THE

EVERYTHINGGUIDETOFORAGINGFORAGING

DearReader,Foragingisaskillthathasbecomealmostforgotten.Fearsof the outdoors and being poisoned prevent too many people fromexperiencing the joy of picking and tasting the flavors given to us bynature. Yet, it is a skill that our ancestors knew and used on a dailybasis.WhenIseepeopleholdanyoneofournativenutsintheirhandsandnothavea cluewhat it is,orwhen Ihearhowothershavenevereaten a wild blackberry because they didn’t want to get poisoned, Irealizehowdisconnectedoursocietyhasbecomeandhowimportantitistosharetheknowledgeofforaging.ThenIreadsurvivalstoriesinthenewspapers.Oneinparticularwas

aboutayounggirlwhohadbeenlostforfivedaysandhadsurvivedbyeatingraspberries.OrIseeonthenewsthelonglinesofpeoplewaitingforhandoutsafteranaturaldisasterwhenthereisfoodallaroundthem.AndIrealizehowimportantitisthatwekeepthisknowledgealive.Knowledge that isn’t used is lost. It’s one thing to know how to

identify a particular plant and know it’s edible, but you also need toknowhowtoprocessandprepareit.Thisbookonforagingcanbeyourguide,leadingyououtintothefieldandfromtheretothekitchen,andfinallytothetable.Itprovidesyouwitheverythingyouneedtoknowtogetyoustartedonyourjourneyofbecomingaforager.Bewild!

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THE

EVERYTHINGGUIDETOFORAGING

Identifying,harvesting,andcookingnature’swildfruitsandvegetables

VickieShufer

Dedicatedtothewildplants,thattheymayberecognizedandappreciatedforthegiftstheyoffer.

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Contents

Acknowledgments

Top10ReasonstoForage

Introduction01TheWayoftheForager

SustainableForaging

GettingAcquaintedwithPlants

ForagingGrounds

PrivateProperty

WhatDoYouTaketotheField?

ForagingTips

SafetyPrecautions02ConnectingwithPlants

BecomingAware

PlantsandPeopleRelationships

ForagingwithChildren

FollowtheCycles

PlantFeatures

PlantJournal03BecomingPlantWise

RareandEndangeredSpecies

PlantNames

FoodasMedicine

Allergies

PesticideUse

WildFoodMyths04PoisonousPlants

HistoryofUsage

CategoriesofPoisonousPlantEffects

WaystoAvoidPlantPoisoning

EmergencyAction

PoisonousPlantstoKnow

PoisonousMushrooms05PlantFamilies

WildGreens

EdibleFlowers,Roots,andVegetables

SpringandSummerFruits

FallFruits

WinterFruits

Seasonings

TeaFamilies

Nuts

Seeds

WaterPlants06WheretheWildThingsGrow

YourBigBackyard

SunLovers

Woodlands

MountainForests

Wetlands

SeasideForaging

Deserts07InvasiveAliens

AutumnandRussianOlive

GarlicMustard,theGourmetGreen

JapaneseHoneysuckle

JapaneseKnotweed

Kudzu—TheWeedThatAtetheSouth

MultifloraRose

Phragmites,ReedGoneWild

GardenWeeds08SpringEmergents

BackyardGreens

RootsandShoots

EdibleBudsandFlowers

SpringTeasandBeverages

EarlyBerries09Summer’sHarvest

SummerSweets

SummerWildflowers

LusciousLegumes

SummerGreens

SummerTeas10FallForaging

Hips,Haws,andMiniApples

BerriesandBerry-likeFruits

WildGrapes

Viburnums

Roots

SeedsandGrains

NutKnowledge11WinterForaging

WinterBerries

WinterGreens

Lichens

Roots

TreeParts12GrowingWild

WeedsfromSeeds

Succession

SeedSavvy

TheForager’sGarden

CreatingaWetlandCommunity

ForestGardening13IntotheForager’sKitchen

GadgetsandUtensils

StockingthePantry

WildSubstitutes

SaltPlants

FromtheFieldtotheTable

WildFoodNutrition14StoringWildPlants

Dehydration

RootStorage

Freezing

Canning

Preserves

Fermentation15Beverages16Appetizers,Salads,Sauces,andSpreads17SoupsandVegetableDishes18GreenCuisine19Breads20DessertsAppendixA:CommonNamestoLatinNamesAppendixB:HelpfulReadingIndex

Acknowledgments

ItiswithgreatpleasurethatIcansaythankyoutoallmyteacherswhohave been with me since the beginning, far too many to nameindividually.IamespeciallygratefultoDr.JamesDuke,notonlyforallhis research, but also for sharinghis knowledge in classes,workshops,and books. It was he who showed me how to eat cattails out of themarsh,makeasoupusingburdockandotherwildvegetables,andhadmetestingvariouswildberriestodeterminetheiredibility.

Thanks toallofyouwhohavecontributed foragingarticlesandto thesubscribers ofTheWild Foods Forum, for sharing your knowledge andexperienceonwildfoods.Andtoallmywildfriends,especiallyMicheleShean andDiane Greiber,who have been testing outmy recipeswithwild food groups for more years than I can count; andMichele, whohelped me recall how we had prepared certain dishes while I waswriting this book. Special thanks to Paul,my husband, who has beengraciouslyeatingmyexperimentsformorethanthirtyyears.Mostofall,I want to thank all of you who have attended my classes, tasted mydishes,andrepeatedlyaskedwhenIwasgoingtowriteabook,fortheinspirationthatyouhaveprovidedformetowritethis.

Top10ReasonstoForage

1.Foragingincreasesawarenessoftheplantworld.2.Thefoodyoufindisfreeforthepicking,therebyreducingyourfoodcosts.3.Foragingprovidesoutdoorexercise.4.Itisasourceoffoodinsurvivalsituations.5.Foragingcanbeameansofweedcontrolinyardsandgardens.6.The food you forage is free of pesticides, herbicides, and geneticmodification.7.Aforageddietprovidesflavorsfoundnowhereelse.8.Foragedfoodishighlyconcentratedinvitaminsandminerals.9.Thefoodyouforagepromoteshealthandwell-being.10.Foraginglightenstheloadofhikers,backpackers,andcampers.

Introduction

HAVEYOUEVERTHOUGHTaboutwhatwouldhappenifyouwenttothestoreandtherewasnofoodontheshelves,orevenworse,youwerestranded somewhere away from civilization with nothing to eat? Ormaybeyou’rejustcuriousaboutthosegreenthingsthatkeeppoppingupinyouryardandgarden,orgrowingbetweenthecracksinthesidewalk.Ifyou’reonewholikestospendtimeoutdoors,youmightbelookingfora way to deepen your connectionwith nature, lighten your load as abackpacker, or reduce your grocery costs by supplementing your dietwithwildfoods.Maybeyou’rejustinterestedinplantsandwanttolearnmoreabouthowourancestorsusedthem.Therewasatimewheneverycountryboyorgirlknewwherethebest

blackberry patcheswere in the summer, orwhere to go in the fall togather nuts. Mothers would send their children out in the spring togatherwildgreens.Manykidstodayhavenevereventastedawildberryorknowwhatawalnutorhickorynutlookslike.Greensareplentifulatthe grocery store. Fears of being poisoned are heavily imprinted onyoung minds. Children are cautioned to never eat anything growingwild.Many of the plants growing around you have the potential of being

transformed into tasty salads, soups, entrées, desserts, and beverages.Theseareplantsthatourancestorsknewandusedonadailybasis.Someofthesearenativeplantsthatweregrowingherewhenthesettlersfirstarrived.Others are descendants of plants brought over by the settlers,planted in their gardens for foodandmedicine, and that later escapedtheirboundaries.Asfoodbecameincreasinglyavailableongroceryshelves,lessinterest

was given to the wild plants, and for the most part, they becameforgottenasa foodsource.Manybecameknownasnothingmore thanweeds,insomecasesinvasivealiens,tobeeliminatedatallcosts.Otherswere recognized as native plants that needed to be protected. Thethoughtofactuallyeatingwildplantsdoesn’tevenoccurtomostpeople.Less time is spent outdoors, and as a result, many have becomedisconnected from the natural world, resulting in what Richard Louv

describes as “nature-deficit disorder” in his book,The Last Child in theWoods.Foraging is a means of reconnecting with nature. It gets peopleoutdoorsandgivesthemawholenewperspectiveonlookingatplants.Tastingtheplantsisawayofusingallyoursensestoexplorethenaturalworld.Intheeventofnaturaldisasters,gatheringandeatingwildfoodswouldbeanalternativetostandinginlonglineswaitingforreliefaid.Ifyoufindyourselflostinthewoodswithnofood,knowingwhattoeatornot to eat could be a matter of survival. There are also nutritionalbenefits.Wild plants are concentratedwith vitamins andminerals andhavenotbeensubjectedtogeneticmodification.Bestofall,theyarefreeforthepickingandjustgoodeating,withtheirownuniqueflavors.Thisbookisforanyonewhoisinterestedinwildplantsandhowtheycanbeusedforfood.Itwillguideyoufromyourbackyardandgardenstothemeadows,forests,wetlands,beaches,mountains,anddesertswithinformation on how to identify the plants that you are likely toencounter,harvestingtechniques,andrecipesforusingthem.Identifyingpoisonous look-alikes will help to remove the fears associated witheatingwildplants.Usingcautionandgoodconservationethics,thisbookcanhelpyoulearneverythingyouneedtoknowtobecomeaconfidentforagersoyoutoocanenjoythebountyofnature.

CHAPTER1

TheWayoftheForager

Foraging is a lifestyle. It’s a way of connecting with plants and developing anintimaterelationshipwiththeplantworldbyspendingtimeinnature.Aforagerisattunedtothenaturalworldandtotheseasonsandfollowsthecyclesoftheplants.She sees theplantswhen they first emerge from theground, smells their flowerswhentheyburst intobloom,andthen tastes their fruitswhentheyhaveripened.Thisishowaforagerlives.

SustainableForaging

There was a time when people relied on wild foods as a crop tosupplement their diet and reduce grocery costs. Wild berries weregathered in the summer tomake jelly, jams, and pies; roots and nutswere gathered in the fall to use in baked goods, and greens weregatheredinthespring.Aswildhabitatsbegandeclining,concernswereraised about depleting the natural populations and howmuch can begatheredwithoutharmingtheenvironment.If harvested sustainably, an areawill continue toproduce year after

year.Become familiarwith theplants inyourareaand findoutwhichones are rare or endangered. Avoid picking from these plants or picksparingly,dependingonthepartbeinggathered.However,youtooareapart of the natural world, and by approaching the plants with aconscientiousattitude,youcan forage in thewildwithoutharmingthenaturalpopulation.

Whenlookingforplantstogather,ifyouonlyseeasingleplanthereandthere,don’tpickit.Ifyouseeafewhere,andafewthere,pickonlywhatyouneed.Iftheplantisabundant,andespeciallyif it isinvasive,pickallyouwant,butusewhatyoupick.

GatheringGreens

Many wild greens come from plants that are annuals, such aschickweeds or cresses. Others, like evening primrose and thistle, arebiennials. They bloom, produce seed, and then die, to be replaced byseedlingsthatsproutfromseedstheyhaveproduced.Theyrelyonseedproductiontoreproduce.Othersareperennials,likedandelions.Evenifyouremovealltheleaves,theywillcontinuetogrow.If theplanthasa rosetteof leavesnear theground,youcanremovetheyoungerleaveswithoutuprootingorharmingtheplant.Annualsandbiennials often come up thick and can benefit from being thinned bybeingpulledoutandtherootstrimmedoff.Othergreenshavebranchesthatcanbesnippedoffatthetipsandtheplantwillcontinuetogrow.Youngleavesaregenerallymildertastingandmoretender.

PickingWildflowers

Flowers are the reproductive part of the plant. Many of them areedible.Anumberofplantsproducebothedibleflowersandediblefruitsor seeds.Gathering the flowerswillprevent themfromproducing fruitand going to seed. Sometimes you have to choosewhether to eat theflowersnoworwaitandpickthefruitslater.Anidealsituationiswhenthereareenoughplantstodoboth.Flowers also provide nectar for pollinating insects. Plants in turndependontheinsectstopollinatethemsotheywillproducefruit.Evenif it is awildflower or shrubwith no edible parts, the pollinatorswillstillvisittheirflowersfornectar.Leavetheseforthepollinators.

HarvestingFruits

Seedsarecontainedwithinthefruitsofplants.Fruitsmaybeberries,drupes, hips, nuts, legumes, or capsules that provide food for animalsthat in turndisperse their seeds.Sincemanyof these fruitsareedible,careshouldbetakento leavesomefor thewildlife.Whenappropriate,dispersefruitsandseedstoextendtheirrange.

Berriesarebirdfood.Fruit-eatingbirdsrelyonwildfruitsforsurvival.Some seeds have to pass through the digestive system of birds beforetheywillgerminate.Asymbioticrelationshiphasdevelopedinwhichtheplantprovidesthefruitforthebirdandthebirdprovidesthemeansforplantingitsseeds.Whengatheringberries,remembertoleavesomeforthebirds,sometoreseed,andsomeforthenextgroupofforagers.Nutsprovide food for squirrels, turkeys,andotherwildlife.Squirrelsgathernutsandburythemforstoragebutdon’talwaysrememberwheretheyburiedthem.Theforgottennutsbecomesproutsthenextspringandeventuallygrowintoatree.

DiggingRoots

Digginguprootsoftenmeansdestroyingtheplants.Youdon’twanttobethecauseofapopulationbecomingrare.Insomecasesrootscanbedividedandreplanted,especiallythosewithtubers.Somerootscanhavethe top part removed and the bottom part containing the root hairsreplanted.

GettingAcquaintedwithPlants

Gettingacquaintedwithplantsisamustforanyoneinterestedineatingthem.Whentryingtoidentifyaplant,remembertouseyoursenses.Rubtheleavesorcrushthemtoseeiftheyhaveascent.Snifftheflowersfortheir individual fragrance. Look for unusual features that make itdistinct. Learning what types of plants there are, leaf shapes andformations,flowerstructure,andfruittypesareallessentialtopositiveidentification of an unknown plant. Once you knowwhat to look for,youcanuseabotanicalkeytohelpyouidentifyaparticularplant.Keysvarywithdifferentfieldguides.Thetimetogathermanyofthewild greens is before they bloom. Without flowers or fruits, it issometimesdifficult foreventheexperts toalwaysknowthedifference.Inthiscase,youcanobservetheplant’slifecycleasitgoesthroughthebloomingandfruitingphase.Onceyouhaveidentifieditanddetermineditsedibility,youcanharvestitthenextyear.

Getfamiliarwiththoseplantsthatmaylooksimilartoeachotherandwhether they are poisonous or not. Identifying a plant is not enough.Youmayhaveitidentifiedcorrectly,butthatdoesn’tmeanit’sedible.Besuretocheckafieldguideforpositiveidentificationandanedibleplantguideforedibility.Amedicinalplantguideisalsohelpfultoseeiftherearemedicinaleffects.Findoutasmuch informationabout theplantasyoucanbeforeeatingit.

Flowers

Plants often get lost in the jungle of green. They all blend together,untiltheybloom.Suddenlytheystandout.Somefieldguideshavekeysthat are based on flower parts. Become familiar with the parts of aflower and how to distinguish between the various types of flowers.Matching a flower to a picture is not always accurate. Look for fieldguides that showall thepartsofaplant, including leaves, flowersandfruitsforpositiveidentification.

Fruits

Seedsofplantsarecontainedwithindifferenttypesoffruits.Learntodistinguishbetween thecategoriesand findoutwhichonesareedible.Many of the wild fruits have a cultivated counterpart. Usually thecultivated fruit looks larger and juicier, but not necessarily sweeter.Shellsofwildnutsaregenerallythickerandhardertoremovethanthecultivatedvarietybutthenutmeathasastrongerflavor.There are numerous inedible berries that are best left for the birds.

Often theygrowrightnext toone that isedible.Become familiarwiththewildfruitsinyourarea,identifywhichonesarepoisonous,andthenfindoutwhichonesaresafetoeat.Nuts are probably the easiest to identify of wild foods. With the

exceptionofbuckeyeandhorsechestnut,mostnutsareedible.Somearesweeterthanothers.Thenutmeatiscontainedwithintheshellthatmustberemovedbeforeeating.

Roots

Roots can be tricky, especially in the winter when the tops of theplants have died back. Gathering roots in the winter often meansscoutingoutanarea in the summerwhen the leaves, flowers,or fruitsarepresentandrememberingwhereyousawit.Ifappropriate,youcanflag it with surveyor’s tape to help you find it when the leaves aredormant.

ForagingGrounds

Findingaplacetoforagecanbeachallengeinmanyareas.Ifyouhaveayardorgarden,thisisagoodplacetostart.Otherwise,explorebeyondyourhome.Thebest spots tend tobe theedgesof farm fields, forests,and meadows. Permission should be obtained before foraging on anylandthatisnotyourown.Before picking, look for evidence of spraying. An absence of weeddiversity is evidenceofherbicide spraying.Pesticide spraying isnot soobvious.Alwayswashyourplantswellbeforepreparingoreatingthemto remove any pesticide residues that may be on them, especially ifyou’re not certain. If there’s a chance the soilmight be polluted fromdumpingorothermeans,boiltheplantsfortenminutesbeforeeating.

OldHomeSites

Oldhomesitesorabandoned lotscanbe foundeven inurbanareas.Whatwas a yardmore than likely supports a number of wild greens,especially if no one has been spraying. If there was a garden on thepremises, then there’s probably going to be more opportunities, sincemanywildplantslikedisturbedsoils.A ride out to the country may turn up some interesting foragingopportunities. Abandoned farm fields with grown-up fencerows orbarnyards may be worth locating an owner for permission. Look foredges.Manywild fruits grow in the understory of forests but producemorefruitiftheygetsomedirectsunlight.Theseedgesmaybeinempty

lots bordering shopping centers, gas stations, or other commercialenterprises. Find out who owns the property and ask permission toforage.If you’re a paddler, youmay find that there’smoreup a creek than

justwater.Manyfreshwatercreeksandriversarelinedwithplantsthathaveedibleberries,seeds,androots.Wildrosesbloominthespringandadd a flowery taste to your water bottle. Groundnuts grow along thebanksandinthefalltheberrybusheshaveripeberries.Spicebushandbirchoften line thebanks. Inmarshes,cattailscanusuallybe foundaswell as flowering plants, some ofwhich have edible roots. Freshwatermarsheshavemorediversitythansaltwatermarshes.Insomecases,theonlyway to get to certain plantsmaybe bywater.Again, find out inadvancewhoownsthelandborderingthewaterwaywhereyouwillbepaddlingandifitispermissibletoforage.

PublicLands

City, county, state, and national parks are all on public lands. Eachagencyhasitsownpolicyforgatheringplantsinthewild.Insomeparks,gathering plants for personal use is permitted, depending on howabundantitis.Contacttheparkmanagerbeforepicking.Somestateandnationalforestsaswellasnationalrecreationalareas

allowharvestingfruits,nuts,andberriesforpersonaluse.Insomecases,a permit may be required to harvest plant material. There are alsoWildlifeManagementAreasandArmyCorpsofEngineersProjects thatgenerally prohibit collecting of plantmaterial. Find out which agencyownsthelandbeforecollecting.

BeawarethattheNationalWildandScenicRiversActprohibits theremovalofplantmaterialsfromtheareaborderingsomerivers.TheWildernessActof1964protectstheharvestofwildplantsindesignatedfederalwildernessareas.Findoutwhatotherlawsprotectplantsinyourarea.

Knowingwherenottoforageisjustasimportantaswheretoforage.Roadside foraging is not recommended, unless it is a secondary roadwithlittleusageandthepartbeinggatheredisnotgrowingrightnexttothe road. Exhaust fumes and leaks frompassing vehicles seep into thesoil,becomingapartoftheplantsthataregrowingthere.Alsoavoidtheedgesoffarmfieldsorwaterwaysthatreceivepesticideresidues.Thebestforaginggroundisyourown.Ifyouhaveapieceofproperty

that you candedicate towild food, thenyou canhavewild foodyearround,dependingonwhatyouplantorallowtogrow.Ifmanagedinanethicalmanner,itcanproduceforyearstocome.

PrivateProperty

Justbecauseaplantiswilddoesnotmeanitisfreeforthepicking.Ifit’sonprivateproperty,theplantbelongstothelandowner,whetheritisanindividual, a business, or a corporation.Written permission should beobtainedfromtheownerbeforeventuringontotheland.

Homeowners

Manyhomeownerswouldwelcometheopportunitytohavesomeonepicktheirdandelionsinthespringwhentheystarttobloomorremovetheweeds from thegarden.Even so, askpermission first and let themknowwhatyou’repicking.Theymaybeinterestedintryingthemalso.Ifyouareahomeowner,youmaywanttoconsiderdevotinganarea

ofyouryardorgardentothewildplants.Youcaneitherestablishitasalandscapedareaorletitgowildandseewhatcomesup.Reducingtheamountofgrassyouhavetocutwillgiveyoumoretimetogooutandforage.

Farms

Privatelyownedorganicfarmsandgardensareidealforaginggrounds.Sincethesoilisfreeofherbicides,thereisagreaterdiversityofplants.If

you don’t know any organic growers, contact your local agriculturalagent or go online and search for anOrganicGrowers Association foryourarea.Manygrowersarealsointerestedinwhichweedsyoucaneatandoftenincludethemintheirsaladmixes.Bordering most farm fields are hedgerows. They also borderwoodlands and streams. Hedgerows are made up of shrubs and vinesthatproduceanabundanceofwildfood.Thepresenceofbirdsindicateswherethefruitscanbefound.

Huntersoftenusewoodedareasandhavepostedsignsalongtheborders.Findoutwhen the hunting season occurs in your area and avoid going into the woodswhenhuntersmightbethere.Evenifyou’renothuntingwildlife,it’sagoodideatowearablazeorangehatorvesttomakeyourselfvisible.

Somelandownershavewoodedlotsthattheyaregrowingfortimberortoeventuallyresell.Often,theyhavereceivedverylittlemanagementandareanabundantsourceofwildplantfoods.Gettoknowtheownerandoffertotakehimoutandidentifytheplantsgrowingthere.Ifithaspotentialasaforagingarea,workoutanagreementwiththeowner.

WhatDoYouTaketotheField?

Asaforager,theoutdoorsisanextensionofyourlife.Youmaygotothefield fordifferent reasons. Itmaybe to release stressand justgo forawalk. At other times youmay feel the need to be in the outdoors tolistentothenaturesounds,takepictures,orsketchplants.Beforegoingonagatheringforay,ithelpstoscoutouttheareainadvance.Therearecertainitemsthatshouldalwaysbewithyou,regardlessofwhyyouaregoingtothefield.Oneisapocketknifethatfitscomfortablyin your pocket and is less than four inches in length. In your otherpocket you should have some sealable plastic bags. You never know

whenyoumightfindyourselfinasituationwherethere’sanopportunitytopicksomethinggrowingwild.Ifyou’rescoutingoutthearea,asketchpadorcameraishandy.Apairof clippers can also be useful. They can be used to snip stems andbranches rather thanbreaking themoff or to clip yourway through adense area. A trowel or small shovel is useful for digging up roots.Alwayscarrywater.Inadditiontokeepingyouhydrated,itcanalsohelptokeeptheplantmaterialfresh,dependingonwhatyouaregathering.

Ifyoufindyourselfupacreekwithoutatrowelorshovel,andtheopportunitytogather roots presents itself, look for a digging stick. The wood must be hardenoughnot tobreakwhenprobed into theearthand longenough for leverage.Thetipshouldbetaperedtoapoint.

