ayyagarietal.,2011;Tarafdaretal.,2011).

2.1. TechnostressTechnostressisatermthatencompasses‘technology’and“stress.”Brodin1984describedtechnostressas“AmoderndiseasethatiscausedbytheinabilitytocopeordealwithICT”(Ayyagarietal.,2011).Technostress,therefore,isdescribedasthestressexperiencedbyindividualsduetotheinabilitytocopewiththerequirementsdictatedbytheiruseofICTinorganizations(RaišienėandJonušauskas2013).

AccordingtoTarafdaretal.(2007),fivemaintechnostresscreatorsassociatedwiththeuseofICTcanbeidentified.TheycompriseTechno-overload--ICT’spotentialtoforceemployeestoworkfasterandlonger(FuglsethandSørebø,2014);Techno-invasion--ICT’spotentialtoinvadeitsusers’personallife,sothattheyfindthemselvesbeingreachedanywhereatanytime(Tarafdaretal.,2011);Techno-insecurity--thethreatfeltbyusersthattheywilllosingtheirjoborposition,dueeithertobeingreplacedbyanotheremployeewhounderstandstheadvancedtechnologybetterorofbeingreplacingbynewICT,bothwhichcancausestress(Ahmadetal.,2014);Techno-complexity--thecomplexityoftheinformationsystemusedinanorganization,whichforcesitsuserstospendmoretimeandefforttogaintherequiredICTskillsinordertoobligeothercompaniesandvendorstokeepupbymeansof the latesthardware, software, andapplications (Raišienėand Jonusauskas,2013);andTechno-uncertainty--theconstantchanges,upgrades,andamendmentsmadetoexistingICTsystems,ortheconstantadoptionanddeploymentofnewtechnologyinorganizations,whichmaycauseemployeesinthefieldtoloseconfidenceandfeelstressed(FuglsethandSørebø,2014;RaišienėandJonušauskas2013).Theyfeelanxiousandfrustratedbecausetheirknowledgesoquickly


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becomesobsoleteandbecauseofthepressuresputonthemtolearnandadoptnewtechnologies(Tarafdaretal.,2007).

2.2. Technostress InhibitorsInordertoreducetheimpactoftechnostresscreators,organizationscouldfocustheireffortontechnostressinhibitors(situationalvariablesintheorganizationalenvironment)whichaccordingtoRagu-Nathanetal.,(2008)includethefollowing:1)literacyfacilitation--influencestherelationshipbetweenthetechnostressandthetaskcomplexity(Saganuwanetal.,2015).ItreferstosupportmechanismsintermsofeducatingtheemployeesbyestablishinggoodrelationshipswiththeICTdepartmentandsharingknowledgethroughtraining.Thisdecreasesthenumberofmistakesmadebytheemployeeandspeedsuplearning(FuglsethandSørebø,2014).Suchpracticesmayhelpinreducingtechno-complexity;2)technicalsupportprovision--referstotheassistanceandtechnicalsupportmechanismsprovidedtoprofessionalsinthecontextoftheiruseofICTs(Tarafdaretal.,2010);and3)involvementfacilitation--themechanismsthatkeepemployeesinvolvedinadoptinganddevelopingICT,inallthephasesfromsysteminitiation,throughplanning,process,anddevelopmentuptotesting.Employeescanprovideinputsandsuggestionsregardingthesystem’sfeatures,whichwillincreasethevalueandqualityofthesystemandkeeptheemployeessatisfiedwithit(Tarafdaretal.,2010).

3. LITERATURE REVIEw ANd RESEARCH HyPoTHESES

ThefollowingresearchmodeldepictedinFigure1isproposed.Theliteraturereviewandhypothesesfollowthemodel.

3.1. Perceived Performance and organizational CommitmentInthecorporatesector,performanceismeasuredintermsofreturns(Khosrow-Pour,2013).Theincorporationoftechnologyleadstoinnovation,whichhasinmostcasespositiveimplicationsfor

Figure 1. The proposed research model


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returns.Improvingemployees’performanceinanyorganizationreflectsmanypositiveoutcomes,suchassatisfiedemployees(Yücel,2012).OrganizationalcommitmentisdefinedbyColeandBruch(2006)as“anindividual’semotionalattachmenttoandinvolvementinanemployingorganization”.Bothorganizational commitment and job involvement are critical factorswith adirect effect onorganizationalperformance.Commitmenttotheorganization’sobjectivescanhelptheorganizationtoperformatpeak level.Therefore, employeeswhoareemotionallyattached toanorganizationworkhardforit,believeintheirorganization’sgoalsandvalues,andintendtocontinuetoworkfortheorganization.Inaddition,employeecommitmenttoanorganizationcanreduceabsenteeismandturnover,andimproveperformance(DixitandBhati,2012).Simosi(2013)developsthenotionoforganizationalcommitmentthroughthreemainstages:Thefirststageiscompliance,whichisthelowestlevelofcommitment.Employeesinthisstageusuallyaccepttheinfluenceofothersintheorganization,inordertogainspecificrewardsorgetbenefitsinreturn,suchaspay.Thesecondstageinorganizationalcommitmentsistheidentificationstage;inthisstage,theemployeeacceptstheinfluenceofothersinordertomaintaintherelationshipwiththeorganization.Theemployeefeelsproudofjoiningthisorganizationduetotheattractivenessoftheorganizationalgoals.Thelaststageistheinternalizationstage,whichisthehighestleveloforganizationalcommitment.Inthisstage,therewillbecongruencebetweentheemployee’spersonalvaluesandtheorganizationalvalues,whichisintrinsicallyrewarding.Severalstudieshaveidentifiedpositiverelationshipbetweenorganizationalcommitmentandperceivedperformance(Khanetal.,2011).AccordingtoMazayedetal.,(2014)thereweresignificantpositiverelationshipsbetweenjobinvolvements,employee’scommitmentandorganizationalproductivity.Organizationswithhighemployeecommitmenttotheorganizationandhighjobinvolvementshowhighperformanceandproductivity.Similarly,DixitandBhati(2012)reportedthatmanagers’commitmenttotheorganizationwassignificantlyrelatedtoperformance.Thus,thefollowinghypothesiswasposited:

H1:Organizationalcommitmentpositivelyinfluencesperceivedperformance.

