the english of minorities in the usa and dialect groups

The English of minorities in the USA

and dialect groups

English in the US and Canada

Prof. R. Hickey

Syllabus

1. Chicano English

2. Jewish English

3. Native American English

4. Appalachian English

5. Ocracoke English

6. Dialects of the Mid-West


Prof. R. Hickey


Prof. R. Hickey

Chicano EnglishPresenters: Arianne Mansiamina,

Huong Pham, Tina Pham, Dirk van der Smissen

Table of Contents

1. What does Chicano mean?

2. Historical Aspects

3. Chicano Dialect

4. Sources and Literature


Chicano English

1. What does Chicano mean?

• Chicano is a cultural identity used by people of Mexican descent in the USA

• Refers to a second- or third-generation Mexican American, who have a community on their own in the US.

• No clear etymology of the term Chicano.

• Might be a contraction of Mexicano.


Chicano English

2. Historical aspects

• History of Mexican-Americans is about 400 years of moving from region to region

• Once they lived in those states which formerly belonged to Mexico: California, Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado and Texas


Chicano English


Chicano English

• Nowadays these regions are part of the U.S., because of the Mexican-American war

• The Mexican-American war was from 1846 to 1848.

• After the war, Mexico sold some Mexican territories to the U.S.

• California, Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado and Texas became part of the U.S.


Chicano English

• Mexican Americans began to create communities in Chicago and other steel producing region during World War I.

• Large Mexican immigration in the US after the Mexican Revolution in 1910


Chicano English

• Many of them live now in the area of Los Angeles

• The Hispanic population in L.A. is about 40% of the whole population


Chicano English


Chicano English

3. Chicano Dialect

1. Multiple negation: speech feature which is prominent in Black English as well as Chicano English“My four years I spend there I did not learn nothing”

2. Non-Standard verb forms: use of past participle forms instead of simple past verb forms:“I seen almost all his movies” for “I saw”


Chicano English

3. Embedded question inversion: “I ask myself what would I do without a friend”for “what I would do”

4.Differing use of the comparative: In Chicano speech “more” is used instead of “more often”:“They use more Spanish” for “They use Spanish more often”

5.Lexical Pairs of Chicano English:• I an a, thing and think, will and would and want

and won’t are homophonous in Chicano English


Chicano English

Examples:

“They made I lot of parties” for “..a lot of parties”

“My parents gave me a moral and education, and I know that doing this a would hurt my parents” for“…I would hurt my parents”


Chicano English

Any questions?


Chicano English

4. Sources & Literature


Chicano English

Thanks for your attention!!


Chicano English


Prof. R. Hickey

Jewish EnglishProducers: Anastasia Nikolaeva

(HS/TN), Frauke Skrobaschewsky (HS/LN), Katharina Zill (HS/LN)

Table of contents

1. History

2. Today in the United States

3. Grammar and Vocabulary

4. Conclusion



Jewish English

1. History

• 19th century: large group of Jews emigrated to the United States

2.5 Million between 1877 and 1917

• in 1870 the Jewish population was about 250.000

• the language they brought with them was Yiddish developed among German speaking Jews in the middle ages


Jewish English

2. Today in the United States

• hundreds of thousands of Jews speak Jewish varieties of English

• influences of Yiddish, textual Hebrew and modern Hebrew

• 2 different types: 1) general English with an addition of just a few Hebrew or Yiddish words (e.g. Hanukah), 2) multiple influences from Yiddish in syntax, lexicon and phonology


Jewish English

• Orthodox Jewish English includes hundreds of loan words from Hebrew and Yiddish to express the elements that characterize traditional Jewish life

e.g. “mame“ = mother

“rebe“ = teacher


Jewish English

3. Grammar and vocabulary

• in general, the grammar of Jewish English is English grammar

• English is used to set the sentence structure; Yiddish, Hebrew or Aramaic words are used to fill in the blanks

“We must practice Ahavoh not Sinoh; We must build Yiddishkeit, not destroy it“ (Ahavoh = love, Sinoh = hate, Yiddishkeit = Judaism)


Jewish English

• words of non-English origin being given plurals and verb tenses inconsistent with their language of origin

“Yeshiva” becomes “Yeshivas”, not “Yeshivot”• some verbs (especially Hebrew) are often

treated as participles and inflected by English auxiliary verbs “He was moide that he was wrong” = He admitted that he was wrong


Jewish English

• loanwords are replaced by the Yiddish diminutive –ie or –y

“kepele” (= small head) changes into “keppy”• it is common in Ashkenazie English to attach

English suffixes to Yiddish words “Yeke” or “Yeki” (= German Jew) changes into the adjective “Yekish” and the noun “Yekishness”


Jewish English

• set phrases transferred from Yiddish with “make” and “say”: “make shabes” = prepare for the Sabbath, “say kaddish” = recite regularly the mourner’s prayer

• Jewish English vocabulary is primarily drawn from English but also includesterms from Hebrew, Yiddish and Aramaic.