Containers

Foraserious foragingexpedition,you’regoing toneedsomething toputyourgoods in thatyougather.Severalsizesofstorageplasticbagsarerecommended.Ifyou’regoingtoyouryardorgarden,youcanusealargebaskettoputtheindividualbagsin.However,ifyou’regoingofftothewoodsorstreams,aclothbagthatdrapesoveryourshouldersorabackpackishandy.

Gloves

Gloves are essential. More than one type of glove with differentstrengthsanddurability isnecessary.Strong, leatherglovescanprotectyourhandsfrompoisonivyorpoisonoak,whilelatexorplasticglovescanprotectthemfrommosquitobites.Cottongloveswiththefingertipscutoffarehandyforpickingblackberriesorraspberries. Inthewinter,glovesshouldbeworntoprotectthehandsfromthecold.

SpecializedTools

More specialized tools are sometimes used for berry picking. A flat,shallow container will prevent berries from getting mashed. If theberries are located in a treewith branches too high to reach, hookedpoles or snake stickswith a hook on the end can be used to pull thebranchesdown.Careshouldbetakennottobreakthebranchandtotestits flexibility beforepulling it too far. There is also a tool knownas aberrypickerthatisusedtocombthroughthebranchesofberrybushestoremovetheberries.Basketsandcontainersareusedbysomepeopletotiearoundtheirwaiststofreetheirhandsforpicking.

ForagingTips

Wildfooddoesn’tallgrowinonespot.Youhavetohaveyourforaginggrounds.Itmightmeanschedulingseasonalforagingexpeditions.Beingaforagerrequiresbeingattunedtotheplantsandtheircycles,knowingwhen the greens emerge, the flowers bloom, the fruits ripen, and thenuts drop from the trees. A forager follows the cycles of plants andknowswhichplantsproduce everyyear,whichones continue to comeback, or which ones produce in cycles, with lean years in betweenprolificyears.Veryoftenit’samatterofbeingintherightplaceattheright time foraparticularharvest.Alwaysbealertandpreparedwhentheopportunitypresentsitself.

Leaves

Generally, gather leaves when they are tender and showing newgrowth,eitherbeforeflowerbudsappear,orafterreseeding,whennewfallgrowthappears.Mid-morningisagoodtimetogatherleaves,afterthedewhasliftedbutbeforethesunhasgottentoohotandwiltedtheleaves.

Flowers

The time to pick flowers is right before or when they are reachingtheirpeak,whiletheyarestillvibrant.Aftertheirpeaktheystartfadingin color and taste. Flowers are usually best picked in themid to latemorning, after thedewhas lifted. Flowers thathave just openeddon’tneedtobewashed.Avoidwashingflowerswhenpossibletoretaintheirpollen.

Fruits

Mostareashaveafairlylongberryseason.Watchthebirdsandlookfor seeds inanimaldroppings.Thiswill letyouknowwhat’s in seasonandwhen it’s time to startpicking. It is generallybest togather fruitsearlyinthemorning.Ifyouwaittoolong,thebirdswillgettherefirstandwill often pick it clean or leave partially pecked out fruits on theground.It’salsocoolerforpickingthesummerberries.Youwanttoonlypickthosethatareripeunlessit’safruitthatwillcontinuetoripenafterithasbeenpicked.

Howcanyoutellifafruitisripe?Somefruits,whenripe,willdroptotheground.Othersclingtotheplant.Ifyoutugon the fruit and it releases easily into yourhand, it’s ripe.Colorwill oftenrevealthedegreeofripeness.Sampletastetofindonethatisjustrightandthenyouknow.

Manywildfruitshaveashortshelflife.Iftheylieonthegroundtoolong, they start to ferment. If it feels bubblywhenyoupick it up, thefermentation process has begun. Gathering fruits often means visitingthesamearearegularlywhilethefruitisinseason.

Roots

Inthefall,nutrientsarestoredintherootsasthetoppartsdiebackor

godormant.Thisisthetimetogatherroots.Therootscontinuetogrowunderground throughout thewintermonths. They can be gathered upuntiltheplantstartsdevelopingnewgrowthaboveground.Rootsoftenbecometoughandwoodyatthisstage.Inareasthatexperienceextremecoldduringthewinter,rootsshould

be dug before the ground has become too frozen. Otherwise youmayhave to wait until spring. In warmer climates, early morning or lateafternoonisagoodtimetodigroots.

Sap

Sap begins rising from the roots in late winter and early spring.Tapping trees for sap tomake syrup is usually best on awarm, sunnyday after a cold spell, before the leaves have developed. This is alsowhenbarkpeelsmosteasilyforharvestingtheinnerbarkofsometrees.

Seeds

Seedsshouldbeharvestedjustbeforetheyarereadytodrop.Itshouldbedoneonaclearday,preferablyfollowingseveraldayswithnorain.Useclipperstosnipofftheseedheadandturnupsidedowninabrownpaper bag. As the seed head continues to mature, the seeds of someplantswillreleaseanddroptothebottom.

Wildriceseedsreleasingfromseedhead

SafetyPrecautions

As with any outdoor activity, there are certain precautions that oneshouldadheretowhenventuringouttoforage.Ifyou’regoingoutalone,let someone knowwhere you’re going, what time you’re leaving, andhow longyouexpect tobegone.Makesureyouhaveplentyofwater,especiallyifit’sduringthesummer.Abasicfirstaidkitisalwayshandy.Snakes, spiders, mosquitoes, biting flies, ticks, chiggers, and stinginginsectsareallapartoftheoutdoors.Learntoidentifypoisonivy,poisonoak,andpoisonsumacandavoidthem.

Wildlife

Snakesblend inwith theirenvironmentandoftenremainunnoticed.Find out which ones are poisonous in your area and learn how toidentify them. Be aware of your surroundings and watch where youwalk.Mostsnakeswon’tbiteunlessyousteponthemortrytopickthemup.Spiders are often more visible, especially when you walk into their

web stretched across the path. Unless you have an allergic reaction,spiderbitesreactinasimilarwayasmosquitobiteswiththeexceptionofthebrownrecluseandblackwidow.Useasticktoremovewebsfromyourpath.

Most of the poisonous snakes in this country are pit vipers. They have a heat-sensingpitbetweentheeyeandthenostrilthattheyusetopickuptheheatfromawarm-bloodedmammalwithineightfeet.Theheadislargeandtriangularwhilethepupiloftheeyeiselliptical.

Mosquitoes, biting flies, ticks, and chiggers can be quite annoying.Avoidusingscentedsoapsorshampoosbeforegoingout.Wearplasticorlatexglovestoprotectyourhands.Anetwornoverahatcankeepthemoffyourfaceandneck.Longpantsandlongsleevescanprotectthearmsandlegsfrombeingbitten.Wasps, bees, and hornets are among some of the insects that can

inflict a painful sting. Some caterpillars are also armed with stingingspines.Plantain,thecommongardenweed,helpstorelievethepainofthese stings. Since theherb is edible, youcanchew the leaf to formapoultice and place on the sting. Learn to identify it and look for itwheneveryougoout.

PoisonousPlants

Learn to identify poison ivy, poison oak, and poison sumac. Inspecttheareawhereyouwillbepickingfirst.Lookforplantsthatlooksimilartowhatyou’regatheringandfindoutiftheyarepoisonous.Iftheyarepoisonous,becarefulnottomixtheminwithwhatyouarepicking.

CHAPTER2

ConnectingwithPlants

In the process of getting to know plants youwill find that you gravitate towardsomeplantsmore than toothers.You feela senseofkinshipwith thatplantandwanttogettoknowitbetter.Makeapracticeoftastingtheindividualplantsthatyouknowtobeedibletoseewhichonesfeelgoodtoyou.Whenapproachingthem,clearyourmindofthoughtsandfocusontheplants.Onceyoubecomeattunedtothem,youwillstartseeingthemeverywhere,jumpingoutatyou.

BecomingAware

Plants are like people. They have individual characteristics that makethemdifferentfromanyotherplants.Tobecomeawareofplants,allyouhave todo is stepoutyourbackdoor.Onceyou’ve eatena salad thatcamefromyouryardyou’llneverseeitthesamewayagain.

Weeds

Whatmanypeoplethinkisaweedisactuallyfood.Theyspendmanyhourspulling themoutof theirgardens,weeds that inmanycasesaremore nutritional than the vegetables they are growing. Start noticingwhichplantsaregrowingaroundyou,even ifyoucan’t identify them.Watchforthemtobloom.Whatwasonceaweedbecomesawildflowerwhenitblooms,andthenanherbwhenyoudiscoverhowtouseit.

FlowersandFruits

Flowers and fruits are sometimes hidden under leaves and remainconcealedtomostpeoplewhileothersaremoreobvious.Ifaplantisinbloom,lookatthecolorandcountthenumberofpetals.Sniffittoseeifit is fragrant. If it isa tree, look into thebranches for flowersor fruitsthatmaybehiddenbehindthe leaves.Vinesclimbto the topsof treesreaching for the light.Some treesalsohave their flowersnear the top.

To see their flowers requires looking up into the sky. Often it’s whentheydroptothegroundthattheyarenoticed.Somefruitshaveagreencoveringthatmakesthemappeartobenothingmorethanleaves.

SpecialGifts

Plants have special gifts for thosewho are aware enough to receivethem.Whenapproachingplants,takeafewmomentstoclearyourmindof thoughts and look at them carefully to see how they differ inappearance. Feel the leaves for texture and crush them to see if theyhaveascent.Lookforanythingspecialthatmakesthatparticularplantdifferent.

Someplantshavesharpthornsandcanpunctureyouwhileothershavetheabilityto sting. Some may cause contact dermatitis and should be avoided. Learn toidentifytheseplantsandbeawareofthemanytimeyouareintheoutdoorsandavoidthem.

PlantCommunities

Plantsliveincommunities,sometimesincloseassociationwithothers.Somelikeithotanddry,whileotherspreferthecoolnessofshadeandwater.Exploredifferenttypesofhabitatsandstartnoticingthetypesofplantsfoundineachone.Seeifthereisapattern,whethercertainplantsalwaysgrowtogetherorarealone.Someplantsformcoloniesorgrowinclusters.Allfloweringplants,whenintheiridealenvironment,willbloom.Thisiswhen they standout fromotherplants and is agood time toget toknow them. Browse through field guides with color pictures to getfamiliarwiththedifferenttypesofflowers.FindoutwhichplantsgrowinyourareabyvisitingregionalnaturecentersorcontactingtheNatural

Heritageprogramforyourstate.Participate infieldtripsorworkshopsthatfocusontheplantsinyourarea.Becomingawareinvolvesspendingtimeinnature.

PlantsandPeopleRelationships

The relationship between plants and people dates back to our earliestancestors. Before therewas fire orweapons, therewere plants. Peopleandplantshave evolved together.Ancient cultures knewandused theplants that grew around them for their sustenance. Itwas amatter ofsurvival.Thosesameplantsareavailabletoday.Allcultivatedplantswereoncewild. As certain plants became more desirable, early people begangrowing them near their homes. If they saw a particular plant thatproduced larger or sweeter berries than others, theywould select thatone and use the seed to propagate more, eventually leading to thedevelopmentofagriculture.Plantsprovide food inexchangeforaplace togrow.Findoutwhichplants that are growing in your area were used for food by earlierculturesandtastethem.Ifyoufindsomeyoulike,youtoocancultivatethemandgrowtheminyourgarden.

ForagingwithChildren

Givingchildrenamemorableexperiencehelpsthemconnectwithplants.As the leader,you set theexamplebyyourattitude towardplantsandespeciallybyeatingthem.Childrenneedtoknowthatsomethingsarepoisonous, but certainly not everything. Before allowing them to eatsomething, help them get to know it and to look around to seewhatotherplantsmightlooklikeit.Workingwithchildrenisoftennotverydifferentfromworkingwithadults.

AttuningtoPlants

Attuning to plants involves using the senses, beginning withobservation and looking for any distinctive features. Start by helpingchildren realize they are not just green things. Eachonehas a featurethatmakesthemunique,justlikeeachoneofthemisunique.Scavengerhunts that include findingplantswith specific features, such as flowercolors, leafshapes,ortypesoffruitscanhelpchildrenbecomefamiliarwithplantcharacteristics.Otheractivitiesthatcanhelpchildrenattunetoplantsinclude:

Seeddispersal—tobecomefamiliarwithdifferenttypesoffruitsLeafrubbings—todistinguishbetweenleafshapesandleafveinsSensoryactivities—usingthesensesofsmell,touch,andtastewhenappropriate

CautionsInformthechildrenthattherearealotofplantsthatmightlooklike

the ones they know, but theymay not be edible. Let them know thatunlesstheyarewithanadultwhocanpositivelyidentifytheplant, it’sbestnottoeatanythinggrowingwild.Also,cautionthemaboutwheretopickandnottopick.Theymaybeabletoidentifytheplantbutnotrealizetheycan’tjustpickanywhere.

IntheField

Pointoutanypoisonouslook-alikesthatgrowinthearea,ifthereareany,andshowthechildrenhowtheydiffer.Ifit’sanareathat’sokaytopick,havethempickonesampleandbringitbacktoyou.Aftercheckingwhateveryonehasbroughtback,takeasampleandeatitandhavethemdothesame.Thengivethechildrenacollectionbagandhavethempickenough to make a prepared dish. It’s good to already have picked inadvance what you need and then supplement with what they pick,makingsureit’sinspectedfirst.

FoodPreparations

Childrenlovetocracknuts.Haveseveraldifferentsizesofrocksandletthempracticecrackingthem.Youcanalsoinvolvetheminsomeofthe other preparations such as measuring ingredients, stirring, andmixingthatareinvolvedincookingwithwildplants.Takingtheplantsthathavebeenpickedandhavingthechildrenhelpprepareadishthattheycanthentasteprovidesthemwithamemorableexperiencethatwillcarrythemintoadulthood.

FollowtheCycles

Thecyclesofplantsfollowtheseasons.Theycanprovideyouwithwhatyouneedwhenyouneedit.Thegatheringperiodforeachplantvaries.Being attuned to the plants and knowing when they are in season isimportantforaforager.

Spring

Withspringcomesnewgrowth,newbeginnings.Budsofwoodyplantsbeginswellingasthesapstartsrisingandpatchesofgreenstartgrowing.Younggreensemerge toprovidevitamins thatcanboostyour immunesystem and flush out toxins. Flowers burst open, attracting pollinatorswho will pollinate the flowers so fruits can develop. Some of theseflowerscanalsoprovideyouwithfoodandnutrition.

Summer

Theflowersthatwerebloominginthespringarereplacedwithfruitsthatcontaintheseeds.Amongthesearethesweet,juicyberriesthatareavailable all summer, at a time when you need extra energy andhydration.Theearlygreensofspringarereplacedwithsummergreensthatcantoleratetheheat.Theyusuallyhavelarger leavesorsucculentstemsandcontainmorewaterthanthespringgreens.

Fall

Seedsmatureinthefallandaredispersedindifferentways.Thetimeto gather them is just before they are ready to be dispersed. As falladvances, plants send their starches and nutrients to their roots forstorage.Thisisthebesttimetostartgatheringroots.Nutsbeginfallingin lateautumnandprovidecalories, fats,andoils thatcansustainyouthroughthewinter.

Winter

Winterisadormancyperiodforalotofplants,atleastonthesurface.Annuals have died back and the tops of perennials look dead. Thegrowth is happening underground. Roots can be dug throughout thewinter, as long as the ground isn’t frozen. Cold-weather greens aregenerallyavailableallwinter,unlesssnoworiceisafactor.Thepickingseasonextendsintothewinterforsomeberries.Theharvestseasonmayextendoveratwo-tothree-weekperiodthat

maymeanyouwillhavetomakerepeatedtripstothesamearea.Earlymorningisagoodtimetoforage. Ifyouwaituntil later, thebirdsandmammals will already have been there. Become familiar with the lifecyclesoftheplantsandknowwhentheybloom,producefruit,andgotoseed.Followingthecyclesofplantsputsyouintouchwiththecyclesoflife.

PlantFeatures

Therearecertainfeaturesthataresharedbyallplants.Allplantshaveroots and shoots. Those with similar characteristics are arranged intogroupsandthenintohierarchies,withaKingdom,Division,Subdivision,Order, and Class. Among the flowering plants there are two classes:monocotsanddicots.Monocotshaveoneseedleaf,veinsareparallelinthe leaves,and flowersare in threesormultiplesof three.Dicotshavetwo seed leaves, netted veins, and four, five, or irregular number ofpetals.Knowingwhattypesofplantsthereare,andhavingafamiliaritywith

various leaf types, formations, arrangements on the stem, flower

structures, and fruit types, is essential to positive identification of anunknown plant. Once you know what to look for, you can use abotanicalkeytohelpyouidentifyaparticularplant.

Keysvarywithdifferentfieldguides,dependingonthetypeofclassificationused.Some are based on a few characteristics such as flower color.Others aremoreevolvedandarebasedonasmanyanatomicalcharacteristicsaspossible.Finallythereisthephylogeneticclassificationthatisbuiltonevolutionaryrelationships.

Roots

Roots are the underground part of the plant, whose function is toabsorb and conduct food, water, and minerals. They also anchor theplant into the soil. Root division is what some plants rely on forreproduction.There aredifferent typesof roots. Primary roots are those thathave

developed from the seed root and remain throughout the life of theplant.Taprootsareprimaryrootsandincludemanyofthebiennialsaswell as some trees. Biennials include evening primrose, burdock, andthistle. Dandelions have tap roots even though they are perennials.Adventitious roots are outgrowths from structures other than theprimaryrootsuchasproprootsorundergroundstems.Undergroundstemsarespecialized.Rhizomesareundergroundstems

thatgrowhorizontallyandareusuallyfleshy.Tubersareenlargedtipsofrhizomes and include groundnuts and arrowheads. Corms are upright,fleshy,andshortenedwithpapery leafbases.Onionsarebulbsandarevery short, upright, underground stem tips completely surrounded byfleshy leaf tissue.Stolons runhorizontallyover thegroundand rootatthetip,likestrawberries.

Shoots

Shootsincludethestemwithleavesandbranches.Thestemsupportsthe plant and is where the buds, leaves, and flowers are attached toplacescallednodes.Italsoconductswater,minerals,andfoodfromtheroots. Stems store and manufacture food by photosynthesis and alsosometimes serve as the means for reproduction. They may be eitheraboveorbelowtheground.

Stemscanbeeitherwoodyornon-woody.Woodystemsincludetrees,whichhavea single stemand are large. Shrubs are alsowoody stemsbut there are twoormorestemsandtheyaresmaller thantrees.Woodyvineshaveweakor trailingstems and usually climb. Non-woody stems include herbaceous dicots andmonocots.

Among theherbaceous dicots are annuals, biennials, andperennials.Annualshaveaone-year lifecycle.Theybloom,produceseed,anddieallinoneseason.Biennialslivetwoyears.Thefirstyearabasalrosetteofleavesdevelops,sometimesinlatesummer.Overthewinter,thetaprootdevelops.Thenextspringitsendsupaflowerstalk,blooms,goestoseed,anddies.Perennialscomebackyearafteryearwithanindefinitelifecycle.Herbaceousmonocotshavenon-branchingstemsandarenotwoody.

Leaves

Leaves store and manufacture food by photosynthesis. They can beeither simple or compound and are arranged on the stem in patterns.Some are alternate, growing singly on the stem, while others are inpairs.Whorledleaveshavethreeormoreleavesgrowingfromacentralpointonthestem.Themarginsona leafcanbesmooth,serratedwithsaw-toothed edges, or lobed with rounded segments or indentations.

Leaves appear inmany shapes, sizes, and colors. Theymay be round,oval,linear,heart-shaped,ortriangular.Somemaybehairywhileothersare smooth or have thorns. Look for resinous dots on the surface orundersideoftheleafthat,whencrushed,emitascent.

HowcanItellifitisasimpleorcompoundleaf?Followtheleafstemtothemainstem.Ifthereisaleafbudgrowingintheaxilwhere the twostemsmeet, it isasimple leaf.Otherwise, therewillbemultipleleafletsattachedtothestemthathasabudintheaxil.

Flowers

Flowers come inall shapes, sizes, andcolors. If the flowerpetalsalllookthesameandtheflowerissymmetrical,itiscalledaregularflower.Irregular flowers are asymmetrical and the petals may not all be thesamesizeorshape.Someflowersaretoosmalltocountandthepetalsare indistinguishable. An inflorescence, a group or cluster of flowers,attached to a single tip of the stem is a head, and is surrounded bybracts,leaflikestructuresatthebaseoftheflower.Someflowershaveastalkthatisattachedtothemainstemwhileothersdonot.Anumbelisa stalkof flowersattached to the stem tip.Flowers thatdonothaveastalkandareon the same stem forma spike.A raceme is likea spikeexcept that its flowers have a flower stalk. A panicle is a compoundraceme. A spadix is a specialized spike of flowers such as the arumfamily.Flowershavemaleandfemalereproductivepartsthataresurroundedby the flower petals. The pistil is the female organ and consists of astigma,style,andovary.Withintheovaryaretheovulesthatcontaintheseeds. The style is the stalk of the pistil with a stigma, the part thatreceivesthepollenattheend.Thestamenisthemaleorganthatformsthepollenandincludestheantherandfilament.Thefilamentisthestalkwhile theanther is the tipwhere thepollen isborn. Some flowers are

unisexual,with onlymale or female parts on one flower,while otherscontain both sexes.Unisexual flowers rely on thewind, bees, or otherinsects to bring pollen to them. Some flowers, even though theymayhave both male and female flower parts, must receive pollen fromanother plant before the fruit will develop. Special features, such asscent, colors, dotted petals, or stickiness help to lure the pollinatinginsectstothem.

Partsofaflower

Fruits

Onceaflowerhasbeenpollinated,thefruitbeginstodevelop.Therearedifferenttypesoffruits:

Berriesaresweetandjuicywithseedsembeddedintheflesh.Drupes are fleshy fruits enclosing a pit, which is a hard stonecontainingaseed.Hipsarefleshyfruitssurroundingseveralmatureovariesfilledwithseeds.

Anutisafruitwithahuskthatpartiallyorwhollyenclosesashellthatcontainsthenutmeat.Legumesareflatpodswithsuturesthatsplitopenwhenripe.Afollicleisadryfruitthatsplitsopenwhenmature.Aggregatesaremanytinyberriesgrowingclumpedtogether.

Fruits can sometimes be seenhanging from the branches in the leafaxilsorclusteredattheendsofthestems.Theymayalsogrowsinglyorinpairs.Fruitscontaintheseedsofaplantandmustbedispersedfortheplant

to reproduce. Birds and small mammals eat fleshy fruits. Undigestedseeds pass through their systems and where they are dropped, ifconditions are right, they will germinate and grow. Some seeds areattached to a wing and are propelled through the air when they aremature or carried in a fluff of cotton. Some have burrs and attachthemselvestomammalstobetransportedtoanotherarea.Somesimplydroptotheground.Thesemaybecarriedoffbysquirrelsandplantedorlefttogerminateundertheparenttree.

PlantJournal

Therearemanywaystokeepajournal.Itcanbewithdrawings,photos,ordescriptions.Insomecasesitcanbepressedspecimens,dependingonwheretheplantisgrowing.Useasmallnotebookortabletthatcanbecarriedeasilyintothefieldandmakeahabitoftakingitwithyou.Ifyouforget to take it with you, test your recall by filling it in later. Beconsistentandcontinuethroughtheseasons.