3.2. Job Satisfaction and organizational CommitmentJobsatisfactionis“apleasureorpositiveemotionalstateresultingfromtheappraisalofone’sjobexperiences” (Locke, 1976, p.1300). Job satisfaction is an important issue for the researcher inorganizationalbehaviorbecausewhenthe jobsatisfaction ishigh,apositivefeelingwillbeheldaboutthejob.However,whenjobsatisfactionislow,anegativefeelingwillbeheld(Robbinsetal.,2013).Previousresearchshowsthatjobdissatisfactionisassociatedwithmanynegativebehaviorssuchaslaborturnover,accidentsintheworkplace,andabsenteeism(JudgeandKammeyer-Mueller,2012;Kammeyer-Muelleretal.,2005;Kinickietal.,2002).Bothjobsatisfactionandorganizationalcommitment,asvariables,affectorganizationaloutcomes(Testa,2001).Jobsatisfactioncanbeakindofresponsetojobrelatedissues,whileorganizationalcommitmentisaglobalresponsetotheorganization.Therefore,organizationalcommitmentismoreconsistentovertimethanjobsatisfaction(EslamiandGharakhani,2012).Manystudieshavefoundpositivecorrelationsbetweenjobsatisfactionandorganizationalcommitment(Yücel,2012;Ragu-Nathanetal.,2008).EslamiandGharakhani(2012)foundthatjobsatisfactionfactors,includingpersonalrelationships,promotions,andfavorableconditionsatworkhavesignificantandpositiveeffectsonorganizationalcommitment.Moreover,Yücel(2012)reportedthatahighlevelofjobsatisfactionresultsinhigherorganizationalcommitmentandlowerturnover.So,Jobsatisfactionispositivelyrelatedtoorganizationalcommitment.AccordingtoKlausetal.,(2014)intheirstudyofITprofessionals,organizationalcommitmentispositivelyrelatedtojobsatisfaction.However,organizationalcommitmentisnegativelyrelatedtorolestress.Similarly,accordingtoRagu-Nathanetal.,(2008),the608respondentswhowereICTusersfromdifferentorganizationsrevealedthattechnostresscreatorsdiminishjobsatisfaction,whichleadstolessorganizationalcommitment.Thus,thefollowinghypothesiswasposited:


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H2:Jobsatisfactionpositivelyinfluencesorganizationalcommitment.

3.3. Technostress Creators and Job SatisfactionTherewereafewattemptsintheorizingtechnostress.Onetheoldesttheoriesisthetheoryofself-regulatingsystemsandcyberneticsintroducedbyWiener(1948)inwhichoriginallydescribedthemachinecontrolmechanism,however,ithasbeenusedtounderstandhumancognitiveprocesses.AnotheroneofthesetheoriesisCyberneticTheoryofStress,CopingandWell-BeinginOrganizationsintroducedbyEdwards (1992)which startswith an individual perception about a situation, andthenthissituationwillbecomparedtoconditionsthataremoredesirable.Asaresult,therecouldbe discrepancies between the two cases, which could create the stress (e.g., technostress). Thisstresswillhaveanegativeeffect(tension)onwell-being,whichleadstoeitherreducingthesourceofthestress(technostresscreators)orcopingwithitbyemployingtechnostressinhibitors(FischerandRiedl,2015).Inthisstudy,webasedourmodelontheTransaction-BasedModelofStressandCopingTheory(Lazarus,1966;McGrath,1976;LazarusandFolkman,1984;Cooperetal.,2001;andTarafdaretal.,2010).

Technostressisconsideredanegativephenomenon.Someresearchersbelievethatitmaycauseafeelingofdeterioratingmemory,impatiencewithothersandincreasingtheinabilitytorest(RaišienėandJonušauskas2013).Ragu-Nathanetal.,(2008)bringouttheideaofauserbeingdiscontented;they describe excessive stress in relation to ICT use as an aspect that could lead to displeasureamongworkers.Tarafdaretal.,(2010)discoveredaspectswherebytechnostressnegativelyaffectsanemployee’ssatisfaction,withparticularreferencetotheuseofICT.Originally,thefivetechnostresscreators were developed by Tarafdar et al., (2007) consists of techno-overload, techno-invasion,techno-insecurity,techno-complexity,andtechno-uncertainty.

AccordingtoastudybyTuetal.,(2005)aboutcomputer-relatedtechnostress,theorganizationsthat reward their employees for increasing their computer skills and literacy often cause themsignificantly more technostress, because rewards make users to work longer than they are able.Moreover,accordingtoMoore(2000)inastudyofITprofessionalsandmanagersfromtheUnitedStatesinvariousindustries,workoverloadwasthestrongestcontributortoexhaustionamongthetechnologyworkers.Also,inthestudyofAyyagari(2012)ofworkingprofessionals,informationoverload or techno-overload is positively related to technostress. Moreover, Barley et al. (2011)studiedemailsasasourceofstress.Seventy-nineemployeesfromthreedifferentdepartments inaninternationalcompanyparticipatedandtheresultsrevealedthatthemoretimepeoplespentonhandlingtheire-mail,thegreaterwastheirfeelingofbeingoverloaded,whichincreasedthesenseoftechnostress.Thestudyrevealedthat75percentofemployeesusefiltersandotherfeaturestoreduceunwantedandunimportantemails.Fortyfivepercentoftheemployeessufferedfromtwotypesofe-mailanxiety:thattheywouldlosecontroloftheinflowofe-mailsandthat,theywouldmissimportantinformation.

Techno-overload or work overload can cause anxiety and stress by involving long difficultworkinghoursand thepressure toworkovertime,whichresult indissatisfaction.Dissatisfactionresultsinhealthissuesandpoorjobperformance.Theaggregateresultisreducedjobsatisfaction(AltafandAwan,2011).Informationandworkoverloadcancreatemorestressandemployeesmayfeeldissatisfiedandfrustratedatwork.ThestudyofPradanaandSalehudin(2013)ofthe41auditorsfromaccountingfirmsoperatingintheJakartaregionindicatedthatworkoverloadhasasignificanteffectinincreasingtheintentiontofindanewjobthatismoresatisfying.

Thegrowthofthecompetitivebusinessenvironmentmakesemployeesorganizationcarefultoensurethattheycanbereachedwhenevertheyareneeded,whateverthetime,sincetheorganizationsareexpectedtorunwithoutinterruption.ThisletsorganizationsmonopolizethetimeandlocationofthoseworkersinvolvedwithIT,whoinconsequencecannotspendenoughtimewiththeirfamilyandfriends(SmithandSalvendy,2013).Theavailabilityofcomputingintranetandextranetdevices


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andmobilecommunicationenablesemployeestobealwaysconnectedwiththefirmandneverfeelfreefromthetechnology,whichcauseswhatiscalledtechno-invasion.

TheinterventionofICTintoemployees’privacyatworkandathome,blurringtheboundariesbetweenthem;thisincreasesstressandreducesjobsatisfaction.Constantconnectivitymaycauseemployeestolosecontroloverbothtimeandspace.Thesenseofsatisfactionandsecurityinverselyaffectsemployeeswhentheyhavenoprivacyandarealwaysoncall(Tuetal.,2008).

