the effects of traditional learning and a learning cycle inquiry learning strategy on students'...
DESCRIPTION
pedagogy scienceTRANSCRIPT
NOTE TO USERS
This reproduction is the best copy available.
UMI
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
THE EFFECTS O F TRADITIONAI. LEARNING ANI> A LEARNING CYCI.C
INQUIRY l„EARNING STRATEGY ON STUDENTS’ SCIENCE
ACHIEVEM ENT AND ATTITUDES TOW ARD
ELEM ENTARY SCIENCE
A Dissertation Presented to
The Faculty o f the College o f Education of
Ohio University
In Partial Fulfillment
O f the Requirement for the Degree
Doctor o f Philosophy
by
All Ebrahini
June, 2004
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
UMI N um ber: 3 1 2 9 1 2 9
INFORMATION TO USERS
The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy
submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and
photographs, print bleed-through, substandard margins, and improper
alignment can adversely affect reproduction.
In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript
and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized
copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion.
UMIUMI Microform 3129129
Copyright 2004 by ProQuest Information and Learning Company.
All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against
unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code.
ProQuest Information and Learning Company 300 North Zeeb Road
P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
I'his dissertation has been approved
for the Department o f Teacher Education
and the College o f Education by
Protessor o f Teacher Education
Dewfof the College o f EducaM i
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
DEDICATION
I would like to dedicate this dissertation to my dear parents, may it make them
proud o f me. Thanks are also due to my kind, dear, and patient wife for her
encouragement with beneficial knowledge and experience to complete this study. Also,
to my three precious children— Afnan, Saiid, and Falimah - I offer my research as a
dedication to all o f you in hope that you too will continue to search for the truth that, leads
you to a deep and rich faith in God’s power.
Ill
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
1 would like to express my appreciation to all of those who have helped me
throughout the course o f this study. During the entire length o f the present research, one
person has been a protessor, advisor, director toward success, and supporter to finish up
my academic journey with excellent experiences: Dr. Ralph Martin. Thank you. Dr.
Martin. You have been one o f the best examples of university teaching and educating.
I would also like to fiuther acknowledge Dr. Colleen who was flexible,
sympathetic, and emboldened to me to do my best in getting the most 1 could out o f rny
endeavors. I would also like to offer my .sincere appreciation to Dr. Brooks and Dr.
Franklin, who provided meaningful advice and encouragement enabling me to complete
my mission. Finally, I gratefully acknowledge all professors and colleagues for their
teaching and friendship during my stay in the United States.
IV
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
Table of Contents
Page
Dedication.............................................................................................................................. ...iii
Acknowledgment...................................................................................................................... iv
List o f Tables.............................................................................................................................viii
List o f Figures............................................. ............................................................................. ix
I. Introduction............................................................................................................................1
An Overview o f the Educational System in the State o f Kuwait............................. 4
The Purpose o f the Study............................................................................................... 9
Signi ficance o f the Study................................................................................................9
Statement o f the Problem................................................................................................10
Research Questions..........................................................................................................II
Statistical Hypotheses..................................................................................................... 11
Assumptions..................................................................................................................... 12
Definition o f Terms......................................................................................................... 12
Limitations o f the Study................................................................................................. 15
Outline of the Study........................................................................................................ 16
II. Literature Review.................................................................................................................18
Introduction.................................................................................. 18
Traditional Learning Strategies.....................................................................................21
Effect on Students’ Academic Achievement................................. 23
Effect on Students’ Attitudes........................................................................................ 25
inquiry Learning Strategies........................................................................................... 26
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
Effect on Students’ Academic Achievement..................... 29
Effect on Students’ Altitudes........................................................ 35
A Comparison o f the Effect o f Inquiry f.earning and 1’raditional .[..earning Strategies
on Students’ Academic Achievement and Attitudes Toward Science.....................41
Summary. ................................................................................. 50
III. Methodology....................................................................................................................... 52
.Introduction.................................................................................................... 5.2
Statistical Hypotheses.......................................... 52
V ariables..........................................................................................................................53
Population and Sample...................................................................................................54
Subjects.............................................................................................................................54
Setting...............................................................................................................................57
Instruments.......................................................................................................................59
Validity and Reliability o f the Instruments................................................................. 61
Validity o f the Instmments............................................................................................ 62
Reliability of the .Instruments........................................................................................63
Data Collection Procedure.............................................................................................64
Data Analysis Procedure................................................................................................65
Summary..........................................................................................................................67
IV. Results.................................................................................................................................68
Research Questions........................................................................................................ 71
.Descriptive Statistics......................................................................................................71
Data Analysis.................................................................................................................. 72
VI
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
The Assumptions o f M ANOVA ............................................. ........................ 74
The Overall Multivariate Result................................................................. ................ 77
The Univariate Result. ....................................... .....................................................81
Summary..........................................................................................................................84
V. Summary, Discussion and Conclusion, and Recommendations..................................85
Summary...........................................................................................................................85
Discussion and Conclusion................................................................. ................... 87
'Recommendations.................................................... ..................................................... 93
Summary.................................................................................... .....................................97
References........................................................................................................................ 98
Appendices....................................................................................................................... 107
Appendix A Achievement test...................................................................................108
Appendix B Attitude survey...................................................................................... 112
Appendix C Reliability Analysis-Pilot Study........................................................... 116
Appendix D Pre-Post Test o f Reliability..................................................................119
Appendix E Pre-Comparison Test............................................................................ 124
Appendix F Sample of Lesson Plans........................................................................ 129
Appendix G Abstract.................................................................................................. 133
vn
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
List o f Tables
Table Page
2.1 A comparison between the traditional learning and the learning cycle ........... 48
3.1 Subjects and setting o f the study.......................................................................................57
4.1 Pre-test Achievement Score Comparisons...................................................................... 69
4.2 Gender.................................................................................................................................. 72
4.3 Method of Teaching........................................................................................................... 72
4.4 Descriptive Statistic.s for the Test o f Nonnality o f Botli Academic Achievement and
Attitude.s When Utilizing Learning Cycle {iiquiry Learning and Traditional Lectxire-
Recitation Learning Methods With Both Male and Fema!e4th Grade Students.............. 75
4.5 Box’s Test o f Equality o f Covariance Matrices............................................................. 77
4.6 The Multivariate Tests....................................................................................................... 78
4.7 MANOVA Test for Academic Achievement and Attitudes Gain Scores By
Instructional Method................................................................................................................. 79
4.8 M ANOVA Test for Students Academic Achievement and Attitudes Gain Scores by
Gender.........................................................................................................................................80
4.9 Tests o f Between Subjects Effects............................................................................ 82
4.10 Gender and Method o f Teaching....................................................................................83
via
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
List o f Figures
Figure Page
1.1 Tlie 4-E Learning Cycle........................................................................... ....1,3
3.1 The Research Design Utilized for This Study......................... 58
4.1 The Normal Distribution o f the Students Academic Achievement..................................76
4.2 The Nomial Distribution for the Students Attitudes........................ 76
4.3 Estimated Marginal Means o f Gains Attitudes.................................................................... 83
IX
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
CHAPTER ONE
Introduction
Since the 1960’s, science has become a main instructional thrust in the schools of
the developing world. Kuwait is among the nations that are working to match the
standards o f the developed world, and has placed increasing emphasis upon science in its
schools. Kuwaiti educators have realized the necessity of challenging students’ thinking
in order to face and cope with the ever-changing world o f science. To meet different
challenges, Kuwaiti educators must implement an instructional approach that enriches the
ability o f students to offer reasoned judgments and creative solutions. Science should
seek to prepare new generations to adjust to modem life and thus ensure success for all.
Educators, who are accountable for producing an educated society, must adapt to this fact
and design a proper educational environment, which can move parallel with the change
and produce citizens for a new millennium.
The educational environment in schools should be a result o f effective teaching
styles. Smith (1990) states:
The way teachers teach is a very critical element in students’ learning. Delisle
stated that It’s how we teach, not what we teach that makes a lasting impact on
our students. The teaching style used by teachers includes classroom rules,
classroom climate, methods o f reinforcement, attitude toward students, and
interactions with students (p. 243).
Helping students gain proficient thinking skills to overcome situations encountered in
real life is a recent goal of science educators. For example, in 1996, the United States’
National Science Education Standards attempted to emphasize to science teachers the
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
importance o f engaging students in probtems that emphasize step-by-step procedures,
initiate the primary basis o f thinking, and analyze a situation by using reasoning skills
and creative abilities to link teamed knowledge with given knowledge to overcome a
specific situation (NSES, 1996). These standards indicate that:
Effective teachers continually create opportunities that challenge students and
promote inquiry by asking questions. Altliough open exploration is useful for
students when they encounter new materials and phenomena, teachers need to
intervene to focus and challenge the students, or the exploration might not lead to
understanding. Premature intervention deprives students o f the opportunity to
confront problems and solutions, but intervention that occurs too late risks
students’ fiustration. Teachers also must decide when to challenge students to
make sense o f their experiences: at these points, students should be asked to
explain, clarify, and critically examine and assess their work (p. 23).
Therefore, educators have worked hard to create, develop, and introduce good science
education programs especially at the elementary level, because through science and
science education programs students can study the world and make sense o f it. A good
science education program in elementary schools lets children experience the joy and
excitement o f finding answers, solving problems, doing meaningful activities, posing and
responding to thoughtful questions, and seeking answers by applying investigative
techniques.
Efforts to reinvent education in the sciences have been done over the ptist 25
years. Learning to learn became the major policy common to all countries that sought to
transform science education. This new way o f teaching helped the student to know how
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
3to apply the ability to majnage and put science knowledge to work in resolving personal,
social, and economic problems and issues (Hurd, 2000),
Recently, inquiry learning has become a major goal o f instniction in science. As
a goal this learning seeks to engage students in a proactive concept o f science
information, one tliat has meaning in human affairs and is supported by curricula that can
be experienced. “The education challenge is a matter o f how to access, synthesize,
codify and interpret science information into a working knowledge that can be used in
personal and civic contexts, a lived curriculum” (Hurd, 2000, p. 282).
In spite o f almost a century o f thought and action, much science teaching still fails
to result in students understanding and using science (Gallagher, 2000). This gap is
widened i f we take gender into consideration. As positive attitudes are the way to higher
scores on achievement tests, numerous studies have suggested that many students,
especially females, associate science with negative feelings and attitudes, which
discourage them from continuing with science inquiry (Weinburgh, 2000). The end
result is that both boys and girls come away from science courses at a high school or
university with an understanding of, or a capability to use, science. So many students
develop fear and dislike for science and a firm commitment not to study it further. Taking
a look into most classrooms where science is taught at a school or university will show
that memorization, not understanding, is the prominent operational goal. Most o f the
instruction in science focuses on helping students amass information about scientific
ideas through teacher lecture and student recitation, but neither foster the development of
understanding o f these ideas, nor does typical instruction help them learn how to apply
the concepts outside o f school in the real world in which they live. Gallagher (2000)
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
stated that application o f knowled,ge is a central part o f learning because o f the
following reasons:
1. Students identify practical applications o f concepts.
2. Application and experiences help the students make connections between
concepts and “real world” experiences in ways that enrich their mderstanding
o f the concepts.
3. Knowledge o f one set o f concepts forms the foundation for learning about
other concepts.
In this study, the researcher compared the impact o f traditional learning strategies
and an inquiry learning strategy on students’ academic achievement and attitudes toward
science. In Kuwait “traditional” learning consists o f teacher lecture and student
recitation. While there are many inquiry methods, this study investigated the effects o f
the 4-E learning cycle.
An Overview o f the Educational System in the State o f Kuwait
Kuwait is located at the northwestern corner o f the Arabian Gulf, i.e., at the
northeast comer o f the Arabian Peninsula. On the east Kuwait is bounded by the Arabian
Gulf. Saudi Arabia borders on the south and southwest. Its area is about 6200 square
miles, with a population o f 2 million. Only 45 % o f the population are Kuwaitis, while
the rest o f the population comes from over 120 different countries o f the world.
Education represents the basic background for inclusive progress. The Kuwaiti
government realized that human resources are the most important factor in the
development o f the country. Productive output o f such realization leads to hasty progress
in all educational stages beginning in kindergarten through to the university level
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
5(Ministry o f Planning, the Stale o f Kuwait, 1985), The government o f Kuwait is paying
the utmost attention to this need by spending more than 12% o f its annual income on
education. This philosophy is reflected in the following constitutional provisions, which
define the role o f the state regarding the educational process:
Article 10:
The state cares for the young and protects them from exploitation and from moral,
physical, and spiritual neglect. (The Constitution o f the State o f Kuwait, 1962, p, 7)
Article 13:
Education is a fundamental requisite for the progress o f society, assured and
promoted by the state. (The Constitution o f the State o f Kuwait, 1962, p. 7)
Article 40:
Education is a right for Kuwaitis, guaranteed by the State in accordance with law
and within the limits o f public policy and morals. Education, in its preliminary stages,
shall be compulsory and free in accordance with law. Law shall lay down the necessary
plan to eliminate illiteracy. The State shall devote particular care to the physical, moral,
and mental development o f the youth. (The Constitution o f the State o f Kuwait, 1962, p.
11).
Historically most schools in Kuwait were religiously oriented. The mosques
played the greatest role in educating people in general, and youth in particular. At that
time the main curriculum was the Holy Quran, basic mathematics, reading, and writing.
In 1911, the first fonnal school, Al-Mubarakiah, was established. This school was
supported by donations from merchants and tradei s. In 1921, the second public school,
Al-Ahmadia, was established to serve more people and to increase the number of subjects
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
6in the curriculum. In Al-Ahmadia school teachers began teaching the English language,
besides other subjects such as history and geography. In 1936, a Board o f Education was
founded. Since that date, there has been increased interest in education. The Board of
Education started its work by requesting qualified teachers from Palestine to develop and
assist witli work in the schools.
Formal female education started in 1937. Previously, women who were interested
in teaching the Quran and literacy taught girls in their homes. By 1938, Kuwait had
started sending students abroad for higlier studies. In 1942, secondary or high school
education commenced. Today, females are taught the identical curriculum as males, but
in separate female schools.
Education in the modem sense started after the founding o f tlie Ministry of
Education immediately after Kuwait’s independence in 1961. The states accepted the
responsibility to provide free education to every Kuwaiti from kindergarten to the
university level, including vocational and professional education.
In 1965, a law was issued by the government adopting universal compulsory
education for every Kuwaiti child up to age 18, which covers kindergarten, the
elementary level, the intermediate level, and the secondary level.
The educational system’s educational ladder includes the following stages:
1. Kindergarten: A two-year course ages 4-6.
2. Elementary: A four-year course ages 6-10.
3. Intennediate: A four-year course ages 10-14.
4. Secondary: A four-year course ages 14-18.
5. University study at the University o f Kuwait.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
7In addition to the above-mentioned stages, tliere are many institutions tliat accept
students from both sexes either after the intermediate stage or after the seconda,ry stage
such as:
1. Technical school, after the intennediate level.
2. Commercial Secondary school, after the intermediate level.
3. Religious Institute, after the secondary level
4. Commercial Institute, after the secondary level
5. Health Institute, after the secondary or the intennediate level
6. Special Education Institute.
7. Teacher Training Institute, after the secondary level
8. Technical and Vocational Institute, after the secondary level
From the start, the Ministry o f Education was highly centralized. It directly
controlled the schools and educational units. The system of education and teaching in
Kuwait was designed to employ traditional teaching approaches. In Kuwait lecture is the
primary means o f delivering information to the students, making the classroom teacher
centered. Johnson and Johnson (1983) state, “In an individualistic (traditional) structured
learning situation, students’ goal attainments are unrelated and independent; when one
student achieves his or her goal, the goal attainment of other students is unaffected” (p.
324). As a result, traditional educators built the learning process based on a centralized
teacher method such as lecture and recitation. To illustrate, Hwong, Caswell, Johnson,
and Johnson (1993) state, “Within individualistic learning situations, students receive
assignments from the teacher, do not interact with each other, and request assistance only
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
8from the teacher and do not bother classmates” (p. 56). The Ministry o f Education has
followed the traditional methods by focusing on teacher-centered classroom,.
Some educators adhere to a traditional system o f teaching due to its positive
ejffects on student’s academic achievement. This method is considered positive because
some educators believe that student achievement is best when content is predictable and
manageable. Those educators prefer to let a student sit alone and try to solve his/her
academic problem individually because they think that this individuality helps the student
feel a part o f the problem; therefore, students will know what they need in order to figure
out an appropriate solution to that problem. Although Kuwaiti educators aspire to
improve their scientific knowledge and become current with the most recent
developments, the traditional instructional methodology o f teacher lecture and student
recitation has solid and empirical roots in the Kuwaiti science classrooms. This
methodology places strong emphasis on the maximization o f time spent studying a
subject. In fact, many Kuwaiti teachers think that elementary achievement is more o f a
fimction o f time invested than o f critical analysis.
Educators in Kuwait value the traditional method, but they also recognize the
importance o f being globally competitive by using contemporary teaching methods.
Because o f this, changes in Kuwaiti education are now becoming more evident. Many
schools have begun to utilize new methods o f instruction, such as inquiry learning
strategies, to produce students who are able to fulfill the essential purpose o f education in
Kuwait, which is educating students as well as socializing them.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
The Pur|)ose o f the Study
The major purpose o f the study was to detect the impact o f iiiqiiiry learning or
traditional learning (lecture-recitalioii) strategies on students’ academic achievement and
attitudes toward elementary science classes by answering the following question: To
what extent do inquiry learning and traditional learning strategies affect students’ science
achievement and attitudes in elementary science classes in the State o f Kuwait? The 4 -E
learning cycle inquiry method was selected for this study because it seemed most capable
o f helping students to conceptualize, problem solve, and apply learning through essential
experiences that make connections between the student’s world and the larger “real
world.” Other methods such as the scientific teaching method and Suchman’s inquiry are
considered methods o f inquiry. The 4-E learning cycle; however, is viewed as a better
choice because it parallels the way a child develops in the way that it is structured.
Significance o f the Study
This study is significant because it applies a contemporary teaching style o f
elementary science, namely, learning cycle inquiry leaming, to Kuwaiti classrooms,
which have used a more traditional lecture-recitation approach in the past. The research
has shown that in American classrooms, leaming cycle inquiry leaming methods result in
better concept retention than the traditional lecture-recitation approach to teaching. This
study sought to determine if the same results are trae in Kuwaiti schools. Also, this study
compared the two methods of teaching to examine their effectiveness in students’
academic achievement and attitudes in science classrooms.
This study may provide data to the Ministry o f Education o f Kuwait that can be
used as a basis for decisions regarding curriculum and instruction in elementary science
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
10classrooms in Kuwait. Further, if the results o f the use o f learning cycle inquiry
leaming or traditional lecture-recitation strategies are positively signiicaiit in regard to
students’ academic achievement and attitudes, the researcher will suggest to the educatoi*s
at the Ministry o f Education in Kuwait that the most effective strategies be used in
teaching elementary science tltroughoiit the country. Thus, the fmdings o f tliis study may
offer support to maintain the status quo or change the teacMng procedures o f elementary
science in the State o f Kuwait in the future.