When starting a journal, there is basic information that should always berecorded. This includes the date, location, time, andweather. Also include thetypeofenvironment,whetheritisabackyard,marsh,woodland,field,orstream.Thiscanbeyourguideinplanningforfutureforagingexpeditions.

PlantSketching

Whenlearningtoidentifyplants,sketchingthemwillhelpyoutotunein to unique characteristics that later can be used to help identify theplant. This can be extremely useful when in an area where taking aspecimen is not appropriate. You don’t have to be an artist to sketchplants.Thepurposeistorecordwhatyouareseeinginawaythatyoucanlaterlookitupinafieldguide.Thesketchcanbeaccompaniedwithwrittendescriptionsaswell.Sometimesit’snotconvenienttoremaininthefieldtosketchaplant.

Insectsmaybeanuisance,oritmaybetoohottositinthesunforanextendedperiod,oryoumaynothavetime,oryoumayhaveforgottenyoursketchbook.Insomecasesitmaybeappropriatetotakeacuttingofthefreshplant,putthesteminwater,andtakeitinsidetosketch.Sketching plants brings your attention to the special features of the

plant.Sketchtheplantatdifferenttimesthroughouttheyearasapartofyourjournaling.Sketchingincreasesyourawarenessandisagreattooltohelpyouconnectwiththeplants.

PlantPhotography

Photographingplantsputsyouindirectcontactwiththem.Keepingaphotographicjournalhelpsyoufollowthelifecycleofaplant,fromtheseedling stage to maturity. This along with a written description thatalsohasthelocationanddateincluded.Photographingaplantcanalsotaketheplaceofsketchingtheplantifyouareinahurryorifconditionsare not appropriate for sketching. Early morning or late afternoonlighting usually produces better results, since the mid-day lighting isusuallybrighterandharsher.Whenphotographingplants,trytoisolatethe part being photographed from the background and remove anyunnecessary debris or other plant material from around the subject.Zoominfordetailifyourcameraallows,aswellasshowingasmuchoftheplantaspossible.

CHAPTER3

BecomingPlantWise

Becomingplantwisemeansknowingplants.Wisdomisacquiredandisdevelopedbyspendingtime,notjustwithplants,butalsoinnature.Youknowwhichplantsproduce every year andwhichhave lean years, aswell as those that are rare orabundant.Youcanknowthenameoftheplant,andevenhowit’sused.Butit’snotuntilyouactuallybiteintothefruit,ortastethedishthathasbeenpreparedwithwildplants,thatyoucanfullyappreciateandknowtheplants.

RareandEndangeredSpecies

Some plants are hard to find. Populations of certain species havedeclined over the years and in some cases have even become extinct.Plant populations are determined from field studies and plant surveysconducted by private, local, state, and federal agencies. Sometimes aplantmaybeconsideredrareorevenendangered.Andyet,youmayfindalargepatchofit.Atothertimes,youmayseeafewspecimenshereandtherespreadoutoveralargearea.Thentherearethoseplantsthatarerarelyseenandonlyoccurinaspecificarea.Ifthere’sanabundanceoftheplantyouwanttogather,picksparinglyandscatterseedifpossibletoextendtherange.Moststateshaveanaturalresourcesdepartment.Ifyourstatedoesn’t

haveone,lookforoneinaneighboringstate.Theywillmostlikelyhavealistofrareandendangeredspeciesforyourarea.Findoutwhichplantsareonthelistandifaplantthatyouwanttoharvestisonthelist,lookforasubstituteelsewhere.

LossofHabitat

Lossofhabitat isoneofthebiggestcontributorstoaplant’sdecline.Increased development is happening all over the country. Farm fieldsnowgrowhousesandforestsare timbered.Shoppingcentersspringuponeverycornerandwherethereisapatchofgreen,herbicidesareused

to prevent weeds from growing. Even parks have mowed fields andneatly trimmed edges. When an area is cleared for development, notonly are all the trees removed, but also all the shrubs, ferns, andfloweringplantsthatmakeupthehabitat.Improved farming techniqueshaveallbuteliminatedhedgerowsandnatural borders. A manicured look has become the trend. A weedyappearanceisconsidereduncaredfor.Andyet,that’swheremanyofthewildedibleplantsgrow.Someplantswillonlygrowincertainenvironments.Alongthecoast,only those plants that can tolerate salt air and oceanwindswill growthere,whileinthemountainsrockyoutcropssupportotherplants.Thesespecificplantswillusuallyonlygrowinthoseareas.Transplantingthemto other areas may not be successful and can lead to their decline.Developing the area can also result in those plants becoming rare orendangered.

Overharvesting

Overharvesting occurs when someone picksmore than the area cansustain. Whether it is the young shoots, the flower that produces thefruit,orthefruitsthatcontaintheseeds.Withoutseedstoreproduce,theplantwillslowlydecline.“Wildcrafting” is the term used when referring to gathering wildplants in their natural habitat for food,medicine, and craft.Herbalistsmake a living gathering and creating products using wild plants. Itprovides families with a source of income that otherwise would belacking. Care should be taken not to gather more than an area cansustain and to make sure seeds are replanted, roots divided, and thepopulationscontinuetothrive.

Youneverwanttobethecauseofaplantbecomingrareorendangered.Plantsare renewable resources and if harvested with a conscientious attitude can

continue to produce edible parts every year. Use clippers when appropriate toremoveonlythepartsneeded.Trimleavesfromtheplantratherthanbreakingordenudingthebranch.

Whengatheringannuals,be sure to leave some to reseed. Ifyouarepickingberries, leavesomeforthebirds,sometoreseed,andsomeforthe next group of foragers. Leaves can be picked from plants withouttakingthewholeplant.Onlygatherrootswhentheyareplentiful.Rootsarethemostsusceptibletooverharvesting.Unlesstherootisdividedandreplanted,itmeanskillingtheplant.Before gathering plants, become aware of the plants’ life cycles.Observe and noticewhether a particular plant comes back every yearand produces edible parts. Theremay be an abundance of acorns oneyear, but few the next. Noticewhich annuals or biennials reseed yearafteryear.

PlantNames

Learningplantsinvolvesnamingthem,oneplantatatime.Plantnamescanbeverydescriptiveandaddcharactertotheplant.Sometimestheyindicate the shapeof the flower, the leaf, thecolorof the fruit,or theway it has been used. For a novice, a field guide alone is usually notenoughtopositivelyidentifyaparticularplant.Severalplantsmayhaveleaves, flowers,or fruits that look similar.Findout thecommonnameusedinyourarea,andwhenpossible,thescientificnameaswell.Beginwithplantsthatarealreadyfamiliartoyou.Youwalkpastthemeveryday.Noticehowtheyaredifferent.Manyoftheseareprobablyoncolorchartsatweedcontrolcentersthatyoumaybeabletopickupforfree. Most of the weeds that herbicides are advertised to destroy areedibleplants.Knowingwhichplantsareindigenoustoyourareacanhelp.Ifthereisa nature center, botanical garden, or natural area near you, theymayhaveabotanistorchecklistofplantsinyourarea.Evenbetter,theymayhave programs or field trips identifying wild plants. Native plantsocietiesusuallyhavearegionallistofnativeplants.Onceyoucanputa

nameto theplant, lookfor therelationshipbetweenthenameandtheplantthatwillhelpyourememberit.

Arrowhead—namedforitsarrowhead–shapedleaf

CommonNames

Plants have both common names and scientific names. Commonnamescanbeveryregionalized.Thesamenamecanbeappliedtotwoverydifferentplants,dependingonwheretheyaregrowing.Thereisatree that is called hemlock whose needles can be used to make amedicinal tea. There are also herbs that are called hemlock, one ispoisonhemlock,theotherwaterhemlock.Ateamadefromtheleavesofeitheronewillkillyou.Likewise,oneplantcanhavemanynames.Commonnamescanalsobecorrupted.Misspellings,regionalaccents,

orunclearpronunciationscanproduce some interestingvariationsofaplant’s name. When communicating with people, get to know theregionalnamestheyarefamiliarwith.Otherpeoplemayknowtheplantyou’retalkingaboutbutbyacompletelydifferentname.

ScientificNames

ScientificnamesareinLatinandareusedinternationally.Identifyingandclassifyingplants isbasedonanatomicalparts that group them inorders and then families. Family names are not a part of the plant’sscientificname.Families aredivided into thegenus and speciesname,whichmakeupthescientificname.Sometimes a capital letter will follow the species name. This isreferringtothelastnameoftheindividualwhofirstpublishedthenamewith itsdescriptionandwhoalsohas theprivilegeofnaming thenewplant.Forexample,theletter“L”followsanumberofLatinnames,asinDaucus carota L., the Latin name for wild carrot. The “L” stands forLinnaeus who developed the binomial system of classification, firstpublishedin1735.

Whatdoesitmeanwhenyouseeagenusnamefollowedbythelettersspp.?Thelettersspp.meanspeciesplural,referringtoaparticularplantasbeingoneoftwoormorespeciesofaparticulargenus.Oftenthisisusedwhentherearemanyspeciesanddistinguishingbetween themisdifficult,aswithwildmustards thatoftenhybridize.

Thegenusnameisalwaysanounwhereasthespeciesnameisusuallyadescriptiveadjectivethatrelatesinsomewaytotheplant.Itmightbethe color of the flowers, the shape of the leaf, or the structure of thefruits. For example, the Latin name for muscadine grape is Vitisrotundifolia.VitisisgrapeinLatin,whereasrotundifoliameansroundleaf,referringtotheshapeoftheleaf.Angustifoliameansnarrowleavesandisfrequentlyusedasaspeciesnameforplantsthathavenarrowleavesasin Typha angustifolia, with Typha being the Greek name for cattail,referring to thenarrow leaf cattail. Ilexvomitoria is anativeholly thatwas used by American Indians to make a strong, concentrated blackdrink that they would drink in the spring as a ceremonial drink andwould literally drink it until they threw up. Sometimes the name isreferring to the habitat or location where it was found, as in Rosavirginiana, referring to a wild rose that was discovered in Virginia.

Nameshavestoriesbehindthemthatcanhelpyouremembertheplant’sname.There is also a trinomial system where the species name is broken

down into a subspecies for greater precision. In this case theabbreviation for variety, “var.,” is used between the species and thesubspeciesname.

FoodasMedicine

Wildplantsthatareediblearenotjustfood,theyarealsogoodforyou.Manyoftheweedspulledoutofgardensarefarsuperiornutritionallytothe vegetable plants that are replacing them. Plants are filled withchemical compounds. Many of the prescription drugs and over-the-counter medications are derived from compounds found in plants.According to Dr. James Duke, more than half of these plant-derivedmedicinalcomponentscomefromweeds.The compounds found in plants are there to protect the plant from

beingeatenbuttheycanalsohelpprotectthehumanbodyfromdisease.Ifyouknowwhichplantsaregoodforcertainailmentsthatyoumightbe experiencing, you can supplement your dietwith those plants. TheUSDA’sPhytochemicalandEthnobotanicalDatabase,availableonlineatwww.ars-grin.gov/dukeisagreatsourceforthisinformation.

Manyedibleplantsalsohavemedicinaleffects.Theymaythintheblood, lowerbloodpressure,orslowtheheartrate.Theycanalsobestimulatingorrelaxing.Beforeeatingwildplants, findoutwhat themedicinaleffects, ifany,mightbe.Youmightbetreatingyourselfforsomethingyoudon’tneedtobetreatedfor.

Wildplantfoodsareanexcellentsourceformanyofthevitaminsandother nutrients that are sold in health food stores. Many herbal

supplementsconsistofthedriedherbincapsuleform.Insteadofbuyingthe capsules, learn to identify the plant, find out what its habitatrequirements are, and either grow it yourself or look for a wildpopulationwhereit’sokaytogather.Eatingplantstogetyourvitaminsisfarmoredesirablethantakingacapsuleinpillform.Plusyougetthesynergisticbenefits,whichmeansthatthewholeisgreaterthanthesumofitsparts.

SpringTonics

Tonicsarethoseplants thatstrengthenthebody.Flushingtoxinsoutof thebodyhelpstostrengthenitandboost the immunesystem.Sometonics are in the form of teas and aremade from the roots, twigs, orleaves of the plant, including sassafras, spicebush, and sweet birch.Others come from wild greens that are often used for detoxification.Dandelions have diuretic properties and are a rich source of iron andvitamin C. Other spring tonics include burdock as a tea or added tosoups or vegetables, stinging nettles, chickweed, cresses, and violets.Thesecanbeeatenrawinsalads,incorporatedintomeals,orjuiced.

Dandelionleaf

SummerSweets

In the summerwhen it is hot and dry, sweet and juicy fruits ripen.These are blood builders, providing sugar for energy and juice forhydration. Among the summer sweets are wild blueberries, wildcherries,elderberries,blackberries,andraspberries.

FallForaging

In the fall nutrients descend from the top of the plant to the rootswhere they are stored over winter. This is the time to gather roots.Burdock, Jerusalem artichoke, and evening primrose are available inyouryardorgarden,whilegroundnuts,arrowheads,andwaterliliesareavailableinthewetlands.Fall fruits, such as the pawpaw and persimmon have a higher fatcontent to prepare the body for cooler temperatures. They are usuallynotasjuicyasthefruitsofsummer.

NutsfortheWinter

Whenautumnarrivesandleavesbegintofall,thisisthetimetogotothe woods and look for nuts. Typically, nuts are produced bymaturehardwoodtreesandarepartiallyorwhollyenclosedinahuskthatmaybe papery, leafy, woody, or spiny in character. Inside the husk is anoutershellandthenutmeatiscontainedwithinit.Highinprotein,richinunsaturated fatswhichgive themahighcaloricvalue,nutsare justwhat the bodyneeds to sustain itself through thewinter.Nutswere amainstayinthedietofAmericanIndiansandlateron,theearlysettlers.Theyincludedhickory,hazelnut,blackwalnut,chestnut,beechnuts,andacornsfromoaktrees.

Allergies

Allergies occur when someone experiences an unusually sensitiveresponse to something that is not ordinarily considered harmful.

Sensitivity varies with each individual and can vary over a period oftime.Almostanyplantcancauseanallergicreactioninsomeone.

Ifyou’reeatingaplantforthefirsttime,youdon’tknowthatyou’renotallergictoit.Soeatjustalittlebit.Waitatleasttwentyminutestomakecertainyouarenotgoingtohaveanallergicreactionto it.Theneata littlebitmoreandwait.Afteranhour,ifnoreactionhasoccurred,you’reprobablynotallergictoit.

Aero-allergens

Allergensaresensitizingsubstancessuchaspollengrainsormoldsthatare airborne. Inhaling them can result in sneezing and sniffling, andalmostanyplantcanproducethesereactions.Intheearlyspring,someof the more common aero-allergens reach their pollen peak, such asfloweringmaples,birches,andoaks.Grassesandsummerfloweringtreesreach their peak in mid-summer while the ragweeds and goldenrodsbloomfromlatesummertoearlyfall.

Dermatitis

A few plants can cause a dermatitis rash or inflammation in somepeople. Dermatitis can result from handling plants or rubbing againstthem.Poison ivy,poisonoak,andpoisonsumacare thebestknownoftheseplants.Ifcontacthasbeenmadewithanyoftheseplants,immediatelyscrubtheexposedareawithastrongsoap.Ifjewelweedgrowsnearby,makeawashoftheleavesandstemsanduseitlikeawashclothtoremovetheresinfromtheskin.

FoodAllergy

Food allergies result from sensitivity to certain proteins in plants.Instead of being external, the symptoms are internal. Somemay causeitchingandswellinginthemouthandthroat.Lipsmaybecomeswollen.Or one can experience nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. If you areexperiencingdifficultyinbreathing,youmaybegoingintoanaphylacticshock and should call rescue immediately. But this is an extremesituationanddoesn’thappenoften.

PesticideUse

Usingpesticides isa commonpractice inmostareas today. It refers toany substance that prevents, destroys, or repels a pest. They includevarious typesof insecticides,herbicides, and fungicides.Therearealsopoisons for rodents and antimicrobials to control bacteria. If it’s anabandoned lot, find out what the land was used for before it wasabandoned. Chances are pretty good an abandoned areawas probablytreatedwithsomeformofpesticideatsomepoint.Manicuredareas,likegolfcourses,tendtobeheavilytreatedwithpesticides.

Insecticides

Insecticides are commonly used by homeowners, gardeners, farmers,and individualswho seean insect andwant tokill it.Cropdusters flyoverfarmfields,andinmosquito-infestedareas,mosquitocontroltruckstraverse the residential areas, leaving a cloud of toxic smoke behindthem. Ants in the kitchen immediately bring out the sprays in somehouseholds,andwaspsarepreventedfrombuildingtheirnests.Residuesfrominsecticidesareonmostplantfoods.Unlessyouknowtheyhaven’tbeensprayed,besuretowashthembeforeeating.

Federal and state lands, as well as private nature preserves, frequently useherbicidesasamanagementtooltocontrolinvasivealiens,bothalongwaterways

andontrails.Brownpatchesaregenerallyevidenceofspraying.Checkwiththemanagerbeforepickingandtofindoutiftheareahasbeensprayed.

Beforegoingoutdoors,manypeoplespraythemselveswithtoxicinsectrepellents.Ifyouhaveappliedinsectrepellentbeforegoingoutwithoutwashing your hands, the plants you gathermaybe contaminatedwithpesticideresidue.Tryswitchingtoanherbalinsectrepellent.Many wild fruit trees rely on insects for pollination.Many of these

pollinators are being killed by insecticides. If you’re getting flowers inthespringbutnofruitsyoumaywanttotryartificialpollination.Usinga toothbrush or small paint brush, scoop some pollen off the stamenswhenthey’rebloomingandbrushitonthenextflower.

Herbicides

Herbicidesareusedinthecracksofsidewalks,ongolfcourses,andatthe edges of parking lots. Any landscaped area has most likely beentreatedwithherbicides,especiallyifyoudon’tseeanyweeds.Non-organic gardeners and farmers often use chemical herbicides

betweentherowsandattheedgesofgardensandfields.Avoidpickingleavesthatlookspottedandwilted.Theyhaveprobablybeensprayed.

Fungicides

Fungicidesarechemicalpesticidesusedtokill fungi thatcomeupinagricultural fields, on plants, or in the soil. Fungi are decomposers ofdead, organic matter and include mushrooms, yeasts, and molds.Evidenceoftheiruseishardertodetect.Ifindoubtaboutwhethertheplantshavebeensprayedornot,alwaysmakeahabitofwashingthembeforeeating.

WildFoodMyths

Myths abound concerning wild foods. Often they stem from someone

lookingforashortcuttolearningtheplant.Thereisnoonegeneralrule.Gettoknowtheplantsindividuallyandfindoutwhichonesaresafetouse.

BerryMyths

The color of a berry has been believed to determine whether it isedible or not. You will often hear someone say that red berries arepoisonous. There are a number of red berries that are edible. Wildstrawberries, cactus fruits, rose hips, and hawthorns are among theediblefruitsthatarered.Ithasalsobeenbelievedthatallblueorblue-blackberriesareedible.

Thisalsoisnottrue.Virginiacreeperberriesandpokeberrieshaveblueorblue-blackberriesandareconsideredpoisonous.Notallwhiteberriesarepoisonouseither.Therearewhitemulberries

thattastebland,butareediblenonetheless.

Ifananimaleatsit,doesthatmeanIcaneatit?Some birds love poison ivy berries. There are numerous other berries that areinedibletohumansbutbirdsorsmallmammalsareabletoeatthemwithoutanyproblems.Squirrelseatmushrooms thatwouldbe toxic tohumans.However, ifyouseeberriesthateventhebirdsdon’teat,youmaywanttofindoutwhy.

BitterDoesn’tMeanBad

Just because aplant is bitter doesnotmean it’s toxic.A lot ofwildgreenstastebitter.Bitterherbsareactuallygoodforyou.Theyaidinthedigestiveprocessplustheyareconcentratedwithvitamins.Manyofthebitterherbsareusedinthespringastonicstoflushandcleansethebodyoftoxins.

MilkySap

Oneofthemythswithwildplantsisthatifthesapiswhiteandmilky,it is toxic.Even cultivated lettuce exudes awhite sapwhenpicked, asdoeswildlettuceandothermembersofthatfamily.However,themilkysapofdogbaneandmilkweedistoxic.It’salsostickyandformsahardcoatingwhenitdries,makingitusefulforwaterproofingitems.

PoisonIvyMyths

Leavesofthree,letitbe.Manyhaveheardthisstatement.Thefactis,poison ivy does have three leaves, and should be left to be.However,other plants includingwild beans andmembers of thepea family alsohaveleaveswiththreeleafletsandneednotbelefttobe.It is believed by some people that if you do see poison ivy, look

around and youwill find jewelweed, used bymany as an antidote. Inreality, poison ivy grows in lots of different habitats. Jewelweed onlygrowsindamp,partiallysunnyareas.Poisonivymaybetherealso,butnotalways.

CHAPTER4

PoisonousPlants

Poisonous plants are those that are capable of irritating or causing a harmfulreactioninpeopleoranimals.Someplantsareedible,otherspoisonous,whilesomearebothedibleandpoisonous.Whatmakesthedifferenceisthepartthatisused,howitisprepared,andwhenitisgathered.Withsomeexceptions,veryfewplantscan really hurt you. Most plants that are poisonous taste so bad you won’t eatenoughtohurtyou.

HistoryofUsage

Poisonous plants have been used since their discovery. They werediscovered and used by early cultures before agriculture was known.Knowledgehasbeengradual,oftentheresultofexperimentation.Onceapoisonousplantwasdiscovereditwasputtouse.Amongsomecultures,knowledgeofpoisonousplantswaskeptsecretandguarded.

HuntingandWarfare

Theearliestusageofpoisonousplantsdatesback to thehuntersandgatherers. Arrowswere tippedwith poisons for hunting and in battle,usingbothplantsandanimals.Poisonswereaddedtothedrinkingwaterof enemies during war times. Among some indigenous cultures, plantpoisonsarestillusedforhuntingtoday.

Using poisonous plants to catch fish was a common practice among AmericanIndians.Certainplants,suchasbuckeye,werepoundedandplacedinthewater.The poison affected the nervous system without spoiling the meat. As it tookeffect, the fishwould float to the top.Thepracticeofusingpoisonousplants tokillfishtodayisillegal.

Murders,Executions

Knowledgeofpoisonousplantshashistoricallyputoneinapositionofpower.Amongroyalty,tastetesterswereusedtoensurethefoodhadnotbeen poisoned. “Succession powders” were poisons used to guaranteemovingupthelineofsuccession.Womenwoulduseplantpoisonstogetridofundesirablemen,whileotherswouldusethemtogetrevenge,outofjealousy,orforpoliticalreasons.Poison hemlock is believed to be the source of the poison that wasused in the execution drink of Socrates. It contains alkaloids thatproducethesameresultsasdescribedbySocratesafterhedrankhistea.Drinkingthetearesultsinparalysis,eventuallyparalyzingtheheartandbreathingmuscles.

MagicPotions

Lovecharms,sleepingpotions,oramulets thatwouldprotectagainstharmorinjurywereallemployedbyancientcultures.Insomepartsofthe world, they continue to be used today. Flower baths in somecountries are used to bring good luck to an individual. Flowers aresteepedovernightinwaterandmassagedintotheskin,thenlefttodry.Otherplantsareusedtobringgoodlucktohunters.

PlantMedicine

Most plant foods are more than just food. They are also medicine.Either the plants have a high vitamin content or are a good source ofmineralsor someotherdesirable substance.Theseplants aregenerallyrecognizedassafe(GRAS)bytheFDAandareavailableinmosthealthfoodstoresineithercapsuleformortincture.Asamedicine,alittlebitmaybegoodwhereastoomuchmaybeharmful.