Employees may experience anxiety and dissatisfaction because of spending more time onlearningmoreaboutICTtocomplywiththeorganizationalrequirements;theiracquiredknowledgequicklybecomesobsolete,whichcausestechno-complexity.Employeestendtofeelthatthevarietyofapplicationsandfunctionshasinrecentyearsgrownincreasinglycomplexinitstechnicalterminologyandcapabilities(Ibrahimetal.,2014;Tuetal.,2008).Manyemployeesdonotunderstandhowthistechnologyshouldbeusedintheirorganization.AccordingtothestudybyAyyagarietal.,(2011),workoverloadandroleambiguitywerefoundtobethetwomostdominantstressors.Intheirframework“IntegratedTheoreticalFrameworkofTechnostressBasedonCybernetics”FischerandRiedl,(2015)emphasizethejobcharacteristicswhichincludejobcontrolandjobcontentandthetechnologicalenvironment(e.g.,rapidchangesandreliability).

EmployeesfeelthreatenedandinsecureoverthepossibilityoflosingtheirjobbywhennewICTisadoptedorofotheremployeeswithbetterandnewertechnologicalknowledgeandskillstakingtheirjobfromthem(techno-insecurity).AccordingtoAhmadetal.(2012),thetechno-insecuritywaslesssignificantthanothercreatorsoftechnostress.Moredissatisfactionintheworkplaceresultsfromthehightechno-insecurityamongtheusersoftheinformationsystems(Oncioiu,2013).Iftheycannotadapt tonewworkprocesseswiththenewtechnologyandcannotcopewiththelearningrequirements,theywillincreasinglyfeeljobdissatisfaction.Employeesmayexperienceanxietyandfeeltheirjobstabilitybeingthreatened,whichincreasesthedissatisfactionwhentheyperceivetheircomputerknowledgetobeinadequate(Ibrahimetal.,2014;Tuetal.,2008).AccordingtoBuitendachandDeWitte,(2005),therelationshipbetweenjobinsecurity,jobsatisfactionandorganizationalcommitment,ahigherscoreofjobinsecurityisassociatedwithalowerscorefortotaljobsatisfaction.

Almost all organizations constantlyupgrade and introducenewapplications and systems inordertokeeppacewiththenewtechnologyandinresponsetothecompetitivepressures;althoughthiscausestechno-uncertainty.Theconstantrequirementforemployeestoupdatetheirknowledgeleadstotheirdissatisfaction.Theimplementationofanewtechnologycanalsoleadtogreaterjobdissatisfaction(Tuetal.,2008).AccordingtothestudyconductedbyJayaramanandMaheshkumar(2013)tomeasurethelevelofjobsatisfactionoflibraryprofessionalsinCoimbatorewithjob-relatedfeatures,therespondentswerelesssatisfiedwithregardtothestressexperiencedintermsofdigitalchangesandthecontinuoustrainingrequiredhandlingtheirdigitallibrarytasks.Tarafdaretal.,(2011)studiedITusersfromtwodifferentorganizationsinwhichtheyfoundthatthetechnostressfactorsreducetheendusers’satisfaction,whichalsoaffectstheindividualproductivityintheorganization.Thus,thefollowinghypothesisisposited:

H3:Technostresscreatorsnegativelyinfluencejobsatisfaction.

3.4. Technical Inhibitors and Job SatisfactionAccordingtoShuetal.(2011),thereisarelationshipbetweenself-efficacyandtechno-insecurityandtechno-complexity.Theyfoundthatiftheemployeeshadahigherlevelofcomputerself-efficacy,thentheycouldhavealowerleveloftechnostressrelatedtocomputersandthatadequatetrainingandsupportcouldalleviatetechnostress.Ragu-Nathanetal.,(2008)foundthat,organizationsshouldencourageemployeestoexploreandlearnthenewtechnology,providetechnicalsupportthroughhelpdeskanddemonstrationworkstationandinvolvingemployeesinplanningandimplementingphases.Asmentionedearlier,Technostressinhibitorsincludethreecomponents;literacyfacilitation,technical


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supportprovisionandinvolvementfacilitation.ThesethreecomponentscouldbeexplainedbythecopingpartofthetheoryoftheTransaction-BasedModelofStressandCopingasdescribedbelow.

Aspartoftheirintegratedtechnostressmodel,FischerandRiedl(2015),reportedthatoneofindividualcharacteristicsthatinfluencetechnostressimpactisuser’stechnicalskillsandabilitiessuchascomputerliteracy.LiteracyfacilitationincreasesthelevelofknowledgethatemployeeshaveinanorganizationandencouragesthesharingofITknowledgewithotheremployees,byprovidingtraining,manualsanddocumentationonusingapplicationsandsystems.Moreover, itenablesITuserstocopewithlearningnewICTs.AccordingtoAdekunleetal.,(2007)providingtrainingfortheemployeeswouldallowthemtohaveabetterunderstandingofthenewtechnology,whichwouldreducetheeffectofthetechnostresscreators.Furthermore,Burke(2009)foundinhisstudythatgivingnurseeducatorstechnologicaltrainingallowedthemtoincorporatetechnologyintheclassroomswithlowerlevelsoftechnostress.AccordingtoJonesetal.,(2009),trainingispositivelyandsignificantlyassociatedwithjobsatisfactionandjobsatisfactionispositivelyandsignificantlyassociated,onmostmeasuresofperformance.

Technicalsupportprovisionprovidesuserswithsupportandassistance,whichreducetheeffectof technostressbysolving ITusers’ technicalconcernsandproblems.FischerandRiedl, (2015)suggestthatorganizationalenvironmentwhichincludephysicalenvironment,companyculture,aswell as potential organizational technostress inhibitors (e.g., technical support) (Ragu-Nathan etal.,2008;Wangetal.,2008).Technicalsupportprovisioncanreducebothtechno-complexityandtechno-uncertainty(Tarafdaretal.,2010).InthestudyconductedbyAl-Qallaf(2006),itwasfoundthatthesecondcauseofworkstresswasinsufficienttechnicalsupport.Furthermore,Burke(2009)reportedthatthetechnostresseffectwasreducedwhentherewasadministrativesupportwithintheorganization.Moreover,aneasilyreachedhelpdeskandquickresponsefromthemwill increaseemployee’sjobsatisfaction.AccordingtothestudybyRagu-Nathanetal.,(2008),technicalsupportprovisionasoneofthetechnostressinhibitorsenhancesjobsatisfaction,whichinturn,enhancesthecommitmenttotheorganization.

Involvementfacilitationreferstothemechanismsthatinvolvetheend-userinnewtechnologyandengagesusersintheinitiation,planning,process,developmentandtestingofthesystem.End-userscanprovideinputsandsuggestionsregardingthesystem’sfeatures,which,asnotedabove,increasethesystem’svalueandemployee’ssatisfaction(Tarafdaretal.,2010).AccordingtoKhanetal., (2011), job involvementand jobsatisfactionarecorrelatedandsoare jobsatisfactionandorganizationalcommitment.Moreover,basedonthejusticetheoryresearch,ithasbeenreportedthatthethreedimensions(interactionaljustice,proceduralanddistributivejustice)werepositivelyrelatedtojobsatisfaction(Hao,Hao&Wang,2016;NadiriandTanova,2010).Webelievethatinteractionjustice,whichdealswithfairorunfairtreatmentwithrespecttocommunicationandinvolvementoftheemployeesattheworkenvironment,wouldinfluencejobsatisfaction.Ragu-Nathanetal.,(2008)providedevidence that technostress inhibitors increase jobsatisfaction,which leads to increasedorganizationalcommitment.Thus,thefollowinghypothesiswasposited:

H4:Technostressinhibitorspositivelyinfluencejobsatisfaction.