Statement o f the Problem
It must be emphasized that students’ academic achievement and attitudes are
essential outcomes o f the educational system. Improvement in these outcomes can occur
when teachers utilize the most effective teaching strategies. In Kuwait, traditional
lecture-recitation instruction dominates science classes. Often, instruction centers on
students memorizing and reciting material lectured by the instructors. Students usually
sit in unmovable and uniform rows. Although this instructional approach is intended to
enable students to understand scientific concepts, students neither creatively inquire
about the subjects, nor are they able to explain or describe subjects other than in the same
manner as they have been presented. Students end up as only passive listeners instead o f
participants in the lessons.
This study investigated two methods o f teaching: a science leaming cycle
inquiry leaming method and traditional lecture-recitation learning, and the impact o f each
on students’ academic science achievement and science attitudes. This study also
investigated the differences in attitude toward and achievement in science between boys
and girls in the State o f Kuwait.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
11Research Questions
The study investigated the following questions:
1. Are there significant differences between the leaming cycle and lecture-
recitation methods in fourth grade on students’ academic achievement and
attitudes toward science classes?
2. Are there significant differences between gender in the fourth grade on
students’ academic achievement and attitudes toward science classes?
3. Is there an interaction between gender and tlie instractional methods used?
Statistical Hypotheses
Null Hypothesis Number One (H oi)
There is no significant difference in students’ academic achievement and
attitudes with respect to the methods o f teaching: traditional lecture-recitation
leaming versus leaming cycle inquiry leaming.
Altemative Hypothesis One (H a I )
There is significant difference in students’ academic achievement and
attitudes with respect to the methods o f teaching: traditional lecture-recitation
learning versus leaming cycle inquiry leaming.
Null Hypothesis Number Two (Ho2)
There is no significant difference between the gender on students’
academic achievement and attitudes toward teaching science.
Altemative Hypothesis Two (H a2)
There is significant difference between the gender on students’ academic
achievement and attitudes toward teaching science.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
12Null Hypotheses Number Three (Ho3)
There is no significant interaction between gender and the instractional
methods used on students’ academic achievement and attitudes.
Altemative Hypothesis Three (H a3)
There is significant interaction between gender and the instmctional
methods used on students’ academic achievement and attitudes.
Assumptions
1. The size o f the sample was adequate for answering the proposed questions.
2. The collection procedures were appropriate and did not alter the study
findings.
3. Respondents answered all questions trathfully.
4. Teachers had knowledge o f the difference between leaming cycle inquiry
leaming and traditional lecture-recitation learning strategies.
5. The sample was satisfactory to represent the population.
6. The instructor did not present any bias towards any group or instructional
style during the process of instruction.
7. The instrument measured what it was designed to measure.
Definition o f Terms
Learning cycle: The Learning Cycle Approach is an inquiry-based teaching model
derived from constructivist ideas of the nature o f science, and the developmental theory
of Jean Piaget (Piaget, 1970). The leaming cycle is a method for developing and planning
lessons, teaching, and leaming, which is based on ways o f thinking and acting that
corresponds to the way a child learns. Developed from the original leaming cycle
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
13designed for the Science Curriculum Improvement Study (SCIS), the 4-E learning
cycle includes; exploration, explanation, expansion, and evaluation as
illustrated in the following figure.
Figure LI The 4-E Learning Cycle
I “ h v • - i w f J n * . *
rhi5‘?̂r.al< :-r::i H . •»: !»•••.* M. - I l ' f I !.‘1 ■
tteUs 'Ji: f l f e c E<‘!t.!URtiar» j J t f
: 11 1 ■ I C : • ; VI. i i I ■■■>' }
1- !■ I • I- ' ■ . . J
\ ^ ^t K(\ |'d» •• ,« •
(Martin, Sexton, and Gerlovich, 2001).
Inquiry Based leaming strategies: Inquiry based leaming strategies involve students
asking questions about science related subjects and their finding answers to those
questions. It utilizes traditional scientific methods such as hypothesizing, interpreting,
and theorizing. Hebrank (2000) defines inquiry based leaming strategies as follows:
Inquiry based leaming is a way o f acquiring knowledge through the process o f inquiry.
In inquiry based leaming, students either ask their own questions or are posed a question
by the teacher. In the fomier case the question concerns a topic the students wish to team
about, and in the latter case the question concems a topic the teacher wishes students to
leam about. Regardless of the source o f the question, inquiry based learning requires that
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
1 4students play a major role in answering the question. This can occur tlirough designing
and executing controlled experiments, making measurements and observations, or
building and testing models, (p .l) Martin, Sexton, Wagner, and Gerlovich (1997) state
that children are able to inquire when they are given hands-on learning opportunities,
appropriate materials to manipulate, puzzling circumstances or problems for motivation,
enough structure to help them focus or maintain a productive direction, and enough
freedom to compare ideas and make personal learning discoveries.
Traditional learning strategies: Traditional learning strategies refer to teacher lecture and
student recitation. This strategy gives students the opportunities to do their tasks in
science class without interaction. Lecture-recitation learning is a teaching style that is
widely utilized in the State o f Kuwait. It involves a large amount o f memorization and
working out well-defined problems. Further, Johnson, Johnson, and Holubec (1986)
point out a definition for lecture-recitation learning strategies as follows:
Students work by themselves to accomplish learning goals unrelated to those o f
other students. Individual goals are assigned each day, students’ efforts are
evaluated on a fixed set o f standards, and rewards are given accordingly.
Academic achievement: Academic achievement is the outcome that students acquire
after the leaming process. It is measured by the score attained on the achievement tests
designed by die researcher. According to (Johnson, 1992) achievement refers to the
traditional indices o f the degree to which a student has encountered success in school.
They may include school grades, grade point average, rank in a class, scores on
•standardized achievement and aptitude tests, and other scaled indicators used within the
school setting to document and report the level o f academic progression.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
15Attitude: Attitudes are defined as: predisposition or tendency to react specifically
towards an object, situation, or value: usually accompanied by feelings and emotions;
attitudes cannot be directly observed but must be inferred from overt behavior, both
verbal and nonverbal” (Good, 1973, p. 49). Attitudes are what students bring to the table
when they take a science class, Martin (1984) talks about three main factors in regard to
the importance o f student attitudes.
1. The student’s attitude carries with it a mental state o f readiness.
2. Attitudes are not innate or inborn.
3. Attitudes result ftom experience, which act as factors that guide a child when
he or she enters into a new experience.
These factors then affect the students’ outcomes.
Limitations o f the Study
The system o f education in Kuwait is not co-education. The researcher separately
selected two fourth grade classes from boys’ schools and two fourth grade classes from
girls’ schools. This study examined existing fourth grade students and science teachers in
the State o f Kuwait. Also, the study was limited to the following:
1. Four intact fourth grade science classes consisting o f approximately one
hundred and twenty elementary students were selected from elementary
schools in the State o f Kuwait.
2. Two elementary science teachers were selected randomly from the schools of
the state o f Kuwait in different locations to participate in the study.
3. Kuwaiti students were between 9~ 11 years old.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
164. The sample o f students were chosen from existing schools, so there was not
be a random sample.
5. The pre- and posttest utilized paper and pencil,
6. The students were selected from same city (Kuwait City).
7. There were approximately 30 male students in each existent classroom. Girls’
classrooms were used or selected in the same fashion.
Outline o f the Study
This chapter provides an introduction o f the study, including an overview o f the
educational system in Kuwait, the purpose o f the study, the significance o f the study, a
statement o f the problem, research questions, hypotheses, assumptions, a definition o f
terms, and the study’s limitations.
Chapter Two provides a review o f related literature. It consists o f two main
divisions: learning cycle inquiry leaming strategies and lecture-recitation traditional
leaming strategies. In addition, each main division is divided into two parts: the effect on
students’ academic achievement and the effect on students’ attitudes.
Chapter Three provides a description o f the methodology o f the research,
including an introduction, a statement ofhypotheses, the variables, population, subjects,
setting, instraments, the data collection procedure, the data analysis procedure, and the
validity and reliability o f the instraments.
Chapter Four details the results o f the study, including descriptive statistics o f the
study’s findings and data analysis.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
1 7Chapter Five concludes with a summary o f the findings o f this study.
Discussion and recommendations are also shown in this closing chapter, which is
followed by references and appendixes.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
18CHAPTER TWO
Literature Review
Introduction
Science educators have developed and advocated different instructional strategies,
each designed to improve the quality o f leaming and its outcome. The effectiveness o f
these strategies and their impact on students’ attitudes are still under debate due to the
complexity and richness o f the leaming process as well as the natural human tendencies.
For years the dominant practice o f teaching science focused on the teachers’ lectures and
uses o f textbooks. The notion was that once the students saw problems solved,
memorized material and mastered some techniques, concept attainment was achieved.
As the results o f science teaching research accumulated, it became apparent that this
strategy was, to some extent, misleading to students’ understanding. This resulted in the
evolution o f alternative teaching strategies. For example, more emphasis has been placed
on cognitive procedures such as uses o f advance organizers, explicit teaching, and
mastery leaming that facilitate students’ thinking to overcome a situation.
Bruner (1973) suggested such an approach i n his “discovery” model o f teaching
in which broad principles and problem solving abilities were developed through
maximum student involvement and less teacher help. Bruner wanted students to discover
regularities and patterns that shape the principle that they are studying in order to
integrate different elements that produce a natural phenomenon. Bruner’s new
perspective soon evolved into learning through inquiry processes in order to make
conceptual discoveries. Welch et al. (1981) pointed out that “in an inquiry-based
classroom there is a time for doing, a time for reflection, a time for feeling, and a time for
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
19assessm,ent.” When a teacher divides the lesson into these categories, then better
concept attainment will be achieved by the students.
Von Seeker and Lissitz (1999) state that a teacher’s role in the classroom is to
provide opportunities for active investigation and to serve as a facilitator for student
reflection and critical thinking. In a science classroom, teachers must stimulate and
encourage students to analyze structurally the subject in order to create for themselves a
logical representation o f the given data and the ideas extracted from them. The teacher
then has two main roles; to provide students the opportunities to engage socially in talk
about shared problems or tasks, and to serve as a mediator for social discourse and then
to lead the students to conventional science ideas. Students must develop the ability to
build an understanding based on logic in order to overcome a situation or to start working
on a science problem. The theory is that when students successfully overcome a science
situation, they acquire a sufficient degree o f understanding about the concept. As the role
o f technology has increased, new teaching strategies have emerged. Von Seeker and
Lissitz (1999) also stated that teaching accompanied by demonstration helps strengthen
students’ understanding o f science phenomena. Demonstrations have become important
cognitive aids that reflect real-life scientific concepts and laws.
Global competition within the educational field, both in the U.S. and elsewhere,
has gradually increased. This competition has caused educators to focus on developing
their teaching strategies in schools in order to create students who are better able to
compete. Flynn (1995) states that “we are told that the United States faces a crisis in
global competition and that if we do not do a better job o f preparing our children for the
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
20new world order we will lose our preeminent economic statue. Teachers are thus
instructed to better prepare students for the new world o f work” (p. 53),
In order to successfully prepare young people and to develop appropriate
curricula for the new world competition, educators should be aware o f the new demands
o f modem life. Teaching strategies, which are important components in developing
curriculum, should move parallel with the developmental world outside schools to
produce students who are able to adjust to modeni life and work to improve quality o f life
in their country. Usnick, Lamphere, and Bright (1995) stated that “most teachers.. .need
to adjust to a new learning environment and a new teaching one” (p. 11). All the
evidence shows that the world is changing, and as a result, many facets o f our lives may
need to change in order for us to successfully adapt to the new century. Processes o f
inquiry accommodate tliese needs brought on by a rapidly changing world.
World change should primarily serve the human being. Education, economics,
politics, and media are factors that impact human life. One of the most important factors
that educators should consider is the educational environment. The educational
environment can be affected by the teaching strategies that teachers use in their
classrooms to help students gain meaningful knowledge and develop their skills. If
educators are concerned with developing human life, they should give great attention to
teaching strategies to produce strong competent individuals who are capable o f moving
parallel with global change and competition.
Dewey (1996) stated that the best way to teach our young generation lessons
about life is by placing them in real situations to have meaningful experiences. He
asserted that “the only training that becomes intuition, is that gotten through life itself’
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
21(p. ! 7). The more teaching strategies reflect real life in society, the more they will
assist students to adjust themselves to an industrial modem life by being able to use their
skills appropriately and by achieving their role as citizens in the best possible manner.
These intuitive principles o f learning are faster through natural inquiry-based cycles o f
leaming, commonly called le<irning cycles.
This chapter presents an overview of both traditional lecture-recitation and
leaming cycle inquiry leaming strategies, particularly as they assist students in improving
their academic achievement and attitudes toward science. Research for this chapter will
include ail school-age students through college level.
Traditional Leaming Strategies
The traditional instractional method of teacher lecture and student recitation
emphasizes direct lectures given by teachers, the use o f textbooks, other materials, and
clear explanations o f important concepts to students; occasional demonstrations and a
review o f the textbook topics also may be included. The key feature o f this “teacher-
oriented” instruction is to provide students with clear and detailed instructions and
explanations. The teacher undertakes the task o f transferring the knowledge to students
and students give back (recite) what they have memorized (leamed) (Chang and Mao,
1998).
A typical approach of most traditional science lessons, which rely on teacher-
centered methods, consists o f lectures, readings, questions and student’s answers. These
approaches are often limited to the information provided by the adopted textbook and
assume tltal: students should mainly pay attention to the teacher. However, this way of
learning gives students a mainly passive role as receivers and raeraorizers o f information
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
22rather than as active seekers of answers to important scientific questions (Martin,
Sexton, and Gerlovich, 2001).
Lecture and recitation focuses on mastery (memorization) o f content. There is
minimal emphasis on the development o f problem-solving skills and the nurturing o f
inquiring attitudes. The current teacher centered system o f education focuses on giving
out information about what is known. The teacher is the dispenser o f information and the
students are the receivers. Most of the time, assessment o f the learner is focused on the
importance o f one right answer. This kind of traditional education is more conceraed
within school success and preparation for the next grade level than with helping students
learn how to leam.
In a traditional lecture-recitation classroom the use o f resources is limited to what
is available in the classroom or within the school. They tend to be closed systems where
information is filtered to unrelated concepts. Students may spend a lot o f time leaming
about technology rather than using it to enhance learning. Using the whole-class
approach, lesson plans organize the various steps in the leaming process with no room for
change. On-target questions that would cause deviations from the plan are met with, “we
will get to that later” (Disney Leaming Partnership [DLP], 2001).
Most schools using lecture-recitation focus on teaching a set o f basic knowledge
and skills that may not serve the needs o f modem society. Traditionally, schools
emphasize the accumulation of information, and may not emphasize skill development or
nurturing inquiry-based habits o f mind (DLP, 2001). Modem society is fester paced,
globally networked, technologically oriented, and requires workers who can solve
problems and think critically. Much leaming, if not most, occurs after formal schooling.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
23It is believed that schools that rely on lecture-recitation liave to change their approach
to education to produce students who can progress in the modem world. The traditional
focus o f education is no longer appropriate. Because the world has changed, things like
the traditional local apprenticeships are almost gone. Students must master new ways of
acting and thinking. Our society is becoming increasingly larger and more diverse.
Students must develop an understanding about the complexities o f modern life and be
able to deal with new ethical and practical issues. The young must be educated, so they
can participate as responsible members in today’s society.
Effect on Students’ Academic Achievement
In order to examine the effect o f traditional learning strategies on students’
academic achievement, Olagunju and Balogun (1991) studied the effect o f participating
in laboratory and lecture teaching methods on Nigerian eighth grade students’ cognitive
achievement in integrated science. A sample o f 210 class-two (grade 8) students from six
randomly selected classes from six Nigerian schools was divided into two (experimental
and control) groups. Data were collected using an achievement test for Integrated
Science Students developed by the authors. Student ability was measured by tests secured
from the Department o f Teacher Education. In analyzing the data, an analysis o f
covariance was employed. T-test statistics were also used to determine significant
differences between means o f different groups. They note that high achievers in both
groups had identical achievement, but the low achievers in the laboratory sections
performed better than students who received only lectures. They also found that females
receiving lectures perfonned better than the males receiving lectures.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
24A later rneta-analysis by Edwin, John, and Robert (1997) compared the
academic achievement of sixth grade students through twelve who received traditional
instruction or traditional instruction supplemented with computer-assisted instruction
(CAI) in science, reading, music, special education, social studies, math, vocational
education, and English. In their study, they determined that students receiving traditional
instruction supplemented with CAI attained higher academic achievement. These
researchers also recommended using traditional instruction enhtmced with CAI.
Edward (1985) conducted a study in an attempt to detemaine if students leam
science concepts better when laboratories are used to verify concepts already introduced
through lectures and textbooks. The researcher specifically examined whether seventh
grade earth science students (N=103) introduced to science concepts through laboratory
exercises, followed by textbook readings and classroom discussions, learned and retained
these concepts better than students who had the concepts introduced through textbook
readings or teacher’s lectures followed by laboratories verification. He also examined
whether these students had a stronger preference for science than the latter group of
students. The results of this study indicated that students did experience greater
achievement and retention when directed inquiry leaming laboratories were used to
introduce new concepts than they did when the same concepts were taught using the
laboratory activities for verification.
In their study, Joseph and James (1985) investigated the effects o f analogy-based
and conventional lecture-based instmclional strategies on the achievement o f four classes
o f high school biology students (N=123). Prior to treatment, students were assessed for
cognitive ability and prior knowledge o f the analogy vehicle. The analogy-based
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
25treatment consisted of teacher lecture and student examination o f analogy text,
diagrams, and charts comparing target information to an analogous domain. On the other
hand, the conventional lecture-based instruction involved didactic teacher presentation of
target concepts supplemented with reading assignments from the regular textbook. The
researchers’ findings indicated that analogy based instructional methods appetir to
enhance student perfoimance relative to conventional lecture-based instruction of the
digestive, nervous, and circulatory systems; in addition, both concrete and
transitional/formal operational, students benefited from analogy-based instruction. With
both treatments, transitional/formal operational students tended to show higher
achievement than concrete operational students; concrete operational students receiving
analogy-based instruction scored higlter than transitional/formal operational students
receiving conventional lecture-based instruction. Students who comprehended analogies
showed significantly higher achievement over those who did not comprehend them.
Effect on Students Attitudes
No studies have been found to support the use o f traditional learning strategies to
empower student attitudes toward science. In order to see the effect o f traditional
leaming strategies on students’ attitudes toward science, Ernest and John (1984), studied
the enhancement o f student values, interest and attitudes in earth science through a field-
oriented approach. They found that students who experienced a field-oriented laboratory
approach had higher affective scores (related to levels of importance, interest, and
enjoyment associated with the leaming experience) than students in a traditional
laboratory setting.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
26Furthermore, in order to detennine the differences between lecture-
demonstration and small-group laboratory approaches on students’ (N=74) chemistry
achievement and attitudes toward science, Harold and Nasser (1983) indicated that
students taught by the laboratory approach perfonned better on immediate/delayed post
test thaji students taught by the lecture-demonstration method. Thus, students taught by
the laboratory approach reported more desirable attitudes.
