the Language of

176 UNIT TWO PART 1: LITERATURE OF ANCIENT GREECE

Literary StyleOne of the distinctive qualitiesof Greek and Roman epics istheir attribution to particularauthors. Though these epics stillshow clear traces of the oraltradition, they also reveal thehands of individual writersshaping materials to createunified wholes. The Greek and Roman epics are alsodistinguished for the richnessand power of their language.Two devices that contribute tothe epics’ dignified style are theepithet and the epic simile.

• Homer’s style is marked by an extensive use ofepithets—descriptive words and phrases thatcharacterize persons and things. For example,the adjectives “brilliant” and “godlike”frequently appear before Achilles’ name. He isalso identified as “the swift runner,” “theheadstrong runner,” and “the proud runner.”

• As you know, a simile is a comparison thatcontains the word like or as. An epic simile is asimile that extends over several lines. Often,epic similes serve to increase the dramatic powerof the passages in which they occur, as inAeneas’ description of Troy in flames:

“I knew the end then: Ilium was going downIn fire, the Troy of Neptune going down,As in high mountains when the countrymenHave notched an ancient ash, then make their axesRing with might and main, chopping awayTo fell the tree—ever on the point of falling,Shaken through all its foliage, and the treetopNodding; bit by bit the strokes prevailUntil it gives a final groan at lastAnd crashes down in ruin from the height.”

—Virgil, Aeneid

The Epics of Greece and Rome In Unit One, you read excerptsfrom three Eastern epics: TheEpic of Gilgamesh fromMesopotamia and theMahabharata and Ramayanafrom India. As you may recall,an epic is a long narrativepoem that deals with a hero’sadventures and deeds. An epichero—Gilgamesh or Rama, forexample—reflects a culture’sideals, values, and beliefs.

In this unit, you will readexcerpts from two epics ofWestern cultures: the Iliad fromancient Greece and the Aeneidfrom ancient Rome. Many scholars believe thatthese epics and the epics of Eastern civilizationsderive from the same tradition. You may thereforenotice some similarities between the Eastern andthe Western epics. As you will see, however, theGreeks and Romans put their own unique stampson the epic genre.

Epic ConventionsIn the Greek and Roman epics, you will noticecertain conventions, or devices, found in otherepics. For example, both the Iliad and the Aeneidtell about events set in a distant and glorious past.The events are majestic in scale—heroic battlesand dangerous quests. Like Gilgamesh and Rama,the Greek and Roman epic heroes are larger-than-life figures who perform great deeds. BothAchilles, the hero of the Iliad, and Aeneas, thehero of the Aeneid, are half divine: each has agoddess for a mother. Supernatural elements arefound in these epics too. Gods, goddesses, andmagical creatures appear, at times taking part inhuman affairs.

Achilles Kills Hector (1630), Peter Paul Rubens.

178 UNIT TWO PART 1: LITERATURE OF ANCIENT GREECE

Author Mystery Homer haslong been recognized as one ofthe world’s greatest poets, butthe man himself remains amystery. Some scholars doubtthat he ever actually existed,believing that the epicsattributed to him are the work of many poets. Others agreewith the ancient view that onegreat poet wrote both the Iliadand another famous epic, the

Odyssey. If he existed, Homer was probably bornsomewhere in western Asia Minor (what is nowTurkey). According to ancient tradition, Homer wasblind. The story of his blindness, however, may havesimply been a way of praising his wisdom, for Greeklegends feature many stories of blind people withgreat insight.

Singers of the Trojan War It’s likely that Homerheard singer-poets narrate tales about the Trojan War,a legendary ten-year war waged by Greeks against thewealthy city of Troy, or Ilium, in Asia Minor. Indeed, hemay have himself been such a singer-poet, one wholate in his life wrote down some of the stories he hadtold. Many scholars believe that the Iliad was createdin the 700s B.C., though the circumstances of itscomposition remain unclear.

Homer as Teacher In later centuries, Homer’s epicsserved as the centerpiece of Greek education. Childrenlearned to read by studying his poems, and theymemorized long passages. The epics kept alive theearly Greeks’ legends and myths and greatlyinfluenced people’s beliefs about the gods. Many readthe poems not just for their exciting stories butbecause they believed that Homer had revealedimportant truths about human beings and their placein the universe.

Discovery of Troy In the late 19th century,archaeologists discovered the ruins of ancient Troy.The evidence they gathered has led many scholars tobelieve that Homer’s tales about the Trojan War havesome basis in fact. Greek armies probably did attackTroy sometime in the 1200s B.C., and they may havedestroyed the city.