4. RESEARCH METHodoLoGy

4.1. Instrument developmentAquantitativeapproachusinganonlinesurveywasusedtocollectthedatatotesttheproposedmodel. The survey questionnaire in the current study consisted of two parts. The first partmeasures the variables of interest such as technostress creators, technostress inhibitors, jobsatisfaction, organizational commitment, perceived performance, and culture variables. Theitemsused tomeasure technostressvariableswereadapted fromTarafdarandRague-Nathan


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(2008). Four of the technostress creators (Techno-overload (TOV), Techno-invasion (TIN),Techno-uncertainty(TUN),andTechno-complexity(TCO))containfour itemspereach.Thefifthone(Techno-insecurity(TIS))containsonlythree.Technostressinhibitorsconsistofthreefactors.LiteracyFacilitation(LC)withfiveitems,TechnicalSupportProvision(TSP)withfouritems,andInvolvementFacilitation(IF)withthreeitems.Organizationaloutcomescomprisejobsatisfaction(JST),organizationalcommitment (OC)andperceivedperformance(PRFM)andeachofthesecontainsfouritems.

The second part requested various items of demographic information, including gender,age,employmentsector,educationallevel,thelengthofserviceinthepresentjob,nationality,andthelevelofconfidenceinusingthecomputerandtechnology.ThesurveyquestionnairewasavailableinbothArabicandEnglish.TheauthorstranslatedthesurveyfromEnglishtoArabic.Then,abilingualpersonvalidatedthemeaningofthesurveytoensurethatthemeaningofthequestionshadnotbeenchangedinthetranslationprocess.Someminorchangesweremadeasaresultofpilottestingthesurveyinstrument.Thenfinalversionofthesurveywasprepared.Theparticipantsrespondedtostatementsonafive-pointLikertscale,whichrangedfrom“stronglydisagree”(1)to“stronglyagree”(5).

4.2. Statistical ProcedureTheSPSSandAMOSwereusedtocarryouttheanalysis.SPSSwasusedtocomputefrequencies,means,standarddeviation,reliabilitycoefficients,andprinciplecomponentanalysis.Additionally,aconfirmatoryfactoranalysis(CFA)approachwastakenwithAMOStovalidatethefactorloadingsidentifiedintheprinciplecomponentanalysis.Astructuralmodelwasthenruntestingtheresearchmodelandhypotheses.Asummaryofthestepsofstatisticalanalysisisreportedbelow:

1. Running initialdescriptivestatistics (range,maximum,minimum,mean, standarddeviation,frequencies,andpercentages)forallscale-itemvariables;

2. ReliabilityandvalidityassessmentswereperformedusingCronbach’salpha,correcteditem-totalcorrelations,andexploratoryfactoranalysis.AccordingtoNunnally(1978)thestandardreliabilityvalueofascaleshouldbeabove0.7andfortheminimumacceptablevalueforcorrecteditem-totalcorrelationsis0.5(Hairetal.,2006).Onlyitemswithloadingsofatleast0.50wereretained(Hair,etal.,2006);

3. Themeasurementitemswerefinalized;4. AMOSwasusedtocarryouttheanalysis.Severalgoodness-of-fitindiceswereusedtoassess

thevalidityoftheconstructs;5. Sincethefivecomponentsoftechnostresscreatorsaredistinct,butatthesametimetheyarerelated

andmeasureonefactorandsameargumentistrueforthetechnostressinhibitorcomponents,asecondorderconstructapproachwasusedfortechnostresscreatorcomponentsandtechnostressinhibitors.Moreover,thesefactorswerebasedonatheoreticalmodel(TheTransaction-BasedModelofStressandCopingTheory).

4.3. Sample and data CollectionMostofthepreviousresearchinthisareausedsamplesfromeitherasingleorganizationoraparticularoccupation. Meanwhile, in this study, the target participants were not limited to any particularoccupationsoranysingleorganization.EveryemployeewhousesICTonadailybasisatworkwasapotentialparticipant.ThelinktothesurveywassentmainlythroughmultimediaapplicationssuchastwitterandWhatsApptoascatteredsamplefromthesocietyintheStateofQatar.Sincethesurveylinkwasforwardedtosomeparticipants’familiesandfriends,thetotalsamplethatreferstoallthepersonswhowerepresumablycontactedcouldnotbedetermined;hence,theresponserateisnotreported.Fourhundredsandtenresponseswerereceived;401ofthemwereusable.


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5. dATA ANALySIS

5.1. Characteristics of RespondentsBasedonthedescriptivestatisticsdata,approximatelysixty-sevenpercentofthesampleswerefemales.Thirtysevenpercentofrespondentswerelessthan31yearsold.Thirtytwopercentoftherespondentswerewithintherange31-40andaroundthirty-onepercentoftherespondentsweremorethan41yearsold.Additionally,fifty-fivepercentindicatedthattheywereworkinginthegovernmentsector;forty-fivepercentwereworkinginthesemi-government/privatesector.Aboutseventypercentoftherespondentshadabachelor’sdegree.Thirty-sixpercentoftherespondentshadworkexperienceoflessthan5years.Aroundthirty-fourpercentoftherespondentshadworkexperiencerangingfrom5to10yearsandaroundthirtypercentoftherespondentshadworkexperienceofmorethan10years.Approximately,seventy-fivepercentoftherespondentsindicatedthattheirlevelofcomputerconfidencewaseightorabove,onascalefromoneto10.

5.2. The Psychometric Properties of MeasureAsshowninTable1,theminimumvalueofCronbach’salpha(0.70)wasmetbyallconstructs,assuggestedbyNunnally(1978)andSpicer(2005).TheCronbach’salphavaluesrangedfrom0.777to0.891.Cronbach’salphaisthemostcommonlyusedtesttomeasurethescalesofeachvariablefrommultipleLikertquestionnaires(Field,2009).Twoitems(TIS4andIF1)weredroppedfromtheanalysisbecausetheywereloadedontwofactorswithaloadingvaluegreaterthan0.40.Thevaluesofthecorrelateditem-totalcorrelationsforallitemsshowedahighcorrelation,whichwasanindicationofhighconvergentvalidity.