Inquirv Learning Strategies
There must be benefits o f using a specific strategy o f teaching in order to improve
students’ academic achievement and attitudes towaid science. In the National Researcli
Council’s A Guide For Teaching and Learning (2000), it is stated that inquiry has had a
role in school science programs for the last hundred years. Before 1900, most educators
viewed science as a body o f knowledge that students were supposed to learn through
direct instruction. In 1909, John Dewey criticized this by addressing the American
Association for the Advancement o f Science. He stated that science is more than a body
o f knowledge to be learned. Dewey asserted that there is a process or method to leam as
well (p. 14). Inquiry-leaming is a method of teaching that many educators encourage
teachers to use because it positively impacts students’ abilities and helps them deal with
science successfully. In Science for All Children, published by the National Academy of
Sciences (1997), the following is stated:
Science is the process by which we discover how the world works, ‘a rvay of
thinking.. .the method by which the creative mind can constract order out o f chaos
and unity out o f variety.’ It: is a process in w'hich children have been engaged
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
27virtually since they were bom, and it is rnin'ored effectively in inquiry-centered
science programs (p. 14).
Inquiry based leaminig is not a new method ofteacliing, and students should already be
familiar with it’s components. Science fo r All Children (1997) also states that, according
to National Science Education Standards, inquiry leaming promotes student-centered
instruction and advances the learning environment in the classroom. Inquiry involves:
making observations; posing questions; examining books and other sources o f
information to see what is already known; planning investigations; reviewing
what is already known in light o f experimental evidence; using tools to gather,
analyze, and interpret data; proposing answers, explanations, and predictions; and
communicating results (p. 8).
By using the inquiry-learning atmosphere, educators play their roles o f facilitator or
directors in the classrooms. Center stage is given to the actions and understanding o f the
students, who are an integral part o f the leaming process, as they construct meaning from
different learning experiments and participate in the learning situations to derive the best
ideas from them. However, a definition o f inquiry leaming strategies is illustrated by
Martin, Sexton, Wagner, and Gerlovich (1997) as follows:
Inquiry means the use o f the processes o f science, scientific knowledge, and
attitudes to reason and to think critically. As described by the standards, inquiry
assists in constructing an understanding o f scientific concepts, leaming how to
learn, becoming an independent and life-long learner, and further developing the
habits o f mind associated with science. Learning outcomes for the inquiry
dimension require students to be able to understand inquiry and do a variety of
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
28types o f science activities in order to learn the uses and skills of inquiry and
develop a greater capacity to inquire (p. 131-132).
Thus, when students are exposed to sets o f data from a certain discipline such as
mathematics or science, “they organize the data into conceptual systems, relating points
in the data to each other; generalizing from relationships they discover; and making
inferences to hypothesize, predict, and explain phenomena. Mental operations cannot be
taught directly in the sense of being ‘given by a teacher’ or be acquired by absorbing
someone else’s thought products. The teacher can, however, assist students by providing
tasks requiring complex mental processtxs, by modeling, and by offering progressively
less direct support as the kids become more proficient” (Joyce & Weil, 1996 p. 149).
I'herefore, the need to improve methods o f instraction to promote higher levels of
academic achievement and the learners’ attitudes is one o f the primary goals in the
educational field today. It is important to evaluate the methods o f teaching that educatore
use in the classrooms in order to select the most effective method and enable students to
improve their learning. In the 1960s, methods using inquiry teaching and learning were
developed for the Science Curriculum Improvement Study. Consisting originally o f three
steps; exploration, concept invention, and application, a fourth step was added to agree
with today’s emphasis on accountability. The 4-E leaming cycle is an example o f an
updated version o f this original leaming cycle and can be best explained by the following
1. Encouraging student centered exploration where students can interact with
each other and the materials.
2. Providing teacher/student interactions to form or invent the concept through
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
29explanation.
3. An expansion where students can expand their understanding of the concept.
4. Providing an evaluation, which occurs either formally or informally
tliroughout the learning cycle (Martin, Sexton, and Gerlovich, 2001).
Effect on Students Academic Achievement
Recent science education standards in the U.S. propose that all students should
both learn about scientific inquiry and leam science through inquiry (NRC, 1996).
During the late 1980’s and early 1990’s, a resurgence in the development o f elementary
science curricula occurred which emphasized the use o f hands -on /minds-on
developmentally appropriate activities. Despite that fact, hands-on activity based
elementary science programs, which were developed in the 1960’s and 1970’s, have
fallen out o f favor because they are expensive and difficult to secure and maintain. These
types of hands-on activities’ however, led to increased science achievement and cognitive
development (Koballa, 1986). In addition, a quantitative study by Shymansky, et.
ai.(1983) showed that students taught by hands-on methods outperformed students in
traditional programs. Rubin and Tamir (1988) also concluded that the performance of
ninth graders students (N~135) who received the inquiry-learning strategy was
significantly and substantially better than that o f the eleventh graders who did not receive
the treatment. The results o f the post-tests were analyzed by studying the covariance
holding the pre-test scores constant. The results o f their study clearly indicated the
feasibility o f the strategy for most ninth grade students. While the advance organizer was
found to be more effective in terms of achievement for average and below average
students, practically all students liked the inquiry learning strategy.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
30Studying students at the community college level who were under-prepared,
Biermaiin and Sarinsky (1990) found that students in the hands-on curriculum group
perfomted better in subsequent biology classes because the techniques used in the
curriculum foster the intellectual and practical skills necessary for mainstreaming. The
students also developed self-confidence in their abilities to adequately compete with their
peers. Therefore, the curriculum based upon hands-on experiences o f a concrete nature
appeared to work better with under-prepared students.
Schniieder and Michael-Dyer (1991) found that national studies conceniing
teaching and leaming in elementary schools indicated that more active learning with
hands-on opportunities to make meaning was needed for students. Research on the use
o f hands-on/minds on science teaching technique has indicated a positive effect upon
achievement (Mattheis & Nakayama, 1988; Brooks, 1988; vSaunders & Shepardson,
1984; Bredderman, 1982).
Focusing on the effects o f new cumculum, Shymansky, Kyle, atid Alport (1983)
reported a meta-analysis o f the i mpact o f the NSF reform inquiry-based science curricula
on student performance, and they found that the science curricula improved students’
science achievement and process skills, as well as their attitudes toward science.
Furthemiore, Shymansky, Hedges, and Woodworth (1990) employed refined statistical
procedures to re-synthesize the previously mentioned research and indicated that mean
effects on four performance clusters (achievement, process skills, problem solving, and
attitude) were significantly positi ve. Wise and Okey (1983) also found the strongest
effects for biology and weakest for earth science in a meta-analysis o f the effects of
various teaching strategies on student achievement.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
31Chang and Mao (1998) conducted a study to examine the effects o f an inquiry -
based instructional method on secondary school students’ earth science achievement.
Students (N=232) were treated as two experimental groups; one receiving 2 weeks o f the
inquiry-based instruction while the control group received the traditional lecture-
recitation instruction. The data in this study was analyzed employing an analysis of
covariance (ANCOVA) on post-test scores with a pretest as the covariate. After only
two weeks o f receiving inquiry -based instruction, the result o f their achievement
investigation revealed that the experimental group achieved significantly belter than their
counteiparts receiving the more traditional approach. They also stated the superiority o f
inquiry -based instruction over that o f the traditional teaching method in promoting
science achievement. The science process skills o f students were improved through the
inquiry-based instructions emphasis on these particular skills. The difference in students’
learning o f earth science was thus reflected in the overall achievement between the
treatment and control group. Moreover, the results o f this study also supported the notion
that teachers need to encourage students to develop their inquiry skills as early as
possible in the educational system in order to promote science leaming in the classroom
(Chang and Mao, 1998).
Johnson and Lawson (1998) point out the conclusion that they reached by using
pre-post tests after their treatment o f using inquiry-leaming (learning cycle) methods on
366 students (242 females and 124 males) enrolled in a one-semester nonmajors in a
college biology classroom: that the students would be better served by courses that teach
by inquiry and focus on the development o f scientific reasoning and the acquisition of
fewer concepts. They found that inquiry students in their study not only showed greater
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
32improvement in reasoning ability during the semester than expository students, but
they also did better in measures o f biology achievement. In other words, nothing o f
importance seems to be lost by switching to inquiry instruction, and much seems to be
gained,
Aldridge, Lawrenze, and Huffman (1997) conducted a study o f the National
Science Teachers Associations “Scope, Sequence and Coordination project- SS&C,”
which involved a strong hands-on, inquiry -oriented study of four sciences; physics,
chemistry, biology, and the earth and space sciences on ninth and tenth grade student
achievement. The SS&C students either matched the performance o f the comparison
studejits, or outperformed them on achievement measures, which matched the NSES’s.
Specifically, on the hands-on lab skills test, SS&C students had higher scores on two of
the five lab stations; on the 160-item multiple choice scientific literacy test, students in
both groups performed equally well.
Chang and Mao (1998) conducted another study to detail two companion studies
that were designed to investigate the impacts o f an inquiry-teaching method on earth
science students’ achievement and attitudes towards earth science in secondary schools.
After eight weeks of inquiry -oriented instruction, the experimental group had
significantly higher science achievement scores among ninth grade earth science students
than did the control group. They also stated that the hands-on and mind activities used
during the inquiry-oriented instruction seemed to enhance earth science content
achievement, 'fhey provided students with first-hand experience in doing science and
opportunities to collect and interpret data and to make valid conclusions. Chang and
Mao’s study suggested that it can be beneficial for students to leam science through the
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
33inquiry approach. 1'he researchers supported the idea that the inquiry -oriented
teaching method should be used as a primary vehicle to assist the learning of earth
science in secondary schools. They also believed that effective instruction in earth
science, such as the inquiry - oriented instruction, should emphasize “student-centered
activities” instead o f “teacher-centered lectures” in secondary schools.
The use o f technology has also been investigated as it relates to inquiry-based
leaming. Maor’s (1991) study involved investigating the extent to which students’
inquiry skills can be facilitated through the use o f a computerized science database (Birds
o f die Antarctica) and specially designed cuiTiculuni materials. This research study
involved 122 students in seven Applied Computing classes. Students responded to the
Inquiry Skills Test, designed especially for the study, as both a pre-test and a post-test.
The researcher pointed out that an increase in students’ levels o f thinking and the use of
higher-level inquiry sldlls occurred mainly in classes where teachers initiated discussions
and where negotiations o f meaning became an integral part o f the learning processes. In
these classes, students were also able to generate higher-level questions and design
complex investigations while interacting with the database. The classes also were
characterized by significant gains in achievement as measured by the inquiry skills tests.
Examining junior high school students’ achievement and attitudes toward earth
science in Taiwan, Chang and Mao (1999) conducted another study to examine the
comparative efficiency o f inquiry -gr oup instruction and traditional teaching methods.
After the four-week intervention of inquiry- group instruction, the experituental group
scored significantly higher gains on the Earth Science Achievement test than did
comparable students in the traditional lecture group. They came up with a conclusion
Reproduced witti permission of ttie copyrigfit owner. Furtfier reproduction profiibited witfiout permission.
34that inquiry-group instriiclioii was superior in promoting students’ achievement and
attitudes toward earth science because the treatment enabled students to plan their own
investigations, gather and inteqjret data, analyze results, and share findings with their
classmates. Tliey noted that the students exposed to inquiry group instruction had the
opportunity to solve problems in a group, to share information, and to reflect on their
inferences through small-group activities and discussions. The science process skills
emphasized in this study also helped the experimental group icarn the earth scieirce
content better than the control group. In addition, Chang and Mao support the idea that
the inquiry group approach enhances the study o f earth science more effectively than
does a more traditional teaching method. They discovered that students who worked
cooperatively performed better than Uiose who worked alone. Therefore, one may infer
that the inquiry group approach encourages students to work cooperatively in small
groups and therefore helps students to actively construct their own meaningful learning
experience.
Joseph, Ron, Phyllis, Elliot, and Barry (2000) were involved in a reform effort in
collaboration with the Detroit Public Schools’ Urban Systemic Program in Science and
Mathematics and the Center for Learning Technologies in Urban Schools, both supported
by the National Science Foundation (NSF). Their goal was to make inquii-y-based
science, which was supported by pervasive technology tools, the basis for all middle
school science in the district. Using pre and post-tests, motivation surveys, student
artifacts, and interviews assessed the study. The researchers found that student
performance was improved throughout the implementation o f all o f the LeTlJS projects.
These curriculum projects have impacted over 2,000 students yearly across the middle
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
35grades. They also reported that urban middle school students leamed from an inquiry-
based science curriculum supported by technology. The achievement gains were found
in all four rich curricula units across both years in the overall scores and in the content-
based scores. The scientific process scores improved in most of the cumcula as well.
tk.ith genders also seem to learn equally well under inquiry-based learning.
Dalton, Rawson, Tivnaii, and Morocco (1993) presented the results o f their study, which
was about: the comparison o f the effects o f gender on fourth-grade students leaming in
hands-on science. In their study half o f the teachers used a supported-inquiry approach,
and half used activity-based science to teach a hands-on science unit on electricity over a
si:x.-week period. Each group completed twelve leaming experiences. They found that
there were no gender effects on the pre-test, post-test, or assessment modality.
Manhart (1998) conducted a study to investigate gender differences with regard to
three factors o f scientific literacy. The result o f his study indicates that males tended to
perfonn better than females in the constructs o f the science factor. On the other hand,
females tended to do better than males on the abilities necessary to do a scientific inquiry
factor and the social aspects o f the science factor.
Effect on Students’ Attitudes
Many studies, especially those written twenty or tliiity years earlier, noted the
difficulty o f measuring students’ attitudes. This difficulty was due to the shortage o f
valid instruments to detemiine students’ emotional reactions toward an event or subject.
The difficulty in measuring attitudes was reduced in the mid-1970s when more than one
suitable instrument to measure attitude was found. For example, Hough and Piper (1982)
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
36used six statements that subjects responded to by circling “yes,” “1 do not know,” or
“no” to detennine tlieir attitudes toward science lessons.
The progress in measuring attitudes has opened the door for researchers to study
an irnportant issue in education: “Can teaching approaches change students’ attitudes
toward science?” Besides understanding how teaching strategies or approaches interact
with students’ attitudes towttrd science, the outcome of that relationship may be linked to
another important element: student achievement. Some studies have been done to find
out if teaching strategies affect students attitudes in science. Khale (1985) points out that
teaching strategies significantly impact improvement o f the attitudes that boys and girls
possess toward science and raise their level o f science achievement. This American
study showed that classrooms in which visual simulations were integrated improved
students’ attitudes and interests in biology.
Kyle, Bomistetter, and Gadsen (1988) evaluated the effectiveness o f an inquiry-
based process approach science program in grades K-6 when compared with traditional
science programs. After its first year o f implementation, they found that students in the
process approach classes exhibited positive attitudes in science, developed advanced
questioning techniques, as well as increased their level of curiosity and their experiences
(Kyle et a l , 1988). As a result, forty-three percent o f the students in this study chose
science as their first or second favorite subject. This contrasts with only twenty-one
percent from among students not included in the program who stated such claims. Some
other conclusions o f this study were that the students involved realized tliat their teachers
valued their questions. The students also realized that through their inquiries they could
develop a feeling o f successfulness. Attitudes o f girls were also more positive to science.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
37Most importantly, students began to feel that science was useftil in ttieir daily lives attd
their future. Hauiy (1993) also conducted a review, which concluded that inquiry-
orientated teaching can result in outcomes that include scientific literacy, familiarity with
science processes, vocabulary knowledge, conceptual understanding, critical thinking,
and positive attitudes towards science.
According to National Science Education Standards (NSES, 1996):
Scientific literacy has ditTerent degrees and fomis; it expands and deepens over a
lifetime, not just during the years in school. But the attitudes and values
established toward science in the early years will shape a person’s development o f
scientific literacy as an adult (p.22).
'fherefore, the development o f hands-on/mind-on activities had as its pmpose the
enhancement and perpetuation o f the natural curiosity young children bring to the
classroom. Aldridge, Lawrenze, and Huffman (1997) point out in their study, the high
school reform project Scope, Sequence, and Coordination that there was an indication
that the SS&C students found their science classes more motivating than comparison
classes. Specifically, more SS&C students than comparison students indicated that their
science class was motivating and that they had a “totally awesome” scientific experience
in their class.
In 1987, the Chesliire Public Schools reviewed their curriculum. They found the
existing textbook-based science program to be very dated and boring for what they felt
was a very dynamic subject. To remedy this problem, they spent the next six months
developing a mission, statement, a rationale for teaching science, a plan for identifying,
developing and piloting curricular materials, and a rationale for staff development and
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
38program implementation. The following year the Science Quest program was piloted
in selected elementary classrooms. Kyle, Bonnsietler, Sedotti, and Dvarskas (198S)) note
that after only one year o f the pilot project. Science Quest students possessed
significantly enhanced attitudes toward science, when compared to their counteiparts in
control classrooms, as measured by the preferences and understanding attitude
questionnaire. 'I'heir data also supported the fact that elementary students have a
preference for inquiry-oriented, process-approach science. They also revealed that over
sixty percent o f Science Quest students selected science as their first or second favorite
subject in school. On the other hand, only thirty-five percent o f the control students
indicated a similar preference.
In their study, which was designed to investigate tlie impacts o f an inquiry
teaching method on ninth grade earth science students (N-557) and attitudes toward earth
science in secondary schools. Chang and Mao (1998) also support the claim that inquiry-
learning is more effective. Quantitative data were collected on students’ pre-and post
treatment achievement and attitudes toward Earth science measures. By using analysis o f
covariance they found that students in the experimental group showed and developed
significantly more positive attitudes toward earth science than did those in the control
group. According to this study, students can leam earth science through the inquiry
approach. In addition, this finding supports the notion that effective instruction of earth
science, such as inquiry-oriented instruction, should be proposed and implemented in
secondary schools.
In an effort to improve students’ interests in. science and science courses, Avi
(1986) conducted a study to evaluate students’ attitudes toward science relative to a two-
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
39chemistry curriculum. These curricula were Chemistry for High Schools (CFH), and
Qiemistry-A Challenge (CAC), the latter o f which was mainly based on inquiry
techniques, concept formation, and laboratory investigation. The sample o f this study
consisted o f 1958 students from 52 lO"’ grade classes in 17 academic high schools. An
achievement pre-and post-test and semantic-differential questionnaire were used in this
study by the researcher. The data in this study were analyzed employing a Multi Variate
Analysis o f Covariate (MANCOVA) on post-test scores with a pre-test as the covariate.
The major findings o f this study indicated that:
1. CAC students’ tendency to choose science as a future career was significantly
higher than that of CFH students.
2. CAC students’ appreciation o f scientists in general and chemists in particular
was significantly higher than that o f CFH students.
3. Chemistry and science were considered by CAC students to be significantly
more important and attractive than by CFH students.
4. CAC students regaixled chemistry as a school subject to be more interesting,
more important, and less difficult than CFH students.
This study concluded that a curriculum geared to the needs and interests o f students can
help in developing positive attitudes towards science.