• Example: the preposition ‘by’ can be used in JE as in “I ate by my brother last night.”


Jewish English

4. Conclusion

• Jewish English is considered as the most widespread Jewish language of today.

• Question: Is it a JL in the same sense as Tsarfatic (“Judeo-French), Italkic (“Judeo-Italian“) and Yavanic (“Judeo-Greek“)?

• Needs more time to develop itself into an own language.


Jewish English



Jewish English


Prof. R. Hickey

Native American English

Presenters: Nils Jäkel, Frauke Knop, Thomas Leukel, Kathrin Nellessen,

Markus Stein

Table of Contents

1. Cultural Areas

2.1 Indigenous Language Families

2.2 Navajo Example

3. Phonologic Features and Grammar

4. Language Influences




Culture and Language

• Differentiation between language and culture areas necessary

• Cultural areas represent the environment and special American Indian life-style

• Language areas only partly correspond to the cultural regions language contact and language influence



1. Cultural Areas

1. New South West2. The Eastern Timberland3. The South-East4. The Plains5. California and the Great Basin 6. The Plateau-Region7. The Subarctic8. The North-West Coast9. The Arctic



New Southwest

• situated in Arizona, New Mexico and Southern Colorado + Sonora, Chilhuahua (Mexico)

• tribes: Pueblo, Navajo, Havasupai, Mojave



New Southwest



• special features: hunting, collected plants, lived in storeyed stone or houses built with clay, but also in smaller villages near their fields (summer), trade with other tribes, irrigation plant

Eastern Woodland

• tribes: Iroquois, Delaware, Shawnee, Potawatomi, Menominee, Illinois

• special features: hunting, agriculture, fishing



The South-East • North of the Golf of Mexico and South of the

American middle-atlantic states

• extends from Atlantic Coast to Central Texas

• Tribes: Cherokee, Choctaw, Chicasaw, Creek, Seminoles



• special features: founding of towns and public places, mechanic commerce

The Great Plains



• extends from the steppe-areas of Central-Canada to Mexico and from the Middle-West to the Rocky Mountains• Tribes: Blackfoot, Mandan, Hidatsa, Sioux, Cheyenne, Arapaho, Shoshone, Comanche

• special features: typical feather-woven cloaks, tipi (Sioux name for house), sacred pipe, costumes and dances

California and the Great Basin

• situated in the mountain ranges and valleys of Utah, Nevada and California

• Tribes: Paiute, Ute, Shoshone, Klamath, Modoc, Maidu, Pomo, Miwok, Wintun

• special features: thatched houses, trade (basketwork, fishing-trade, shell-money



Plateau-Region

• Tribes: Nez Perce, Walla Walla, Yakima, Umatilla, Flathead, Spokane, Okanagon, Cayuse, Kootenai

• situated in the evergreen woods and mountain-ranges of Idaho, Eastern Oregon and Washington as well as Western Montana and Canada

• special features: fishing-trade, living in villages with houses (winter) and in cottages being covered with mats (summer)



The Sub-Arctic region

• encloses the largest part of Canada and reaches from the Atlantic Ocean to the mountain-ranges at the Pacific as well as from the tundra-region down to 300 miles away from the American-Canadian border

• tribes: Cree, Ojibwa, Montagnais, Chippewa, Kutchin,

• special features: no agriculture, hunting, fishing



The North-West Coast

• encloses the West Coast of North-America and reaches from Southern Alaska to Northern Califonia

• tribes: Tlingit, Nootka, Chinook, Salish, Makah,

• special featueres: rich food supply high populousness, living in big villages with huge framehouses, families had slaves, trade with North Asia, famous with wood carvings



The Arctic region

• Tribes: Eskimo

• special features: no agriculture, fishing, whaling, living in tents (summer) and insulated soil-houses (winter)