TheparametersforthestructuralequationmodelillustratedinFigure1wereestimatedbythemaximumlikelihoodmethodusingAMOS24.0.Themodelfit indicesfor themeasurementandstructuralequationmodelsarereportedinTable2.Allfitindicesmettherecommendedvalues.Mostofthestandardizedfactorloadingsforeachconstructwereabovethe0.7levelasshowninFigure2.FollowingtheguidelinesrecommendedbyComreyandLee(1992),thisrepresentsagoodfitofthedata.Itshouldbenotedthatbecauseofsecondorderanalysis;thetechnouncertaintywasdroppedfromtheanalysissinceitsfactorloadingwas0.38.Additionally,thetechnostressinhibitorsfactor,comparedtothetechnostresscreators,loadwellonitsthreesub-constructsasshowninFigure2.

6. RESULTS oF THE STUdy

6.1. Hypothesis TestingAsmentionedearlier,thesecondorderanalysiswasemployed.AsshowninFigure3,allhypotheseswere supported at level of significance less than 0.01. Organizational commitment significantlypredicts perceived performance with standardized coefficient of 0.37 and R2 = 0.13. Moreover,jobsatisfactionissignificantlyassociatedwithorganizationalcommitmentwith thestandardizedcoefficient of 0.74 and R2 = 0.55. The relationship between technostress creators, technostressinhibitorsandjobsatisfactionwassignificant.Whiletechnostresscreatorshaveasignificantnegativeimpactonjobsatisfaction,technostressinhibitorshasasignificantpositiveimpactonjobsatisfactionwithstandardizedcoefficientof-0.25and0.52,respectively.Itshouldbenotedthatallsub-constructsforbothtechnostresscreatorsandinhibitorsweresignificant.

Itshouldbenotedthatthemediatingeffectoforganizationalcommitmentontherelationshipbetweenjobsatisfactionandperceivedperformancewastestedusingthefollowingprocedure:

1. Thecoefficientbetweenjobsatisfactionandorganizationalcommitmentwasestimated(A=0.72)asshowninFigure4;

2. Thedirecteffectofjobsatisfactiononperceivedperformance(coefficientC)wasestimated(C=0.48);


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3. The indirecteffectof jobsatisfactiononperceivedperformancewasestimatedby includingorganizationalcommitmentinthemodel(estimatingC’andB);

4. Tohaveamediationeffectfororganizationalcommitment,thevalueofC’shouldbereducedsubstantiallyorbeclosetozero.Inourcase,wedonothaveevenapartialmediation.InfactusingbootstrappingmethodinAMOS,thesignificancelevel(p-value)forindirecteffectof jobsatisfactiononperceivedperformancewas0.465,whichalsoindicates thelackofmediationpresence.

Table 1. Reliability and validity evaluation

Construct ItemsFactor Loadings Corrected Item-Total

CorrelationsTOV TIN TCO TIS TUN LC TSP IF

TOV1 0.738 0.195 -0.63 0.219 0.136 -0.096 0.125 0.111 0.565

TOV2 0.818 0.170 0.158 -.030 0.111 -0.007 -0.015 0.091 0.704

TOV3 0.774 0.220 0.201 0.89 0.137 0.013 -0.47 -0.02 0.711

TOV4 0.654 0.241 0427 0.003 0.072 0.124 -0.52 -0.104 0.620

TIN1 0.300 0.702 0.120 -0.23 0.047 0.088 -0.009 -0.047 0.582

TIN2 0.159 0.747 0.056 0.83 0.105 0.152 -0.038 0.048 0.599

TIN3 0.219 0.721 0.199 0.99 0.179 0.079 -0.018 0.082 0.652

TIN4 0.070 0.767 0.137 0.084 0.120 -156 0.103 -0.013 0.562

TCO1 0.118 0.033 0.764 0.104 -0.002 -0.089 -0.05 0.097 0.638

TCO2 0.069 0.090 0.860 0.108 0.060 -0.013 -0.048 0.065 0.774

TCO3 0.103 0.306 0.638 0.168 0.084 -0.078 0.059 -0.099 0.560

TCO4 0.105 0.110 0.860 0.137 -0.027 -0.008 -0.008 0.033 0.788

TIS1 0.265 0.096 0.365 0.545 0.062 -0.076 -0.086 -0.025 0.604

TIS2 0.059 0.119 0.207 0.793 0.075 0.069 -0.36 0.006 0.547

TIS3 0.096 0.088 0.253 0.743 0.088 0.007 -0.70 -0.096 0.691

TUN1 0.040 0.086 0.003 -0.067 0.783 0.211 0.100 -0.041 0.635

TUN2 0.158 0.092 0.068 0.02 0.854 0.122 -0.046 0.037 0.768

TUN3 0.078 0.098 0.061 0.134 0.792 -0.056 0.071 0.199 0.680

TUN4 0.128 0.156 0.002 0.100 0.816 0.039 0.088 0.063 0.724

LC1 -0.043 0.012 -0.056 0.052 0.130 0.820 0.209 0.206 0.667

LC2 -0.011 0.074 -0.051 0.015 0.119 0.788 0.304 0.265 0.717

LC3 0.019 0.074 -0.039 -0.006 0.066 0.747 0.337 0.257 0.775

LC4 0.024 0.025 -0.127 -0.005 0.081 0.607 0.356 0.223 0.730

LC5 0.040 0.041 -0.09 -0.001 0.067 0.695 0.378 0.231 0.783

TSP1 0.005 0.015 0.017 -0.111 0.043 0.231 0.793 0.124 0.795

TSP2 -0.033 0.018 0.029 -0.124 0.116 0.229 0.761 0.132 0.756

TSP3 0.008 -0.019 -0.001 0.060 0.018 0.031 0.817 0.129 0.702

TSP4 0.002 -.005 -0.083 0.02 0.045 0.240 0.797 0.136 0.791

IF2 0.070 0.054 0.035 -0.103 0.067 0.365 0.222 0.677 0.619

IF3 0.040 0.018 0.066 0.003 0.084 0.249 0.262 0.726 0.776

IF4 0.018 -0.018 0.024 -0.001 0.122 0.276 0.273 0.761 0.767

Cronbach’s Alpha 0.824 0.790 0.848 0.777 0.857 0.891 0.890 0.849


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Table 2. SEM fit

ParameterEstimate

Recommended ValueMM SM

Chi-square/Degreeoffreedom 2.86 2.27 <=3.0

Goodness-of-fitindex 0.911 .0921 >=0.9

Adjustedgoodness-of-fitindex 0.902 .0912 >=0.8

Normalfitindex 0.915 0.926 >=0.9

Comparativefitindex 0.928 0.931 >=0.9

Standardizedrootmeansquareresidual 0.068 0.058 <=0.08

Figure 2. Measurement model


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Weconclude thatorganizationalcommitmentdoesnotmediate therelationshipbetweenjobsatisfaction and perceived performance. In other words, job satisfaction does not lead to higherperceivedperformancethroughorganizationalcommitment.Furtherinvestigationofthetriangulatedrelationship is worth pursuing. On the other hand, job satisfaction significantly mediates therelationship between technostress inhibitors and organizational commitment (p-value=0.001).Technostress inhibitors would lead to higher perceived performance through job satisfaction.However,themediationeffectofjobsatisfactionontherelationshipbetweentechnostresscreatorsandorganizationalcommitmentwasnotsignificant(p-value=o.127).