Many studies have been done on the effect o f gender on students’ attitude toward
science. For example, one study shows that males have a more positive attitude toward
science, are more highly motivated to achieve in science, and more likely to select
science courses as electives in high school (Hykle, 1993). Simpson and Oliver (1985)
stated that although females show general intere.st in the school environment, males me
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
40more highly motivated to achieve and have better attitudes towards science. However,
the most important finding in their study was the fact that males exhibited more positive
attitude toward science, while female students were more highly motivated to achieve in
science.
Kahie, Matyas, and Cho (1985) noted that boys more often than girls participated
in extracurricular science activities, but they also found that girls generally had a more
positive view of science if they have had more experiences in science. Kahle and Lakes
(1983) stated that when boys and girls are paired to do science experiments, tlie boys do
most o f the work while the girls watch. They felt that educational practices can alleviate
this and other pervasive cultural differences. Shaw and Doan (1990) in their study to
investigate the difference in attitude and achievement toward science between boys and
girls in grade two and in grade five. They indicated that there were no significant
differences between the elementary boys’ and girls’ attitudes toward or achievement in
science as a school subject.
Paris, Yambor, and Packard (1998) conducted a study to assess the effects o f a
six-week extracurricular hands-on science program in third, fourth, and fifth graders
using portfolio artifacts, inquiry-guided exploration, and socially assisted learning. They
found significant increases in students’ interest in science and significant improvement in
their problem-solving skills at all grade levels. The study showed that girls had more
positive attitudes about science and higher problem-solving skills than boys. Clearly, the
Hands-On Biology program fostered more positive attitudes about participating in
science activities for both short-and long-term goals and for activities both in and out of
school. Fiulhemiore, on cognitive measures, students showed significant learning gains
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
41on the problem-solving questions, which indicates that they improved fiindamental
thinking skills such as hypotheticodeductive reasoning, comparing and contrasting, and
question generating. Weinburgh (2000) also found that females have more positive
attitudes toward the teacher and the value o f science to society and are less anxious.
Males were found to have more positive attitudes toward their self-concept in science,
enjoyment o f science, and motivation in science.
A Comparison o f the Effect o f Inquiry Learning and Traditional Learning
Strategies on Students’ Academic Achievement and Attitudes Toward Science
The traditional mode o f science instniction is to deliver information; that is,
knowledge is transmitted from those who know (the teacher and the textbook) to those
who do not (the students) (Victor & Kellough, 2000). In this delivery mode, traditional
and time-honored strategies include textbook reading, formal teacher talk (the lecture and
questioning), and informal teacher talk (the discussion and recitation). However, being
told about science without being allowed to do science is like learning the alphabet
without being encouraged to put letters together to make words (Victor & Kellough,
2000).
According to Martin, Sexton, and Gerlovich (2001), texts and lectures are not all
bad. They do present important science information that is useful in addressing some o f
the National Science Education Standards content. Complete reliance upon textbooks;
however, usually means students will be deprived o f other worthy science education
goals relevant to understanding the history and nature o f science, developing science
inquiry .skills, and understanding personal, technological, and societal issues. Their study
also revealed that teacher-centered methods work well with science textbooks. In
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
42addition to the teacher, the single most influential factor in most elementary science
programs is the textbook. The selection o f an atspropriate textbook and tlie effective use
o f it can improve students’ achievement, skills, attitudes, and help to encourage learners
to make progress toward the national standards (p.60-62).
Victor & Kellough (2000) illustrated the strengths and weaknesses o f the
traditional delivery and inquiry learning which they named access mode. Furthennore,
the strengths o f the traditional delivery mode are found in the ability to cover much
content in a short span of time, the teacher’s complete control o f the content, student
achievement o f specific content being predictable and manageable, and the strategies
being consistent with performance-based teaching. On the other hand, Victor &
Kellough (2000) describe the weaknesses o f the traditional delivery mode such as
extrinsic sources o f student motivation, little control by students over the pacing o f their
learning, few important decisions about their learning, little opportunity for creative
thinking, and low self-esteem.
However, Victor & Kellough (2000) also discuss the strengthens and weaknesses
o f the access mode which they name inquiry learning. First o f all, they believe that the
student should understand the material more than memorizing it as one o f the strengths of
inquiry learning. In the inquiry learning classroom the student have more resources to
motivate them to leam. Students are able to make their own decisions about their
learning. Because o f this, they have more control over the pace o f their learning, and so
they develop a sense of personal self-esteem. Conversely, there are some potential
weaknesses o f access strategies. The co verage o f content presented to the students may
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
43be more limited. Also access sti'ategies are time consuming. Another weakness would
be that the specific results o f student learning are less predictable.
As Victor & Kellough state (2000), to be most effective, elementary and middle
school teachers should be eclectic in selecting strategies; that is, they should
appropriately select and effectively use strategies from both modes, but with a strong
focus on access or facilitating strategies. Although competent teachers should be skillful
in the use o f strategies from both modes, to be most effective science teachers should
concentrate more on the use o f strategies from the access mode.
Shymansky, Kyle, and Alport (1983) utilized meta-analysis to synthesize the
results o f 105 experimental studies involving over 45,000 students. This study focused
on the affects o f new science curricula on student performance. This meta-analysis
included 27 new science curricula with one or more measures each. They presented the
results o f their meta-analysis, which revealed definite positive patterns o f students’
performance in new science curricula. Across all new science curricula analyzed,
students exposed to new science curricula performed better than their traditional
counterparts in achievement, analytic skills, process skills, and related skills, while
developing a more positive attitude toward science. Also, studies involving new science
curricula judged to have a low emphasis on laboratory activity showed students
outperforming their traditional course counterparts by larger margins overall than those
new science curricula judged to have a high laboratory emphasis. On the other hand,
studies involving new science curricula judged to have a high emphasis on, process skills
development showed students out-performing traditional course students by larger
margins on analytic skill measures than those involving cunicula judged to have a low
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
44process skill emphasis. In both analytical skill measurements and in overall
achievement, students learning under new science curriculum out-performed those
learning under traditional curriculum.
Kyle (1988), in the Science Curriculum Improvement Study (SCIIS) that
emphasizes inquiry-oriented, process approach science, used only a post-test control
group design for his study. The preferences and understanding-student version
questionnaire which was used in this study, consists o f 32 attitudinal items referenced
from the 1977 Third Assessment o f Science, which is part o f the National Assessment of
Educational progress (NAEP, 1978). The student sample is comprised o f228 SCIIS
students (54% male and 46% female) and 228 non-SCHS students (52% male and 48%
female). Kyle (1988), indicated and supported tire fact that students in inquiry-oriented
process approach science classes have greatly enhanced attitudes toward science and
scientists when compared to students in “traditional” textbook-oriented science classes.
In addition to SCIIS students being more likely to choose science as either their first or
second favorite subject in school:
1. Over seventy-five percent o f SCIIS students find science to be fun, exciting, and
interesting while fostering a feeling o f curiosity. On the other hand, over fifty
percent o f non-SCIIS students find science to be boring; thirty-three percent
indicate that science makes them feel uncomfortable.
2. SCIIS students wish that they had more time for science and more “kinds” of
science offerings.
3. SCIIS students realize that their science teachers value a high frequency of
questions and that questioning i,s important in science.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
4 54. s e n s students realize that through their inquiries they develop a feeling of
successftdness.
5. s e n s students feel that science is useful both in their daily lives and in the fiiture;
they realize that in addition to gaining knowledge, being curious and inquisitive
are important aspects o f science.
6. s e n s classes enhance the attitudes o f females toward science and liieir science
classes.
Furthermore, both SCIIS and non-SCIIS teachers found their previous science classes to
be dull, uninteresting, lacking in excitement, and boring, while only mildly fostering a
sense o f curiosity. The inquiry oriented process approach applied in the classroom
apparently allows SCIIS teachers to portray a much more positive image o f science and
scientists. Kyle found that methods that integrate the learning cycle have more positive
impact on the student attitudes toward science than the traditional method.
In order to evaluate the effectiveness o f an inquiry- based process approach
science program, Kyle, Bonnstetter, and Gadsen (1988) conducted a study in grades K-6,
comparing traditional science programs to an inquiry-based approach. They found, after
one year o f implementation, that students in the process-approach classes exhibited
positive attitudes in science, developed advanced questioning techniques, and had
achieved success in their scientific learning experiences.
According to Carin (1997), today’s teachers must use aspects from all teaching
styles because o f the diversity o f students in classrooms. Teachers must select and use
whatever seems best for their students, regardless o f the name given to the teaching
function. In traditional learning as presented by Carin ( 1997), the teachers role is
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
4 6considered to be at the center o f the curriculum. The teacher also leads the class in a
formal or direct way without giving the opportunity for the students to explore the
materials by themselves. He or she is also considered to be the primary source o f
infomiation.
While the traditional teachers tend to ask and answer all the questions, Carin
(1997), describes the teacher in the hands-on/minds-on style as encouraging the student
to ask questions. He also guides the students to explain what tliey found during their
exploration. In the traditional teaming classroom, the students sit in immovable rows
facing the front, while in the hands-on/minds-on classroom the students sit in groups or
circles. The instructional mode in traditional leaming is through lectures and sometimes
tlirough teachers’ demonstrations. In the haiids-on/minds-on, the instractional mode is
based on using the teacher as a facilitator who guides and coaches the students.
Yet another view is presented by Martin, Sexton, and Gerlovich (2001).
According to them, in traditional classrooms, the curriculum emphasis is on basic skills
which are presented from part to whole. The information relies heavily on textbooks and
workbooks. On the other hand, the curriculum in the constractivist classrooms
emphasizes big concepts and thinking skills, which are presented from whole to part.
The primary sources in the constructivist classrooms rely heavily on students’ exploration
o f the materials. The role o f the student in traditional learning is as a receiver of
information presented by the teacher. The students also work individually. However, the
role o f tlie student in the constructivist classroom is as a thinker and they always work in
groups. The teacher in the traditional classrooms transmits information to the students,
and he/she always seeks the correct answer to evaluate student leaming. On the other
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
4 7hand, the teacher in the constractivist classroom provides appropriate materials in
order to help the students to manipulate and problem solve. In traditional leaming
teachers evaluate the student formally through tests. In the constructivist classrooms,
however, evaluation occurs formally and infoxmally through the teachers’ observation o f
students at work.
The following table shows a quick illustration o f the comparison between the
traditional leaming and the learning cycle as taken from the literature previously cited in
this chapter.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
48Table 2 .1
A Comparison Between, the Traditional LearainE and the .Leariiinsi Cycle:
Traditional leaming Leaming cycle
Cumculutn
• Lecture
• Text books
» Inquiry by student
• Developmen t o f experiments
The role o f the student
® To receive infomiation
• To memorize information
• To seek information
• To understand and construct
meaning
The role o f the teacher
• To transmit information
(curriculum-centered)
• To facilitate exploration
(student-centered)
Assessment
• Formal testing • Formal testing/informal testing through observations o f students at work
Impact on Student• Willingly accept all information» Difficult to generate own questions• Very little real world• Individually oriented
• Prepares students more for real world situations and problem solving
® Helps student to acquire process and essential experiences
• Helps student to make productive cognitive connections between internal experiences and the real, external world
• Independent yet collaborative
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
49Traditional lecture-recitation leaming is about memoiiziog materials and
concepts presented to the students in the classroom, whereas learning cycle inqidiy
method is concerned with helping students leam how to leam. Traditional leaming gives
students a block o f information that they will know, but may not enable them to leam
how to apply it in the real world. On the other hand, leaming cycle inquiry method
prepares students more for real world situations and problem solving, by helping them to
acquire and process essential experiences and by making productive cognitive
comiections between intemal experiences and the real, external world.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
50Siitnma.rv
The effects o f teaching strategies on students’ academic achievement and attitudes
toward science is an important issue that faces educators today. Science educators are
concerned with practicing teaching strategies that can lead students to be proficient in
science. Two o f those strategies are learning cycle inquiry leaming and traditional
lecture-recitation learning strategies, which have been a major subject o f debate among
educators- In this study the researcher examined the effectiveness o f the 4-E leaming
cycle inquiry leaming and traditional lecture-recitation leaming strategies on fourth-grade
students’ academic achievement and attitudes in science classrooms in Kuwait.
The first main division of this study examined traditional lecture- recitation
leaming strategies, which are still supported by some educators today. This strategy in
some cases also has been effective in improving student abilities and skills in science.
Inquiry leaming exists in several forms and has been shown to be an important
method o f teaching, which is being used in classrooms by many teachers up through the
college level. However, those teachers often encounter problems from conservative
educators who adhere to the traditional system o f teaching. Leaming cycle inquiry
leaming strategies are valuable in science classrooms because they help many students to
develop the necessary skills and abilities in academic achievement and to improve their
attitudes toward science.
Educators should continue searching for more effective strategies and continue
improving these strategies because the world is always changing, and students’ abilities
and skills are not constant. For these reasons, the researcher in this study tried to
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
51examine the effectiveness o f both strategies as they relate to students’ academic
achievement and attitudes toward science.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
52CHAPTER THREE
Methodology
Introduction
The purpose o f this study was to compai'e two methods o f teaching elementary
science in the State o f Kuwait; the 4-E learning cycle inquiry leaming and traditional
lecture-recitation learning. The effects o f these two methods on fourth grade students’
academic achievement and attitudes have been investigated because all citizens are
looking forward to seeing a new generation that is more academically accomplished to
build themselves and able to build their country through understanding their missions and
tasks in school as well as real life.
The major objective o f this study was to determine: (1) die eiffectiveness o f
learning cycle inquiry leaming versus traditional lecture-recitation learning strategies at
the elementary grade level, and (2) recommend to Kuwaiti educators the most effective
method o f teaching elementary science in order to improve students’ academic
achievement and attitudes toward science.
Statistical Hypotheses
The research hypotheses were formulated on the basis o f the major question o f the
study which is: To what extent do leaming cycle inquiry learning and traditional lecture-
recitation learning strategies affect students’ academic achievement and attitudes toward
science in elementary classes in tlie State o f Kuwait? These hypotheses, which were
evaluated at the 0.05 significance level, are:
Null Hypothesis Number One (H oi)
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
53There is no significant difference in students’ academic achievement and
attitudes with respect to the methods o f teaching: traditional lecture-recitation leaming
versus learning cycle inquiry leaming.
Altemative Hypothesis One (HaI)
There is significant difference in students’ academic achievement and attitudes
with respect to the methods o f teaching: traditional lecture-recitation learning versus
learning cycle inquiry leaming.
Null Hypothesis Number Two (Ho2)
There is no significant difference between the gender on students’ academic
achievement and attitudes toward science.
Altemative Hypothesis Two (H a2 )
There is significant difference between the gender on students’ academic
achievement and attitudes toward science.
Null Hypotheses Number Three (Ho3)
There is no significant interaction between gender and the instractional methods
used on students’ academic achievement and attitudes.
Altemative Hypothesis Three (H a 3)
There is significant interaction between gender and the instructional methods used
on students’ academic achievement rmd attitudes.
Variables
The independent variables were instructional methods (leaming cycle inquiiy
leaming and traditional lecture-recitation leaming strategies) and gender. The dependent
variables were students’ academic achievemen.t and attitudes.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
54Population and Sample
The population under study was the public elementary students and elementary
teachers in the State o f Kuwait. All Kuwaiti public schools are monitored by the
Ministry o f Education, which is responsible for all learning institutions that are obligated
to fulfill the Ministry’s goals. All students throughout the general educational levels are
studying the same curricula in schools, A few public schools are applying both
traditional lecture-recitation and learning cycle inquiry leaming strategies. The sample
consisted o f four intact classes that included 111 students and were selected from the
public elementary schools utilizing both teaching strategies.
Subjects
The researcher requested from the Ministry o f Education to provide him with two
elementary schools one for girls and the other for boys. The two different elementary
schools were selected based on the strategies that are being used in them. The researcher
then went to the schools that were provided for him by the Ministry o f Education and
asked the administration to provide him with two fourth grade elementary science
classrooms. By comparing the achievement scores o f the four classes that were provided
by the regular classroom teacher, the researcher was able to determine that the four
classes were at the same level o f achievement before the utilization o f the two
instructional methods. The sample that was selected consisted o f 111 elementary
science students in four intact classrooms. According to statistical power analysis by
(Stevens, 1996), the suggested sample o f this study is up to 120 elementary students; this
number is determined according to the following factors:
1, Statistical procedure (Two Way MANOVA).
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
5 52. The desired power 0.80.
3. Expected effect size (moderates).
4. Tlie level o f significance (0.05).
To get the required sample size, the researcher selected 110 elementaiy students
from two different intact public elementary schools that were provided by the Ministry o f
Education. Also, the sanp le o f students for this study was assigned from the population
o f fourth grade science classes at public elementary schools in the State o f Kuwait. The
students in this study were between the ages o f 9 and 11.
The students for this study consisted o f four intact science classes: two fourth
grade boy classes and two fourth grade girl classes in two different elementary schools.
The educational system in Kuwait is not coeducational, so the boys’ and girls’ school
buildings are completely separated. The researcher recognized the inherent bias in this
subject selection methodology, but had to conduct the experiment under actual classroom
conditions.
Two elementary science teachers, who taught the four science classes, were
oriented to teach the science unit to students based on the strategies that were measured
for their effectiveness. The two teachers were the regular classroom teachers for the
students. The researcher gave an orientation for the two teachers who taught the four
classes. The researcher then asked each teacher to employ traditional lecture-recitation
methods and leaming cycle inquiry learning. The main purpose o f this orientation was to
plan and to discuss the best ways of using the leaming cycle inquiry leaming strategy in
teaching the unit of humans and food. The orientation session included discussions on
how the teachers could motivate and encourage the students to ask more questions,
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
5 6depend on themselves dnring the learaing process, encouraging student involvement in
the essential science experience which are observation, measurement, experimentation,
interpretation o f data, and prediction. This orientation helped the teachers to understand
the nature o f learning cycle inquiry lem-ning through the activities o f the students, and
assisted teachers in designing and conducting leaming cycle inquiry centered lessons
applicable to students’ varying intellectual levels. The researcher also used a visual
document (video tape) that included 4-E learning cycle inquiiy learning setting that has
been used in the U.S.A. The science unit took one month to teach. It started in
November 2001. The science class met forty-fi ve minutes per day and three days per
week. The two elementary science teachers consisted o f one female who taught the male
elementary students and one female who taught the female students. In addition, each
science teacher utilized the 4-E learning cycle inquiry leaming in their same science class
for one month and traditional lecture-recitation leaming in the other science class for the
same length o f time. Furthermore, the researcher attended each class meeting to observe
each teacher’s teaching methods to assure avoidance o f teacher bias and appropriate and
consistent uses o f the two methods.
The researcher used existing groups o f students, gave them a pre-test, supervised
the two instractional treatments, and gave a post-test after a month of teaching the unit.
The results obtained from this design depended on the differences between the groups as
they related to the dependent variables. Also, the subjects were asked to respond to the
attitude survey instrument, which measured the improvement o f students’ attitudes
toward science. The researcher went over the survey statements by reading each
statement to students and had them respond accordingly in order to help students who
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
57were at the lower level o f reading skill understand the meaning o f each nieaning of
each statement.