Someplants,eventhoughmadeintoateaorasoup,aremoreofamedicinethana food andareused to treat specific ailments.Others are strictlymedicine andshould only be used by those who are trained. When making tea from herbsgatheredinthewild,findoutwhatmedicinaleffects,ifany,thereare.

Many of the pharmaceutical drugs in use today were derived fromplant materials. Digitalis, commonly known as foxglove, is one thatcontainscardiacglycosidesusedinheartmedicine.Mayapplerootsandpokeroots,bothhighlytoxic,areusedto treatcertain typesofcancer.False or Americanwhite helleborewas used as an analgesic.Many oftheseplantscanbedeadlyifnotusedcorrectly.

ReligiousUses

Plantswere frequently used among indigenous cultures for religiousceremonies. Often these plants, such as peyote, datura, and morningglory seeds, were hallucinogenic and induced an altered state ofconsciousness.Otherplantswereusedtoinducevomitingasacleansingritualtoridthebodyoftoxins.

CategoriesofPoisonousPlantEffects

Poisonous plants are those plants that have harmful effects. Itmay befromtouchingthem,inhalingtheirvapors,oringestingthem.Theeffectmay be in the form of a rash, upset stomach, heart palpitations, orworse.

MechanicalInjury

Someplants have thorns and canpuncture you, sometimesbreakingthetipsoffunderyourskin.Blackberries,wildroses,andotherbrambles

have recurved spines that prevent you from moving forward. Yuccashave dagger-like points that can stab you. Climbing vines such asgreenbrierscanwraparoundyourlegsandscratchyouwiththeirsharpthorns.

Hawthorn’sdagger–likethorn

Cactuspadsarearmedanddangerous.Each spineon thepad is surroundedbytuftsofhairlikespinesthatattackwhenyoucomeneartheplant.Theyaresotinyanddifficulttoseethattheyoftenhavetoworktheirownwayoutofyourskin.Ifnotcleanedandtreated,there’salwaysapossibilityofinfection.

Other plants, like stinging nettle, have spines that will sting you.Hypodermic-likeneedleson the stemsof theplants inject a compoundthatproducesthestingingeffect.Crushinguptheleavesofyellowdockandrubbingthemontheaffectedareacanrelievethesting.

AllergicReaction

An allergic reaction is an unusually sensitive response to somethingordinarilynotconsideredharmful,aswithnutorwheatallergies.Sinceallplantscanpossiblycauseanallergic reaction insomeone, theplantthatproducedtheallergenisnotnecessarilypoisonous.However,thereisagreatersensitivitytosomeplants,suchaspoisonivy,poisonsumac,andpoisonoakthatcauseacontactdermatitisreactioninsomepeopleandarewhatmostpeoplethinkofwhenyoumentionpoisonousplants.

InternalPoisoning

Internalpoisoning is themostseriouspoisoningasaresultofeffectsfromtoxicsubstances.Certainalkaloidsaffectthecentralnervoussystemwhileothersaffecttheliver.AlkaloidsAlkaloids are toxic substances that affect the central nervous systemand are found in a number ofwild plants. Some affect nerve functionwithout visible effects while others act through the nervous system,includingfalsehelleboreanddeathcamas,bothinthelilyfamily.Otheralkaloidsaffecttheliver.Crotalariaandgroundselcancausesevereliverdamage.Thenightshadefamilyiswellknownandincludesmanygardenplantsthat have both edible and poisonous parts, for example tomatoes andpeppers, whose leaves are poisonous. Some nightshades, such as theground cherry, grow wild. The fruits of the ground cherry are ediblewhen ripe, whereas the unripe fruits are poisonous. Nightshades alsoinclude datura, which contains alkaloids that can have dramatichallucinogenic effects and can result in convulsions and coma, evendeath.Another type of alkaloid that is widely distributed in the plantkingdomisfoundinergot,afungusthatgrowsingrain,rye,andothergrasses. It produces effects similar to LSD,whichwas derived from it.Alkaloidsderivedfromergotareusedasuterine-contractingdrugs.GlycosidesGlycosidesarecompoundsthatcanbebrokendownintosimplesugarsplusothersubstancesandarefoundinanumberofplants,mostofthem

nontoxic.Thecardiacglycosidesindigitaliscanstrengthentheheartinsmall amounts but can be fatal in larger quantities. Dogbane andoleander also contain cardiac glycosides and should be handled withcare.

WhatcausesthesoapyfroththatIsometimesseeattheedgeofstreamsorbays?Saponinsarenon-cardialsteroidglycosidesthathaveasoapy-likereactionwhenagitated. These are the substances that are found in yucca, bouncing bet, andotherplantsthathavebeenusedforsoap.Whentakeninternallytheycanirritatethedigestivesystem.

Cyanogenic glycosides are themost dangerous.Cyanide poisoning istheresultofthebreakdownofthecyanide-producingglycosidemoleculefoundincertainmembersoftherosefamily,includingwildcherriesandwild plums. Scratching the bark and sniffing it for the bitter almondscent reveals the presence of the compound that breaks down intocyanide.Wilted cherry leaves have resulted in deaths of livestock andhorsesthatgrazedontrimmedbranchesborderingtheirpastures.Seedsandpitsalsocontainthismolecule.Goitrogenic glycosides are found inmembers of themustard family

andcancausegoiter.Personswhohavehypothyroidismshouldonlyeatmembersofthemustardfamilycooked.OxalatesOxalicacidisthesubstancethataddsalemon-likeflavortoanumber

of wild greens, including sheep sorrel, wood sorrel, and yellow dock.Too much, however, is not good. Calcium oxalate crystals in largequantitiescandamagethekidneys.Membersof theArumfamily, includingJack-in-the-pulpitandarrow

arum,containcalciumoxalatecrystalsthatwhenbittenintoproduceanintenseburningsensation.Itcancauseswellingatthebackofthethroatandtongue,andinextremecases,blockbreathing.

ResinoidsandResinsResinoidsarechemicalsubstancesleftoverafterplantmaterialshave

been extracted and are sometimes toxic.Mountain laurel, azaleas, andother members of the heath family contain a toxic resinoid, as domembers of the milkweed family, water hemlock, and mayapple.Urushiolistheresininpoisonivythatcausescontactdermatitisinsomepeople.

Waterhemlock

Photosensitization

Photosensitizationlookslikesunburnandoccurswhensunlightreactswithcertainpigmentsthatarehypersensitivetosunlight.BuckwheatandSt.Johnswortareamongtheplantsthathavephotosensitizingpigmentsand can cause one to become sensitive to the sunlight. Taking St.Johnswortoreatingproductsthatincludebuckwheatmaycauseonetoburnmoreeasilywhenexposedtothesunthantheynormallywould.

Poisonivy–leavesofthree

WaystoAvoidPlantPoisoning

Preventionisthebestwaytoavoidpoisoning.Onlyeatthoseplantsthatyouknowwithoutadoubtareedible.Practicemoderation.Justbecausesomethingtastesgoodandyouknowit’sgoodforyoudoesnotmeanit’sokaytogorgeyourself.Avoidexperimentingwithunfamiliarplants forfood ormedicine. In the spring, numerous green leaves emerge at thetime wild greens are being harvested. Be mindful of what you arepickinganddon’taddanythingyoucan’tidentify.

ChildPoisoning

Mostplantpoisoningsinvolvechildren,whoarenaturallycuriousandwant to explore the world by taste. Many plants that are used inlandscapingarepoisonous.Ifyouhavechildren,findoutwhichplantsinyour yard and neighborhood are poisonous and show them to yourchildren with cautions not to eat them. Make sure they can identifypoisonivy,poisonoak,orpoisonsumaciftheyareinyourarea.Children sometimes use plants as playthings.Knowwhich ones theyareusingandwhetherornot theyarepoisonous. If you’renot sureofthe identity of the plants they are playingwith,make sure they know

nottoeatthemorputthemintheirmouths.Many children have sucked the nectar from honeysuckle flowers.There are other fragrant flowers, such as yellow jessamine, that alsogrowonvinesandare toxic. Identifyany floweringvines inyourareathat may be confused with honeysuckle and point these out to yourchildren.Keepplant seedsandbulbsaway from infantswhenworkingwiththem.

PlantIdentification

Beforeeatinganyplant,makesureyoucanidentify it first.Thebesttime is when the plant is in bloom or has fruit. Use a field guide toidentifytheplant.Youcanalsophotographtheplantandsendittothebotanyprofessoratanearbyuniversity, fieldbotanistwithyourstate’snaturalheritageprogram,orotherknowledgeablebotanistinyourarea.

Onlyeat thoseplants that you canpositively identify as an edibleplant.Neverassumeaplantisediblejustbecauseitbearsaresemblancetoanedibleplantorbecauseananimaleatsit.Wheneatingaplantforthefirsttime,eatjustalittlebitandthenwaittomakesureitagreeswithyou.

Youcanusethetastebudstoconfirmaplant’sidentityafterusingthekeyinafieldguide.Takeasmallbiteoftheplantandrollitaroundinyourmouth.Ifittastesbad,spititoutandwashyourmouthout.

PlantMedicine

If using plants asmedicine, find out asmuch information about theplantsasyoucanandwhattoexpectassideeffects.Manyplantshavemedicinalproperties,andveryoftenthosepropertiescanbetoxic.Listento your body, and if you feel nausea, dizziness, or other discomfort,

discontinuetheuseoftheplant.

SmokeExposure

Avoid smoke from burning plants unless you know what’s burning.Resinsfrompoisonivy,poisonoak,andpoisonsumaccanbecarriedbythe wind and may result in a dermatitis reaction in those who areexposedtothesmoke.

EmergencyAction

If poisoning is suspected or has happened call your physician. If thephysicianisnotavailable,callthepoisoncontrolcenter.Gatherasmuchinformationasyoucanbeforemakingthecall. Ifyouare inanout-of-the-way place, youmaywant to induce vomiting, depending onwhatthepoisonis.

PlantInformation

If possible, provide the common and scientific name of the plant. Ifyou don’t know the name of the plant, provide a detailed description,includinganyflowersorfruitsthatmightbepresent.Crushingtheleavesor scratching the bark to sniff it for any scents can also be helpful inidentifyingtheplant.

PlantRemains

Save asmuchof the plant as possible. Be able to tell them the partthatwaseatenandhowmuch.Alsoletthemknowhowlongagoitwas.Whethertheplantwasripeorunripe,rotten,ormoldyisalsoimportant.

PersonalInformation

Providing the age, weight, and physical condition of the person

suspected of being poisoned is important. Also describe any physicalsymptomsthatthepersonmightbeexperiencing.

PoisonousPlantstoKnow

For those interested in foraging, finding out which wild plants arepoisonous and which ones might be confused with an edible plant isimportant.Itisrecommendedthatyoulearnthepoisonousonesfirstandthenfeelfreetoexperimentwiththeonesthatyouknowareedible.

GreenLeaves

Inthespringwhengatheringwildgreens,thereareafewplantstobeawareof.Buttercupshideamongtheleavesofchickweedanddandelionand are sometimes pickedwith them.Members of this family containglycosidesthathavecausedirritationsamonglivestock.Spurgesarealsocommoningardensandlawns.Theyproduceamilkysapthatcanalsobeirritating.Pokeweedleaves,wheneatenraw,willmakeyouthrowup,even though they are edible when cooked.Milkweed is another plantthatisediblewhencookedbuttoxicraw.

FlowerNectar

Justbecauseaflowerisbeautifulandsmellsgood,doesn’tmeanyoucan eat it. Yellow jessamine flowers are an example. Honeybees havebeenpoisonedfromforagingonthenectaroftheseflowers.Theshowy,fragrant flowers of the jimsonweed are also toxic and have poisonedchildrensuckingtheirnectar.Azaleasareintheheathfamily,withflowersthatarealsotubularand

fragrant,andliketheyellowjessamine,aretoxic.Theswampazalea issometimescalledswamphoneysuckle,makingitevenmoreconfusing.

PoisonousFruits

Eating a poisonous fruit by mistake has probably happened manytimestomanypeople.Sufferingfromtheeffectsofapoisonousberryismorerare.Mostfruitsthatarepoisonousaresobitterthatyouwon’teatenoughtobepoisoned.This includesmembersof theholly familythathaveberries thatmaybe redorblackandareconsidered toxic. Ifyoueatenoughofthem,theycancausevomiting,diarrhea,andevendeath.Pokeberries contain poisonous seeds. While the fruit may not taste

bitter,poisoningcanresultiftheseedsareingested.Mayapplefruitsareedible,buttheseedsarepoisonous.

PoisonousGrapeLook-Alikes

Moonseed is a vinewith heart-shaped leaves that looks like a grapevine and has fruits that look like grapes. Grapes have many seedsimbeddedintheflesh,whereasmoonseedfruitshaveasingleseedthatisintheshapeofacrescentmoon,whichiswhereitgotitsname.Grapevinesalsohavetendrilsthatareusuallyforkedatthetip.Virginia creeper berries are also grape-looking in appearance. The

vines, however lack tendrils and leaves are made up of five leaflets.BerriesofbothmoonseedandVirginiacreeperarepoisonousandshouldbeavoided.

PoisonousLegumes

Legumesarebean-likepodsthatarecharacteristicofmembersofthepeafamily.Eventhoughsomeofthesespeciesareedible,otherscontaintoxicalkaloidsthatcanresultinnervousdisorders.LupinesarecommonherbsthatgrowinthewesternUnitedStatesand

Canada.Eventhoughsomemaybeediblewhencooked,otherscontaintoxicalkaloidsandpositive identificationisdifficult. It isbest toavoidthelupines.Locoweeds in thewestern part of theU.S. have reportedly been the

causeofpoisoningofhorses,cattle,andsheep.Theword locoreferstothecrazybehaviorshownbythehorsesandcattlewhoatetheweed.

Precatorybeans, alsoknownas rosarypeas, grow inpods similar topeaswithseedsthathaveaglossyredcoatingtippedwithblack.Seedscontainabrin,adeadlytoxin.

PoisonousNightshades

Thenightshadefamilyhasmanymembers,someareedibleandsomeare poisonous. It is the family that tomatoes and peppers belong to.Ground cherries, also known as husk tomatoes, are also in this familyandareedible.Theycanbe identifiedbytheirpaperyhusks.Althoughedible when ripe, unripe fruits and leaves contain solanine and otheralkaloidsthatcouldbetoxic.Membersofthenightshadefamilythathavepoisonousberriesinclude:

Horsenettlehasyellow-orangefruits that look likegroundcherrybutlackthepaperyhusk.Black nightshade has black berries that contain solanine, analkaloidalglucoside.Bittersweet nightshade has bright red berries that also containsolanine.

Daturaisinthenightshadefamilyandhasseedsthat,wheningested,cancausehallucinations,seizures,coma,andevendeath.Thefruitofthejimsonweed, also called thornapple, is a prickly, egg-shaped capsulecontaining numerous black seeds. Leaves, roots, and seeds contain thetoxicalkaloidhyoscyamine.

Roots

Someofthedeadliestpoisonsarecontainedintherootsofplants.Thisincludes thewaterhemlockand thepoisonhemlock, bothmembersofthecarrotfamily.Youngleavesofwildcarrotandpoisonhemlocklookverysimilar,andtheybothgrowinmeadowsandfields.Mistakingthetwocanbefatal.Water hemlock andwater parsnip both grow inwet areas and look

very similar. Water parsnip is edible whereas water hemlock can killyou.Alsogrowinginwetareasaremembersofthearumfamily,arrowarum and skunk cabbage, that have calcium oxalate crystals. In thewoodlands,Jack-in-the-pulpitcanbe found.This isanothermemberofthearumfamilythathascalciumoxalatecrystalsintheroots.In a garden or meadow, burdock and pokeweed may grow side by

side.Burdockisfrequentlyusedinwildfoodcooking.Therehavebeenoccasionswhenpokewasusedinsteadofburdockandresultedinviolentvomitingforseveraldays.Membersof the lily familycanbe toxic.This is the family thatwild

onions and garlic belong to. If it looks like an onion or garlic, but islackingthesmell,don’teatit.Itcouldbedeathcamas,whichcancausevomitingand, as itsname implies, canbedeadly.Daylilies are also inthisfamilyandeventhoughmanypeoplehaveeatenthem,occasionallytheyhavecausedvomiting.

PoisonousMushrooms

Mushrooms can be deadly. There’s not much room for error. Eventhoughthemushroomtastesokayandyou feelokayaftereating it,bythe time you realize you’ve eaten the wrong thing it’s too late.Symptoms may not show up for several hours or even a few days.Anytime mushroom poisoning is suspected, get medical helpimmediately.Mushroomsare alsodifficult to identify. Positive identificationoften

involves getting spore prints or using a microscope for closerexamination.Unlessyou’reanexpert,orgooutwithonewhois,it’sbesttoleavethewildmushroomsinthefield.

Amanitas

Amanitasarethemostdeadlyandaccountformostofthemushroompoisonings.Justbeneaththecapisaringthatencirclesthestemthatcanhelptodistinguishthem.Thepoisondamagestheliverandtreatmentis

not always successful. Symptoms include intense abdominal pain andvomiting.

FalseMorels

Truemorelsareapopularmushroomamong foragers.But there isafalsemorelthatoneshouldbeawareofthatcanbedeadly.Truemorelshavedeeppitsandhollowfruitingbodieswhereasthefalsemorelshaveawrinkledbutnotpittedcap.Theyalsohaveasmoothstalk.Symptomsmaynotoccuruntilseveralhoursafteringestingandmayincludesevereabdominalpains,vomiting,anddiarrhea.

CHAPTER5

PlantFamilies

Plantshave families thatarenamedandclassified ingroupsbasedonanatomicalparts,generallythecharacteristicsoftheflowersorfruits.Intheplantworld,thisiscalled taxonomy. Even though members of one family may have similarcharacteristics, theydon’tall share thesameedibilityproperties.Membersofonefamilymaybeverytoxicwhileothersareconsideredsafetoeat.Insomefamilies,allmembers are edible.When learning plants, it’s important to get to know theindividualplantswithinafamily.

WildGreens

Greenplants alone are able to capture the sun’s energy and convert itinto food that can be consumed by other life. This food is calledchlorophyllandcontainscarbon,hydrogen,oxygen,andnitrogen.Mostofthewildediblegreenscanbefoundinbackyardsandgardensintheformofweeds.Thesegreensarepackedwithvitaminsandnutrientsthatcanboosttheimmunesystemandtreatcommonailments.

BuckwheatFamily

Buckwheatfamilymembershaveknotswheretheleavesareattachedto the stem, giving some members of this family the nickname ofknotweed.Smallflowerswithpetal-likesepalsareclusteredinaspikeatthetopofaflowerstalk.Sheepsorrelandyellowdockareexamplesofthisfamilywithedibleleaves.

MustardFamily

Themustard family, also known as the crucifers, is quite large andincludesmanymembers that are cultivated in gardens. The leaves areoftenbasal, sometimesdividedordeeply lobed.The flowershave fourpetalsthatformacross,givingitthenameofcrucifer.Thecolorsvary

fromwhiteandyellowtopinkandpurple.Seedcapsulescanbeeitherflatlikepeppergrassorlongandslenderlikewildmustard.Allmustardshaveaspicyodorandtaste,somemoresothanothersandalmostallofthemarepalatable.

NettleFamily

Nettlesconsistofmostlyherbs,sometimeswithstinginghairsonthestems.Flowersaresmallandgreenish,ofteninclustersintheleafaxils.The leavesareedible, includingstingingnettlesandwoodnettlesoncethey have been cooked or the stinging hairs crushed. Plants that looklike nettles but lack the stinging hairs are called false nettles and areincluded in thenettle family.These are also ediblebutdon’t have thesamenutritionalvalueasthestingingnettle.

PokeweedFamily

Thepokeweedfamilyincludesherbs,trees,andshrubs,mostlyinthetropics and subtropics. Pokeweed that grows in this country is a tall,branchingherbwithreddishstemsinthefallandpurpleberries.Youngleavesandshootsareedibleaftercookingintwochangesofwater.

OtherEdibleFamilies

Otherplantfamiliesthatproduceediblegreens,flowers,orvegetablesincludethefollowing:

Amaranthsareedibleherbswithbristlyflowersthatcanbegreenorredandformtightclustersatthetopsofthestalks.Bedstraw is an edible herb that has whorled leaves and whiteflowerswithfourpetals.Chickweedisanedibleherbinthepinkfamilythatisdistinguishedbyfivedividedpetals.Corn salad is amember of the Valerian familywith edible basalleavesthatareroundatthetip.

Heal-all is in the mint family and has clusters of short-stalkedpurplishflowersatthetopsofthestems.Lambsquartersisinthegoosefootfamilyandhastriangular,edibleleaveswithawhitepowderysubstancebeneaththem.Plantain formsabasal rosetteof edible leaveswithparallel veinsandsmallflowersinaspike.Purslane,miner’slettuce,andspringbeautiesareinthepurslanefamilyandhaveedibleleaves.

EdibleFlowers,Roots,andVegetables

Some of the edible greens are annuals, others are biennials, and stillothers are perennials. The flower buds and flowers of some of thesegreensarealsoedible.Whencertainbiennialssenduptheirflowerstalksthesecondyear,itcanbeusedasavegetable,likecelery.

EveningPrimroseFamily

Mostly herbs, this family includes the evening primroses, whoseflowersopenintheeveningandcloseupthenextmorning.Theflowershavefourpetalsfollowedbycapsuleswithnumerouslittleblackseeds.Thecommoneveningprimroseisthespeciesmostfrequentlyusedforfood. It is abiennial thatgerminates in late summerorearly fall afterthe seeds from thepreviousyearhavedropped.Leaveshavea reddishmidribandformarosetteinthefall.Theyremainontheplantthroughthewinter.Thenext spring it sendsup a flower stalkwith alternatingleavesthatgetsmallerastheynearthetop.Theirrootsarestarchyandcanbeeaten.Youngleaves,flowers,andseedsoftheeveningprimrosesarealsoedible.

LaurelFamily

The laurel family consists of mostly trees, sometimes shrubs, witharomaticbarkandleaves.Manysmallflowersgrowinclustersfollowed

byfruitsthatareeitheraberryoradrupe.Theflowersandbudsofsomespeciesareedible.Leavesofmostmembersofthisfamilycanbeusedasa spicy seasoning. In some species, the twigs or the roots are used tomakeatea.

MallowFamily

Althoughmallowsaremostlyherbs,thereareafewthatareshrubsoreven trees. They are fairly easy to recognize,with five petals that areoften quite showy and a center that looks like a bottlebrush from theway the male stamens are attached to the sides of the female pistil.Numerousmale stamens form a column that unites and surrounds thefemalepistil.Mostmembers of this family have edible parts, including the roots,

leaves,flowers,orfruits.Theyalsocontainmucilaginouspropertiesthatmake themslimy.Whileokra is the species thatmostpeopleassociatewithasedible,nonearepoisonousandmosthavebeenusedasfoodbyearlycultures.

Mallowflowershowingmalestamenssurroundingfemalepistil

MilkweedFamily

Milkweeds grow throughout the country in open fields or roadsides

andcaneasilyberecognizedbytheirflowersthathavefivedown-curvedpetals. Leaves are oval-shaped and in pairs orwhorls.Milkweed fruitsare distinct, with pod-like follicles filled withmany seeds attached tofluffyhairs.Thecommonmilkweedhaspinkish-purpleflowersandistheonemostcommonlyeatenbyforagers.Youngshoots,flowerbuds,andyoungpodsare eaten after beingboiled through two changes ofwater.Milkweedscontain cardiac glycosides and can be dangerous if not preparedproperly.Not all species can be recommended as food, since the toxicpropertiesmayremaininsomespeciesevenaftercooking.