Homer700s B.C.?

from the

H o m e r

Ruins of ancient Troy

Build BackgroundOrigins of the Trojan War According to legend, theTrojan War resulted from an argument among thegods. Eris, the goddess of strife, was angry becauseshe had not been invited to the wedding of Peleus, amortal king, and Thetis, a sea goddess. To get revenge,Eris threw a golden apple, labeled “for the fairest,”into the midst of the wedding guests. A dispute arosewhen three goddesses—Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite—claimed the prize. Paris, the son of the Trojan kingPriam, was chosen to decide which of the three wasin fact the most beautiful. Each goddess offered Parisa bribe, but he awarded the apple to Aphrodite, whohad promised him Helen, the most beautiful womanin the world.

Abduction of Helen Helen was already married toMenelaus, the king of Sparta, when Paris went toSparta, where he stayed as a guest of the king.According to the customs of the time, a host and aguest had sacred obligations to each other. Paris,ignoring his duty to his host, took Helen back to Troywith him. Menelaus and his brother Agamemnon thengathered warriors from all over Greece to attack Troyand retrieve Helen.

Ancient Greece

ILIAD 179

Siege of Troy and the Iliad The Greek forces sailedto Troy and surrounded the city, besieging it for tenyears. The events recounted in the Iliad take placeduring the final year of the war. The poem focuses onAchilles, the greatest Greek warrior. When he was aninfant, his goddess mother had held him by the heeland dipped him into the river Styx in the realm of thedead. After that, Achilles could not be hurt in any partof his body, except for his heel. He does, however, havea fierce temper, which proves costly to the Greeks.

Bitter Feud Homer’s story begins with a quarrelbetween Achilles and Agamemnon, the commander ofthe Greek forces. Achilles, filled with anger, withdrawsfrom the war. As a result, the Trojans, led by the braveHector, are able to drive the Greeks back to theirships. Achilles returns to combat only after his bestfriend, Patroclus, has been killed by Hector. Withunstoppable energy, Achilles kills every Trojan in hispath until he finally meets Hector in a man-to-manbattle outside the city walls.

The messenger god Hermes (left) has brought together Hera (top right), Athena (with shield), and Aphrodite, who isaccompanied by her child, Eros. The Judgment of Paris (16th century), Giulio Romano. Ducal Palace, Mantua, Italy.

HUMANITIESCL A S SZON E . COM

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180 UNIT TWO PART 1: LITERATURE OF ANCIENT GREECE

GodsAphrodite (BfQrE-dFPtC): the goddess of love and beauty; favors the Trojans

Apollo (E-pJlPI): the god of healing, music, poetry, and prophecy; favors and protects theTrojans

Athena (E-thCPnE): the goddess of wisdom and warfare; protects the Greeks

Hera (hîrPE): the queen of the gods, sister and wife of Zeus; favors the Greeks

Hermes (hûrPmCz): the messenger of the gods

Thetis (thCPtGs): a sea goddess, mother of Achilles

Zeus (zLs): the king of the gods, father of Aphrodite, Apollo, Athena, and Hermes; for themost part does not takes sides in the war

Cast of Major Characters

GreeksAchilles (E-kGlPCz): the mightiest Greek warrior, son

of Thetis and the mortal king Peleus

Agamemnon (BgQE-mDmPnJnQ): the king of Mycenae,brother of Menelaus and commander of all theGreek forces at Troy

Calchas (kBlPkEs): a priest and prophet

Helen (hDlPEn): the wife ofMenelaus, daughter ofZeus and the mortalwoman Leda

Menelaus (mDnQE-lAPEs):the king of Sparta,whose wife, Helen, wascarried off to Troy byParis

Nestor (nDsPtEr): the kingof Pylos, oldest andwisest of the Greekleaders

Odysseus (I-dGsPyLsQ):the king of Ithaca,known for his craftiness.

Patroclus (pE-trIPklEs): ayoung Greek warrior,best friend of Achilles

TrojansAndromache (Bn-drJmPE-kC): the wife of Hector

Astyanax (E-stFPE-nBksQ): the infant son of Hector andAndromache

Chryses (krFPsCzQ): a priest of Apollo, whose daughterhas been captured by the Greeks

Hector (hDkPtEr): the leader and greatest warrior of theTrojan army

Hecuba (hDkPyE-bE): thequeen of Troy, wife ofPriam and mother ofHector and Paris

Paris (pBrPGs): the Trojanprince whose abduction ofHelen from Greece was thecause of the Trojan War

Priam (prFPEm): the king ofTroy, father of Hectorand Paris

IthacaOdysseus

PhthiaAchilles

AthensPylosNestor

TroyHectorHecuba

ParisPriam

MycenaeAgamemnon

SpartaHelen

Menelaus

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Homer’s World