• houses made of blocks of ice (Canada), low population




• 363,995* speakers of Native American languages

• In total there were 296 native American languages, of which 269 are grouped in 27 language families (the other languages are isolated or unclassified)

• Less than half of them are still used today

• Many languages have only a few speakers left(*Source: Adapted from B. Grimes (1996). Ethnologue: Languages of the world. Dallas: SIL International. Updated February 1999 at www.sil.org/ethnologue)



http://www.sil.org/ethnologue




• Uto-Aztecan (~1,95 million) – Oregon, Idaho, Utah,

California, Nevada, Arizona

Today mostly in Mexico• Hopi (5,264 Arizona, Utah,

New Mexico)• Tubatulabal (6 California)• Numic (subfamily)

- Comanche (864 Oklahoma)

- Shoshoni (2,284 Nevada, Idaho, Wyoming)




• Nadene (180,200)– Arizona, New Mexico

(mostly Navajo)

• Navajo (148,530)• Dene (4000 Canada,

Alaska)• Eyak (one survivor)




• Algic (?)– From the Rocky

Mountains to New England

• Algonquian (subfamily)– Cheyenne (1,721

Montana)– Blackfoot (1,062 Montana– Arapaho (1,038

Wyoming, Oklahoma)• Yurok (10 California)• Extinct

– Wiyot



2.2 Navajo Example

My name is Regina. I am 22 years old and am a student at the Navajo Community College. My clans are the Yucca Fruit Clan. My maternal clan is Under-His-Cover Clan, my paternal clan is Red-Streaking-Into-The-Water-Clan. I am originally from the town of Rock Point. I am presently studying three majors. To me, what's important in Navajo culture is my being Navajo. I am very proud to be an Indian and a Navajo. I believe we are special because we are a 'one of a kind' tribe, just like every other tribe. We have our clan systems. We also have our four worlds to support us. We know who we are today and who we want to become in the future. We know our roots - who our grandfathers and grandmothers were. They have gone through a lot of trouble for us, such as the Long Walk and the many other hardships they have faced. (…)



2.2 Navajo Example

(…) I really like being Navajo because of who they made me. Through the clans I am who I am today through the lives of my mother and my father, my forefathers and my grandmothers and grandfathers. If it wasn't for them I wouldn't be here right now.I want to be there for somebody in my future. I am responsible for my own future. The Navajo people have a unique outline for life. It starts with the thinking process to the east, the planning process to the south, the living, action process to the west and the satisfaction and evaluation process which is to the north. Everything we do is clockwise. We don't go backwards. The four sacred mountains we live between are very sacred to us.



Film Scene

3. Phonologic Features

There are no features that can only be found in Native American Language

• There is a big phonologic variety in Native American Languages

Consonants:– Retroflex Consonants in Pomo or Yuman– Velar Nasals Consonants ( /η/ as in BE “hang”) in

Yuman or Athabeskin Languages– Lateral Affricatives in Sahaptin and Wakashan



3. Phonologic Features

Vocals:– Voiced Vocals in Cheyenne or Hopi

– Nasal Vocals (like in French ‘bon‘) in Sioux or Cherokee

Tonal accents:– e.g. Cherokee, Mohican, Arapaho or some Pomo

dialects.



3. Grammar

• Just like in Native American Phonology, there is a big variety in Native American Grammar

Word Order in a sentence:

– There is no general order, the position of subject, verb and object in a sentence may vary from one language to the next

• He táku hwo? - What is that?• Nitúktetanhan hwo? - Where are you from?

Interrogative Pronoun “hwo”



• The rules of syntax which apply to the Lakota language will leave you somewhat puzzled. I will give you a few basic rules and an example to try get you started.

• When using time expressions, place it first in the sentence:The woman goes to town everyday.Anpetu iyohilawinyan kin le otonwahe ta ye.day each woman the this one town goes.