PeaFamily

Thepeafamilyisalargefamilythatincludestrees,shrubs,vines,andherbs throughout the world. They have characteristic pea-like flowerswith irregularly shaped petals. A common trait among allmembers ofthe pea family is the fruit that is a legume similar to beans grown ingardens,withoneormorebean-likeseedsinside.

Groundnutflowersandpods

There are both edible and poisonous members of the pea family. For somespecies,thepodistheparteaten,atothertimesit’stheseed,andinsomecasesthe flowersor the rootscanbeused.Somepodsare tough, thick,and inedible.Othershavetinyseedsthatarepoisonous.Wildbeansshouldneverbeeatenraw.

Membersofthepeafamilythathaveediblepartsincludeblacklocust,honeylocust,redbud,wildbeans,groundnuts,andmesquite.

SunflowerFamily

As its name implies, members of this family have disks of centralflowerssurroundedbyray-likepetalsofassortedcolors.Mostmembersof this family areherbs, including the typical sunflower.The fruit is aone-seedednutletwithahardshellthatisedible.Some members of this family also have edible roots, including

dandelion, burdock, chicory, and thistle, as well as edible leaves.Flowersofsomespeciessuchasdandelion,thistle,andoxeyedaisyareusedasfoodorinabeveragebyforagers.

OtherEdibleFamilies

Otherplant families thatproduceedible flowers,roots,orvegetablesincludethefollowing:

Agavefamilymembershavebasalleavesthatarelonganddagger-like surrounding a central flower stalk that is edible when youngandedibleflowersamongsomespecies.Liliesgenerallyhaveshowyflowersborneonstalksthatarisefrombulbsorcorms,someofwhichareedible.Mustards have edible flower buds and flowers that resemblebroccoliandothercultivatedmembersofthatfamily.Violets have irregular flowers with two upper petals and three

lower,mostofwhichareedible.Wood sorrel is recognized by its clover-like appearance and hasedibleflowerswithfivepetals.

SpringandSummerFruits

Inmostareas fruitsbeginripening in latespringandcontinuethroughthe summer and into the fall. Summer fruits are generally juicy andsweet.

GooseberryFamily

The gooseberry family includes gooseberries and currants. Thegooseberries have spines at the leaf nodes, while the currants do not.Bothhavepalmatelylobedleavesthatresembleamapleleaf,withlobesextending from a central “palm.” Flowers are tubular with five petalsand five stamens. Gooseberry and currant fruits are berries that areedible.

HeathFamily

The heath family is a large family of plants that consists of mostlyshrubs,someevergreen.The flowersareoftenbell-shapedwith fourorfivepetals.Thefruitiseitheraberryoracapsule.Thisfamilyincludestheedibleblueberriesandhuckleberriesandalso

thetoxicrhododendronsandazaleas.Throughoutthewestareanumberofspeciesofmanzanitas,allsharingthesamecommonnameexceptforkinnikinnickandbearberry,whicharealsointhisfamily.

MulberryFamily

Mulberries aremostly trees or shrubs that are found throughout theUnitedStates.OnlytheredmulberryandtheTexasmulberryarenative.Severalspecieshavebecomenaturalizedandcanbefoundgrowingwild.

Thefruitissimilartoablackberry,madeupofmanyone-seededfruits.Leaves are sometimes lobedwith three distinct veins arising from thebase.

MuskrootFamily

The muskroot family now contains the elders, which formerly hadbeen included in the honeysuckle family. Elder is a native shrubwithrepresentativesthroughouttheUnitedStates.Large,flat-toppedclustersofsmall,whiteflowersmaketheirappearanceinlatespring.Fruitssoonfollow and are small berries thatmay ormay not be edible. Blue andblack-berried elder fruits are generally safe to eat,whereas thosewithredberriesarenot.

OtherEdibleFamilies

Otherediblespringandsummerfruits:

Serviceberries, strawberries, cherries, plums, hawthorns, andwild roses are members of the rose family with fruits that areberries,drupes,hips,orpomes.Mayapplesarelow-growingherbsinthebarberryfamilythathavelargeumbrella-likeleavesandyellow,lemon-scentedediblefruits.Ground cherries are in the nightshade family and have edibleberrieswhenripethatareenclosedinapaperyhusk.

FallFruits

Fruitsthatripeninthefallandlingerthroughthewinteraregenerallynot as juicy as those in the summer. For some of them, sweetness isenhancedbythefrost.Thetimetostartlookingforthefallfruitsiswhentheleavesbeginchangingcolors.

BlackGumFamily

Several species of trees make up the black gum family. Leaves arealternate and turn scarlet red in the fall on the black gum trees. Thefruits are drupes that hang on long stalks, often in pairs, from thebranches.

CactusFamily

The cactus family consists ofmostlyherbswith succulent stems andtufts of sharp spines. They are found mostly in dry, sunny areas likedeserts.Flowersareusuallylargeandcolorfulandappearnearthetopofthe stem. Stems are either segmented or ribbed and the spines areactuallymodifiedleaves.Cactiareedible,mostlythefruits.Insomespeciestheflattenedstemscanalsobeeaten.

CustardAppleFamily

Membersof thecustardapple familyareusually tropical.Pawpawisanexceptionandhaslarge,banana-likeleavesthatemitapungentodorwhencrushed.Flowersaremaroon-coloredwiththreetriangularpetals.Pawpaw fruits are berrieswith large seeds and thick skins that turnyellow as the fruit ripens. The edible pulp that surrounds the seeds issmoothandyellowish,likecustard.

EbonyFamily

The commonpersimmon is theonlymemberof the ebony family inthe eastern United States and has brownish, almost black bark,somewhat like ebony. The trees are small to medium-sized and havealternate, oval-shaped leaves. The fruits develop through the summer,first greenbefore turning into a round, orange topurplishberrywhenripe.

Youmusthavetwopersimmontrees,onemaleandonefemale,togetfruits.Onlythefemalesproducethefruits.Maleandfemaleflowersareondifferenttreesandbloominlatespring.Femaleflowersaregreenish-yellowandlargerthanthemaleflowers that are white and bell-shaped. Fruits begin to develop soon after thepetalsdrop.

PersimmontreescanbefoundintheeasternpartoftheUnitedStatesfrom southern Connecticut to Florida and west to central Texas inabandoned fields or clearings. The Texas persimmon grows insoutheasternandcentralTexasandalsohasediblefruitsthatareblackincolor.

ViningFruits

Therearelotsofvinesthatproducefruitsinthefall.Someareediblewhileothersarebesttoleaveforthebirds.GrapeFamilyGrapes aredeciduous,woodyvineswith tendrils that are sometimes

forked on the end. Leaves are usually toothed and heart-shaped. Thefruitsareberrieswithseveralcrunchyseedsinside.PassionflowersPassionflowers are more of a southern species, with most members

growinginthetropics.Itisaclimbingherbaceousvinewithleavesthatarealternateandoftendeeplylobed.Theflowersarequitedistinct,withthree to five petal-like sepals plus three to five petals overlaidwith astarburstpatternofthread-likefilaments.

WinterFruits

Thereareanumberofwild fruits thatripen in late fallandremainon

theplantthroughoutthewinter.Thesearegenerallydry,oftenwithoutmuchflavor,butareagoodsurvivalfood.

BarberryFamily

Members of the barberry family include both herbs and shrubs.Among the shrubs are several species of barberry that grow in theeastern part of the country.Members of this family have flowers thatgrowinclustersorracemesandleavesthataresometimesspiny.OregongrapeisalsoamemberofthebarberryfamilyandgrowsthroughoutthewesternUnited States. It is an evergreen shrubwith thick and pricklyleaves. Small, yellow flowers appear in the spring followed by bluish-purplefruitsthatripeninthefallandareedible.

MadderFamily

The trailing woody groundcover that is common in many easternforests is the partridgeberry and amember of themadder family. Thefruit is a two-eyed berry that is actually twoblossom scars that resultfromtwoflowersthatjointoproduceafruit.Fruitsareediblebutlackflavor.

MuskrootFamily

Afamilythatformerlyonlyconsistedofsmallherbs, itnowcontainstheeldersandtheviburnums.Bothhavepairedleaves,withtheelder’sleavesalsobeingcompound.Flowersaresmallwithfivepetalsthatgrowin flat-topped clusters. Fruits are either berries or drupes andmay ormaynotbeedible.Thefruitsofviburnumspeciesripeninthefall.

RoseFamily

Inadditiontohavingfruitsthatripeninthespringandsummer,somemembers of the rose family also have fruits that ripen in the fall andremain throughout thewinter. Crabapples drop to the ground and get

covered up and protected by fallen leaves. Rose hips, hawthorn, andchokeberriesalsobeginripeninginthefallandmayremainontheplantthroughthewinter.

Seasonings

Manyofthefragrantscentedleavescanbeusedasaseasoninginsoupsorstews.Someofthemcanbemadeintoatea.Insomecases,twigsoreven roots are used to brew into a tea. Some plants have a high saltcontentandcanbeusedasasaltsubstituteforseasoning.

GoosefootFamily

Orache has triangular-shaped leaves and resembles lamsquarters, acloserelative.Flowersaresmallandgrowintheleafaxils.Orachegrowsinornearsaltmarshes.Ithasadaptedtothisenvironmentbystoringsaltinitsleavesandcanbeusedasasaltyseasoningwithothervegetables.Salicorniaisalsoamemberofthegoosefootfamilyand,likeitscousin

orache,istolerantofsaltandgrowsinsaltmarshes.Saltisstoredinthesucculentstems,givingitasaltytaste.

LaurelFamily

The laurel family consists of mostly trees, sometimes shrubs, witharomaticbarkandleaves.Leavesofmostmembersofthisfamilycanbeused as a spicy seasoning. In some species, the twigs or the roots areusedtomakeatea.

WaxmyrtleFamily

Thewaxmyrtlefamilyconsistsofshrubsorsmalltreeswithalternateleavesthatarearomaticwhencrushed.Theflowersaresmall,greenoryellow,andinshortclusters.Thefruitisadrupe.Leavesofthisfamilyaresometimesusedasseasoningortomakeatea.

TeaFamilies

Teasarebeveragesmadefromflowers,leaves,roots,bark,andfruitsofmanytypesofplants.Youcanalwaysfindsomethingtomaketeafrom.However,therearesomeplantsthatareusedprimarilyformakingtea,whether it be as a tonic in the spring, a stimulating beverage in thesummer,orarelaxingteaintheevening.

BirchFamily

Thebirch family ismadeupof treesor shrubswithalternate leavesthat have straight veins. Male flowers hang in long catkins while thefemale flower is in short, cone-like clusters thatproduce small nuts ornutlets.Sweetbirchtwigsareusedfortea.

HollyFamily

The holly family contains several species whose leaves are used tomake tea, themost popular being the yaupon holly. Not only does ithavecaffeineinitsleaves,butitalsotastesgood.However,theberriesonallholliescouldbetoxicifconsumedinlargedoses,soonlyusetheleavesfortea-making.

MintFamily

Mints are mostly aromatic herbs or shrubs with square stems andoppositeleaves.Flowershaveirregularpetalswithupperandlowerlips.Manymembersof this familycanbeusedasaseasoningor tomakeatea. Some species, such as heal-all, also have edible leaves but arelackinginmentholandarenotaromaticlikeothermembersofthemintfamily.

SumacFamily

Thesumacfamilyconsistsoftrees,shrubs,andvines,themostnotable

being poison ivy. Leaves are usually compound with three or moreleaflets. Sumac flowers are in dense clusters and are followedby tightclustersofone-seededdrupes.

Aren’tsumacberriespoisonous?Thereisapoisonsumacandanon-poisonoussumac.Thepoisonsumachaswhiteberries that hang in loose clusterswhile the non-poison sumac has red, tightlyclusteredberries.Redberriescanbeusedtomakeatea,whereasthewhiteonesarepoisonousandcancauseacontactdermatitisreaction,similartopoisonivy.

There are about fifteen species of sumac scattered throughout theUnitedStates. Intheeast thereareat least threespeciesthatarefairlycommon,allripeningatdifferenttimes.Staghornsumacisthelargestofthe threewithhairy twigsand leafstalks that resemble thevelvetonadeer’s antlers. They begin blooming in mid-summer, with clusters ofsmall, pinkish flowers. The flowers quickly develop into one-seededfruits. About the time the fruits start ripening in late summer, thewinged sumac starts blooming. Their flowers aremore of a yellowish-greencolor.Thesmoothsumacissimilartothestaghornbuthassmoothtwigsandleafstalks.On the west coast there are also at least three species that include

lemonadeberry,sugarbush,andbasketbush.Theygrowinthecoastalsagescrub,chaparral,andoakwoodland.Anyof thesumacs thathaveredberriescanbeusedtomakeateabysteepingtheberriesinhotorcoldwater.Coldwaterresults inafruitierflavorbuthastosteepforalonger period of time than hotwater. Poison sumac haswhite berriesandshouldbeavoided.

OtherTeaFamilies

Otherteaplantfamiliesincludethefollowing:

Thelaurelfamilyincludessassafraswitharomaticrootsforteaandspicebushwithtwigsusedtomakeatea.Theephedra family includes several species commonlyknownasmormontea,withstout,leafless-lookingstemsandcone-likeflowersusedtomakeatea.

Nuts

Nuts are partially or wholly enclosed in a husk that may be papery,leafy,woody,orspiny.Ashellthatmaybehardandbonyorthickandleathery surrounds thenut itself.The time to look fornuts isafter theleaveshavestartedfalling.Exceptforbuckeyeandhorsechestnut,mostnuts are edible. Some are more bitter than others, especially withhickorynutsandacorns.Soakingthemfirstcanhelpremovesomeofthebitterness.

BeechFamily

Thebeechfamily ismostly treesorshrubswithalternate leaves thatare toothed or lobed with straight veins. The male flowers hang incatkins. Fruits are nuts enclosed in a cup-like outer hull. The beechfamilyincludestheAmericanbeech,oaks,andchestnuts.

Birch

Thebirch family ismadeupof treesor shrubswithalternate leavesthathave straight veins.The fruits areone-seedednuts that grow inacluster, sometimes with a leaf-looking outer hull. The birch familyincludesthebirchesandhazelnuts.

Walnut

Walnutsaretreeswithlong,compoundleaves.Themaleflowershanginlong,droopingcatkins,whilethefemaleflowersareinshortclusters.

Thefruitisanutenclosedinathickouterhull,whichsometimessplitsopenatmaturity.

Seeds

Seedsare smallandoften requirea lotofwork togatherandprepare.However, a little bit goes a longway. Some seeds canbe collectedbycutting the seed stalk and turning it upside down in a paper bag,allowing the seeds to drop to the bottom. The seeds can then bewinnowedorstrainedtoremovethechafforotherplantmaterial.

Grasses

Grasses have long leaf blades and jointed flowering stems. Smallflowerswithout petals forma spike, head, tassel, or branchedpanicle.Youngleafbladesareedibleasajuiceordriedandpowdered.Seedsofall grasses are edible. However, the seed must be separated from thechaff. The seeds of some grasses drop easily as they dry while othersclingtothechaff.

Johnsongrassisanintroducedgrassthatgrowsinfieldsandthicketsandhasacorn-likeappearance.Wiltedor frost-damaged leavesdevelopcyanideandhavepoisonedanimalsthathaveingestedit.Healthy,livingplantshavelowlevelsofcyanideandcanbeconsumedsafely.

PineFamily

Pines are cone-bearing trees with needle-like leaves that growthroughoutmostoftheUnitedStatesandarecharacteristicofacidsoils,often sprouting after a fire. They are sometimes referred to as the

“pioneersoftheforest”astheyareoneofthefirstofthewoodyplantstomoveintoanareathathasbeenclearedorallowedtobereclaimedbynature. Pines are part of a large family that also includes larches,hemlocks,firs,spruces,andDouglasfirs.Pinesaremostlyevergreenandprovidesomepartforfoodyearround.In the fall, pine seeds are collected from some species, while in thespringthepollencanbecollectedandaddedtoflour.Theinnerbarkismosteasilyharvestedinthespringandcanbeusedasasurvivalfood.Thetipsofpinesproutscanbeeatenraworinsaladswhiletheneedlesfromoldertreescanbeusedtomaketeayearround.

WaterPlants

Someplantsrequirestandingwatertogrowwhileothersonlyneedwetsoil.Somecantolerateashortdryingperiod.Therearesomeplantsthatfloat, some thatare submersedandgrowbeneath thewaterwhile stillothers are immersed and grow out of thewater. Some of these plantshaveediblerootsorseeds.Othershaveshootsthatcanbeharvestedasavegetableinthespring.

Oneofthebenefitsofwetlandplantsistheirabilitytofilterpollutantsfromthewater. It is important to know the quality of the water before gathering andeating wetland plants. If in doubt, boil the parts being used for at least tenminutesbeforeusinginarecipe.

AquaticRoots

Thereareanumberofwetlandplantsthathaveedibleroots.Rootsarebestgatheredinthefallorwinter,usuallyaftertheleaveshavedroppedandthewateriscold.Theyaregenerallyembeddedinthemuck,whichmakesremovaldifficult.

ArrowheadFamilyArrowheads are emergent wetland plants with long-stalked basalleaves. The flower stalk is leafless and bears small flowers with threepetalsinwhorlsofthree.The roots of some members of this family have been called duckpotatoesbecausetheylooklikesmallpotatoesandduckseatthem.Rootsextendoutwardfromtheplantwithedibletubersontheends.ArumFamilyA family of herbs, usually in or near thewater, but occasionally onland,thatarecharacterizedbyaspadixthatconsistsofnumeroussmall,stalklessflowerscrowdedtogetheronathickstem.Itisoftensurroundedbyalarge,showybractthatisreferredtoasaspathe.Theleaveshavelongstems.Severalmembers of this family contain calciumoxalate crystals thatcan cause an intense, burning sensation when eaten if not preparedcorrectly.

Arrowheadtubers,alsoknownasduckpotatoes

CattailFamilyCattailsaremarshplantsthatcanbefoundthroughoutNorthAmerica.Theyarewhatsomepeoplethinkofasa“hotdogonastick.”Theyhavelong,sword-likeleavesthatareflat.Tinyyellowish-brownmaleflowersform a spike above the female spike of flowers that develop into the

brownseedspikecharacteristicofcattails.Theyformcolonieswiththeirhorizontalrhizomesthatspreadunderground.

AquaticSeeds

Many of the aquatic plants, including grasses, contain edible seeds.Usually theseare seeds thatarebest left for thebirds.However, thereareafewthatareworthharvesting.LotusLilyFamilySometimesreferredtoaswaterlilies,thelargeleavesusuallyemerge

above thewater rather than floaton top.Flowersare largeandshowyfollowed by the edible seeds that are contained within a circularreceptacle.Rootsarealsoediblebutdifficulttoremove.PickerelweedFamilyPickerelweed has large, heart-shaped leaves that emerge from the

wateron long stalks.The leafveins closelyparallel themarginsof theleaf that emerges from an underground rhizome. It produces spikes ofblue flowers during the summer months that are followed by edibleseeds.WaterLilyFamilyWater lilies are aquatic plants, usually with floating, heart-shaped

leaves. Flowers are large and showy. Seeds and roots are edible.However, the roots are usually deeply embedded in the muck andsometimestastelikemuck.

CHAPTER6

WheretheWildThingsGrow

Wild plants spring up wherever they are given space to grow naturally withoutsprays or mowing, some forming their own communities. Foraging requiresknowingwherethesecommunitiesareandthetimeofyeartovisitthem.Itmaybeanabandonedlot,ahedgerowthathasgrownupattheedgeofafieldorforest,ameadow,swamp,desert,oryourownbackyardwhereweeds,fruits,andnutsoftenabound. The altitude, humidity, rainfall, temperature, and soil are some of thefactorsthatdeterminewhichplantswillgrowinaparticulararea.

YourBigBackyard

Yourbackyardorgardenisagreatplacetobeginlookingforwildfoods.If the area is free of herbicides, the wild plants are already there.Gardens and disturbed soils make excellent foraging grounds for wildgreens and other wild vegetables. Many of the so-called weeds thatpeoplework hard to eradicate are edible plants, often providingmorenutrition thanwhat they typically grow in gardens. Someof these arenativeplantswhileothershavebecomenaturalized.

Whatisthedifferencebetweennativeplantsandnaturalizedplants?Nativeplantsarethoseplants thatwerealreadygrowingherewhenthesettlersfirstarrivedinthe“NewWorld.”Thesesettlersbroughtherbswiththemtogrowfortheirfoodandmedicine.Manyescapedcultivationandnowgrownaturally.Inmanycases, thesenaturalizedplantsout-competenativeplantsbecauseof theirlackofpredators.Barberryisacommonfruit-bearingshrubthatisnaturalizedintheUnitedStates,whiletheblueberriesarepopularnativeplantsamongforagers.

Ifyoupullweedsfromyourgardens,youmayalreadybefamiliarwithalotoftheplants.Alltheyneedisanametogowiththem.Ifleftinthe

groundlongenough,andtheconditionsareright,allplantswillbloom.Ifyoudon’tknowwhatitis,leaveituntilitblooms.Beobservantoftheplantwhile it isdeveloping.Itoftengoesthroughseveralstagesbeforeblooming. After it has bloomed, watch to see what kind of fruit itproduces.Or,ifitbloomsandbecomesawildflower,youcanlookitupinawildflowerguide.

PatchesofGreen

Manyofthewildgreensgrowinpatches,eitherfromrootsthatspreadunderground or because conditions are favorable for that particularplant.Agoodtimetolookforthesepatchesis inthewinter,whenthegrasshasdiedback.Ifallowedtobloomandproduceseed,thepatchesofgreenwill grow.Someof themost commonediblegreenweedsarealso considered to be pests bymany peoplewho are unaware of theirnutritionalvalue.Someoftheseinclude:

ChickweedCornSaladMustardsDandelionSheepSorrelViolets

Many of these green patches are annuals, such as the chickweed,cresses, henbit, and dead nettle. If they’ve never had a chance to getestablished, theymay not be growing in your garden.Others, like thedandelions and violets, are perennials. These plants are generallydifficult to get rid of and are excellent additions to your recipes andmeals.

WildflowersinYourYard

Ifyouwaituntilalittlelaterinthespringtomowyourlawn,allthoseherbsforminggreenpatcheswillsendupaflowerstalkandbloom.Thisincludes edible dandelions, violets, chickweed, and cresses,whichwill

addvibrantyellow,white,andbluecolors toyouryard.Thebloomingflowersalsoactassignposts,makingiteasytoidentifytheopportunitiesforforagingthataregrowingrightoutsideyourhouse.

Peoplewhousealawnservicethatcontrolsweedsaremissingout,notonlyonhavingwildgreenstoeat,butalsothewildflowersthatfollow.Manyoftheweedsthatherbicidesareadvertisedtokillareedibleherbs.Ifyouhavealawnservice,findoutwhatchemicalsarebeingappliedtothesoilbeforeyouconsiderdoinganyforaginginyouryard.

Gardensoftenhavemorediversityofplantsthanyards.Disturbedsoilisagoodenvironmentformanyseedstogerminatein.Learntoidentifyplants before removing them. They may have more nutritional valuethanwhatyouareplanningtogrow.