Differences in results between students may be related to gender and pre-test
scores as well as instractional treatment. Fifty percent of the students were boys and the
other fifty percent were girls. The similarities between the subjects are:
1. There were approximately 30 students in each science classroom.
2. All o f the students were in the fourth grade.
3. Each class period took about 45 minutes (see Table 1.1).
Table3.1Subjects o f the Study
A female science
teacher
The 4-E Learning cycle
inquiiy leaming settings
Traditional lecture-recitation
leaming settings
26
24
Boy elementary students
Boy elementary students
A female science
teacher
The 4-E Learning cycle
inquiry leaming settings
T raditional lecture-recitation
leaming settings
30
31
Girl elementary students
Girl elementary students
Setting
There were four groups o f subjects, each comprised an intact science class of
fourth graders. One class o f boys was instructed with tlie 4-E leaming cycle inquiry
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
58learning strategies and the second class o f boys was taught using traditional lecture-
recitation teaming strategies. Tlie girls groups were divided in a similar fashion.
In the traditional lecture-recitation settings, which were the traditional leaming
groups, students as usual remained in rows, especially when taking notes or reviewing
homework assignments. Students in the experimental ^oups met in the regular science
classroom. They were organized in leaming cycle inquiiy learning settings such as in
groups o f 4-6 students. Students in both settings were taught tlie same material in the
academic unit and the same science concepts or skills (see Figure 3.1).
Pip 3.1 The Research Design Utilized for this S tudv
Pretest (achievement) &
Attitudes survey
Traditional lecture- recitation leaming
The 4-E leaming cycle inquiry leaming
Posttest (achievement) &
Attitude survey
To differentiate between the two methods o f teaching, the characteristics o f each
method o f teaching were given on a sheet o f paper to the science teachers in order to
remind them in an easy way about the differences between the 4-E leaming cycle inquiry
learning and traditional lecture-recitation learning strategies. The researcher paraphrased
the National Research Council’s, A Guide For Teaching and Learning (2000),
description of some features of these strategies as follows:
1. In learning cycle inquiry leaming, learners are engaged by scientifically
oriented questions. In traditional lecture-recitation classrooms, which are
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
59based on using traditional learning strategies, students are only allowed to
record teachers’ infomiation.
2. In leaming cycle inquiry leaming, learners give priority to evidence, which
allows them to develop and evaluate explanations that address scientifically
oriented questions. In traditional lecture-recitation classrooms students only
memorize infomiation and they often focus only on completing the
assignment by completing all the same tasks.
3. In leaming cycle inquiry leaming, learners formulate explanations from
evidence to address scientifically oriented questions. In traditional lecture-
recitation leaming, students follow teacher directions.
4. In leaming cycle inquiry leaming, learners evaluate their explanations in light
o f alterative explanations, particularly those reflecting scientific
understanding. In traditional lecture-recitation leaming students defers to
teacher as authority.
5. In leaming cycle inquiry leaming, learners communicate and justify their
proposed explanations. In traditional lecture-recitation leaming
environments, students are encouraged to accept the teacher’s explanations.
Instruments
The effectiveness o f applying leaming cycle inquiry leaming and traditional
lecture-recitation learning strategies was determined by examining students’ academic
achievement and attitudes toward teaching science. Students’ academic achievement in
both teaching methods was measured by designing an achievement test that was given to
students as a pre-test and a post-test. The pre-test results indicated how knowledgeable
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
60students were about the man and plants unit in both groups (leaming cycle inquiry and
traditional lecture-recitation). The same achievement test was given to students in the
science classes after a month to measure the effect o f traditional lecture-recitation
leaming and learning cycle inquiry leaming strategies in improving students’ knowledge
about the same academic unit.
In addition, student attitudes were determined by using a survey (see appendix B)
from a previous study conducted by Martin, Johanson, Gieen and Cimanec (1991). The
researcher got permission from the authors to use their survey. The survey contained 30
items that measured the attitudes o f students towards math and science. The items used
in the science and mathematics parts were developed by the project director and by the
evaluator o f the project. Final selection and ordering was done by the evaluator of the
project to get the most content coverage with items that were representative o f the content
and laid out.
The researcher found this survey significant to use in his research for two reasons.
First, the survey considered one o f the recent instruments that designed to measure
students’ attitudes toward science in elementary level. Also, it covers the same content
that is being taught in Kuwaiti science classrooms. The reliability o f the 15 items o f
science attitudes survey is a moderate reliability coefficient o f 0.84. The survey seemed
to work well and appears as if met their needs. The researcher selected only 15 items
that related to science to measure the influence of both teaching methods in encouraging
students to leam science.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
61Validity and Reliability o f the Tnstniment
The meaning o f lh.e validity and reliability o f an instrument is deftnal by Freaiikel
and Wallen (1993): “Validity refers to the appropriateness, meaningfulness and
usefulness o f the inferences a researcher makes. Reliability refers to the consistency o f
scores o f answers from one administration o f itn instrument to another, and from one set
o f items to another” (p. 138).
Regarding the validity o f the achievement test, the researcher developed an
achievement test with the assistance o f two science teachers to ensure tliat the test would
cover the major eienients o f studied units. This test involved testing o f cognitive skills,
divided into low-level and high-level skills. Low-level skills include knowledge and
facts, such as naming the parts o f plants and where food is stored i n them. High-level
skills include understanding and applications, so students should be able to distinguish
the different ways o f preserving foods (see Appendix A). Since this test is newly
invented, content validity was one of the researcher’s fundamental concerns. Aiken
(1996) defined content validity as “the extent to which a group o f people who are experts
in the material with which a test deals agree that the test measures what it was designed
to measure” (p. 256). Content validity reflects the degree to which an instrument or test
measures an intended content; it is usually determined by some experts’ judgments
(Hopkins & Charles, 1990). To insure the validity o f the achievement test, the researcher
followed these procedures;
(1) The researcher analyzed the content o f the study and defined the
main areas that were assessed. He then generated questions
conceming each area.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
62(2) The researcher presented the achievement test to two science teachers and
asked for their comments to modify, change or add to the test.
Furthennore, in order to see tire reliability o f the achievement test, the researcher
discussed the grading criteria with both o f the teachers. The researcher and the two
teachers then came to agreement on the meaning o f the criteria and points values. After
they graded the test the researcher verified that the teachers followed the criteria as
previously agreed upon when grading the test. Based on the researcher’s observations
and the information from the students test grades, the researcher found that both teachers
followed the grading criteria on nmdom tests, giving similar points and answers.
Validity o f the Instruments
Validity refers to the degree to which an instrument accurately reflects or
assesses the specific concept that a researcher is attempting to measure (Aiken,
1996). The results o f the principal components analyses o f the survey instrument
which the researcher used from a previous study that was conducted by Martin,
Johanson, Green and Cimanec (1991) indicated that there is a good evidence of
factor or construct validity. They also clearly indicated that there are two major
dimensions. All o f the math items loaded on one dimension and all o f the science
items loaded on the other dimension, which means the validity o f the instrument
is good. The researcher followed some systematic procedures to preserve the
validity o f both the achievement test and the attitudinal suivey.
The survey and the test were translated from English to Arabic by the
researcher. Four Arab graduate students at Ohio University were asked to rate the
translation from English to Arabic. The rate was either poor, good, or excellent,
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
63and adjustaeots were made as necessary. Three .Arab ciii,ldren in the Athens sirea
whose ages are between i 0 and 11, and two science teachers from a Kuwaiti
school, were asked to assess the validity o f tlie instruments, and to ensure that the
test covered the major elements o f studied units. Those individuals were asked to
evaluate the instructions o f the instruments, such as clarity, understanding, and
ambiguity o f the survey statements or test questions. All three students gave the
researcher their responses, indicating that fliey were able to read clearly the
instrument questions and statements. In addition, they pointed out that the
instructions for the test questions and the survey items were clear and
understandable, by answering the following questions:
A. Did you have any difficulty answering this survey and test?
B. Did you understand what you should do in both the survey and the
test?
C. Did you understand all the statements o f the survey and questions of
the test?
D. Which Statements or questions were not clear to you?
Finally, two elementary science teachers from a Kuwaiti school were asked to
assess the instruments and gave the researcher a final Arabic draft. Then, the
researcher distributed the survey and achievement test among elementary students
to collect data to attain the purpose o f the study.
Reliability o f the .lnstru.ments
Reliability is an indication of the consistency of an instniment. A test is
considered reliable when the same results occur regardless o f when the test occius or who
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
64does the scoring (Charles, 1995). Before conducting the study, the researcher did a
pilot study by distributing the attitude survey among 51 female students in a fourth gimle
science class in Kuwait. Those students were different from the control and experimental
group students and consisted o f an intact class selected randomly from other fourth grade
classes in the Kuwaiti schools. The aim o f the pilot study was to examine the reliability
and efficiency of the instrument before distributing it to the subjects o f the study. Based
on their responses, the result o f the pilot study showed an acceptable coefficient value of
0.70 (see Appendix C). Furthermore, after the implementation of the study, the
reliability o f the pre-and post attitude surveys returned a moderate reliability coefficient
value o f 0.831 and 0. 826. Thus, the attitude survey can be considered sufficiently
reliable instrument to measure Kuwaiti students’ attitude in fourth-grade science classes
(see Appendix D).
Data Collection Procedure
Data was gathered from the achievement pre-test and post-test. For boys and girls
classes, all students were given a pre-test to measure their abilities and understanding of
the unit (Appendix A). Then, one class was instructed using traditional lecture-recitation
learning strategies to teach science concepts and skills; in addition, the other class was
taught by utilizing the 4-E learning cycle inquiry-learning strategies. After a month o f
instruction, all students were given post-test to evaluate their improvement in
understanding the science unit. All students were at the fourth grade level because
students at this level have the ability to read the test questions independently, which the
researcher used to measure students academic achievement. Also, students at this grade
level were capable o f understanding quickly their tasks and missions in either learning
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
6 5cycle inquiry learning or traditional lecture-recitation learning settings, which
conserved the researcher and teachers’ time.
The second instrument that was implemented to collect data is the attitudes survey
which the researcher got from previous study (Appendix B). The researcher went over
the survey by reading each statement to the students and had them respond to it. The
reason for this step is to help students who are at a lower level o f reading skill to
understand the meaning o f each statement. The boys and girls wrote their responses
about the effects o f the methods o f teaching on their attitudes toward science.
Finally, visiting the teachers; the researcher visited during the science class
periods to ensure that the teachers utilized the methods precisely and that they met their
goals completely. The researcher visited two classes out o f three every week and each
visit took 45 minutes. In this way the researcher ensured that the teachings methods
would stay consistent throughout the teaching o f the unit.
Data Analysis Procedure
In this study, the method o f testing the effectiveness o f using the 4-E learning
cycle inquiry learning or traditional lecture-recitation learning strategy was the two-way
MANOVA. The researcher used the gains o f the academic achievement test and attitudes
survey by subtracting the pre-test scores from the post-test scores. Using this technique
helped the researcher to measure and determine tlie effect o f each instructional method on
students’ academic achievement and attitudes. To begin with, the researcher oriented the
two teachers, who taught the science unit to students, to the appropriate ways o f teaching
the two strategies to students in order for the study to ftilfill its main purpose. The
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
66researcher aiid the original teachers discussed after each class meeting the most
impotlant issues that occurred during the class period.
The M ANOVA test measured the mean etTect o f students’ academic achievement
and attitudes with respect to the methods o f teaching: traditional lecture-recitation
learning versus learning cycle inquiry learning. In order to examine the effects o f gender
on students’ academic achievement and attitudes toward science, the researcher used tlie
MANOVA test for independent means to analyze students’ scores on the achievement
tests and responses to the attitudes survey. The researcher also investigated potential
interaction between gender and instructional methods on stiidents’ academic achievement
and attitudes with respect to the method o f teaching: traditional lecture-recitation learning
and learning cycle inquiry learning.
In the experimental groups, learning cycle inquiry-learning strategies were
employed to examine their effectiveness on students’ academic science achievement and
attitudes. Tlie classes instructed with traditional lecture-recitation learning strategies
were considered the control groups in this study.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
67Summary
Chapter 3 discussed the methodology o f the completed study examiniiig the
impact o f implementitig learning cycle inquiry-leaming or traditional lecture-recitation
learning strategies on students’ academic acliievBraent and attitudes in elementary science
classes. The chapter describes the statistical hypotheses, variables, population and
sample o f the study, the subjects, setting, instrameuts, data collection, data analysis, and
validity and reliability o f the instruments.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
68CHAPTER FOUR
Results
Introduction
The piiipose o f this study was to investigate the effect iveness o f two methods in
teaching elementary science; the 4-E leanung cycle inquiry method and a traditional
lecture-recitation method. The chosen sample for this study consisted o f 111 fourth-grade
students in two different schools in the State o f Kuwait and 2 elementaiy science
teachers. The students were in four intact classrooms. The students’ academic
achievements were measured by a researcher-designed achievement test given to students
as a pretest (see Appendix A). The same achievement test was given to .students in the
science classes after a month as a posttest to measure the effects o f the methods in
enhancing students’ knowledge about a common science unit. Also, students’ attitudes
were determined by administering a survey as a pre and posttest (see Appendix B). The
attitude instrument was developed by Martin, Johanson, Green and Cimanec (1991). The
researcher got permission from the authors to use their instrument, which contained 15
items that reported students’ altitudes towards science.
The experiment lasted one month, starting on November 20, 2001. Each science
class met 45 minutes per day, three days per week. The achievement and attitude
instruments were used as pre-and post-tests for all four classes.
Two out o f four intact classes were instructed with the learning cycle method and
the other two classes were instructed with the traditional lecture-recitation learning
method over the same science unit, which covered man and food. Prior to the
experiment, the researcher obtained achievement scores for all students from the regular
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
69classroom teachers, to assure that students’ academic achievement and abilities in the
four classes were comparable. Boys and girls classes were included in the study.
Achievement score comparisons are shown in table 4.1. The table shows that both boys’
and girls’ classes were roughly equivalent in students’ academic achievement scores in
the science classroom before implementing the learning cycle inquiry learning method in
the four intact classes.
These results suggested that the researcher could use these classes in the study to
reflect actual effectiveness o f using the two instructional methods: learning cycle inquiry
learning and traditional lecture-recitation learning (see Appendix E).
Table 4.1
Pre-Test Achievement Score Comparisons
Traditional learning Learning cycle
Boys’ 25.42 26.35
Girls’ 26.90 26.10
One female teacher taught both classes o f the male elementary students and the
other female teacher taught both classes o f the female students. Each science teacher
used the learning cycle inquiry method in one science class for one month, and traditional
lecture-recitation learning in the other science class for the same length o f time (see
Appendix F for a sample o f a lesson plan for each instructional method). The researcher
discerned the teachers’ readiness for teaching the unit according to tlie two methods to be
compared in this study. Both o f them were interested in being involved in this study and
agreed to use both teaching methods in ways compatible with the research design. The
researcher oriented the two teachers to the appropriate ways o f using the two methods
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
70with students in order for the study to fulfill its maiii purpose. The researcher and the
original teachers also discussed after each class meeting the most important issues that
occurred during the class period in an effort to limit bias and to assure consistent uses of
the methods. For example, the teacher, when using the traditional instructional approach
kept wanting to bring in materials, but the researcher asked her to follow the role o f the
teacher in traditional learning by lecturing only. On the other hand, in the 4-E learning
cycle classroom the researcher had to remind the teacher to talk less and have more
student engagement with the processes o f science.
The independent variables o f this study were the methods o f teaching elementary
science: learning cycle inquiry learning and traditional lecture-recitation learning and
gender. The dependent variables were the students’ academic achievement and attitudes
in fourth grade.
For the data analysis, the two way MANOVA test was used to determine the
impact o f each method on students’ academic achievement and attitudes toward science.
Attempts were made to statistically measure whether there were differences between the
two methods o f teaching elementary science learning cycle inquiry learaing and
traditional lecture-recitation learning and to what extent those two methods of teaching
elementary science impacted students’ academic achievements and attitudes.
This chapter presents the results o f the data analysis based on the statistical
hypotheses and the research questions.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
71,
Research Ouesti.ons
1. Are there significEint differences between, the learning cycle inquiry learaing and
traditional lecture-recitation methods in fourth grade on students’ academic
achievement and attitudes toward science classes?
2. Are there significant differences between gender in the fourth grade on students’
academic achievement and attitudes toward science classes?
3. Is there an interaction between gender and tlie instructional methods used?
Descriptive Statistics
In this section descriptive statistics was used to present the two methods of
teaching elementary science along with their effectiveness regarding students’ academic
achievement and attitudes.
Using the techniques described in chapter three, data were collected using the
academic achievement test and students attitude survey. O f the 111 academic
achievement test and attitude surveys distributed to the fouith grade students, 98 of both
the female and male students were selected for this study. Thirteen o f the academic
achievement tests and students attitude siuweys were eliminated from the study because
the respondents had not completed most o f the items.
The number o f students who participated in this study and their percentages for
each o f the independent variables are presented in Tables 4.2, and 4.3.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
72Table 4.2
Gender and Number o f Students
Gender
Number of Stiideiils Percent Valid Percent
CumulativePercent
Valid Male 4J 4.1.9 43.9 4.1.9
Female S5 .56.1 56.1 100.0
Total 98 1,00.0 100-0
Table 4,3
Method o f Teachin g and Students Number
Method of T ea ch in g
Number o f Students Percent Valid Percent
CumulativePercent
Valid Traditional lecture-rccitation 49 SO.O 50.0 50.0
Learning Cycle Inquiry leartiing 49 SO.O ,50,0 100.0
Total 98 100.0 100.0
The Multivariate and Univariate Results
Data Analysis
A two-way MANOVA was used to test tlie effectiveness o f the learning cycle
inquiry learning and traditional lecture-recitation learning strategies. The researcher
used the gains o f the academic achievement test and attitudes survey by subtracting the
pre-test scores from the post-test scores. Using this technique helped the researcher to
measure and detennine the effect o f each instructional method on students’ academic
achievement and attitudes.
The MANOVA test was used in this study to see the mean effect o f students’
academic achievement and attitudes with respect to the methods of teaching: traditional
lecture-recitation leajming versus learning cycle inquiry learning. In order to examine
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
73the effects o f gender on students’ academic achievement and attitudes toward science,
the researcher utilized the MANOVA test for independent means to analyze students’
scores on the achievement tests and responses to the attitudes survey. The researcher also
tested if there was an interaction between gender and instructional methods on students’
academic achievement and attitudes with respect to the teaching method used. This
section presents the findings o f the null hypotheses and the research questions. The
MANOVA test was utilized in testing the null hypotheses o f the study.
The purpose o f this section is to check the assumptions o f the multivariate
analysis o f variance (MANOVA) and to test the following null hypotheses as stated in
Chapter I :
H oi: Null hypothesis
There is no significant difference in students’ academic achievement and attitudes
with respect to the methods o f teaching; traditional lecture-recitation learning versus
learning cycle inquiry learning.
Ho2: Null hypothesis
There is no significant difference between the gender on students’ academic
achievement and attitudes toward science.
Ho3: Null hypothesis
There is no significant interaction between gender and the instructional methods
used on students’ academic achievement and attitudes.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
7 4The Assumptions o f MANO VA
Since MANOVA was used to exajiiiiie the liyjiotlieses o f the study, it is necessaiy
to test whether the assumptions were met or not.