• When using articles with nouns, place them after the noun as above. (woman the this one)

3. Grammar



• Wanbláke. - I saw. (Simple Past – the personal pronoun melts with the verb) )

• Unyúhapi. - We had. • Ínipi hwo? - Are you full? (irregular verb – to be)• Ímapi yélo. - I'm full. • Inánjinyo. - Stand up. (Imperative)• Wanjí. – One. (numbers)• Nápa - Hand• Horse (though they didn‘t know horses until Europeans

introduced them to the Great Plain Natives)

3. Grammar



3. Grammar

Grammatical features:

– Dualism in Cherokee or Sioux– Causal systems Wakashan or Algonkin– Inclusive/exclusive ‘we’ in Shoshone, Blackfoot or

Cheyenne– Verbal affixes in Karok (pa- as a prefix for ‘oral’)

or Haida– Countable/ uncountable objects in Menominee,

Salish or Tlingit



3. Social and Cultural Features of Language

• Speech use and speech behavior according to male/female speakers in Muskogee or Atsina

• Ritual language in Cherokee or Quechua

• Trade languages: a mixture of different language; reduced in words and grammatical features (Wawa, Mobilian, Delaware Trade Language)



3. Written Language

Writing Systems:

• developed in North America only after the arrival of European settlers.

– Writing based on Syllables: every symbol stands for one sound (Cherokee, Inuit or Micmac)



4. Language Contact

• Language Contact enables members of different tribes communication

diffusion, sharing features of semantic, grammatical and phonological structure

Two types of language contact:1) Contact of two or more American Native

Languages2) Contact of an indigenous language with a

European one



4. Contact between Native Languages

• Extensive bilingualism and borrowing within indigenous language groups already known in prehistoric times

• During times of peace:Trade: language as a means of communication in order to exchange goods During times of war:Treaties: in order to make compromises and establish new rules and introduce new orders

Reason why there‘s no fixed grammatical system in one language



4. Contact with European Languages

• European language contact accompanied by massive forcible conquest, exploitation and ethnocide/ genocide

• Language of the White is the dominant means of communication

American Natives have to use the dominant language



4. Foreign Influences

Native Loan Words Mostly names for animals, plants and places, such as:– Conneticut (Mohacian) – Kajak or Kayak (Inuit)– Skunk (Algonkin)– Tomato (Náhuatl)– Puma (Quechua)– Squash (a vegetable)– Abalone (shellfish from Costanoan, California)




Internet Sources:• www.americanindians.com

• www.nativeamericans.com Literature:• Leap, William L.: „American Indian English“, 1993

Salt Lake City.• Seboek, Thomas: „Native Languages of the

Americas“, 1976 New York.• Zeisberger, David: „Zeisberger‘s Indian Dictionary“,

1982 Harvard (Reprint).



http://www.americanindians.com/

http://www.nativeamericans.com/


Prof. R. Hickey

Appalachian EnglishProducers: Ben Brieger, Negar

Hossein, Antonio GerhardPresenter: Daniel Glaubitz

Table of Contents

1. The Appalachian Region2. Dialect areas in the Great Lake Region3. Appalachian English – General Information4. Appalachian – Lexicon 5. Practical Examples6. Sample Vocabulary7. Linguistic features of the personal dative8. Pronouns and Demonstratives9. Sources & Literature


Appalachian English

1. The Appalachian Region


Appalachian English

2. Dialect areas in the Great Lake Region

• Appalachian English is the common name for the Southern Midland dialect of American English

• Appalachia: area from the state of New York to Alabama, that surrounds the Appalachian Mountains

• The dialect is spoken in Southern West Virginia, southeastern Ohio, Eastern Kentucky, the upper Potomac and Shenandoah Valleys of Virginia, East Tennessee, and Western North Carolina

• Approximately 23 mio speakers of the Appalachian dialect


Appalachian English

3. Appalachian EnglishGeneral Information

• Used most often or most characteristically when discussing cuisine, in storytelling, or when discussing native industries as coal mining or forestry

• Speakers of Appalachian English do not adapt themselves; therefore often considered as lazy and indifferent; for them understanding standard American English is rather easy, vice versa speakers of other dialects have a hard time understanding Appalachian English


Appalachian English

3. Appalachian EnglishGeneral Information

• The dialect is archaic English speakers who settled in the areas of the Upper Midwest had immigrated from West Anglia, the Scottish Low-Lands, Wales, Ireland, and Northern Ireland and Scotland in the late 18th and early 19th century

• since then they have isolated themselves from the mainstream of American life for generations

• so they use old speech forms which have fallen out of fashion; there is still the myth that Appalachian sounds like Shakespearian English


Appalachian English

4. Appalachians – Lexicon:

• The Appalachian dialect is mostly oral but can also be found in writing

• old-fashioned folk flavor• seems more likely to be an caricature of the speech

of mountain folk• some rural expressions

Examples:• Hidy (= hello) >> a blending of „hi“ and „howdy“• Ever (= every) >> „Everwhere“, „ever direction“,

„everway“ and so on


Appalachian English

5. A few examples of the practical use:

1) Sometimes the past participle of a strong verb such as "do" is used in place of the past tense. For example, "I done it already" instead of "I did it already" or in the case of the verb "see," "I seen" instead of "I saw."