PokeHabitat

Pokeiseasytospotandidentifyinlatesummer,whenthestalksareredandtheberriesareturningpurple-black.Birdsflocktotheberriestofeast, dropping their seeds behind them. While you shouldn’t eat theberries,youshouldleavethestalksthroughthewinter,ormarkthespotandcomebackinthespringtoharvesttheyoung,tendershootsaroundtheold stalks aswell asnew sprouts just emerging. If overgrowth is aconcern, you can pull up the entire plant, but be sure to remove anddiscard the root that is the most toxic part of the plant. Prepare theyoungsprouts thesameas theshootsbycoveringwithcoldwaterandbringingjusttothepointofboiling.Pourthewateroffandthenrepeattheprocess once, tomake sure any traces of bitterness and themildlytoxiccompoundsareremoved.

Lambsquartersjustemerginginthespring

ShadeTrees

Trees are often planted in yards to provide shade. Shade trees canprovideediblefruits.Acorn-bearingoaksareoftenplantedinyardsandaroundschoolsandotherpublicbuildings,anddumplotsofnutsonthelawn and sidewalk in the fall. Understory trees such as redbud,serviceberry,mulberry,andblackcherryarealsofrequentlyplantedfortheir ornamental and wildlife value. The beautiful, fuchsia-coloredflowersoftheredbudtreearemildlysweetandcanbegatheredinthespringtoaddtosaladsanddesserts.Astheyoungpodsdeveloptheycanbeusedinstir-frieslikesnowpeas.Serviceberriesbeginripeningaboutthesametime,followedbythemulberries,bothofwhichareedible.Youhavetogetoutearlytobeatthebirdshowever.Blackcherriesripeninthesummerandcanbemadeintoarefreshingjuicedrink.

SunLovers

Some plants require a lot of sunlight to grow. They are usually fastgrowers and often produce showy flowers during the summermonths.Cowpastures, abandoned farm fields, or forests thathavebeen loggedprovideanopportunityforthesunlovers.Occasionallyanoldtreewillcomedowninamatureforest,bringingwithitvinesandsmallertrees.This opensupa light gap in the forest andallowsplants to grow that

otherwisewouldnotbethere.

FieldsandMeadows

Abandoned fields that are only cut periodically become a meadowhabitat that is dominated by grasses. Biennials such as burdock, wildcarrot,eveningprimrose,chicory,and thistlecomeup in late summer,remaingreenallwinter,sendupaflowerstalkinthespring,bloom,andgotoseed.Theyoung leavesandfirst-yearrootsofsomebiennialsareedible and should be gathered in latewinter or early spring, somakesure to plan yourmeadow foraging accordingly if you are looking fortheseplants.

Learntorecognizeandidentifypoisonhemlockwhenventuringtothefield.Itisinthesamefamilyaswildcarrotandhassimilarcharacteristics.Poisonhemlockcanbedistinguishedfromwildcarrotbythesmoothleafstalkandthetrademarkpurplestreaksonthestem.Thestalksofthewildcarrotarecoveredwithhairs.

Perennial wildflowers are also found in sunny areas, includingmilkweedandpokeweed.Bramblesformcolonieswhentheopportunityarisesandseedlingsoftreesandshrubsemerge.Ifallowedtogrowtheywilleventuallyproducefruits.

Hedgerows

Hedgerowsarethicketswithathicktangleofsmalltrees,shrubs,andclimbingvinesthataredenseandalmostimpenetrable.Theydevelopatthe edges of woods, between farm fields, or at the edges of ditches,canals,orwaterways.Manyoftheseareberryplants,asisindicatedbythe number of birds visiting them. Wild cherries, elderberries, andmulberriesareamongtheediblevarietiesoftreesandshrubsthatgrow

here.Onceyoupositivelyidentifyaplant,youcanpicktheberriesfromit.However,donotassumethatbecausebirdsareeatingtheberries,youwill be able to as well. Several types of berries, like the poke berriesmentioned before, are delicious for birds but dangerous for humans.ForagingforberriesisdiscussedindetailinChapter10.

Woodlands

Woodlands contain layers of plants. Shade-loving herbs grow on theforest floor. In the east, partridgeberries,wintergreen, andwild gingerare among the herbs to look for. In a deciduous forest, they generallybloomearlybeforetheleaveshaveemerged.Manyoftheseherbshavefoodormedicinalvalue.Woodyshrubsmakeupthenextlayer.Theyarealsoearlybloomers,

usually after the herbs. Many of these are berry bushes, includingblueberriesandhuckleberries,andmayproduceberries,especiallyinthelatesummer,whichiswhenmanyforagerslookforthem.Butthemostabundantproducersarethoseontheedgethatreceivemorelight.

Whatistheunderstory?Theunderstoryoftheforestisthelayeroftreesandshrubsthatgrowbeneaththecanopy.Theseplantsareshadetolerantand includesmall trees thatevenwhenmature, are toweredoverby the canopy. If it is a young forest, theunderstoryincludesthosetreesthatwilleventuallyreplacethetreesinthecanopy.

Smalltreesmakeuptheunderstory.Theirflowersareoftenunnoticeduntil their petals drop to the ground. Serviceberries, hawthorns, andcrabapples are some of the understory trees that are most easilyapproachedintheautumn,whentheirfruitshavehadachancetoripenandtheirleaveshavebeguntodrop.The canopy ismadeup of tall trees that tower over the forest. In a

mature forest these tall trees are generally deciduous hardwoods. Anumberofnut-bearingtrees,includingtalloaks,hickories,andbeeches,live in the canopy.Thankfully, these canopy treesgenerallydrop theirnuts in the fall andwinter,making these otherwise inaccessible treatseasytofindandeat.

ConiferousForests

Conifers are cone-bearing trees that are mostly evergreen. In morenorthern areas of the country, they can be the most common plantspeciesinborealforests,buttheycanalsobefoundathighelevationsinmore southern areas. Pines are themost common and recognizable ofthesetypesoftrees,andarewidelydistributed.Alsoincludedamongtheconifers are cypress, cedar, hemlock, and fir, the traditional AmericanChristmastree.Mostofthesetreeshaveeasy-to-spotneedle-likeleaves,whilesomearemorescale-like.

Pineseedsareattachedtothin,membrane-likewingsthatarecarriedbythewindwhentheyarereleasedfromthecone.Numerousseedsareproducedandcanbecarriedgreatdistances.Whenconditions are right, theygerminate and sendupnew sprouts.Mostof these sproutswill die since theyneeda lot of sunlight togrow.PinesproutsareagoodsourceofvitaminC.Atthisstageyoucanpickthesproutsandeatthetips.

Olderconifershaveneedlesthataretootoughtoeat.Instead,youcanuse them tomake a tea that is rich in vitaminC by steeping them inboilingwater for a fewminutes at a time. In the springmale catkins,which are long, drooping clusters of small flowers and pollen, areproducedbypinesandcanbenibbledon.Whenthepollendevelops itcanbecollectedandaddedtoflour.Theinnerbarkofsomepinespecies,includingwhitepine,canbedried,powdered,andusedasanemergencyfloursubstitute.

PineBarrensPinebarrensareuniquehabitatsintheeasternUnitedStatesthathavedeep,sandysoilandoakpineforests.Contrarytotheirname,theyarenotbarren.AtonetimethepinebarrensextendedfromNewJerseyandsoutheastern Virginia, along the coastal plain to Texas. InNew Jerseythe pines aremostly pitch pine,while in Virginia longleaf pine is thedominant tree. The dry surface soil and resinous pines are highlyflammableandresultinfrequentfiresthathelpshapetheecologyofthearea.Bothregionshaveanopencanopywithfire-resistantpines.Sandy soil and plenty of sunlight are favorable for the growth ofmembers of the heath family, including blueberries and huckleberries,which form a thick shrub layer in the understory. Wintergreen isabundantinbothareas,formingathick,evergreencarpetontheforestfloor.InNewJerseythereareAtlanticwhitecedarswampsinterspersedwiththeoak-pineforests.Inthebogsisalushlayerofsphagnummosswithcranberriesandotherherbaceousplants.CedarGladesEasternredcedarischaracteristicofcedarglades.Thebarkisthinandpeelseasily fromthetree.Theyarewoody,evergreentreesandshrubswithneedle-liketoscale-likeleaves.Thethickcanopypreventsalotofgrowthintheunderstory.Whatappearstobeaberryisactuallyacone.Whenlookedatunderamagnifyingglass,youcanseetinyconeswithscales pressed so tightly that they appear to be round. The fruits arearomaticandturnbluewhenmature.Juniperberrieshavetraditionallybeenusedforflavoringinavarietyofdishes.Theflavoringingincomesfromjuniperberries.Berriesshouldbegatheredwhentheyhaveturneddarkblueandarejuicy.Theycanbeusedfreshordriedandstoredforfutureuse.Eventhoughjuniperberriesareusedasaseasoning,theirmedicinalusesoutnumbertheirfooduses.Forthisreason,theyshouldbeusedsparinglyandonlyforshortperiodsoftimeasaseasoningoratea.

MixedDeciduousForests

Amixeddeciduousforestisacombinationofhardwoodsandconifers,

all competing for sunlight. They form a dense understory with adiversityofyoung trees, shrubs,vines,andherbs.These forests canbefound east of the Mississippi River, across the Ohio valley to thePotomac, the mountains of Tennessee, Kentucky, West Virginia, andVirginiaand in the southernAppalachianmountainsofNorthCarolinaandGeorgia.

DeciduousForests

Deciduous forestshavemostlyhardwood trees thatdrop their leavesinthefall.Elevation,soiltype,temperature,andrainfalldeterminethetypes of trees that grow in a particular region. An older forest has adenser canopy and therefore a more open understory for earlywildflowers togrow, includingwildginger, Indiancucumber root, andwintergreen.Some soils are more acidic than others. In forests where there areoaks,pines,beeches,orothermembersof those families, the leaf litterbuilds up, keeping the soil layer thin and acidic. Other trees, such asmaple and basswood, have leaves that are quickly broken down andrecycled,formingathicklayeroftopsoilthatsupportsagreaterdiversityofplantlife.

MountainForests

Altitude,humidity,amountofrainfall,androckdepositsaresomeofthefactorsthatinfluencethetypesofforestsfoundinthemountains.Higherelevationssupportplantlifenotfoundonlowersitesandviceversa.TheAppalachianmountain systemof easternNorthAmerica ismucholderthantheRockyMountainsinthewest,withpeaksthatrisenotevenhalfashighasthoseintherockies.Whilethescenerymaybespectacularinthewest,thevegetationisgreenerwithalotmorediversityintheeast.

Aspen-BirchForest

The aspen-birch forest is a pioneer forest in northern regions thatspringsupindisturbedsoilsandgrowsrapidly,thrivinginfullsunlight.Quaking aspen, big-toothed aspen, and paper birch are among thedominant trees that grow here. In the understory are hazelnuts,brambles,andchokecherries.Asthesetreesageandeventuallydietheywillbereplacedbythespruce-firforestthatismoreshadetolerantthantheaspensandbirches.Thisforestalsoincludessugarmaple,basswood,beech,andhemlock.Thesetreeshavebeengrowingslowlyintheshadeoftheaspensandbirches,waitingfortheopportunitytofillinthegapwhentheyaregone.

Spruce-FirForests

Therearehighelevationandlowelevationspruce-firforestsandlowelevation spruce-fir forests that develop in northern regions. A wide-spreading root system anchors them to the thin layer of soil that hasbuiltuponbedrock.Hobblebushandblueberryare common shrubs inthishabitatwithbunchberryandtrilliumontheforestfloor.

Oak-HickoryForest

Oaks and hickories form mature forests that can be found in theeastern part of the country. A thick canopy in the summer blocks thesunlightfromtheforestfloor.Thispreventsalotofunderstoryvinesandshrubs from being able to grow there, giving it an open appearance.Shrubs that do grow in the understory include blueberries and theirrelatives,viburnums,sourwood,spicebush,andsassafras.Inthespring,beforethetreeshaveleafedout,wildflowersmaketheir

appearance. Some of these wildflowers are edible and include violets,partridgeberry, and wintergreen. While trilliums and orchids are alsoedible,thepopulationshavedeclinedsomuchthatthesearebestleftinthewild.Manyofthewildflowersareeithermedicinalorpoisonousandshouldalsobeleftundisturbed.

Wetlands

Wetlands,astheirnameimplies,arewetanddevelopalongtheedgesofrivers,streams,lakes,orotheraquaticareas.Theyeitherhavestandingwaterorthesoilissaturatedwithwaterduringsomepartofthegrowingseason.Wetlandsvary,dependingonthetypeofsoil,whetherit’sflatormovingwater,climate,andthetypesofvegetationthatgrowthere.Nearthecoasttherearetidalmarshesandswampsthatmaybeeitherfreshorsalt, depending onhow far they are from the sea. Plants that grow inthesemarsheshavetoadapttofluctuatingwaterlevelsthatrangefromcompletelydryingouttobeingtotallysubmerged.Notalotofplantscangrow in salt marshes. Those that grow there have special adaptationsthatenablethemtosurvive.Therearealsonontidalwetlandsthatcanbefound in low areas anywhere from the coast to the mountains. Thesewetlandsgenerallyhaveagreaterdiversityofplantlife.

ForestedSwamps

Swamps are wetland areas that border creeks, bays, andwaterwaysandare foundthroughout theUnitedStates.Theyarecharacterizedbytreesthathaveadaptedtowetconditions.Baldcypressandwatertupelotrees are able to grow in standing water and are common in thesoutheast.Widebuttressesaddsupportandstabilitytothetrees.Cypresskneesemergeabovethewatersurroundingcypresstrees,alsohelpingtostabilizethem.Asplantsaccumulateinthekneesandbreakdownintosoil,amicro-

habitat is formedasseedlingsemergefromseedsthathavegerminatedinthesoil.Inthespringandsummer,anumberoffloweringplantsaddcolorto

the swamps. This includes sundrops, irises, wild roses, and severalspecies of lobelias. These plants provide nectar for pollinating insects.Otherplantsproduce fruits thatareedible, including the fruitsofwildroses, known as “hips,” that are especially versatile, and can be usedboth as a food and to make a mild-flavored tea. Blueberries,serviceberries,viburnums,andchokeberriesalsoproduceediblefruits.

Bogs

Layersofpeat,whichispartiallydecomposedorganicmaterial,mainlydead leaves and other plant material, characterize bogs. Long, coldwinters, short cool summers, sufficientmoisture, and treeswith acidiclitterarevitalforpeatformation.Oncetheyareestablished,theacidityof thebog slowsdown thedecompositionof addedplantmaterial andtheycontinuetogrow,providingauniquewetlandhabitat.Cranberries grow in bogs and are in the heath family, along with

blueberries and huckleberries. There are three species native to theUnitedStates.Thelargecranberryisthesamespeciesthatiscultivatedandsold ingrocerystoresaroundThanksgiving time,but italsogrowswildinboggyareas.

RiparianHabitats

Riparian habitats develop along the banks of freshwater creeks,streams, and rivers that are prone to flooding. Land ismoved as newstreams are dug out by moving water. Plants that grow here haveadapted to these changing conditions. Spicebush, sweet birch, riverbirch,andblackwillowaresometimesseengrowingonthesebanks.Inaddition to stabilizing the banks, they also filter pollutants from thewaterandprovidehabitatforwildlife.

MarshMargins

Marshes are wetland areas that develop along the edges of bays,rivers,orcanals.Theyarecharacterizedbygrassesandgrasslikeplants,includingsedges,rushes,andcattails.Therearebothfreshwatermarshesandsaltwatermarshes.Insomeareastherearefreshwatertidalmarshes,wherethewaterwayisbeyondthereachofsaltbutisstillinfluencedbythe tide. There are also saltwater marshes whose water level isinfluencedbythewindratherthanthemoon.Marsheshavehistoricallybeenreferredtoaswastelandsandnotgood

for anything but to breed mosquitoes. However, marshes are a very

productive ecosystem. Not only do they provide food forwildlife, buttheyalsoofferanabundanceoffoodforhumans,aslongastheyknowwheretolook.There are somewildflowers in themarsh that are edible. The large

showyflowersof several speciesofmallow, themosteasily recognizedmarsh flower, as well as the purplish spike of flowers of thepickerelweedarebothedible,asare the fruits.Bacopa formsamatonsomemarshes and has succulent, edible leaves. It blooms all summerwithsmall,whiteflowers.FreshwaterMarshesThewater levelof freshwatermarshes isgenerally influencedby the

amountofrainfallandisamorestableenvironmentthanthefluctuatingwater levelsof saltmarshes.Asa result, there is agreaterdiversityofplants in freshwater marshes. Cattails, arrowheads, groundnuts, andpickerelweedallgrowinfreshwatermarshes.Alongthebanksofstreams,creeks,andrivers isa low-growingherb

knownaspennywort.Thereareanumberofdifferentspeciesscatteredacross most of the country. It is in the carrot family and has small,white-topped clusters of flowers that appear during the summer. Themostdistinctivefeatureistheleaf,whichisroundandhastheleafstalkcomingoutofthecenterforsomespecies.Pennywortisrelatedtogotukolathatissoldinhealthfoodstores.Theleavesareedible,butbitter.There are a number of roots that can be harvested from freshwater

marshes. These are generally deeply embedded in the mucky soil,making removal a difficult and somewhatmessy procedure!A diggingfork or any similar instrumentworks best to pry them loose from themud.Someoftherootsthatcanbeharvestedinamarshincludethosefrom the easily recognizable cattails, arrowheads (discussed in detaillater in the book), and water lilies. Groundnuts also grow along thebanks in somewhat sunny areas. Their roots grow just beneath thesurfaceofthesoilinlongstrings,makingthemeasytoharvest.

Muckysoil,whichispartiallydecomposedplantmaterial,characterizesmarshes.Themuckislikeagiantspongethatslowlyabsorbsandreleaseswater.Whenyousteponaspongeitcompressesandthenexpandswhenyouliftyourfootoff. Ifyoufindyourselfstuckinthemuck,droptoyourkneesorallfourstocenteryourweightandfreeyourself.

SaltMarshSaltmarshesdeveloparoundbaysorestuariesthathaveanopeningto

thesea.Theplantsthatgrowherehavetoadapttothesaltwateraswellas the fluctuatingwater level. Some plants, like the black needlerush,storethesaltintheirtips.Saltmarshcordgrassexcretesthesaltontothesurface of their leaves. Salicornia and orache dilute the salt in theirstems.

SeasideForaging

Saltairandoceanwindsinfluencethetypesofplantsthatgrowneartheocean.Plantshavedevelopedspecialadaptationstobeabletolivethere.Therootsofsearocket,whichgrowsintheupperbeachzoneatthebaseofthedunes,extenddeepintothesandtogetwater.Awaxycoatingontheleavesprotectsthemfromdryingout.Theleavesofliveoaktreesarethickandsucculenttostoreexcesswater.Dustymillerandfalseheatherhave a coat of down to protect them from the sun. Seaside eveningprimroseanddunebeansgrowclosetothegroundintheshadeofotherplants,wheretheyareprotectedfromtheharshconditions.

Dunes

Sandthatiscarriedbythewindfromthebeachbuildsupintohillsofsand wherever there is an object to block it. As the sand builds uparound theobject,ahill is formed thateventuallybecomesadune.Asgrasses take root and grow, they stabilize the dunes, allowing otherplantstogrowthereaswell.Sea rocket is a member of the mustard family and one of the first

plants toestablish itselfat thebaseof thedunesasyoucomeup fromthebeach. Ithasadaptedto thesandysoiland intenseheatbystoringexcess water in its leaves and seeds. The seeds look like miniaturerocketsandwhenyoubite into themthe juiceshootsout,giving themthenamesearocket.On the dunes, you’ll mostly find sea oats and beach grasses withhorizontal rhizomes that help hold the dunes together. Horizontalrhizomesareundergroundrootstems.Groundcherries,wildbeans,andseasideeveningprimroseareamongthelow-growingherbaceousplantsfoundintheshadeofthegrasses.Asyoumoveawayfromtheoceanthediversityofplantlifeincreasesand woody plants establish themselves. Bayberries, beach plums, wildblack cherry, and persimmons are included among those plants thatoftencanbefoundwithinafewhundredmetersofabeachenvironment.

MaritimeForest

Maritime forests develop on the back side of dunes where they areprotected fromtheoceanwindsandsaltair.The trees in themaritimeforest are often stunted, usually growing no higher than the highestdune,oftengivingtheappearanceofbeingpruned,asthetipsarekilledby the salt air. Live oak trees spread their branches out horizontallyinsteadofverticallyasanadaptationtotheseharshconditions.Theycanbecompletelycoveredupwithsandandwillcontinuetosendoutnewgrowth.

Deserts

Deserts are dry, usually sandy areas with sparse vegetation and lessdiversity than other regions. Plants have to adapt to long periodswithoutrainaswellastoleratetorrentialdownpours.Someplantsadapttodroughtbysendingrootsdeepintothesoil.Others,likeocotillo,droptheirleavesuntilafterarainandthenwhenthesoildriesout,theydropthemagain.Chaparralisawell-adaptedplantthathasagreasycoatingon its leaves to preventwater loss through transpiration. Some plants

produce seeds that are drought resistant and then germinate after aheavy rain. Some of these are annuals that grow very quickly, bloom,andproduceseedbeforedyingback.

ChaparralCommunity

The chaparral community is characterized by dry summers andwetwinters. Italsoexperiencewildfiresasanaturaloccurrence.Chaparral,also known as creosote bush, is a scrubby plant that can be found incommunities that includemesquite,ocotillo,yucca,andseveral speciesofcactus.Buckwheat is a common plant in southern California’s chaparralcommunity.Itformslowmoundswithroundflowerheadsrisingaboveit in the spring,withwhite topink flowers that turnbrownishas theymature. The old flowers are ground and sifted in with other flour tomakebuckwheatpancakesandbreads.Coffeeberry,inthebuckthornfamily,isalsofoundinthechaparral.Itisaspreading,evergreenshrubfromthreetosevenfeethighwithbrightgreenleaves.Ithasedibleberriesthatturnredinthefall.

HighDesert

High desert communities consist of open flatlands as well as steepmountains with streams running through them. Canyons, gorges, andmesashavebeencarvedoutofsedimentaryrockdepositsandprovideavariety of habitats for plants. Along the streams look for thecharacteristic wetland plants that include cattails, sedges, watercress,and willow trees. On the higher elevations, pinyon pines, sagebrush,mormon’stea,andminer’slettucearesomeoftheplantsfoundgrowingonthenorthernslopes.Yucca,agave,andvariouscactusspecieslikethesouthernslopes.Thehighdesertcommunityischaracterizedbyhotsummersandcoldwinters. Storms canpopup suddenly resulting in extreme temperaturechanges.Dressinlayerswhenplanningatriptothehighdesertandtakeplenty of water. Stay on designated trails to avoid getting lost and

alwaysbeonthelookoutforrattlesnakes.

CHAPTER7

InvasiveAliens

Invasivealiens includeplants thatarenotnativeandwereeitherbrought to thiscountry for a purpose or, in some cases, came here by accident. They are alsoreferredtoasexoticornon-indigenous.Alienplantshaveplayedanimportantroleinagriculture,landscaping,andsoilstabilization.Whilemostaliensdonotpersistin the wild, those that do sometimes become aggressive and spread rapidly,crowdingoutdesirablenativespecies.Oneway tocontrolorpreventplants fromspreadingistofindauseforthem.

AutumnandRussianOlive

Deciduousshrubsorsmalltrees,autumnoliveandRussianoliveareintheoleasterfamilyandareverysimilar.Thereareseveralotherrelatedspecies across the country, most of which are not native. Silverberrygrowsinthewesternpartofthecountryalongthebanksofstreamsoronhillsides.Theyallsharethecharacteristicofhavingsilveryscalesontheundersideoftheleavesanddotsonthefruits.