Independence o f Observations
The first assumption o f MANOVA is independence of observations, that is, each
one o f the students responded without affecting others. When conducting the study, the
researcher made sure that each student responded to the achievement test and attitude
survey separately, and thus the assumption was met.
Normal ity o f the Distribution o f Dependent Variables in the Populatioii
In tliis study, the second assumption for the nomiality o f distribution was that the
sample for both students’ academic achievement and attitude toward science come from a
nonnal population. I f the result of the test o f normality is significant, with a p-value less
than 0.05, then the normality o f the groups’ distribution would not exist. The univariate
normality assumption was examined by using the Shapiro-Wilk Test. The results o f the
Shapiro-Wilk test, as seen in Table 4.4, indicated that the dependent variable
GAINSACH was normally distributed across all levels o f the independent variables.
However, the second dependent variable, GAINSATT, was not normally distributed over
two levels (i.e., inquiry learning for males, p=0.005, and traditional lecture-recitation for
females, p~0.014). Since according to Stevens (1996), the MANOVA test is robust to
violations o f multivariate nomiality, the researcher concludes that the presence o f this
small violation in the normality o f one dependent vaiiable, that is GAINSATT, should
not have much effect on the accuracy o f analysis.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
75Table 4.4
Descriptive Statistics for the Test o f Norm.alitv o f Both Acaderoic Achievement an,d
Attitudes When Utilizing Learning Cycle Inquiry Learning and Traditional Lecture-
Recitation Learning Methods With Both Male and Female 4' ̂Grade Students
Tests of Normality
Kolmogorov-Smlmov* Shapiro-Wilk
Gender Method of Teaching Statistic df Sig, Statistic df Sig.Male Traditional GAINSACH .129 21 .200' .938 21 .473
lecture-recitation GAINSATT .146 21 .200* .978 21 .890
Learning Cycle GAINSACH .149 22 .200* .947 22 .280Inquiry learning GAINSATT
.240 22 .002 .857 22 .OOS
Female Traditional GAINSACH .100 28 .200* .975 28 .707lecture-recitation GAINSATT .182 28 .018 .904 28 .014
Learning Cycle GAINSACH .121 27 .200* .944 27 .152Inquiry learning GAINSATT
.139 27 ,195 .931 27 .074
*• This is a lower bound of the true significance,
a- Liliiefors Significance Correction
The normality is presented using histograms to display clearly the results o f the
study. “In a histogram, the height o f each bar is the ffequency of each value in the
frequency table, and all the bars are put next to each other with no space in between”
(Aron and Aron, 1997, p.7). The benefit o f using a histogram in this section is to show
how the distribution o f the data values is distributed compared with the normal
distribution, which follows a normal curve. The advantages o f the use o f the histogram
was also illustrated by Norusis (1998) by pointing out that, “It tells you how likely
various values are. From it, you can see whether the cases cluster around a central value.
You can also see whether large and small values are equally likely and whether there are
values far removed from the rest” (p. 44).
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
76Figure 4.1
The Nomial Distribution of the Students Academic Achievement
5M D«v"2 42
N ^ 98,00
-3,0 ^ ,0 -1,0 0.0 1 0 2 0 3,0 4,0 6.0 6.0 7.0 6.0
GAINSACH
Figure 4.2
The Normal Distribution for the Students Attitudes.
SW. D ev - 6 .8 1
Mean ̂ 3̂ 96,00
-20.0 - 10.0 0.0 10 0 20.0-16.0 -S.O S.O IS.O 2S.0
GAINSATT
Flomomiei tv o f Variance Covariance Matrices
The third assumption o f M ANOVA is homogeneity o f variance covariance
matrices, that is, the variance covariance matrices o f the dependent variables are equal
across groups. The statistical procediue that was used to examine this assumption was
Box’s Test. The result indicated that P > .05 (P = .385), so the assumption was met.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
7 7Table 4.5
Box’s Test
Box's Test of Equality of Covariance Matrlce#
Box’.s M 9.974
r 1.065
dfl 9
m 79791.161
Sig. .385
Tests the null hypothesis that the observed covariance matrices of the dejtendent variables are equal across groups.
»• Design; Interospt+OIiNDER+METHODS-KjENDER » NfETHODS
The Overall Multivariate Result
Null hypotheses 1: there is no significant difference in students’ academic
achievement and attitudes with respect to the methods o f teaching: traditional lecture-
recitation learning versus leaming cycle inquiry learning. There was a significant
different and the null hypothesis was rejected. Using Wilk’s Lambda Test, the researcher
found significant differences between the leaming cycle inquiry leaming and traditional
lecture-recitation methods in fourth grade on students academic achievement and
attitudes toward science, F (2, 93) = 19.765, (P= .000), comesponding to Wilks’ Lambda
= .702 with an effect size o f .298 and a power o f 1 (see Table 4.6). So these results
indicated that the null hypotheses should be rejected. As a result, the first alternative
hypotheses was supported: the students’ results on the academic achievement and
attitudes tests were different when leaming cycle inquiry learning was used verses
traditional lecture-recitation learning strategies.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
78Table 4.6
The Multivariate Tests
MulMvariate Teste'
Effect Value r Hyijoihcris d f E n w d fParo'ftl hia Sq«aj«i
‘N ew eptParatTKier Ot)5efva»l Pnwer"
intercept PilUi's Tracu ,794 x m i 9,3.000 ,f»0« .794 - w m t (KKl
Lanitrdy 206 2.000 93.000 O'X) J'-H 3.VLK.S2 i.oon
HuU'Iliug'a Trace 3. MS 178.916* 2.0!>0 93.000 ,000 ,794 1 t)«j
Eny’a J.ar^sest Root :i.84s 179.9W* 2.000 93.000 .000 ,794 357,832 l.OOO
OfiNDER Pi Hat's T« ace ,051 2.000 93,000 . m ,051 4.9ftS .48!?
WilU’Lambda .949 2.4M ’' 2.000 93.900 M 9 .031 4.96S -438
Hoteiliflg’s Trace .055 2.4W*‘ 2.000 93.000 M 9 .031 .488
R o /s l.af Root .053 2.4S4* 2.0<H1 93.060 .0^9 ,031 4.968 .458
METHODS HHai'a T n cc 2,000 ,000 39.53! 1 two
WUkij' .702 19.764 * 2.000 93.00ft ,000 .393 39.531 i.mio
HoteUtop.'? Ttace .4?.S 19.76}'’ 2.060 9-3.000 .000 -7M 39.531 i.OOO
Roy's Root .475 19.76}'’’ 2,000 93.000 ,(K»0 .298 .39.5.31 i.OOO
OENOGR * METHOElS P iM 't Trace M i 2.5M*' 2.00(1 93-000 .0«7 .031 5.(J14 .491
WilkV L a n ^ f t .949 2..W8*’ 2,two 9.3.000 .087 .031 5.0U> ,491
HoteQiiBg'9 Ttaca .OW a.sos* 2.000 93.000 .tfS7 ,051 5.016 .491
Roy!) I-argest Rtwrt M 4 J iO ** 2,000 93,000 0K7 ,051 5.016 -491
CoiJijJttied w.'Sing alitlw « OS
b' lU act’staiiiiUc
PeJijgn: iaK'li'tfpJi CTem>ilR-*-Ml"rHOnKTOHNDi:R *
This significant result for students’ academic achievement and attitudes turned
towards a large effect size o f 0.298 which means the portion of variance explained by the
difference in metliod. Therefore, this study shows strong support for the first alternative
hypotheses and rejection o f the first null hyirotheses.
According to the differences between the means o f the achievement and attitude
test scores o f students exposed to the two instructional methods, the results indicated that
the utilization o f the learning cycle inquiry leaming method in teaching elementary
science resulted in a mean o f 5.224, compared to a mean o f 2.699 for the traditional
lecture-recitation leaming method. Moreover, the mean o f the students’ attitudes towards
the leaming cycle inquiry leaming method is equal to 2.591, compared to a mean o f -
2.020 for the traditional lecture-recitation learning method (see Table 4.7).
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
79
Table 4.7
MANOVA Test for Academic Achievement and Attitudes Gain Scores Bv Instructional
Method
GAINSACH GAINSATT * Method of Teaching
Method of Teaching GAINSACH GAINSATTTraditional locturs-reottation Mean
N
Std. Dsviation
2.6990
49
2.17465
-2.0204
49
6.17957
Learning Cycle Inquiry learning Mean
N
Std. Deviation
5.2245
49
1,98872
2.5918
49
6.68306
Total Mean
N
Std, Deviation
3.9617
98
2.6990
.2857
98
6.80964
Null Hypotliesis 2; The second mill hypothesis, which indicated that there was no
significant difference between the gender on students’ academic achievement and
attitudes toward science, was retained. Using Wilk’s Lambda Test, the researcher found
that there were no significant differences between gender in the fourth grade on students
academic achievement and attitudes toward science, F (2,93) = 2.484, (P= .089) for
Wilks’ Lambda = .949, with an effect size o f .051 and a power o f .488 (see Table 4.6).
In addition, the mean gain scores for students’ academic achievement based on
gender indicated that the female students mean scores were higher (M=4.086) than the
male students mean (M=3.802). The researcher also found that the mean, gain scores for
students attitudes based on gender for the female was higher (M=l ,472) than the male
student mean (M=-l .232). Even though there were some differences in the mean
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
80achievements between the two genders, the differences were not large enough to cause
statistical differences between the two sexes (see Table 4.8).
Table 4.8
MANOVA Test for Students Academic Achievement and Attitudes Gain Scores bv
Gender
GAINSACH GAINSATT ‘G ender
G ender GAINSACH GAINSATTMate Mean .■3.8023 '1.2326
N 43 43
Std. Deviation 2.39267 5.86287
Female Mean 4.0864 1.4727
N 56 S5
Std. Deviation 2,45337 7.30006
Total Mean 3.9617 .2857
N 08 98
Std. Deviation 2.41S61 6,80964
Null Hypothesis 3; A MANOVA was also performed to test the interaction
between the two independent variables: namely, gender and the instructional methods
used in this study. By using the Wilk’s Lambda Test, the overall results indicated that
there was no significant interaction between gender and the instructional methods used in
this study, (F=2, 93) = 2.508, since P >.05(P= .087), corresponding to Wilks’ Lambda =
.949. As shown in Table 4.6, the third null hypotheses, which indicates that there is no
significant interaction between gender and the instructional methods used on students’
academic achievement and attitudes, was retained. This result indicated that there was no
interaction between the two independent variables, with an effect size o f .051 and a
power o f .491. As long as the hypothesis about the interaction between the two
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
81independent variables was retained, it makes sense to look: at the main effect for each
independent variable separately.
The Univariate Result
A univariate test was tlien run to find where the difterences were located; in other
words, in which dependent variable differences existed. As shown in Table 4.9, in the
case o f the instructional method, the results were similar to those in the multivariate case.
The analysis showed that there was a significant difference between the two educational
methods for both o f the dependent variables when they were each considered separately
(achievement, p=0.000, and attitude, p=0.001). However in the case o f gender, the
results o f the analysis were different. When the students’ achievement variable was
considered by itself, the results showed that there was no significant difference between
the achievements o f the two sexes (F (1 ,94) =.627, p=0.430>0.05). On the other hand,
when the students’ attitude was considered by itself, the results showed that there was
significant difference between the attitudes o f the two sexes (F (1,94) =4.888,
p=0.029>0.05). It seems that this significant difference; however, was not enough to
appear in the multivariate test when the two dependent variables were considered
together. In addition the results o f the univariate test indicated that there was no
significant interaction between gender and the instructional methods used in this study,
(F(l,94) = 4.722 , P= .032>0.05).
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
82Table 4.9
Tests o f Between-Siibiects Effects
Tests o f Betweett-Sttbjects Effects
Source7>|Jcm Sum
ofSqtuues d f Mean Square r sie-hMtUl E u Sqnanal
NoncctithiH'aiicmr C^savedPowta'"
CoiTccted Model GAiNSACfl 163.327^ 3 54.442 1 2 .m ,000 37,993 1.000
GAmSATT 591,741* 3 297.34? 7.74S .000 -198
int«ac<9>( G A IN SA ai m i M i 1502,081 349.414 .000 .78* 349.414 1.000
GAINSATT i . m I . m .0.51 M i .001 .051 .056
GENDER. OAINSAOI 2 . m 2.697 .627 ,430 m 627 . m
G A lN SA rr t n . m 187.514 4 M S ,029 .049 4.8S8 .590
MGI’HODS GAJNSAOl 148414 148.414 34,524 -000 .269 34,524 u m
GArMSATT 453,tW5 45-3.005 11.808 .001 U 2 11.808 .925
GENDER* GAINSACH 4.329 4.129 1.007 .318 .011 1.007 . mMETHODS GAJNSAIT iSi.ltia 181,163 4.72-2 .032 .048 4.77,3 . m
Error GAINSACH 404.t)92 94 4.295
GAINSATT 3 m . m 94 .38.364
Total OMNSACH 2105.563 98
GAINSATT 4506.000 98
Conectcd Total GAINSACH 567,419 97
GAINSATT 4498.000 97
*■ CwwituiBd W8i»g a jp ta .0?
b R Squared - j a t t (Adjusted H SquanxI - J6 S )
«- RSt}<»ar<«l« . m (AjIjusJed R ’ ,!73)
Table 4.10 and Figure 4.3 show the gain in both o f the male and female attitudes
towards teaching science (GAINSATT) after the implementation o f both o f the
traditional and the leaming cycle inquiry learning teaching methods. The results showed
that there was a posi tive gain in the attitude o f the females who were exposed to the
leaming cycle inquiry learaing method, while there was a negative gain in the case o f
those females who were exposed to the traditional lecture-recitation method. As shown
in Table 4.10, the female mean gain was 5.07 in the case o f those who were exposed to
the learning cycle inquiry learaing method, and was -2.00 in the case o f those who were
exposed to the traditional lecture-recitation method o f teaching. In the case o f males, on
the other hand, there was a loss in the GAINSATT when using both teaching methods.
The loss however was much greater in the case o f the traditional lecture-recitation
method compared to the learning cycle inquiry leaming metliod (i.e., -2.05 vs, -0.46.)
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
83Therefore, the results o f both genders showed that the learning cycle inquiry learnitig
method was superior to the traditional lecture-recitation method in preserving or
improving the attitude towards teaching science.
Table 4.10
Gender and Method o f Teaching
G ender * Method of Teaching
95% Confidence Interval
Gender Method of Teaching Mean Std- Error Lower Bound Upper Bound
Male Traditional lecture-recitation -2.048 1.3S2 -4.731 .636
Learning Cycle Inquiry teaming -,4SS 1.321 -3.077 2.167
Female Traditional lecture-recitation -2.000 1.171 -4.324 .324
Leaming Cycle inquiry teaming 5.074 1.192 2.707 7.441
Figure 4.3
Estimated Marginal Means of GAINSATT6
4
2
0
Gender
Male
tpai _______
Traditional tecture-_________FemaleLeaming Cycle Inqui
Method of Teaching
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
8 4
Chapter 4 analyzed the data that was gathered by the researcher from four
different intact fourtli-grade classrooms in tlie State o f Kuwait. Two different
instructional methods (4-E leaming cycle inquiry method and traditional lecture-
recitation method) were implemented in those four classes for one month in order for the
researcher to measure their impact on students’ academic achievement and attitudes
toward science. The researcher used two instruments, (an academic achievement test and
attitude survey) to reach a conclusion that could answer the main question o f the study:
To what extent do learning cycle inquiry leaming or traditional lecture-recitation learning
strategies affect students academic achievement and attitudes in elementary science
classes in the State o f Kuwait?
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
85Chapter 5
Sutnmary, Discussion, Conclusion, and Recommendations
Summary
The State o f Kuwait is concerned that positive growth should occur at the
elementary level in all subjects. This concern is addressed by encouraging researchers to
search for ways to advance elementary school outcomes, supplying most elementary
schools with assistance to learners for acquiring informative knowledge and skills,
rebuilding and reexamining elementary curricula periodically, preparing qualified
teachers who are educated in contemporary theories in educational institutions such as
Kuwait University or the College o f Ed ucation, and permitting citizens to open new
private elementary schools in order to encourage schooling all over the country.
In this study, the researcher searched for the most effective method o f teaching
science in the fourth grade classroom. The results o f this study could encourage the
movement to change the instruction o f elementary science so that it utilizes the most
effective methods in order to promote students’ academic achievement and attitudes
toward science. Thus, the results o f this study may be helpful to educators and
researchers who are eager to gather information regarding teaching that positively
impacts students’ science achievement and attitudes.
This study examined the effectiveness o f two methods o f teaching elementary
science: the 4-E learning cycle inquiry learning, and traditional lecture-recitation
learning. Students’ academic achievement and attitudes toward science were the
dependent variables. The results o f this study may assist young learners, as well as help
elementary science teachers to improve the outcomes o f elementary education in the State
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
86of Kuwait. From all public elementary schools in the State o f Kuwait, two elementaiy
schools were chosen based on the strategies that were to be used. There were four groups
o f subjects, each comprising an intact science class o f fourth grade students. One class o f
boys was instructed with leaming cycle inquiry leaming method and the other class o f
boys was taught by utilizing traditional lecture-recitation learaing metliod. Tlie girls
were divided in a similar fashion. One female teacher tauglit both classes o f boys; and
the other female teacher taught both girls classes.
The study’s sample consisted o f 110 elementary students in four intact
classrooms. Two instruments were used in gathering the data in this study; 1) a measure
o f students’ academic achievement, and 2) an attitude survey. Both instruments were
used for pre-and post-tests for all groups.
In this study there were three null hypotheses and three alternative hypotheses.
The three null hypotheses were as follows:
H oi: There is no significant difference in students’ academic achievement and
attitudes vrith respect to the methods o f teaching: traditional lecture-recitation leaming
versus leaming cycle inquiry learaing.
Ho2: There is no significant difference between the genders on students’
academic achievement and attitudes toward teaching science.
Ho3: Tliere is no significant interaction between gender and the instractional
methods used on students’ academic achievement and attitudes.
The results o f the MANOVA test were significant, supporting the first alternative
hypotheses and rejecting the first null hypotheses o f the study. This result indicated that
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
87there was a significant difference between the two methods of teaching elementtury
science in, their effectiveness regarding students’ academic achievement and attitude.
Furthermore, the comparison among the two methods revealed significant
differences between the ieaming cycle inquiry leaming and tniditional lecture-recitation
methods on students academic achievement and attitudes toward science, F (2,93) =
19.765, (P= .000), corresponding to Wilks’ Lambda == .702 with an effect size o f .298 and
a power o f 1. As a result, the first alternative hypotheses wj^ supported: the students’
results on the academic achievement and attitudes tests were stronger when leaming
cycle inquiry leaming was used verses traditional lecture-recitation leaming strategics.
The 4-E leaming cycle produced superior results.
When the di fferences between the means o f the achievement and attitude scores
of students were compared, the leaming cycle inquiry produced a difference in
achievement test means of 5.224 (compared to a mean o f 2.699 for the traditional lecture-
recitation leaming method) and produced a difference in attitude scores o f 2.591
(compared to a mean o f -2.020 for the traditional lecture-recitation leaming method).