2) "Went" is often used instead of "gone" as the past participle of the verb "to go." She had went to Ashland. Less frequently, "gone" is used as the simple past tense. I gone down to the meeting, but wasn't nobody there.

3) "Done" is used with the past tense (or a past participle commonly used as a past tense, such as "gone") to express action just completed, as in, "I done went/gone to the store".


Appalachian English

4) Some English strong verbs are occasionally conjugated as weak verbs in Appalachian English, i.e. "knowed," and "seed." Most speakers of Appalachian English do not use these forms, however, as they indicate the lowest level of social prestige.

5) The construction "don't...no" is used with transitive verbs to indicate the negative, i.e. "He don't know no better." This is commonly referred to as the double negative, and is either negative or emphatically negative, never positive. "None" is often used in place of "any," as in "I don't have none."

6) The future perfect is all but nonexistent


Appalachian English

5. A few examples of the practical use:

6. Sample Vocabulary

• Backer: chewing tobacco. Want a chew of backer?

• Buggy: shopping cart. Get me that buggy, and make sure it don't have no broken wheel.

• Poke: paper bag. Get me a poke of Red Man.

• Chaw: chewing tobacco. Chaw comes three ways: a poke, a twist, or a plug.

• Plug: a quid of tobacco. That boy done slobbered all on my plug.

• Blinds: window shades. Open them blinds and let some sunshine in!


Appalachian English

7. Linguistic features of the personal dative

Use of non-reflexive pronouns (you, me etc.) in certain cases for the second occurence of a single referent within the same clause:

Examples:

1. I‘d go out and cut me a limb off of a tree, get me a good straight one.

2. We had us a cabin, built us a log cabin back over there.

3. And then you‘d get you a bowl of ice-water.


Appalachian English

8. Pronouns and Demonstratives• "Them" is sometimes used in place of "those" as a

demonstrative in both nominative and oblique constructions.

Examples:

1. Them are the pants I want

2. Give me some of them crackers."• Oblique forms of the personal pronouns are used as

nominative when more than one is used (cf. French moi et toi).

For example:

Me and him are real good buddies is said instead of He and I are really good friends.


Appalachian English


• Internet: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appalachian_English

• Trudgill, Peter/ Chambers, J.K. Dialects of English, Longman Group, Essex/UK 1991

• Viereck, Wolfgang/ Viereck, Karin/ Ramisch, Heinrich, dtv-Atlas Englische Sprache, Deutscher Taschenbuchverlag, München 2002


Appalachian English

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appalachian_English


Prof. R. Hickey

Ocracoke English

Presenters: Magdalena Mierzwinska (GS TN), Michelle Keppel (GS TN),

Yeliz Özdogan (HS TN)

Table of Contents

1. Introduction: Settlement and Language

2. History

3. Linguistics



Ocracoke English

Map I


Ocracoke English

Map II


Ocracoke English

1. Introduction: The settlement of Ocracoke

• Ocracoke Inlet was a strategic passageway through the hazardous chain of barrier islands to mainland ports

stationing of pilots to guide the vessels

“An act of settling and maintaining pilots at Ocracoke.”


Ocracoke English

1. Introduction: Ocracoke brogue

• Ocracoke English is based on Early Modern English

Question: Which form of Early Modern English played a role in shaping the early Ocracoke brogue?