7. dISCUSSIoN ANd IMPLICATIoNS

ThisstudyusedtheTransaction-BasedModelofStressandCopingTheoryasabasisfordevelopingandtestingamodeltoinvestigatetheimpactoftechnostresscreatorsandinhibitorsonemployee’sjobsatisfaction,organizationalcommitment,andperceivedperformance.Theresultsofthepresentstudyprovidevaluableadditiontopreviousfindingsinthefieldoftechnostress.Byknowingthetechnostressfactorsthatnegativelyorpositivelyaffectemployees’jobsatisfaction,whichinturn

Figure 3. Model results (standardized path coefficients)

Figure 4. Testing the mediation effect


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affecttheorganizationalcommitment,whichinturnaffectemployee’sperceivedperformance.Onecanfocusonthepositiveeffectsofsomefactorsandmitigatethenegativeeffectsoftheotherfactors.

Theresultsofthisstudyindicatethatorganizationalcommitmenthasasignificantpositiveimpactonperceivedperformance.ThisfindingisinaccordancewithworkdonebyDixitandBhati(2012).Itwasfoundthatemployeesareenthusiasticovershowingtheircommitmenttotheirorganizationsinordertomaximizeproductivity,whichwillfurtherenhancetheorganization’sreputation.Someprevious researchershavefound thatemployeeswhoarehighlycommitted to their jobaremoreproductive (Dixit andBhati 2012;Mazayedet al., 2014).Whencommitment to anorganizationincreases,itgenerallyhelpstheorganizationtoretainemployeesandexperienceglobalcompetition.

Furthermore,theresultrevealedthatjobsatisfactionhasasignificantpositiveimpactontheorganizationalcommitment.ThisfindingisinaccordancewithworksdonebyKlausetal.,(2014)andEslamiandGharakhani,(2012).Jobsatisfactioncandeterminethelevelofcommitmenttotheorganizationsincemostoftheemployeesarewillingtobeinvolvedintheorganization’sdecisions,iftheyaresatisfiedwiththeirjob.Employeeswhoarehappyandcomfortableintheirjobsaremorewillingtostayintheorganization.Usually,highlycommittedemployeesaremorelikelytoaccepttheorganization’svaluesandgoals.Thepositiverelationshipbetweenjobsatisfactionandorganizationalcommitmentwillbenefittheorganization,sinceemployeeswithmoreorganizationalcommitmentwillmakegreateffortstohelptheirorganizationstosucceed.

The findingsalso indicated that job satisfactionmediatesonly the influenceof technostressinhibitors on organizational commitment. Therefore, managers should focus on improving jobsatisfactioninordertoraisethelevelofcommitmenttotheorganization;hence,managersshouldassignreasonabletasksrelatedtotheemployees’jobandimprovetheopportunitiestodeveloptheircareer.

The results also revealed that factor of technostress creators was negatively significant inpredictingjobsatisfaction.Therefore,technostresscreatorsdecreaseemployee’sjobsatisfaction.ThisfindingisinaccordancewithTarafdaretal.,(2010)andAyyagarietal.,(2011).Ifemployeesbelieve that they lacked enoughknowledge about theuseof technology atwork, theyhave tospendmoretimeandeffortinlearninghowtouseanynewtechnologyintheworkspaceinordertoaccomplishtheirtasks,andthentheywillstartdevelopingsymptomsoftechnostress,whichwouldtojobdissatisfaction.Ingeneral,employeesneedmoretimetounderstandandupgradetheirtechnologicalskillstokeeppacewithdevelopmentssincenewtechnologyalwaysrequiresfreshknowledgeandskills.Mostoftheemployeessurveyedfeltthatkeepingupwithnewtechnologybyupdatingtheirskillsandknowledgeaddedmorestressandpressure.Asaresult,employeestendtobecomelesssatisfiedwiththeuseoftechnology.Thisdissatisfactionreducesthewillingnesstoextendtheuseoftechnologyatwork.Inaddition,complicatedtasksarelikelytocausemoretechnostressthansimplertasks.Onetaskmaybeeasierforemployeeswhoknowmoreaboutthetechnology,whilethesametaskmaybemoredifficultforemployeeswhoknowless.Therefore,inordertoreducethenegativeeffectoftechno-complexity,training,rehearsal,setupaseriesofcourseswithespecialreferencetoemployeeswithlessknowledge,teamwork,andsharingknowledgeshouldbealwaysavailablefortheemployeesineveryorganization, includingformanagers, toreducetheanxietyassociatedwithtechnostress.Technicalsupportshouldalwaysbereadyandavailablefortheemployeequestionsandeasyreacheswithquickresponsetothecriticalsituations.Meanwhile,managementshouldinvolveemployeesinthetechnologyimplementationphasesinordertomakethemreadyforthenewtechnologyandthenewchanges.

The results indicate that respondentshad little fearofbeing replacedorunemployedby thenewtechnologiesorbyotheremployeeswhohaveabetterunderstandingofnewtechnologies.ThisresultisconsistentwithAhmadetal.(2012)andŞahinandÇoklar(2009)andAhmadetal.(2014).Employeesbelievedthatinvasionoftechnologyintoemployees’privateliveswereminimal.ThisfindingisalsoconsistentwithAhmadetal.(2012).Anexplanationforthisfindingisthatmostoftheorganization’ssystemsareaccessibleonlyonsite,whereasworkingoutsidetheofficeandafter


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officehoursislimited.Asaresult,employeesfeltthattherewasnointerferencebytechnologyintheirprivatelives.

Theresultsindicatethattechnologyoverloadlevelwasalsominimal.Thisfindingisconsistentwith the result ofTu et al., (2005).Usingnew technologies pushes employees towork faster.Nevertheless,theQataricultureoftenencouragesemployeestoendureworkoverloadratherthanquittheirjobs.However,extremelyhighoverloadmayoverwhelmemployees’lives.Extraworkmayincreaseanxietyandwillaffecttheemployee’sperformanceinthelong-run.Therefore,organizationsshouldgivemoreattentiontotheriskofoverloadingemployeeswithextratechnological tasksin order to increase their productivity. In addition, organizations have to introduce any newtechnologiesrationallyandgradually.Moreover,rewardsandencouragementfromthemanagementtotheemployeeswhousenewtechnologiesmayimprovetheirperformance.However,excessivetechnologymayleadtotechnostress.