HowcanyoutellthedifferencebetweenRussianoliveandautumnolive?Autumn and Russian olive both produce yellow, fragrant flowers in the springthataresmallandhavefourpetals.Thefruitofautumnoliveisred,sweet,andjuicy,whilethefruitsofRussianolivearedryandmealyandmaybeyelloworsilvery.

Thearea inwhichyou livecanhelpyoutodeterminewhichspeciesgrowsthere.RussianolivecoversmuchofthecentralandwesternpartoftheUnitedStatesaswellassomeareasintheeast.Itdoesbestinlow,moist,sandyareasandcanbefoundalongstreamsandedgesoffields.AutumnolivewasplantedintheeasternandcentralUnitedStatesfrom

Maine south to Virginia. It is drought tolerant and has nitrogen-fixingroot nodules that enable it to thrive in poor soils including roadsides,pastures, and fields whose soil has been depleted of nutrients fromfarming.Itdoesnotdowellinwetordenselyforestedareas.

Origins

RussianoliveisnativetosouthernEuropeandAsia.Itwasintroducedinthelate1800sasawindbreakandforitsornamentalvalue.Autumnolivewas introduced fromeasternAsia in1830, firstasanornamentaland then to restore vegetation in disturbed areas. Its ability to fixnitrogeninthesoilmadeitusefultoalsoimprovethesoil.Foreststhathad been cleared in national and state forests and along the highwaywere replanted with autumn olive. Some conservation groups werepromotingusingit tocreateawildlifehabitat inbackyards,parks,andother natural areas. Birds are attracted to the fruits and disperse theseeds across fields and forests. The plant grows rapidly and in a shorttimeformsacolony.

FoodValue

Thefruitsofbothspecies,autumnoliveandRussianolive,areedible.Autumn olive fruits are sweeter andmore desirable than those of theRussianolive.ThefruitsbeginripeninginlatesummerandcontinueintoNovember.Tastecanvaryfromshrubtoshrub,soit’sagoodideatosampleafewbefore picking, especially if there’s more than one tree in the area.Branchesaregenerallyloadedwithfruits,makingiteasytopickalotoffruitsinashorttime.Somepeoplebelievetheybecomesweeterafterafrost.Fruitscanbenibbledrightoff the treeormade intoa juice.Thefruitsarearichsourceoflycopene,whichisgoodfortheprostate.

GarlicMustard,theGourmetGreen

As its name implies, garlicmustard has properties of garlic aswell asproperties of mustard, giving the crushed leaves a scent that is acombinationofbothplants.Eventhoughitisamemberofthemustardfamily, it is lacking the deeply lobed or divided leaves that arecharacteristic of many of the mustards. Leaves are more rounded,somewhatheart-shapedatthebase,withtoothedmargins.Basal leavesgrow through the winter, sending up the flower stalk in the spring.Flowers are typical of the mustards with four petals, followed bycapsulescontainingsmallblackseeds.

Origins

GarlicmustardisnativetoEuropeandAsia.Itarrivedinthiscountryinthe1800spresumablybysettlerswhouseditforfoodandmedicine.ItcannowbefoundfromCanadasouthtoVirginiaandwesttoKansasandNebraska.Garlicmustardgrowsbest inmoist, shadyconditions found inmanywoodlands, often growing through the winter when many plants aredormant.Inthespringitproducesthousandsofseedsthataredispersedthroughout the woodlands, probably carried by animals. Eventually itbecomesthedominantplantontheforestfloor.

FoodValue

All above-ground parts of the garlic mustard are edible. Youngerleaves are less bitter than older leaves, although both can be used tospice up ameal.As amember of themustard family, the flower budsresembleminiature broccoli florets and are edible, as are the flowers.Eventhetinyseeds,whencrushed,releaseagarlic-mustardflavor.Garlicmustardgrowsinmanynaturalareasandnaturepreservesandis considered highly invasive. You can volunteer to pull it out in thespringbeforeithasachancetoproduceseeds.

JapaneseHoneysuckle

Japanesehoneysuckle isavinethat isknowntomostpeople, if fornoother reason than they’re constantlypulling itout inareaswhere theyare trying togrowotherplants.Theolderstemshaveabrownishbarkthatmaypeeloffinsections.Honeysuckle vines are flexible, making them useful as a weaving

material or for basketmaking. It is a climbing vine and twists aroundyoungsaplingsoftreesandshrubs,oftengrowingwiththetree,givingitaspiral-shapedtreetrunk.Italsospreadsoutacrosstheground,rootingattheleafnodesandcreatingnewplants.Leaves of honeysuckles are in pairs, sometimeswith lobes. The part

that is most familiar and stands out is the fragrance of the flower. Itstands out above all other scents in the area. Follow the scent to itssource and you will find the white flowers of the honeysuckle whichturnyellowastheyage.Flowersaretubular,withfivefusedpetalsthatcontainnectaratthebase.Thefruitsareinedibleblue-blackberries.

Origins

JapanesehoneysuckleisnativetoAsiaandwasoriginallyintroducedin 1806 as an ornamental. In 1862 a more vigorous variety wasintroduced and was planted for erosion control and as a food forwildlife. Ithas spreadacrossmostof theeasternandsouthernpartsofthecountrybyundergroundrhizomesorrunners.Wheretheleafnodestouchthesoil,rootsdevelopandnewplantsareformed.Theberriesarea sourceof food forbirdsandotherwildlife thatdisperse the seeds tonewareas.

FoodValue

The nectar from the base of the flowers is very sweet and can besucked straight from the flower. You can also make flower tea bysteeping the flowers inhotor coldwater.Teamade fromhotwater ismorebitterthanteamadefromcoldwater.

Cannectarbesuckedfromanyhoneysuckleflower?There are other species of honeysuckle, all characterized by tubular flowers.However, only the Japanese honeysuckle is endowed with the perfumedfragrance.Somespeciesmaypossiblybepoisonousinlargequantities.Forsafetypurposes,it’sbesttoavoidthosethatdon’thaveanyflavor.YellowJessamineisavine that has yellow, tubular flowers that are mildly fragrant, but they arepoisonousandhavebeenmistakenforhoneysuckle.

Honeysuckle leavescanalsobeused tomakea tea.Dr. JamesDukehasusedhoneysuckle leavesandforsythiabuds tomakea tea todrinkupon feeling the first symptoms of the flu, and has been successful inpreventingtheonset.

JapaneseKnotweed

Japanese knotweed, sometimes referred to as Mexican bamboo, looksmorelikeabamboothanitdoesaknotweed.Itevenhasahollowstalklike bamboo. A member of the buckwheat family, it has thecharacteristicknotsatthenodes.Itmaygrowtenfeetinoneseasonandthendieback in the fall. It spreadswithhorizontal rhizomesandveryquicklycolonizesanarea.In the spring,when the young shoots of Japanese knotweed emergefrom the ground, they resemble asparagus. The leaves are broad andtriangular,witha long,pointed tip.Smallgreenish-white flowersgrowonlongflowerstalksthatemergefromtheleafaxils.Summeristhetimetolookforthecolonies.That’swhenit’seasiesttorecognize.Rememberwhereyoufindit,andcomebackinthespringtoharvesttheshoots.

Origins

Originally introduced fromAsia in the late 1800s as an ornamental

and for erosion control, Japanese knotweed now occurs throughoutmuchof theUnited States. It prefers roadsides and railroad tracks butalso forms dense colonies along stream banks and in damp, lowlyingareas.Onceithasestablisheditselfit’shardtogetridof.

FoodValue

Likeothermembersofthebuckwheatfamily,Japaneseknotweedhasatartflavor.Youngshootsemergeinthespringandresembleasparagus.Thetimetogatherthemisbeforetheleaveshaveemerged,whentheyareaboutsixtoeightinchestall.

Ifyouwanttohaveahealthyheart,eatmoreJapaneseknotweed.AccordingtoDr.JamesDuke,formereconomicbotanistfortheUSDA,Japaneseknotweedisarichsourceofresveratrol,thesamecompoundfoundingrapesthatisgoodfortheheartandissoldasanherbalsupplementinhealthfoodstores.

YoungshootsofJapaneseknotweedcanbeeatenraworcookedlikeasparagus.Thestalkgetstoughandhollowasitages.Ifyoucutitoffatthe ground, in a few days it will be back again, allowing for anotherharvest.

Kudzu—TheWeedThatAtetheSouth

Kudzuisatrailingvinethatlookslikeagiantbean.Ithasthreeleafletsthatare sometimesasmuchas four incheswide.Thepurplishpea-likeflowers grow in clusters and are very fragrant. They can be sniffed inlate summer while driving down the road in areas where it grows.Brown,hairypodssoonfollow,eachcontainingthreetotenseeds.

Origins

KudzuoriginatedinChinaandwasbroughttothiscountryfromJapanin the late 1800s. It was originally introduced as an ornamental andforagecropforanimals.Farmerswereencouragedtoplantittopreventerosion and as a soil stabilizer. Itwas alsowidely planted for erosioncontrol by the Civilian Conservation Corps under President FranklinRoosevelt.Today,kudzucoversmuchof thesoutheast, reachingas farnorthas

Pennsylvania andMaryland andwest toTexas. It branches out fromasingle taproot, extending in all directions, growingup to a foot aday.Roots develop at the nodeswhere the leaves are attached to the stemandnewplantsare formed. Itgrowsbest inwell-drainedsoilsbutwillgrow in any disturbed area where it gets an opportunity, such asabandonedfieldsor lots.Repeatedcuttingshaveproventoeliminate itinsomeareas.

According to researchbyseveralHarvardscientists,kudzuhasmorevalue thanjustfood.Afterkudzuextractsweregiventoalcoholichamsters,theyvoluntarilychose not to drink the alcohol. It was concluded that a compound known asdaidzin that was found in kudzu had enabled alcoholic hamsters to withdrawfromalcohol.Another studybyapsychiatricprofessor associatedwithHarvardMedical School conducted a study on humans and found that those who tookkudzudrankalcoholmore slowlyand consumedabouthalf asmuchalcohol asthosewhodidnottakekudzu.

FoodValue

Not only has kudzu invaded fields, but in some cases, it has alsoinvadedkitchens.Grownasashadevineinthesouth,itwouldgrowuplatticesandenticesoutherncookswithitsfragrantflowers.Kudzuflowerjelly, fried leaf chips, and other dishes were created and displayed at

kudzufestivals.Kudzu leaves, roots, and flowers are edible. Starch from the largetaproots, which can grow to depths of six feet, can be used as asubstitute for cornstarch.Young leaves are edible as a greenvegetableandcanbeusedasaspinachsubstitute.Flowersareusedtomakejelly.

MultifloraRose

MultifloraroseismostcommonintheeasternpartoftheUnitedStates.Itgrowsalongtheroadsides,infieldsandpastures,andattheedgesofforests and streams. Arching stems have curved, sharp thorns. In thespring it is covered with clusters of white, fragrant flowers with fivepetals.The fruit of the rose is a smallhip containingmany seeds.Thefruitdevelopsthroughthesummer,ripeningandturningredinthefall,andsometimesremainingontheplantthroughthewinter.Birdsfeedonthefruitsandintheprocessdispersetheseeds.

Origins

Multiflora rose was brought to the United States in the 1880s byhorticulturists from Asia. It was later planted as food and cover forwildlife habitats and on highwaymedians to prevent erosion. It formsdensethicketsthroughoutmostoftheUnitedStates.

RosehipsareanaturalsourceofvitaminC.Eventhoughthemultiflorarosehipsaresmall,theyareverysweetandhighlyconcentratedinvitaminC.Alittlebitgoesalongway.Drinkinganexcessofrosehipteacanresultindiarrhea.Alwayspracticemoderationwheneatinganythingwildforthefirsttime.

FoodValue

Thefragrantflowerpetalsofthewildrosescanbeaddedtowatertogiveitflavor.Theycanalsobenibbledon,addedtosalads,orevenusedtomakejelly.Thefruitsofthemultiflorarosecanbeusedtomaketea,jelly,orwine.

Phragmites,ReedGoneWild

Alsoknownascommonreed,phragmitestowersoverallothergrassesinthemarsh,reachingheightsuptothirteenfeet.Inadditiontoitsheight,you can also pick it out by the gray-green patches of color. In latesummer,featheryplumesdevelopatthetopsofthestalks.

Origins

Phragmites is believed by invasive plant working groups to havearrivedinthiscountrybyaccidentintheearly1800sataportalongtheAtlantic coast. It was grown commercially in Europe as fodder foranimalsandforthatchingmaterial.Phragmites likes itwet andgrows in sunny,marshy areas along theedgesofbays,rivers,canals,andestuaries.Ithasundergroundrhizomesthat spread in all directions. Fragments can break off and are easilytransported to new sites where they quickly form new colonies. It isoftenfoundinsomeofthemostpollutedwatersandpossiblyhelpsfilterpollutantsfromthewater.

Phragmitesseedhead

FoodValue

Phragmites isedible.Therootsandyoungshootscanbepreparedinthe samewayascattails.The stalkofyoung shoots canbepeeledandthe inner stalk eaten, while the roots can be pounded to release thestarchusedasafloursubstitute.Avoidusingplantsthataregrowinginpollutedwaters,sincetheyabsorbandfilteroutthepollutants.Ifunsureofthewaterquality,boilthepartsbeingusedforatleasttenminutes.

GardenWeeds

Many of the weeds that come up in your gardens every year are notnative. Some of them were once cultivated and have continued toreseed.Anumberof themareconsidered invasive insomeareas.Theysometimes grow along the edges of woodlands or streams in naturalareas.

CommonChickweed

Chickweed is a European native that now grows throughout the

United States. It tends to sprawl on the ground, forming a mat as itmatures. Leaves are small and in pairs with long stalks. Small, whiteflowerswithfivedeeplycutpetalsgrowinsmallclustersat thetipsofthestems.Chickweedisanannualthatgerminatesinthefallandgrowsthrough

the winter. In extremely cold conditions it may die off and then re-emergeinthespringwhenthesoilbecomeswarmenoughfortheseedstosprout.Itgrowsquicklyandwhenthetemperaturestartsclimbing,itbloomsandsoongoestoseed.Thisisalsoaboutthetimewhengardenersarepreparingthesoilfor

the springplanting. If youwant toprevent chickweed from spreading,pull up the entire plant before it produces seed. Leaves, stems, andflowers are edible and can be eaten raw in salads, made into herbspreads, or added to vegetable dishes. A side benefit from eatingchickweed is its cancer preventive properties, which according to Dr.JamesDuke,includegenisteinandsaponins.

AsiaticDayflower

AnativeofChina, theAsiaticdayflower is in the spiderwort family.Thenarrowleavesgiveitagrass-likeappearanceasitsprawlsacrossthegarden.Rootsdevelopwherethestemnodestouchtheground,formingnewplants.Theflowersarethemostdistinctivepart.Apairofroundedbluepetalssitsontopofasmallpetalbeneath.Theflowersonlylastforoneday,followedbytheseedsfoundatthebaseoftheflower.Youngleavesaremildtastingandcanbeeatenrawinsalads.Flowers

andseedsarealsoedibleasanibbleorsprinkledinsalads.

SheepSorrel

Sheep sorrel is a native of Europe that now grows throughout theUnited States in yards, gardens, roadsides, and other disturbed areas,spreadingbyrunnersontheground.Itisaperennialinthebuckwheatfamilyandisaminiatureversionofthecultivatedgardensorrelthatisgrown for its tart flavor. The leaves are flared at the base, giving it a

heart-shapeappearance.Flowerstalksdevelopinthespringwithclustersoftinygreenishorreddishflowersthatgrowinaspike.The tart flavor can be attributed to the oxalic acid in the leaves.

Boilingtheleavesfortwotothreeminutesandpouringthewateroffcanhelp reduce the amount of oxalic acid. They can be eaten raw inmoderation.Sheep sorrel is one of the herbs included in the Essiac anticancer

formulathathasbecomepopularinrecentyears.Sheepsorrelisrichincancer-preventativevitaminsandwashistoricallyusedasacancerfolkremedy.Itisalsohighinoxalicacidand,inlargedoses,maycausepoisoning.

YellowDock

YellowdockoriginatedinEurope,Asia,andAfricaandnowgrowsindisturbed areas throughout theUnited States including gardens, fields,and edges of forests. It can be identified by the long taproot that isyellowish when cut open, giving it the name yellow dock. Emergingleaves are long and narrow with wavy or curly margins that havereddish veins. Yellow dock seeds usually germinate in late summer.Leavesgrowthroughthewinterandthenextspringtheplantsendsupaflowerstalkwithsmall,greenishflowersinwhorlsatthetopofthestem.Theseflowersarefollowedbynumerousbrownnutletsthatareprolificreseeders.Like its relative the sheep sorrel, leaves of yellowdock also contain

oxalicacid,givingitatartflavor.Leavesareedibleraworcooked.Olderleaves tendtoget toughandmorebitter.Cookinghelps toremove thebitterness.Youngrootscanalsobeeaten,althoughtheyfitmoreinthecategory

ofmedicinethanfood.Rootsshouldbeharvestedbeforetheflowerstalkdevelops.Evenwhenyoung,theyhaveabittertaste.Thebrownnutletsthatdevelopatthetopsofthestalksarealsoedible.

Oncetheyhavebeenstrippedfromtheplant,theseedscanbewinnowedandgroundintoaflour.

CHAPTER8

SpringEmergents

Asdaytimetemperaturesbeginclimbing,asearlyasMarchorAprilinsomeareas,thedrabcolorsofwintergivewaytothebrightcolorsofspring.Treebudsswellassap beginsmoving up from the roots of trees and shrubs, lawns turn green, notfromgrassbutfromtheweedsmixedin,andwildflowersburstopen.Manyoftheseemergingplantsareedible.Teascanbemadefromrootsandleavesandwildsaladsfrom leaves and flowers. Additionally some of these plants can be cooked aspotherbs.

BackyardGreens

Herbaceousplants thathavesurvivedthroughthewinterstartgrowingas spring approaches. Seeds of annuals and biennials sprout and newleavesemergefromtheground.Thegreensprovidevitamins,minerals,and other nutrients. Somemay have a higher content of one propertythananotherbut they all containbeta carotene; vitaminsA,E, andC;iron;calcium;andothernutrients.

WildSaladGreens

Manyofthewildgreensinthespringcanbeeatenrawandmaketastysalads.Usuallyyoungerleavesaremoretenderandmildertastingthanolderleavesthatcanbeusedascookedgreens.Heal-allAlthough heal-all is not native to this country, it has become

naturalizedandvolunteers in lawns andmoist, shady spots. It is oftenseen growing along damp, woodland trails year round. Small, almosttriangularleavesdevelopthroughthewinter.Thesurfacesoftheleaveshave small bumps that can be felt when you rub your fingers acrossthem. Leaves are edible, raw or cooked, and have amild spinach-likeflavor.Inthespringaflowerstalkdevelops.Thestemleavesarepaired,oval-

shaped,andarelargerthanthebasalleaves.Thepurple,snapdragon-likeflowersareaboutone-halfinchlongandformadensespikeatthetopofthe stem. After the plant has bloomed, the seed stalk will dry on theplant,makingiteasytoidentifyinthefallandwinter.Eventhoughthetopdies back, at the base is a rosette of leaves that remains green allwinterandstartsgrowingassoonasitstartswarmingupinthespring.ChickweedBythetimespringhasarrived,chickweedisstartingtobloomandhasformedathickmat.Theflowersaresmall,white,andonlongstalksatthe tips of slender stemswith leaves that are also small and in pairs.Eventhoughtheflowersonlyhavefivepetals,itappearstheyhavetenbecauseofthedeepnotchinthecenterofeachone.Leavesandflowersareedibleraw.VioletsVioletsareperennialherbsthatemergeintheearlyspring.Theblueviolet is the one that is themost common and grows in backyards insomewhat shady areas. They have heart-shaped leaves on long stalkswith toothed margins. The flowers have five irregular, bluish-purplepetalsatthetopofalongflowerstalk.Othervioletspecieshavewhite,paleblue,orpurple flowers.The leaveshaveamild flavorandcanbeadded,alongwiththeflowers,rawtosalads.

Violetswith yellow flowers have been reported to cause nausea and vomiting.These should be avoided, and if you’re not surewhat color the flower is,waituntilitbloomsbeforeyoueatit.Thereisalsoamemberofthebuttercupfamilythatispoisonousandhasheart-shapedleaveswhenitisyoungthatlooksimilartovioletleaves.

MustardsIfyouliketohavealittlebiteaddedtoyoursalad,lookformembersof the mustard family. They generally have deeply lobed or dividedleaves.Thesearegenerallycool-weatherplantsandwillsproutassoon

as the soil is warm enough. Some members have smooth leaves andflowerbudswhileothershaveleavesthatarehairy.Rubthembetweenyourfingersfortexturetodetermineifyouwanttoeatthemrawornot.Somehaveastrongflavorthatcanbetemperedwithheat.Manycomeup in your garden if it hasn’t been treated with herbicides, includingbittercress,wintercress,peppergrass,wildmustard,andwildradish.Somemustardsarepickyaboutwheretheygrow.Watercresswillonlygrowalongshallowstreamsorwetareas.Garlicmustardlikestheshadyforestfloorwhilesearocketonlygrowsneartheshoreline.Mustardseedssproutprolificallyandcanbethinnedbypullingthemout and adding them to a salad mix. Leaves are also edible and areusuallybestwhenpickedwhiletheyareyoung.Older leavesgettoughandmorebitter.Leaf texturevariesamongdifferentspecies. Itmaybesmoothonsomeandroughandhairyonothers.Thehairyonesarebestiftheyarecookedbeforeeating.

DandelionsandTheirLook-Alikes

Thereareseveralspeciesinthesunflowerfamilythathaveleavesthatlookverysimilar.Dandelionsarefamiliartomostpeopleasacommonweedintheiryards,openfields,roadsides,andothersunnyareas.Basalrosettes of deeply lobed leaves emerge early in the spring before theyellowflowersappear.Thebesttimetogathertheleavesisbeforetheyhavebloomed.Youngdandelion leavescanbeeaten raw,even thoughtheyaresomewhatbitter.Cookingthemremovesthebittertaste.Inthesamehabitat isa falsedandelionwiththicker, tougher leaves.Theyareverybitter.Wildlettucealsogrowsinthesamehabitatandhasleavesthatlooksimilartodandelionbutarepalerunderneathandhavefinehairson theundersideof themidrib.Theyoung leavesare ediblebutgaininbitternessastheymature.Theplantsendsupaflowerstalkthatmayreachtenfeet inheighttoppedwithyellowflowersthat looksimilar todandelionbutare smaller.At this stage the leavesarebitterandhavesedative-likeproperties in them.Sowthistlehassharpspinesontheleafmargins.Youngleavescanbeeaten.

Nettles

Stingingnettleisaperennialthatspreadsbyrunnersorundergroundrhizomes.Thesquarestemsarecoveredwithstinginghairs.Leavesareoppositeandhave toothedmargins,coming toapointat the tip.Theyalsohavespines.Thespinesarelikeminiaturehypodermicneedlesthatinject several chemicals, including histamine, that cause the stingingsensation.Nettles grow close to the ground in thewinter.As soon as thedays

start warming up, new leaves emerge. The plant grows rapidly andwithinseveralweeksitmaybetwotofourfeettall.Thisisthetimetopicknettles for theirgreens.Whengatheringnettles,always remembertowearrubbergloves.Nettles can be safely eaten after boiling them in water for two

minutes. They can also be placed in a blender or food processor andchoppedtoreleasethechemicalsthatcausethestingingsensation.