The results indicated that the 4-E leaming cycle inquiry method advanced students’
academic achievement and attitudes more than did the traditional lecture-recitation
method.
Discussion and Conclusion
'The study examined the effect o f two di fferent methods in teaching elementary
science; 1) learning cycle inquiry leaming and 2) traditional lecture-recitation leaming.
The dependent variables were students’ academic achievement and attitudes toward
science. The differences in the impact o f teaching instruction on students academic
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
88achievement and attitudes were investigated by reviewing literature and using the
MANOVA test to deteonine tlie answer for the main question o f tliis study; to what
extent do learning cycle inquiry learning and traditional lecture-recitation learning
strategies affect students academic achievement and attitudes in elementary science
classes in the State o f Kuwait?
One o f the purposes o f this study was to detennine whether students’ academic
achievement scores were different in fouith grade science with respect to teaching
instruction learaing cycle and traditional lecture-recitation, and which teaching method
was more effective for students’ academic achievement. The results o f this study support
using the 4-E leaming cycle inquiry method in fourth grade science classes. This
outcome is consistent with a considerable body o f research. To illustrate, in the
literature, Shymansky, Kyle, and Alport (1983) utilized meta-analysis to synthesize the
results o f 105 experimental studies involving over 45,000 students. Their study focused
on the effects o f new science curricula on student performance. This meta-analysis
included 27 new science curricula with one or more measures each.
All these studies compared the impacts o f the use o f inquiry teaching methods
against traditional lecture -recitation methods of teaching on students’ academic
achievement. They presented the results o f their meta-analysis, which revealed definite
positive patterns of students’ perfonnance in new science curricula. In all new science
curricula analyzed, students exposed to new science curricula using inquiry methods
performed better than their traditional counterparts in achievement, analytic skills,
process skills, and related skills, while developing a more positive attitude toward
science. Also, studies involving new inquiry-based science curricula against those
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
89judged to have a low emphasis on laboratory activity showed students outperfomiing
their traditional course counterparts by larger margins overall than those new science
curricula judged to have a high laboratory emphasis.
On the other hand, studies involving new science curricula judged to have a high
emphasis on process skills development showed students out-performing traditional
course students by larger margins on analytic skill measures tlian those involving
curricula judged to have a low process skill emphasis. In both analytical skill
measurements and in overall achievement, students learning under new inquiry-based
science curricula out-performed those learning under a traditional curriculum.
Furthermore, when the data o f this study were analyzed by using the MANOVA test, the
results indicated that the 4-E teaming cycle inquiry-teaming groups differed significantly
from the traditional lecture-recitation teaming group on the academic achievement test.
Thus, the findings o f this study support the use o f the 4-E teaming cycle inquiry teaming
method in teaching science in order to advance fourth-grade students’ academic
achievement.
The results o f present study, using A MANOVA test are also consistent with the
findings o f Johnson and Lawson (1998) who concluded (after using a pre-post tests after
using inquiry-teaming (teaming cycle) methods with 366 students (242 females and 124
mates) enrolled in a one-semester in college biology classroom for nonmajors) that the
students would be better served by courses that teach by inquiry and focus on the
development o f scientific reasoning and the acquisition o f fewer concepts. Johnson and
Lawson (1998) found that inquiry students in their study not only showed greater
improvement in reasoning ability during the semester than expository students, but they
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
90also did better in measures o f biology achievement. In otlier words, nothing o f
importance seems to be lost by switching to inquiry instruction, and much seems to be
gained.
The findings o f this study may assist educators, especially Kuwaiti educators, who
are looking for the most effective teaching method in fourth-grade science classes in
order to nurture capable students who desire a firmer understanding o f science concepts
and skills.
The other purpose o f tiiis study was to investigate whether students’ attitudes in
fourth-grade science classes differ with respect to the teaching method. The results o f
this study determined that there was a significant difference between the two teaching
methods in the students’ attitudes in fourth-grade science classes. A MANOVA test was
used to examine the differences and effects o f the two methods o f teaching elementary
science. The results o f this study indicated tliat the 4-E learning cycle inquiry method
was more effective than the traditional lecture-recitation learning method in encouraging
students’ attitudes in elementary science classrooms. This finding is consistent with the
literature. For example, Kyle (1988) in the Science Curriculum Improvement Study
(SCnS) that emphasized inquiry-oriented approach used only a post-test control group
design for his study to investigate the effects o f the SCIS learning cycle inquiry leaming
on students’ attitudes. The preferences and understanding-student version questionnaire
used in that study consisted o f 32 attitudinal items referenced from the 1977 Third
Assessment o f Science, which was part o f the National Assessment o f Educational
progress (NAEP, 1978). The student sample comprised o f 228 SCIIS students (54%
male and 46%female) and 228 non-SCIIS students (52% male and 48% female). Kyle
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
91(1988) concluded that students in inquiry-oriented science classes have greatly
enhanced attitudes toward science and scientists when compared to students in
“traditional” textbook-oriented science classes. In addition to SCIIS students being more
likely to choose science as either their first or second favorite subject in school, over
seventy-five percent o f SCIIS students found science to be fun, exciting, and interesting
while fostering a feeling o f curiosity. On tlie other hand, over fifty percent o f non-SCIIS
students found science to be boring; tliirty-three percent indicate that science makes them
feel uncomfortable. The SCIIS students wished that they had more time for science and
more “kinds” o f science offerings. They also realized that their science teachers valued a
high frequency o f questions and that questioning is important in science. The SCIIS
students realized that through their inquiries they developed a feeling o f successfulness,
s e n s students felt that science is useful both in their daily lives and in the future; they
realized that in addition to gaining knowledge, being curious and inquisitive are
important aspects o f science. Also the SCIIS classes enhanced the attitudes o f females
toward science and their science classes. Furthermore, both SCIIS and non-SCIIS
teachers found their previous traditionally taught science classes to be dull, uninteresting,
lacking in excitement, and boring, while only mildly fostering a sense o f curiosity. The
inquiry oriented process approach applied in the classroom apparently allows SCIIS
teachers to portray a much more positive image o f science and scientists.
This study o f instructional methods used in Kuwaiti classrooms obtained similar
effects for many o f the same reasons discovered in the SCIIS study. Like the SCIIS
findings, using the 4-E learning cycle Kuwaiti classrooms, the researcher found the
following:
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
921. Science being foil, exciting, and fostering students’ curiosity.
2. The students wanted to do more science by asking the teacher “when is the
next science class?” .
3. Students reported a feeling o f successfolness through tlieir inquiries.
4. The 4-E leaming cycle enhanced both the achievement and the attitudes of
students toward science and their science classes.
Thus, the findings o f this study indicate that the 4-E leaming cycle inquiry
leaming mediods was more influential than traditional lecture-recitation leaming method
in promoting students’ attitudes within the fourth-grade science classes. According to
Haury(1993) one could expect that inquiry-orientated teaching may result in additional
beneficial outcomes that include scientific literacy, familiarity with science processes,
vocabulary knowledge, conceptual understanding, critical thinking, and positive attitudes
towards science.
In addition, the results o f this study indicated that these fourth grade elementary
students did not exhibit any significant differences in achievement nor in attitudes toward
science due to gender differences. This is consistent with the findings o f Shaw and Doan
(1990) as discussed in Chapter 2 o f this dissertation. Therefore, studies indicating gender
differences in secondary and middle school don’t apply to this sample o f elementary
students. It may be concluded that based on this sample, gender differences in attitude
and achievement as obser-ved by Manliart (1998) and others, may commence after the
elementary grades. It seems then that the dispar ity o f positi ve attitudes and equal
achievement between female and male students possibly originates after grade four. If
this is the case, additional studies are needed to investigate precise reasons for the
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
93changes that seem to occur after grade four. Areas that may lead to findings relevant
to gender differences may include, but not be limited to; societal expectations, peer
expectations, instructional techniques, instructional materials, teacher attitudes and
teacher expectations.
The MANOVA test showed that there was no interaction between the two
independent variables in tliis study; namely, gender and the instructional methods. This
result, is consistent with the previously cited research findings on gender differences with
students at this age level. Gender does not make a difference with the younger learners
when it comes to achievement and attitudes in science. In addition, the univariate test
showed that the difference in achievement and attitude is derived from the instructional
method used. Theses results were based on a level o f significant {Alpha~-0.05) that were
not adjusted for multiple test.
Recommendations
The fimdamental aim o f the study was to detect the impact o f implementing 4-E
leaming cycle inquiry leaming or traditional lecture-recitation methods upon students’
academic achievement and attitudes in fourth-grade science classes. The results o f this
study should encourage those elementary science instmctors who have dedicated their
careers to preparing students as well as themselves for the classroom.
Educators who strive to develop the educational science status worldwide and
especially in the State o f Kuwait should investigate in-depth the issue o f improving
science instruction in order to positively influence the science learners. This study
provides information to those educators about the impact o f 4-E leaming cycle inquiry
leaming and traditional lecture-recitation learning methods upon students’ academic
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
94achievement and attitudes. However, this study could be replicated with consideration
to some practical steps that needed to be considered before future use.
1. Using a larger sample, which, could be selected randomly, from
elementary Kuwaiti schools may provide additional confidence about the
effectiveness o f iitiliEing leam,in,g cycle inquiry learning and traditional
lecture-recitation leaming method and producing gains in students’
academic achievement and attitudes. If the results o f a larger study are
consistent with findings o f this study, serious work should be undertaken
to implement the leaming cycle method across fourth-grade science
curriculum in the State o f Kuwait schools.
2. A wide debate should be conducted among professionals and responsible
individuals, especially teachers, who would be in charge o f implementing
the new style o f teaching instraction in order to avoid misunderstandings
implementing it. A thorough understanding is necessary about the nature
o f science and what it means to be scientifically literate. A focal point o f
any professional development opportunities should include science being
more than just knowledge, but processes and attitudes as well. Teachers
and leamers should understand their duties in the whole process to ensure
success for all when utilizing it.
3. It may be favorable for other researchers who are interested in replicating
a study similar to this to search for the reasons tlial may make 4-E learning
cycle inquiry leaming method more effective than traditional lecture-
recitation. The main question for those studies could become “why is
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
95inquiry leanimg more effective?” and produce statistical measures and
concrete reasons about the factors that make this type o f teaching
instruction more effective than the traditional strategies. We know from
previous studies that have been done on the U.S.A. that learning cycle
inquiry methods have a positive effect on student participation,
excitement, nature o f questions, higher quality o f student work, and the
true nature o f science. But we do not yet know the effect on the Kuwaiti
students- Also, this sort o f question gives researchers another lens
through which they view change in teaching strategies in science,
4. It is recommended to replicate the study in the fiiture by extending the
experimental time and continuing to investigate and improve
instrumentation. Those findings may help the researchers interpret
precisely the circumstances which occurred within science classes and
generalize the results o f their studies at the end o f the research process.
5. It is recommended that further research could consider other dependent
variables that may be related to the effectiveness o f implementing the 4-E
leaming cycle inquiry leaming versus traditional lecture-recitation
leaming method in teaching elementary science, such as social skills, and
process skills.
6. Further investigation should be made regarding the comparison o f the use
o f 4-E leaming cycle inquiry leaming to other teaching methods such as
cooperative, competitive, or other methods in teaching elementary or
higher educational levels.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
967. More research should be conducted to judge the effects o f the
traditional lecture-recitaliou learning method over the leaming cycle
inquiry leaming method when it is applied within particular situations or
specific grade levels. The traditional lecture-recitation leaming metlrod
should not be completely disregarded until there is evidence that the
learning cycle inquiry leaming approach is more effective in every grade
level.
8. Further studies should be done to investigate the potential interaction
between gender and the instructional methods used on students’ academic
achievement and attitudes.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
97Summai'v
The researcher in this study found that the 4-E learning cycle method is more
effective than the traditional lecture-recitation on student academic achievement and
attitudes toward science. These results not only support the past studies that have been
cited in this study, but also can be applied to the educational system in Kuwait. By
implementing the 4-E learning cycle method, Kuwait can have a new generation of
students that can globally compete on a broad scale scholastically, in addition to adapting
to cultural changes which now include new gender inclusions in the classroom. For these
reasons, the 4-E learning cycle promotes critical thinking which can affect students’ lives
in many ways. The Ministry o f Education is eagerly searching for new ideas in regards
to curriculum reform. At this point the most important question is that o f the
implementation o f the new method. Making this part o f the new pre-service teacher
training is the first step. Experienced teachers, entrenched in the traditional methods they
have been using for years, may be the hardest to convince.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
98References
Aiken, L, (1996). Rating scales and checklists: evaluating behavior, nersonalitv.
and attitudes. New York: John Wiley.
Aldridge, B., G., Lawrenze, F., & Huffman, D. (1997). Scope, sequence and
coordination: 9th and 10 Grade Science. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.
ED 419682)
Aron, A. & Aron E. (1997). Statistics for the behavioral and social sciences: A
brief course. Upper Saddle River, NJ, Prentice Hall.
Avi, H., (1986). How to develop positive attitudes towards science and chemistry
through a new chemistry curriculum. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED
276577)
Biermann, C. A., & Sarinsky G. B., (1990). The effects o f hands-on versus
remediation-based biology preparatory course curricula on performance in follow-up
biology courses at the community college level. Department o f Biological Sciences
Kingsborough Community College City University o f New York: Brooklyn, New York
Bruner, J. (1973). Going beyond the information given. New York: Norton.
tHCarin, A. A., (1997). Teaching science through discovery (8 Ed). New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall.
Chang, Y.C., & Mao, S. L., (1998). The effects o f an inquiry -based instructional
method on earth science students’ achievement. National Association for Research in
Science Teaching. Apn'l. 19-22.
Chang, Y.C., & Mao, S. L., (1998). Impacts o f an inquiry teaching methods on
earth science students’ leaming outcomes md attitudes at the secondary school level.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
99National Science Council Part D: Mathematics. Science, and Technology Education, 8
(3), 93-101.
Chang, Y.C., & Mao, S. L., (1999). Comparison o f Taiwan science students’
outcomes with inquiry-groiip versus traditional instruction. Journal o f Educational
Research. 92. (6) 340-346 Jul-Aug.
Charles, C. (1995). Introduction to educational research. New York: Longman
Publishers USA.
Constitution oftlie State o f Kuwait, 1962.
Dalton, B., Rawson, P., Tivnan, T., & Morocco, C. C., (1993). Equal opportunity
learning: Hands-On Science for Girls and Bovs. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service
NO.ED360191)
Dewey, J. (1996). The school and society, the child and the curriculum. Chicago:
The University o f Chicago press.
Disney Leaming Partnership, Retrieved 2001 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.wnet.org/wnetschooPconcept2class/month6/index_sub2.html
Dorit, M. (1991). Development of student inquiry skills: A Constmctivist
Approach in a Computerized Classroom Environment. (ERIC Document Reproduction
Service No. ED 336261)
Edward, I. J., (1985). A Comparison o f the effects o f two instructional sequences
involving science laboratory activities. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED
259953)
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
1 0 0Edwin, C., John, B., & Robert, L. (1997). Microcomputer-based computer-
assisted instruction within differing subject areas; A Statistical Deduction. Journal o f
Educational Computing Research. 16, (3), 281-96.
Ernest, L. K., & John, R. C, (1984). Enhancement o f student values, interests and
attitudes in earth science through a field-oriented approach. Journal o f Geological
Education. 32 (5), 299-305.
Flynn, P. (1995, Marcli/April). Global competition and education: Anotlier
sputnik? The Social Studies. 86 (2). 53-55.
Freankel, J. & Wallen, N. (1993). How to design and evaluate research in
education . New York: McGraw-Hill Inc.
Gallagher, J. J., (2000, October). Teaching for understanding and application of
science knowledge. School Science and Mathematics. 100(61. 310-318
Good, C. (1973). Dictionary o f education: prepared under the auspices o f phi
Delta Kappa. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Haury, D. L. (1993). Teaching science through inquiry. (ERIC Document
Reproduction Service No. ED 359048)
Harold, H. & Nasser, A. (1983). Saudi Arabian students chemistry achievement
and science attitudes stemming from lecture-demonstration and small group teacliing
methods. Journal o f Research in Science Teaching 20, (9) 861-66.
Hebrank, M., Retrieved Aug 21,2000 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.zoologv.duke.edu/cibl/inquirv/whv inquiry in ms.htm.
Hopkins, C. & Charles, A. (1990). Classroom measurement and evaluation. New
York; F. E. Peacock Publishers.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
10!Hoiigh, L. W. & Piper, M. K. (1982, January). The relationship between
attitudes toward science and science achievement. Journal o f Researcli in Science
Teaching, 19 (1), 33-38.
Hurd, P. D., (2000, October). Science education for the century. School
Science and Mathematics. 10()(6), 282-287
Hvvong, N-, Caswell, A., Johnson, D„ & Johnson, R. (1993). Effect o f cooperative
leaming and individualistic learning on prospective elementary teachers’ music
achievement and attitudes. The Journal o f Social Psvchology, 133(1). 53-64.
Hykle, J. A., (1993). Template for gender-equitable science program. Paper
presented at the annual meeting o f the National Association For Research in Science
Teaching. Atlanta, GA.
Johnson, R. T. & Johnson, D. W., (1983). Effects of cooperative, competitive and
individualistic leaming experiences on social development. Exceptional Children. 49 (4),
323-29.
Johnson, D., Johnson, R., & Holubec, E. (1986). Revised circle of learning.:
cooperative in the classroom. Minnesota: Interaction Book Company.
Johnson, S, T. (1992). Extra-school factors in achievement, attainment, and
aspiration among junior and senior high school-age African American youth. The Journal
o f Negro education, 61( 1), 99-119.
Joseph, C. B., & James R. O., (1985). Effects o f teacher use o f analogies on
achievement o f high school biology students with varying levels o f cognitive ability and
prior knowledge. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 254431)
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
102Joseph, K., Ron, M., Phyllis, B., Elliot, S., & Barry, F. (2000). Inquiry based
science supported by teclmology: achievement amonn urban middle school students.
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 443676)
Joyce, B. & Weil, M. (1996). Models o f teaching. Boston: AUyn and Bacon.
Kahle, J. B., & Lakes, M. K., (1983). The myth o f equality in science
classrooms. Journal o f Research in Science Teaching. 23. 131-140.
Kahle, J. B., Matayas, M. L., & Cho, H. H., (1985). An assessment o f the impact
of science experiences on the career choices o f males and female biology students.
Journal o f Research in Science Teaching. 22, 385-394.
Kahle, J. (1985). Retention o f girls in science: Case studies o f secondaiy teachers.
Women in Science: A view from the field. Philadelphia: Palmer press.
Koballa, T. R., Jr. (1986). Teaching hands-on science activities: variables that
moderate attitude-behavior consistency. Journal o f Research in Science Teaching. 23(6),
493-502.
Kyle, W. C. Jr., Boiistetter, R. J., & Gadsen, T. Jr. (1988). An implementation
study: An analysis o f elementary students’ and teachers’ attitudes towar d science in
process-approach vs traditional science classes. Journal o f Research in Science Teaching,
^ 1 0 3 -1 1 6 .