The resultsof this studyalso revealed that, collectively, technostress inhibitorsare found tobesignificantpredictorsfor jobsatisfaction.Thisfindingsupports theresultsofRagu-Nathanetal.,(2008),Tarafdaretal.(2010),andTarafdaretal.(2011).Mostoftherespondentsagreedthatprovidingtrainingfortheemployeeswouldhaveapositiveimpactontheirjobsatisfaction.Itwouldmakethemfeelmoresecure,appreciatedandessentiallyneededbytheorganization,whichinturnwillleadtohigherlevelofjobsatisfaction.Thus,managersneedtoincreasetheleveloftechnologicalawarenessbyprovidingmoretraining,knowledgesharing,teamwork,andcreatingusers’manualsandcleardocumentations foranynewsystemorapplication, inorder to reduce the technostressnegativeoutcomes.Mostoftherespondentsagreedthatparticipationindecision-makingduringtheplanningandimplementationprocesswouldpositivelyinfluencejobsatisfaction.Employeeswouldbemoresatisfiedwiththeirjobsifmanagersgivethemthechancetoparticipateandbeinvolvedinsomeissuesrelatedtotheirworkenvironment.Inaddition,involvingtheemployee’sindecision-makingcanbenefitboththeemployeeandtheorganization.Thiswillbenefittheorganizationbydevelopingabetterdecisionfromthetechnicalperspectiveandtheissuesthatmightoccur,andwillbenefittheemployeestobemorefamiliarwiththesystemsevenbeforethefinalimplementation.Finally,assistanceandtechnicalsupportcanhelptoreducethetechnostressoutcomesbyprovidingfacilities such as an accessible help desk in order to answer employees’ queries and solve theirtechnicalproblems.Wecanconcludethattechnostressinhibitorscanreducetheintensityandnegativeoutcomesof the technostress creator factors and so further enhanceemployees’ job satisfaction.Forexample,training,teamworkprograms,andITdepartmentsupportwouldpositivelyinfluenceemployees’jobsatisfaction.Additionally,involvingemployeesinthedecisionsrelatedtoimplementingnewtechnologieswould increase theirsatisfaction.Reducing theuncertaintyoverusing thenewtechnologieswouldincreasethepositiveimpactofthetechnostressinhibitorsonjobsatisfactionandreducethefearofanycomplexity,overload,uncertainty,invasion,andinsecuritygeneratedfromthetechnology,whichinturnwouldincreasejobsatisfaction.

Thereareseveralimportantimplicationsforbothpractitionersandresearchersrevealedfromtheresultsofthisstudy.ThisstudyconfirmedtheapplicabilityoftheoftheTransaction-BasedModelofStressandCopingTheoryinanewcontext.Apotentialfuturestudycouldbeemployingalternatemethodstomeasuretechnostress,forexample,experimentaldesignbymeasuringtechnostressbeforeandafterimplementingnewtechnology.Moreover,demographicfactorscouldbeusedasmoderatorstoidentifybothtechnostresscreatorsandinhibitorsandtoexaminewhethertheprimaryrelationshipsinthemodeldifferforvariousdemographicgroups,suchasthoseformedbyage,gender,employmentsector,educationallevel,andlengthofservice.Researcherscouldfocusonthepossiblestressfulimpactsoftechnologyonendusersatcertaintimesoftheyear.Professionalsincertainfieldsmightexperiencehigherstresslevelsatpredictableintervals.Researchersmightfocusonthetechnostresseffects considering the technology type, for example, phones, computers or tablets. Moreover,researchersmayreplicatethestudyonalargerscaletoincludeothercountries.Anotherplausiblefutureresearchcouldbeconsideringthecultureimpactinthefutureresearchmodelssinceithas


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beenprovensignificant.Finally,thestudycouldbeutilizedasabasisforconductingcomparativestudiesbetweendevelopedandemergingcountries.

Theresultsofthestudyhavevaluableimplicationsforpractitioners.Managershastofocusonincreasingemployee’scommitmentbyusingthedevelopedmodeltoassessthetechnostresslevel,sincethismodelisnotforaspecifictechnology,asitcouldbecustomizedtofitdifferentdepartments.Resultsalsorevealthatjobsatisfactionhasapositiveimpactonorganizationalcommitment.Therefore,involvingemployeesinallthephasesfromthesysteminitiationuptosystemtestingwouldhaveagreatimpactonreducingtechnostresscreatorsandincreasingjobsatisfactionandorganizationalcommitment.Managersshouldhireknowledgeableandwellqualifiedstaffin“helpdesk”sectiontoansweremployee’squestions.Moreover,Short response timefor technicalsupportandahelpdesk available 24/7 would help employees to reduce their stress and anxiety, and there will befewerdisturbancesintheworkflow.Managersshouldfocusoncreatingaclimateofteamworkandensuringapositiveengagementwiththeemployees,aswellasbuildingtrustbetweentheemployeesandthemselves.Organizationsshoulddisseminatetechnologyknowledgethroughdifferenttrainingprograms.Itiscriticaltogetsomesupportfromthehighermanagementleveltogettheirresourcesandcommitment.Managementshouldprovideseriesoftechnicalcoursessuchassystemapplicationsproductsandnon-technicalcoursessuchasleadershipandteamworkcoursestoimproveemployee’stechnical knowledge, in addition to improve employee’s capabilities at all levels taking greaterresponsibilityfortheirworks,workingbettertogether,andcommunicatingmoreeffectively.Preparinga good manual and procedures, providing clear documentation and sharing knowledge betweenemployeescanreducetechnostress.Finally,managersshouldassignreasonableamountoftaskstotheemployeestoimprovetheopportunitiestodeveloptheircareer.

8. RESEARCH LIMITATIoNS

Thepresentstudyhassomelimitations,whichshouldbeconsideredwheninterpretingtheresults.First,therelativelysmallsamplesize,whichnonethelesswasadequateforthenumberofvariables.Thissmallsamplesizemadeitimpracticalforthepresentstudytorandomlydividethesampleintosubsamples,asrecommendedbyBreckler(1990).Alargersamplesizewouldensurethatsufficientnumbersofvalidquestionnaireswerecollected;itwouldenhancethevalidityandlessentheriskofbiasedresults.Comparedtopreviousstudiesintechnostress,suchasTarafdaretal.(2007)andRagu-Nathanetal. (2008), the sampleof401 in thecurrent studywaswithinacceptable levels.Second,datawerecollectedatasinglepointintime.Therefore,researchinfuturecouldconsiderlongitudinaldatatofurtherimprovetheproposedmodel.Moreover,inthecurrentstudy,themeasureoftechnostressdidnotincludephysiologicalsymptomssuchasbloodpressure,butthestudymightbemorevaluableifsuchafactorwasintroduced.Moreover,aplausiblefutureresearchcouldbeinvestigatingtheimpactoftheculturaldimensionsontheproposedresearchmodelsinceemployeesfromdifferentmentalprogrammingandculturalgroupswillholddifferentvalues,whichmayleadthemtoengageindifferentbehavior.