• Early settlers along the coastal areas of the South including some Outer Banks families are from southern, western and eastern England

• It is also likely that early Ocracoke speech was influenced by the Irish and Scots-Irish varieties of English


Ocracoke English

1. Introduction: Some pictures


Ocracoke English

2. History

• formation of Ocracoke began about 17,000 years ago

• Giovanni da Verrazano, an Italian navigator in 1524

• entrance to the Pamlico Sound and the mainland

• Wokokon, Wocokon, Okok, Ocacock, Occacoke, Ocracok, Ocracoke


Ocracoke English

2. History

• A change in size

• Portsmouth Island, Hatteras Banks

• “Pilot Town“

• population has grown from 59 (early 1700s) to 790 (today)


Ocracoke English

2. History

• Ocracoke Island today is the most Eastern end of Hyde County bordering the Atlantic Ocean

• about 20 miles from the mainland


Ocracoke English

3. Linguistics

• isolated from the mainland for nearly three centuries

• during this period of isolation Ocracokers developed a unique dialect of American English, known as the Brogue

• contrary to popular belief, Ocracoke English is not Elizabethan English


Ocracoke English

3. Linguistics

• developed around the turn of the 20th century

• best-known feature is the pronunciation of the diphthong /ai/

• hide and tide as similar to oi

• Ocracokers are known as hoi toiders


Ocracoke English

3. Linguistics

Older Ocracokers say:

• mommuck for to harass or bother

• quamish for sick in the stomach

• call the mail over

• dingbatter


Ocracoke English

3. Linguistics

• That feller sure was tall.

That fellow sure was tall.

• They usually be doing their homework.

They usually do their homework.

• They put their food in a poke.

They put their food in a bag.


Ocracoke English

3. Linguistics

• They caught some feesh.

They caught some fish.

• How you doing, buck?

How are you doing, friend?


Ocracoke English

3. Linguistics

• /au/ of sound and roundsaind and raind

• a before rthar (there) / war (where)

• final t after /s/ oncet (once) / twicet (twice)


Ocracoke English

3. Linguistics

• final y for a

extry (extra) / sody (soda)

• ar for -ire

far (fire) / tar (tire)

• a-prefix with -ing

a-shining (shining) / a-hunting (hunting)


Ocracoke English

Thanks for your attention!


Ocracoke English


Prof. R. Hickey

Dialects of the Middle West

Presenters: Sebastian Obbink, Marc Friedrich, Grigorij Kunin

Table of Contents

1. Geography and History of the Midwestern Dialects

2. The Northern-Midland boundary

3. Subareas of the Midland

4. Foreign language influences



Dialects of the Mid-West

1. GeographyEnglish in the US and Canada


Inland Northern

• Spread from New York and Western New England in early 19th century

• Became the dialect of the rising managerial class when industrial and economic power grew in the 19th century

• In the middle of the 20th century Inland Northern became model for pronunciation in handbooks and dictionaries



Midwest / Middle West

• Area between Appalachians and Rocky Mountains and north of Ohio River

• Divided into three major regional dialects: Inland Northern, West Midland and South Midland



West Midland

• West Midland came from Pennsylvania into Ohio and is to be found in central Ohio, central Indiana and central Illinois

• Across the Mississippi West Midland is to be found in every midwestern state but Minnesota and North Dakota

• Coexists with South Midland in Missouri, Kansas and Oklahoma



South Midland

• Arrived in the midwest in the early 19th century with settlers from southern uplands especially from Kentucky and Tennessee

• South Midland is to be found in south Ohio, south Indiana, south Illinois, south Iowa and most parts of Missouri

• Scholars disagree whether South Midland is a subdialect of Midland or of Southern



Northern-Midland boundary

• The Northern-Midland boundary is positioned in the North Central States and is the approximate division between:

• „greasy“ with [s] vs. [z]• Quarter to vs. Quarter till• Dutch cheese vs. Smearcase or clabber cheese• Stone vs. Rock• Pail vs. Bucket



4. Foreign language influences

• Many languages influenced the dialects of the Middle West, but now those influences are disappearing:

• Into the 20th century there were French dialects in isolated parts of Missouri. Now just placenames survived like: St. Genevieve or Cape Girardeau

• Norwegian dialects influenced the English language in Wisconsin, Minnesota and Iowa

• Hispanic dialects influenced the English language in Illinois and Michigan



4. An example of foreign influence

• In parts of Wisconsin, Illinois, Missouri and Iowa German migrants influenced the language

• In an area that was called the „Missouri Rhineland“ some linguistic features were noticed:

Realization of „th“ phonemes as stopsDevoicing of final consonantsMid-level glides in /au/ and /ai/Realization of short /a/ as a long, low-back vowel




• Frazer, Timothy C. 1996. “The dialects of the Middle West”. In Focus on the USA, Schneider, Edgar W. (ed.), 81 ff.



http://www.benjamins.nl/cgi-bin/t_bookview.cgi?bookid=VEAW%20G16



the english of minorities in the usa and dialect groups

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