Manhart, J. J., (1998). Gender differences in scientific literacy. (ERIC Document
Reproduction Service No. ED 420522)
Margaret a., J. & Anton E., L. (1998). What are the relative effects o f reasoning
ability and prior knowledge on biology achievement in expository and inquiry classes?
Journal o f Research in Science Teaching 35, (1) 89-103.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
103Martin, R. E. (1984). The credibility principle and teacher attitudes toward
science. New York; Peter Lang.
Martin, R., Johanson, G., Green, S., & Cicmance, K., (1991). Lead teacher
project: K.-6 Mathematics and Science Teacher EniKmcement. National Science
Foundation.Washington, D .C Award Number: 91-47392. Annual Evaluation: Year One.
Martin, R., Sexton, Cl, Wagner, K., & Cjerlovich, J., (1997). Teaching science
for all children.(2”̂ Ed). Massachusetts: AUyn and Bacon.
Martin, R., Sexton, Cl, & Gerlovich, J., (2001). Teaching science for all
children.O'*' ̂Ed). Massachusetts: Allyii and Bacon.
Ministry o f Planning in the State o f Kuwait. Annual Statistical Abstract, Edition
22, 198.5, p. 296.
Mattheis, F. E. & Nakayatna, G. (1988). Effects o f a laboratory-centered inquiry
program on laboratory skills, science process skills, and understanding o f science
knowledge in middle grades students. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED
307148)
National Academy o f Sciences (1997). Science for all children. Washington, DC:
National Academy Press.
National Research Council. (1996). National Science Education Standards.
Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
National Research Council (2000). Inquiry and the National Science Education
Standards. Washington, DC; National Academy Press.
Norusis, M. J. (1998). SPSS 7.5, Guide to data analysis. Upper Saddle River, NJ,
Prentice Hall.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
104Olagunju, O., &Balogun, T. A., {1991). The effect o f iaboratoiy and lecture
teaching methods on cognitive achievement in integrated science. Journal o f Research in
Science Teaching. 28. (3) 213-34
Oliver, J. S. & Simpson, R. D., (1985). Attitude toward science and achievement
motivation profiles o f male and female science students in grades six through ten.
Science Education, 69, 511-526.
Paris, S, G., Yainbor, K. M., & Packard, B. L., (1998). Hands-on biology: A
Museum-school- university partnership for enhancing students’ interest and leaming in
science. The Elementary School Journal 98. (3) 267-288.
Piaget, J. (1970), Structuralism (Chaninah Maschler, Trans.). New York: Harper
and Row.
Rubin, A., & Tamir, P., (1988). Memiingful leaming in the school laboratory.
The American Biology Teacher. 50, November/December.
Saunders, W. L.& Shepardson, D. (1984). A comparison o f concrete and formal
science instniction upon science achievement and reasoning ability o f sixth grade
students. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 244797).
Schmieder, A. A. & Michael-Dyer, G., (1991). State o f the scene of science
education in the nation. Paper presented at the Public Health Service National
Conference, Washington D. C.
Seeker, V., & Lissitz, C. E. (1999). Estimating the impact o f instnictional
practices on student achievement in science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching
36,(10) 1110-26
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
105Shaw, E., L. & Doan. R., L., (1990). Attitudes and achievement between male
and female second and fifth Erade sciertce students. (ERIC Document Reproduction
Service No. ED326442)
Shymansky, J. A., Hedges, L. V., & Woodworth, G. (1990). A reassessment of
the effects o f inquiry-based science curricula o f the 60’s on student performance. Journal
ofResearch in Science Teaching, 2 7 ,127-144.
Shymansky, J. A., Kyle, W. C., & Alport, J. M. (1983). The dfects o f new
science curricula on student performance. Journal ofResearch in Science Teaching. 20.
387-404.
Smith, T. E., (1990) tntroduction to education. Minnesota: West Publishing
Company.
Stevens, J. (1996). Applied multivariate statistics for the social science.
NJrLawrence Firlbaurn Associations.
Usnick, V. E., Lamphere, P., & Bright, G. W. (1995). Calculators in elementary
school mathematics instruction. School Science and Mathematics. 95 (1), 11-18.
Victor, E. & Kellough, R., (2000). Science for the elementary and middle school
(9*̂ Ed). New Jersey; Prentice-Hall.
Weinburgh, M. H., (2000). Gender, ethnicity, and grade level as predictors of
middle school students attitudes toward science. (ERKJ Document Reproduction Service
No. ED 442662).
Welch, W. W„ Klopfer, L. E., Aikenliead, G. S., & Robinson, J. T. (1981). The
role o f inquiry in science education: Analysis and recommendations. Science Education,
65, 33-50.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
106Wise, K. C., & Okey, J. R. (1983). A M eta-amlysis oftlie effects o f various
science teaching strategies on achievement. Journal o f R eseach in Science Teaching.20
(5), 419-435.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
)07
Appendices
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
108
Appendix A Achievement Test
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
109Acliievement Test
Please try to answer all the questions. The results o f the test will be evaluated by
a person who is not your teacher and your score will not affect your grade. Read and
recotd all your answers on the paper carefully.
N am e _____
G rade______
Section #1
Mark the following statements as True (T) or False (F).
1. All fruits have seeds._____
2. Plants make their food in dark. _ _ _ _
3. I ’lie llower is the breeding ptirt o f the p lants_____
4. Man preserves his food in only one w ay ._____
Section #2
Fill in the blank;
Word Bank: (Water-Fruits-Fresh-Stem- Air-Fetus- Sun light-Cane)
1. The flowers o f the plants change to ______________ .
2. Plants keep their extra food in their stem, such as ____ .
3. ______________ are important for plants to m,ake
their food.
4. Man eats caraied food an d ____________
5. All plant seeds contain .....
6. ___ is a part o f the plant that carries the water from tlie root to the leaves.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
noSection #3
Write the scientific definition;
1. __________ is the only organism that make his food by himself.
2. ( _ ____ ) are plants that keep the extra food in their leaves.
3. ____________ is a way that we keep food.
4. (___ ________ _ J is the part o f the plant that keep the plant steady in the dirt.
Section #4
Give reasons for the following statements;
1. Candy stays for a long time without getting ruined.
2. Plants die in the dark.
3. Vegetables get ruined if we kept them without refrigeration, while nuts don’t.
Section #5
Circle the correct answer;
1. Plants increase by:
A. Roots C. Leaves
B. Seeds D. None
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
2. The main source of food for human and animals is:
A. Candy
B. Plants
C. Seeds
D. Fish
3. A kind o f plant that keeps its extra food in its dowers:
A. Cauliflower C. Potato
B. Lettuce
4. We keep candy by:
A. Drying
B. Canning
D. Egg plant
C. Salting
D. Sugaring
Section #6 (essay)
What do you expect to happen to the plant if we remove it’s roots from the soil?
Section # 7
Dates grow in summer what should you do if you want to eat them at the rest o f the year?
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
112
Appendix B
Attitude Survey
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
113Instructions
Please answer all tlie questioas as honestly as possible. The data tlmt will be
collected by this survey will remain confidential and will not be provided to the science
teacher or others, except in a summary iashion. Read carefiilly each numbered question
below and, using the scale provided below, rea>rd your answer by circling the category
tliat best express your altitude.
Do you enjoy studying and learning about.,.
1
(a) NO(b) NOT SURE(c) YES
flr .tri; ,'tud
(a) NO(b) NOT SURE(c) YES
How sound travels?! if ill
i C i vIU'C 4%
r ;1
(a) NO(b) NOT SURE(c) YES
(a) NO(b) NOT SURE(c) YES
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
114
(a) NO(b) NOT SURE(c) YES
(a) NO(b) NOT SURE(c) YES
(a) NO(b) NOT SURE(c) YES
(a) NO(b) NOT SURE(c) YES
10.
-chiiiigc: *insi g ro w
(a) NO(b) NOT SURE(c) YES
(a) NO(b) NOT SURE(c) YES
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
11.115
jfcfe it.?
(a) NO(b) NOT SURE(c) YES13. KuV w'e ii5ia.r hOisiu!;.
(a) NO(b) NOT S URE(c) YES
r Z , '"nv niOvli a?sd it? ; ?;ii;KU;wr;
1
^ j'-;
' ) .... i : „ : : i a ' )
;
i i r ’ ..— '• S l t J
(a) NO(b) NOT SURld c) YIS
14.
■/! C I : ! ! ' , ; . ' - ! :
(a) NO(b) NOT SURE(c) YES
s:.
i W\l.4 w
(a) NO(b) NO!' SURE(c) YES ___
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
16
Appendix C
Pilot Study
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
117R e l iab i l i ty* * *- *■ * * M e t h o d 1 (s p a c s a v ei r) w i ,11 b e u s d f o r t h i s
analysis ******
R E L I A B I L I T y I\ N A L Y S I S - S C(A L P H A)
Statistics for Mean Va r i ance Std Dev VaSCA.LE 37 .254 9 22.2337 4 .7153
Item-total Stci t X s t i, c s
.Scale Scale CorrectedMeciri Vai riel nee I tern-
Alphaif Item if Item Total
if ItemDeleted Delected Correlation
Dele'ted
ITEMl 34.3333 21.38 67 .2351.6953ITEM2 34.3922 21.9231 .0399.7069ITEMS 34.8235 18.2282 .5090.6585ITEM4 34.5882 20.1671 .3008. 6868ITEMS 34.4 510 19.9325 .4702. 6743ITEM 6 35.1176 19.0259 .2959.6891ITEM7 34.6078 19.84 31 .3340.6829ITEM8 34.9608 19.8384 .2299. 6969ITEM 9 34.5098 21.4 94 9 .0593.7112ITEMl0 34.8627 19.6008 .2536.6940
N of
15
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
118ITEMl1 35.1373 19.4 808 ,27 60. 6907ITEMl2 34.9608 • 19.5584 .2983. 6870ITEM13 35.137 3 17.2008 . 577 6. 6445ITEM14 35.2745 17.9231 .4 554.6640ITEMl5 34.4118 21.1271 .2424. 6937
Re 1 iabi .1 it y Coe f fi c i,e n t s
N of Cases ™ 51.0
Alpha =■ .7007
N of Items
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
19
Appendix D
Pre-Post Test o f Reliability
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
120
R el iab i l i ty****** Method 1 (space Sciver) will be us€id for this
analysis *******
R E L I a B I L I T Y (A L P H A)
A N A 1, Y S I S S C A L E
Statistics fo r SCALE
Mtsan 21.357 9
Var iance; 46.4450
N ofS t d Dev Va ri. ables 6.8151 15
Item-1 o t a 1 S t cs. t i s t. i c s
S Celle Scale Corrected
AlphaMean Variance It€2m~
if Itemif if Item Total
DeletedDeleted Dele; ted Correlation
ITEMlPRE .8221
20.0421 40.7429 .4478
ITEM2PRE.8179
19.7684 40.7756 .5205
ITEM3PRE.8233
20.0105 41.0744 . 4282
ITEM4PRE.8283
19.9474 41.9227 .3485
ITEM5PRE.8171
19.7895 40.7212 .5366
ITEM6PRE.8284
19.9053 41.7250 .3513
ITEM7PRE.8248
19.8737 41.6647 .4028
ITEMSPRE .8249
19.9684 41.0096 .4069
ITEM9PRE.8260
20.0316 41.17 98 .3901
ITEMl OPR .8167
19.7 68 4 40.6692 .5443
nission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
ITEM11 PR 20.1474 39.1908 .564 2. 8141ITEMl2PR 19.8211 40.2974 . 5453.8162ITEMl3PR 19.9895 40.4361 . 4882.8195ITEMl4 PR 20.2526 40.2972 .4415. 8228ITEMl5PR 19.6947 42.4 69? . 4098. 8246
Reliability Coefficients
N of Cases = 95.0 N of lie
A lp h a . 8 317
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
122
R e l ia b i l i ty****** Method ] (space) saver) will be used for this
analysis ******
R E L I A B I L I T Y (A L P H A)
A N A L Y S I S S C A L E
Statistics for SCALE
Mecin 21.5612
N ofVariance Std Dev Variables 45.4240 6.7397 15
11: em-1 o t a 1 S t a t i s t i c s
Alpha
if Item
Deleted
ITEMlPOS .8140 ITEM2P0S .8168 ITEM3P0S . 8217 ITEM4P0S . 8245 ITEMSPOS . 8092 ITEM6P0S .8153 ITEM7P0S .8219 ITEM8POS .8172 ITEM9P0S .8247 ITEMl0PC .8139
ScaleMesan
if Item
Deleted
20.2551
20.1327
20.1327
20.1735
19.9898
20.0612
20.0204
20.0204
20.1939
20.0612
S c a 1 e Variance
i f It€ira
39.0992
40.0750
41.0235
41.0727
39.4329
40.1612
41.2985
40.5563
41.0239
40.0375
CorrectedI t e r a -
Total
D €) 1 e t e d C o r r e 1 a t i o ri
47 35
4302
3521
3167
5553
4540
3456
4227
3166
4766
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
123ITEM IIPO 2 0.1837 39.2649 . 4 804.81.34ITEMl2P0 20.1327 39.2915 . 5374.8099ITEM13E>0 20.1939 39.08 57 . 5251.8104ITEMl4 PC 20.4082 38,9039 . 5081.8115ITEMl5PC 19.8980 40.5874 . 4 97 9.8135
Reliability Co€jf f icients
N C) L Csbi&s . 98.0 N of It:e:
Alpha “ 8261
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
124
Appendix E
Pre-Compari son Test
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
1,25Bovs' Class (Traditional Classroom)
Number of Students in(4/l) Academic achievernetit grade
1. 252. 273. 274. 215. 246. 227. 278. 249. 2210. 2611. 2812. 2913. 2514. 1915. 2616. 2617. 2418. 2819. 2920. 2621. 2822. 2223. 2724. 28
The mean-25.42/30
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
126Fjovs* Class (Learniim Cycle Ciassroom)
Number o f Stiideuts in (473) Academic achievement grade
i. 282. 303. 274. 275. 246. 257. 228. 289. 2510. 2611. 2512. 2913. 2514. ■ 2715. 2616. 2817. 2318. 2419. 2620. 2821. 3022. 2823. 2924. 2625. 2026. 29
The mean=2635/30
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
127Girls* Class (Traditional Classroom)
Number o f Students in (4/1) Academic achievement grade
1. 292. 283. 294. 285. 256. 237. 198. 239. 2610. 29U. 2612. 2713. 2814. 3015. 3016. 2617. 2518. 2919. 2820. 2921. 2622. 3023. 2724. 2825. 2726. 2627. 2928. 2329. 2830. 2631. 26
The mean=26,90/30
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Cjirls’ C'lass (Learning Cyck Classi'oom)128
Number o f Students in (4/7) Academic achievement grade
1. 262. 223. 264. 255. 286. 187. 278. 249. 3010. 2611. 2912. 2313. 2614. 2715. 2916. 2717. 2918. 3019. 2720. 2621. 2622. 2823. 2924. 2625. 2726. 3027. 2328. 2729. 2530 18
The mean=26.10/30
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
29
Appendix F
Sample o f Lesson Plans
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
130l lie 4-E Leamina Cycle Lesson. Plan Sample
Concept:
The basic Parts o f a plant are roots, stems, and leaves.
Concepts that are important to expansion
Air, water, and Sun light is necessary for plant growth.
Exploration:
Process skills students will use in exploration phase: observing, communicating,
identi lying, and modeling
Provide each group o f the students with plants. Allow the students’ lime to dig up the
plants from the pot. Make sure that they will get most o f the root systems. Ask them to
carelhlly put their plants on a piece o f paper. Finally, ask them to make some
observations and talk over their observations with one another. Have them draw a picture
o f their plants
Explanation:
Concept: the basic parts o f a plant are roots, stems, and leaves.
What is the name o f the part that you find under the soil? What is the role o f the roots?
What is the name o f the second part o f the plant? What is the role o f it? Then what do
all o f our plants have in common? Continue with this line o f questions until the students
understand that the basic parts o f a plant are roots, stems, and leaves. Ask the students to
return to the drawings they created o f their plants. Ask them to label the roots, stems, and
leaves in their drawings. The teacher will ask the recorder o f each group to write a name
o f a part o f plant on the board.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
131Expansion:
Process skills studenls will use in expansion phase; observing, infcmng, comparing,
identi lying, and modeling.
Teacher guided expansion- Using a model o f plant 1 will take apart the model and liave
all parts on a table in front o f the class. Individual students wall be called up to choose a
plant part, identify it, write it’s name on the board, and then place the part in its
appropriate spot on the plant model.
Evaluation:
At the end o f this activity the students will be able to;
• Identify the basic parts o f a plant (root, stem, and leaf).
• Name the four things most plants need to live.
• When given carrot, celery, and lettuce, identify which is a root, which is a stem,
and which is a leaf.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
132Traditional [.earning Lesson Plan Sample
Objectives:
The students will be able to identify the basic parts o f plants.
Materials:
A sample o f plant or a picture o f plant.
Use textbook.
Subject:
Science
Procedure:
Show the student the plant that I have on the table in front o f me and ask them about the
name o f each part.
Ask the students to open the textbook on page, and ask them to tell me about the name of
each part.
Tell the student the role o f each part o f the plant.
Ask them to repeat after me the name o f each part.
Give the students a picture o f a plant and ask them to write down the name o f each part.
Evaluation:
Give a quiz or a test at the end of the unit.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
133
Appendix G
Abstract
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Ebrahira, AH, Hassan Ph.D. June, 2004
Curriculum and Instruction (Science Education)
THE EFFECTS OF TRADITIONAL LEARNING AND A LEARNING CYCLE
.INQUIRY LEARNING STRATEGY ON STUDENTS’ SCIENCE ACHIEVEMENT
AND ATTITUDES TOW ARD ELEM ENTARY SCIENCE (Pp. 135)
Director o f Dissertation; (Dr, Ralph Martin)
The purpose o f this study is to examine the impact o f two instructional methods
on students’ academic achievement and attitudes toward elementary science in the State
o f Kuwait: traditional teaching method and the 4~.E learning cycle inquiry teaching
method. The subjects were 111 students from four intact grade classes. The
experiment group (n=56) received the learning cycle instmction while the control group
(n=55) received a more traditional approach over a four week period. The same female
teacher tauglit the experimental and control groups for boys and a different female
teacher taught experimental and control groups for girls.
The dependent variables were measured through the use of: (1) a science
achievement test to assess student achievement; and (2) an attitude survey to measure
students’ attitudes toward science. Quantitative data were collected on students’ pre- and
post -treatm ent achievement and attitudes measures.
The two way M ANOVA reveals that: (I) the 4-E learning cycle instructional
method produces significantly greater achievement and attitudes among fourth grade
science students than the traditional teaching approach F (2, 93) = 19.765, (P= .000),
corresponding to W ilks’ Lambda = .702 with an effect size o f .298 and a power o f I . In
light o f these findings, it is therefore suggested that students can achieve greater and have
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
higher science attitudes when the 4-E learning cycle is used. In addition, these findings
support the notiop that effective instruction in teaching science, such as the 4-E learning
cycle instruction, should be proposed and impieraented in eiernentaiy schools.
ApprovedSigimure^DirectOT
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.