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APPENdIX

Table 3. List of scale items

Construct Item Description Mean Std. Deviation

Techno-overloadα=0.824

TOV1 Iamforcedbytechnologytoworkmuchfaster 3.5087 1.15566

TOV2 IamforcedbytechnologytodomoreworkthanIcanhandle 3.0823 1.21067

TOV3 Iamforcedbytechnologytoworkwithverytighttimeschedule 3.2045 1.19502

TOV4 Ihaveahigherworkloadbecauseofincreasedtechnologycomplexity 3.0948 1.28101

Techno-invasionα=0.790

TIN1 Ispendlesstimewithmyfamilyduetotechnologyadvancement 3.6259 1.25089

TIN2 Ihavetobeintouchwithmyworkevenduringmyvacationduetotechnologyadvancement 3.5761 1.27469

TIN3 Ihavetosacrificemyvacationtokeepcurrentonnewtechnologies 2.8628 1.22827

TIN4 Ifeelmypersonallifeisbeinginvadedbytechnologyadvancement 3.5012 1.24323

Techno-complexityα=0.848

TCO1 IdonotknowenoughaboutICTstohandlemyjobsatisfactorily 2.3441 1.06361

TCO2 Ineedalongtimetounderstandandusenewtechnologies 2.3441 1.08456

TCO3 Thenewtechnologiescanbeconfusing 3.0299 1.16581

TCO4 Ioftenfindittoocomplexformetounderstandandusenewtechnologies 2.4065 1.08713

Techno=insecurityα=0.777

TIS1 Ifeelaconstantthreattomyjobsecurityduetonewtechnologies 2.3641 1.12121

TIS2 Ihavetoconstantlyupdatemyskillstoavoidbeingreplaced 2.9751 1.24474

TIS3 Iamthreatenedbyco-workerswithnewertechnologyskills 2.5012 1.19190

TIS4 Idonotsharemyknowledgeabouttechnologywithmyco-workersforfearofbeingreplaced 1.9152 1.00886

Techno-uncertaintyα=0.857

TUN1 Therearealwaysnewdevelopmentsinthetechnologiesweuseinourorganization 3.8404 .95628

TUN2 Thereareconstantchangesincomputersoftwareinourorganization 3.6035 1.00989

TUN3 Thereareconstantchangesincomputerhardwareinourorganization 3.3017 1.07760

TUN4 Therearefrequentupgradesincomputernetworksinourorganization 3.5511 1.00896

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Construct Item Description Mean Std. Deviation

LiteracyFacilitationα=0.824

LC1 Ourorganizationencouragesknowledgesharingtohelpdealwithnewtechnology 3.7830 .93290

LC2 Ourorganizationemphasizesteamworkindealingwithnewtechnology-relatedproblems 3.7756 .94578

LC3 Ourorganizationprovidesend-usertrainingbeforetheintroductionofnewtechnology 3.6384 1.09381

LC4 OurorganizationfostersagoodrelationshipbetweenITdepartmentandendusers 3.7606 1.02837

LC5 Ourorganizationprovidescleardocumentationstoendusersonusingnewtechnologies 3.6534 1.04978

TechnicalSupportProvisionα=0.891

TSP1 Ourend-userhelpdeskdoesagoodjobofansweringquestionsabouttechnology 3.8055 .92036

TSP2 Ourend-userhelpdeskiswellstaffedbyknowledgeableindividuals 3.8105 .88260

TSP3 Ourend-userhelpdeskiseasilyaccessible 3.8454 .93597

TSP4 Ourend-userhelpisresponsivetoend-userrequests 3.8155 .82514

InvolvementFacilitationα=0.890

IF1 Ourend-usersareencouragedtotryoutnewtechnologiesinourorganization 3.6908 .96909

IF2 Ourend-usersarerewardedforusingnewtechnologiesinourorganization 3.0349 1.19112

IF3 Ourend-usersareconsultedbeforetheintroductionofnewtechnologiesinourorganization 2.9950 1.15541

IF4 Ourend-usersareinvolvedintechnologychangeand/orimplementationinourorganization 3.1347 1.12331

JobSatisfactionα=0.895

JST1 IlikedoingthethingsIdoatwork 4.0998 .83368

JST2 Ifeelasenseofprideindoingmyjob 4.2369 .83740

JST3 Myjobisenjoyable 3.9401 .93081

JST4 IamsatisfiedwiththefeelingofaccomplishmentIgetfrommyjob 3.9825 .92585

OrganizationalCommitmentα=0.827

OC1 Iwouldbehappytospendtherestofmycareerinthisorganization 3.5536 1.18437

OC2 Ienjoydiscussingmyorganizationwithpeopleoutsideit 3.6209 1.09816

OC3 Ireallyfeelasifthisorganization’sproblemsaremyown 3.3791 1.17727

OC4 Thisorganizationhasgreatdealofpersonalmeaningforme 3.7930 1.02691

PerceivedPerformanceα=0.936

PRFM1 Thetechnologyhelpstoimprovethequalityofmywork 4.1347 .81659

PRFM2 Thetechnologyhelpstoimprovemyproductivity 4.0923 .84496

PRFM3 Thetechnologyhelpsmetoaccomplishmoreworkthanwouldotherwisebepossible 4.0623 .86522

PRFM4 Thetechnologyhelpsmetoperformmyjobbetter 4.1397 .84288

Table 3. Continued

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Muna Al-Ansari is a Network Engineer with extensive experience and management skills, and works for ten years in Qatar Petroleum company in the IT department, specifically in ITN section Infrastructure and Unified Communication sections. She graduated from Qatar University with B.Sc in Computer Engineering in 2009 and a Master of Business Administration (MBA) in 2015. As a senior network engineer she is responsible for planning and implementing ICT infrastructure, communication solutions and services, enhance service delivery and maintain reliable, resolve complex networking issues. Possessing effective organizational skills and excellent working knowledge of networking technologies and having a commitment to keep up to date with the latest technologies and developments. Miss. Muna Al-Ansari has an outstanding certifications include Cisco Certified Network Associate (CCNA), Cisco Certified Network Associate Voice (CCNA Voice), Cisco Certified Design Associate (CCDA), Cisco Certified Network Professional (CCNP), Project Management Professional Program, and Foundations of Business Analysis.

Khaled A. Alshare is a professor of Information Systems at Qatar University. He received his Ph.D. from the University of Texas at Arlington. His teaching interests include database systems, systems analysis and design, strategic MIS, business analytics, and project management. His research interests include technology acceptance, behavioral information security, cross-cultural studies in MIS, distance education, and data envelopment analysis. His work appeared in various academic journals. He has served in numerous professional organizations such as the Decisions Sciences Institute DSI (session chair, reviewer), SWDSI (President of SWDSI, program chair, council member, track chair, session chair, discussant, and reviewer), AMCIS (mini-track chair, session chair, and reviewer), and The Consortium for Computing Sciences in Colleges (board member, papers chair, and treasurer).

the impact of technostress components on the employees

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