“Nettleputsthestingin,docktakesthestingout,”isacountrysaying.Ifyoudofindyourself in apatchofnettles andyouneed relief from the stings, look foryellow dock. It is a commonweed that can be found inmost disturbed areas.Lookforthebasalrosetteoflong,narrowleaveswithwavymargins,usuallywithreddish veins, growing in open, disturbed areas. In the summer it sends up aflower stalk with greenish flowers growing in a terminal cluster followed bybrown,seedlikefruits.Crushtheleafuntilit’smoistandrubonthesting.

TreeLeaves

Mosttreeleavesaretootoughorbittertoeatasfood.Thereareafewexceptions.Inaforestwithbeechtrees,beechnutsthatwereleftonthegroundfromthepreviousfall,sproutandproduceapairofdistinctive,almost rectangular-shaped seed leaves that are edible raw or cooked.Youngbeechleavescanbecookedasapotherb.

Sassafras has distinctive mitten-shaped leaves. At least three,sometimes four, different leaves can grow on one plant, including amitten for the left hand,one for the righthand, somewith two lobes,and some with no lobes. Sassafras leaves have a completely differentsmell than the roots. They are spicier and lack the root beer smell.Leavesareedibleraworcooked.Sourwoodisanunderstorytreeofoaksandpinesandamemberoftheheath family with blueberries and huckleberries. White, bell-shapedflowershangindroopingclustersinthesummer.Elliptical-shapedleavesturn a distinctive peachy-red in the fall. This is the time tomark thelocation and return in the spring to harvest the young leaves as theyemerge. At this time they are a yellowish green and have a lemonyflavorwheneaten.

RootsandShoots

Many of the roots that are gathered in the spring are those of thebiennialsandsometimesperennials thathavewinteredover.While theplantsabovethegroundhavegonedormantorhaveceasedtogrow,therootsbelowthegroundhavebeengrowing.Thetimetoharvestthemisbefore theydevelopa flowerstalk thatemerges fromthecenterof therosetteofleavesorbeforetheleaveshavestartedtogrow.Thestalksofsomebiennials,oncetheyhaveemerged,arealsoedibleandcanbeusedasavegetable.Someof thesecanbeeatenrawwhileothersmustbecookedfirst.

SpringLilies

Lilies have bulbs or corms, often forming clumps, and send up newshootsintheearlyspring.Thebulbsorcormsofsomespeciesareediblewhileothersaredeadly.Familiar members of the lily family include several species of wildonions and garlic, sometimes collectively referred to as onion grassbecauseoftheirgrass-likeleavesandstrongonionscent.Theemerging

youngleavesareedibleraworaddedtocookedvegetablesorsoups.Thebulbscanbeusedasasubstituteforonionsandgarlic.Ramps, also known as wild leeks, grow from Canada to Georgia in

rich,moistsoilindeciduoushardwoods.Theleavesarewiderthanthoseofgarlicandonions,andthebulbislargerandstrongerinsmell.Whenharvestingramps,cutoffthetoppartandreplantthepartwiththeroothairstopreventthepopulationfromdeclining.

The young shoots of milkweed and dogbane, side by side, look very similar.Dogbanecontainscardiacglycosidesandishighlytoxic.Bothspecieshaveleavesthat are in pairs and are oval-shaped andboth exude awhite,milky substancewhenaleafisbrokenoff.Milkweedleavesaresomewhatwiderandmorerobust.Positivelyidentifymilkweedbeforeeating.

Milkweed

Thecommonmilkweedisaperennialandinthespringsendsupnewshootsthatareedible.Thetimetogathertheshootsisbeforetheleaveshave unfolded.All parts of themilkweed are poisonouswhen raw. Toprepare for eating, cover with boiling water and boil for oneminute.Strain,coverwithboilingwaterasecondtime,andboilforoneminute.Strainanduseasacookedvegetable.

Pokeweed

Pokeweed is a tall, perennial herb that comes up every year ingardens, edges of fields, and other disturbed areas. It has oval-shapedleaves and a thick stem that turns red as summer progresses. Fruitsdevelopinlatesummerorearlyfallandturnpurplish-black.Theplantmaygrowuptosixorsevenfeetinoneseasonbeforedyingbackforthewinter.Newgrowthemergesfromthesamerootsthenextspring.

Itisamongthedeadstalksthatyoulooktofindthenewgrowthinthespring.Lookforplantsthatarelessthanafoottall.Youngleaftipsmayalso be picked. Pokemust be cooked before eating. Peel the stems bypullingtheleafstalksdownward.Preparethestemsbyboilingthroughtwochangesofwaterandthenuseasasubstituteforasparagus.Youngpoke seedlings also emerge in the spring and can be picked, boiledthroughtwochangesofwater,andeaten.

Thistle

Thistles are biennials in the sunflower family. Fleshy roots of somespeciesareedible,althoughsomewhatbitter.Earlyinthespringofthesecondyear,a flowerstalkdevelops.Thebest timetoharvest it is justbeforetheflowerbudopens.Itcanbeeatenrawasacelerysubstituteorcookedasavegetable.

Skinningathistleisanessentialskillifyouaregoingtoeatthistlestalks.Strongleatherglovesanda sharpknifearealso recommended.Beginby removing thestalkleavesandthencutitoffatitsbase.Choptheheadoffnext,andthenuseyourknifetopeelandremovetheouterskin.

CattailShoots

Cattails formcolonies inwetlandareaswith an interconnecting rootsystem made up of horizontal rhizomes that are edible. In the earlyspring young shoots emerge from the mucky water. The best time toharvestthemiswhentheyarelessthanafoottall.Cuttheshootsoffatthebaseand strip theouter leaves to the inner core that iswhitishoryellowish-green. These cattail hearts can be eaten raw in the field orchoppedandaddedtosalads.As theplantcontinues togrow, thecorebecomestoughandfibrous.

EdibleBudsandFlowers

Buds swelling on trees and shrubs are one of the first signs of spring.Some of these early blooming trees have buds and flowers that areedible.Someofthesehaveafragrantscentthatleadyoutothemwhileotherscomeupinyourbackyard.Flowershaveavarietyoftastes.Manyflowershaveatastesimilartotheirscentandrangefromspicytosweettoalmostnotasteatall.Howtheyareusedisequallyvariable.Getfamiliarwiththedifferenttastesbynibblingonthembeforeaddingtoadish.

Dandelions

Dandelions start blooming early, with flower heads appearingrandomlyinlawns.Thisisthetimetostartlookingforthebudslocatedinthecenteroftherosette.Flowerbudsandflowersareedible.Butthebest flowers are when you see a profusion of yellow flower headscovering the lawns, growing out of the sidewalks, or popping up inlandscaped gardens. These are the sweetest. As the season progresses,theflowerstendtogetbitterasdotheleaves.

Mustards

Members of the mustard family have flower buds that look likeminiature versions of cultivated broccoli.When the flower buds open,thefourpetalsformacross,givingthemthegenericnameofcrucifers.Thecolorsvaryfromwhiteandyellowtopinkandpurple.Allmustardsareedibleandhavea spicyodorand taste, somemore so thanothers.Almostallofthemarepalatableinsomeform.Flowerbudsandflowersareedible,eitherraworcooked.

MustardFruits

The fruitofmembersof themustard family isapod-lookingcapsulecontaining seeds inside. Some are long and narrow while others are

shortandround.Somesplitopeneasilywhileothersaretoughandhard.Theseeds,eventhoughsmall,arequitespicyandcanbegroundupandusedasaspiceorseasoning.

Violets

Violetsarefamiliarweedsformostpeople.Theycomeupinlawns,intheforest,alongstreambanks,andjustabouteveryplacewherepeoplego.Somehaveblueflowers,othershavewhite,andonehasyellow—thisistheoneyoudon’teat.Violet flowers tastemildly sweet.They canbeeaten raw, infused inwaterforaflowerteaorcandiedandmadeintojams,jellies,andsyrups.

Elder

Elder is a native shrub with representatives throughout the UnitedStates. The most common one in the eastern states is common elder.There is also another elder, the red-berried elder,which is consideredpoisonous. Common elder grows along ditches, stream banks,hedgerows,andedgesofswampsandbloomsinthelaterpartofspringwithanabundanceoflarge,white,flat-toppedclustersofflowers.

Elderoftengrowsinareaswhereyoudon’twanttogather,suchastheroadside,edges of fields that have been sprayed with pesticides, or near pollutedwaterways. Inspect the surroundings before gathering flowers. Also, learn todistinguish it from water hemlock that also has white, flat-topped clusters offlowers.

Findingelderiseasy.Thelarge,whiteflowerscanbespottedfromthecarwhiledrivingdowntheroad.Oncetheflowerheadshavefilledout,usepruningscissorstosnipoffthetops.Elderflowersareedible,eitherdippedinbatterandfriedorinfusedinwaterforatea.Theycanalsobe

driedandusedlatertomaketea.Herbalist and botanist Christopher Hobbs, at an herb conference,

referredtoelderflowersasabloodmover.Ifyouareholdingheatinonepartofyourbody,aswitheczemaorotherskinconditions,elderflowerswillhelpclearthebloodofheatandtoxins.

LegumeFlowers

Legumes are in the pea family and have the characteristic pea-likeflowers.Redbudsandblacklocustsarebothmembersofthisfamilythathaveedibleflowers.Redbudsareeasytorecognizeinthespringwiththeirfuchsia-colored

flowersthatappearbeforetheleaveshaveunfoldedintheearlyspring.Theygrowalongthebranchesandsometimesthetrunkofthetree.Theflowershaveasweet-tartflavorandcanbeaddedtosaladsordesserts.Twodifferentspeciesofredbudsgrowintheeastandthewest.Inthe

eastitcanbefoundfromNewJerseysouthtocentralFloridaandwesttoTexasandNebraska. In thewesternpartof thecountry it growsondryslopesandincanyonsandfoothills.There are eastern and western species of black locust trees. Both

specieshavethornsandpinnatelydividedleaves,whichmeanstherearemultiple leaves arranged on each side of a common axis. The word“pinnate” comes from a Latinwordmeaning “feather.” The flowers ofthe eastern species are white, while those of the western species arepinkish-purple.Bothareedible.

Wildbeanwithpodandflower

Sassafras

In the spring before the sassafras leaves have emerged, smallyellowish-greenflowersappearattheendofthestems.Maleandfemaleflowersareusuallyonseparate trees.Flowersaremildlyspicyandcanbenibbledraworaddedtosaladsorcookeddishes.

SpringTeasandBeverages

Teasmade in the spring are cleansing and stimulating. Getting to theroots before the leaves and flowers burst out is important for thosewhoserootsareused,as iswatching theplants for the first leavesandthepeakflowers.

MormonTea

Mormon tea is in the ephedra family and is native to deserts andgrasslandsthroughoutthearidwestandsouthwestoftheUnitedStatesand the drier regions of Mexico. It is a low, shrubby plant withbranchingstemsandsmallscalesforleaves,givingitaleaflesslook.The

stemsandleavescanbesteepedinhotwaterfortea.

Sassafras,Spicebush,andSweetBirch

Sassafras,spicebush,andsweetbircharewoodyplantsintheeasternUnitedStatesthatcanbemadeintoindividualteasorbrewedtogethertomakewhatwasoncereferredtoinAppalachiaastheSSSTonic.TheSSSTonicisstillavailabletodayasanironandvitaminboosterbutwithnomentionoftheherbsoriginallyused.SassafrasSassafras is a plant thatmost people haveheard about, especially if

youaddrootbeertothename.Thisistheplantthatwasoriginallyusedtoflavorrootbeer.Therootbeersmelloftherootdistinguishesthisrootfromanyother. Thebest time to dig up the roots is before the leaveshaveunfoldedintheearlyspringoraftertheyhavedroppedinthefall.SassafrashasawiderangeandcanbefoundfromsouthernMaineto

Florida, and west to Texas and eastern Kansas. It grows as a tree orshrub in theunderstory of the forest andhashorizontal rhizomes thatspreadoutinalldirections,sendingupnewshootsasitgoes.Thetimeto locate it is in the summerwhen it has leaves. It has at least threedifferent leaf shapes on one plant and has been called themitten treebecauseoftheshapesoftheleaves.Deeplobesontheleftorrightsidegiveittheappearanceofamitten.Someleaveshavedeeplobesonbothsideswhileothershavenolobesatall.Sassafrasnevergrowsalone.Lookfor theparentplant firstandthen

lookfortheyoungshootsaroundittodiguptomaketea.Adozenorsopencil-sizedrootsareenoughtomakeagoodpotoftea.SpicebushSpicebushisashrubthatgrowsinshadyareas,sometimesbordering

streams, where the soil is moist. The leaves are oval and simple, sosimpletheyareoftenoverlooked.Intheearlyspringitproducessmall,yellow flowers on the branches. The twigs are distinctivewith a spicyaromawhenscratchedandsniffed.Thisisthepartusedtomaketea.SweetBirch

Sweet birch grows in cool, moist upland forests with smooth, darkbrownbark.Leavesaredoublytoothedandcometoasharppointatthetip. The cone-like fruit is small and brown and contains two-wingednutlets. The twigs and branches of sweet birch, when scratched orbroken,smelllikewintergreenandcanbemadeintoatea.

YauponHolly

Yaupon,or“cassine”asitisknowninsomeparts,isanativeshruborsmalltree,oftenformingthicketsalongtheAtlanticcoastfromVirginiasouth to central Floridaandalong theGulf coast to southernTexas. Itcan grow in dry, sandy soil near the ocean and can withstand strongwindsandsaltyair.Itisevergreen,withsmall,oval-shapedleavesuptoone inch long, with rounded teeth. It blooms in the spring withnumeroustiny,whitefragrantflowersfollowedbyshiny,redberriesthatmatureinautumnandoftenremainattachedthroughoutthewinter.

Yauponleavesformakingtea

YauponistheonlyhollyinNorthAmericawithcaffeineintheleaves.Other holly leaves can also be used for tea but lack the flavor andcaffeinethattheyauponhas.Untilthe1970sitwassoldinrestaurantsontheouterbanksofNorthCarolinawhereitgrowsinabundance.Withcoffee and imported tea becoming readily available, yaupon was

eventuallyforgotten.

YauponhollywasusedbyAmerican Indians tomakeaceremonialdrink in thespring. They would travel to the east coast and gather branches of yaupon tobrew intoa strong,concentratedblack tea.Theywould thendrink ituntil theythrewup,givingitthespeciesnameofvomitoria.

EarlyBerries

The berry season begins in the spring, aboutmid-May in some areas.Trees,shrubs,andherbswhoseflowerswereamongtheearlybloomersproducetheberries.

Serviceberries

Serviceberriesareoneofthefirsttreestobloomintheunderstoryoftheforestinthespringbeforetheleaveshavecomeout.Theyareeasilyspotted at that time of the year when the tree is covered with whiteflowers.Membersoftherosefamily,theflowershavefivepetalsandareabout an inch wide. This is the time to look for the trees. Once theflowersaregoneandtheleaveshavedeveloped,thetreesblendinwiththeforestanddisappear.Aboutamonthafter the treehasbloomed, the fruitsbegin to ripen.

Theyarebestwhentheyturnadeepredorpurplishcolor.Youhavetoget out early to pick thembefore thebirds get to them.Theywill eatthemuntil they’re gone. The fruits aremildly juicy and have a slight,almond-likeflavor.

Mulberries

Mulberries are medium-sized trees with fruits that look likeblackberries. All are edible but some have more flavor than others.Whitemulberriesaremostlyblandtasting,whileredorblackberriesaresweet.

WildStrawberries

Wild strawberries look like strawberries, except they are muchsmaller. What they lack in size they make up for in taste. They areusually found in light areas within the forest or along its edges. Amemberof therose family, theyhaveflowerswith fivewhitepetals intheearlyspring.

How can you tell the difference between a wild strawberry and a mockstrawberry?True strawberries have white flowers, whereas mock strawberries have yellowflowers.Also,thefruitofthemockstrawberryhasseedsonthesurfaceandtheinsideisawhitishpulpwithnoflavor.Thetruestrawberrylooksandtasteslikeastrawberry.

Wildstrawberriesaretheancestorsofthecultivatedstrawberriesthathave been bred to produce larger berries but less flavor. Wildstrawberries also have more nutritional value than their cultivatedcounterparts,whicharemostlywater.

CHAPTER9

Summer’sHarvest

Summer is a lazy time, when the days are long and the heat can sometimes bestifling.Manyofthecool-weathergreenshavegonetoseedandhavebeenreplacedbythosethatliketheheat.Springfruitsgivewaytosummerfruitsthatareusuallysweeterandjuicier.Earlymorningorlateafternoonisthebesttimeforgatheringand sometimes necessary to beat the birds to the berries and also to avoid themiddayheat.

SummerSweets

At thepeakof summer,when the sun’s raysare themost intense, andtemperatures climb to record highs, the sweet and juicy berries ripen.Theyprovideextrasugarsforenergyandfluidsforhydrationatatimewhenthey’remostneeded.

HeathBerries

Blueberries,huckleberries,andmanzanitaareallwoodyshrubsintheheathfamily.Blueberriesandhuckleberriesbothhaveblueberrieswhilethose of the manzanita plants are red when ripe. There are alsodangleberries, farkleberries, deerberries, and sparkleberries. All haveblueberriesandareedible.Blueberriesandhuckleberrieslookverysimilar.Trueblueberriesbear

terminalclustersoffruitsthatturnblueorsometimesblackwhenripe,withmany seeds in the center. Truehuckleberries have flowers in theleaf axils and fruits with ten large seeds and resinous glands on theundersideoftheleaves.

Starshapepatternontipofblueberry

PoisonousInkberrieswithnostar

Blueberries can be grouped into two kinds, the highbush and thelowbush.BothareshrubsandarecommonintheeasternUnitedStates.Thehighbushblueberryisthetallestoftheblueberriesandcangetuptofifteenfeettall.Thisistheancestorofthecultivatedblueberryandisa

commonunderstoryshrubintheeasternhalfofthecountry.Leavesareoval shaped with green, sometimes red stems that are somewhat zig-zagged,makingthemeasytoidentifyinwinter.Thelowbushblueberriesaremuchsmaller,usuallynomorethanthreefeethigh.Thefruitsripenalittlelaterthanthehighbushbuttheyareequallysweet.

Whenisablueberrynotablueberry?Look for the starat the topof theberry.Where the five sepals join together,astar-shapedpattern is formed.The stargenerally,butnotalways, indicates it isoneoftheedibleblueberries.Ifthestarismissing,itmaybeoneofthepoisonouslook-alikes.Somemembersof theholly familyhave inedible,blue-blackberriesgrowingnexttoblueberriesbutnostar.

ManzanitaspeciescanbefoundalongthewesterncoastfromsouthernCaliforniatoAlaskaandalongthenorthernpartoftheUnitedStatestoMaine.Thesearewoody,evergreenplantsthatsometimessprawlontheground.Theybloominthespringwithsmallwhiteorpinkflowersthatarefollowedbygreenberriesthatlooklikelittleapples.Theberriesturnredwhentheyareripe.Manzanitaberriesareedibleandcanbeusedforjellies,jams,orcobblers.

CherriesandPlums

Cherries andplumsare closely related,both sharing the samegenusPrunus. There are about thirty species scattered across most of theUnitedStates.Birdseatthefruitsandwidelydistributetheirseeds.Theybothbelongtotherosefamilyandhaveclustersofwhiteflowersinthespringthatarefollowedbyfruitsthatripenfromlatespringtoearlyfall.Wildcherriesaresmallwithalargestoneinthecenter.Theycanbeeatenrawbutarebestwhenmadeinto juiceor jelly.Plumsare in thesame genus as cherries, and like cherries, have fruits that are drupeswithalargestoneinthecenter.Thereareanumberofspeciesofnative

plumsscatteredacrossmostofthecountrywithcolorsthatrangefromdeepredtoyellowororangewhenripe.Whenripe,cherriesandplumswill drop easily into your hand. Unripe fruits cling to the branches.However,bothareagoodsourceofpectinwhenunripe,andifmakingjelly,afewshouldbeincludedinyourharvest.

GroundCherries—NativeTomatillos

They look likeminiature lanterns, hanging from the stemsof a low-growingherbaceousplant.Groundcherriesarereallynotcherriesatall.They are in the nightshade family and are related to tomatoes, withtomato-like fruits enclosed in a papery husk. When the husk startsturningbrown,thefruitsbegintoripen.Theripefruitissimilartoaripetomatoandcanbeusedinthesameway.Unripefruitsarepoisonous.

Mayapples—FruitsoftheForest

Mayapple is a member of the barberry family and is found in theeasternpartofNorthAmerica indampwoodsor shadedclearingsandoftengrowsinlargecolonies,spreadingundergroundbythick,creepingrhizomes. The best time to look for mayapples is in the early springwhen theminiature,umbrella-like leaves emerge from the forest floor.Standing fromone to one-and-a-half feet tall, the leaves partially hidethelargesolitaryflowerappearingintheforkwherethestembranchesintotwoleaves.Someplantshaveonlyasinglestem,inwhichcasethereisnoflower.Thename“mayapple”isreferringtotheflower,whichwasthoughtto

resembleanappleblossomandopens inMayinsomeareas.Thereareusuallysixtoninewhite,waxypetals,unlikeappleblossomsthathaveonlyfivepetals.IthasalsobeencalledmandrakeduetothesimilarityoftheroottotheunrelatedEuropeanplant.You know themayapple fruits are ripeningwhen you step into the

woodsandcatchascentoflemonintheair.Whiletheplantiseasytolocateinthespring,bythetimethefruitsarereadytoharvest,mostoftheleaveshavediedbackandotherplantshavegrownuparoundthem.

Findingthefruitsismosteasilydonebyusingthesenseofsmell.Whentheyripentheyturnyellowandlookandsmelllikelemons.Thefruitisalarge berry with many seeds and is edible when ripe. The pulpsurroundingtheseedscanbeeatenraworcanbemadeintoajuiceorjelly.

Theroots, leaves, seeds,andgreen fruitareall toxicandarestronglycathartic.Themostpoisonouspartoftheplantistheroot,whichcontainspodophyllum,abitterresinouscompoundthatisagastro-intestinalirritantand,inlargedoses,isfatal.Etopisideandteniposidearetwosyntheticderivativesthatareusedtotreatcertaintypesofcancer.

Ramblin’Brambles

Blackberries,raspberries,dewberries,andwildrosesareallconsideredbrambles, and they do ramble. They grow in a tangle of thorny stemsand spread in all directions, reaching out and grabbing innocentpassersby.Togo forwardwhen in theirgrip is inviting trouble,due totheirbackward-directedbristles.Theonlywayoutistobackout.Eventhoughthefruitsripeninthesummer,it’sbesttoscoutouttheareas when they’re blooming in the spring. Dewberry is usually theearliest bloomer and is similar to blackberry but grows closer to theground,beingmoreofacreeperthangrowingupright.Theylikemoistwoodsandclearings.Blackberries, raspberries, and wild roses all bloom about the sametime in mid-spring. They generally like open, sunny areas. All thebrambles have flowerswith five petals,whichmay be eitherwhite orpink, and compound leaves with three or more toothed leaflets. Thefruitsofdewberries,blackberries,andraspberriesconsistofmanysmall,juicy drupelets, each containing a hard seed. Blackberries anddewberries lookverysimilar, turningblackwhenripe.Raspberryfruits

may be red or black when ripe, depending on the species, and differfromdewberriesandblackberries in that they separate fromthe fleshystalkswhenpicked,forminghollowshells.Thefruitoftheroseisahipandripensinthefall.

Elder

Evenwhiletheelderisstillblooming,thetinygreenfruitsatthebaseofwheretheflowerpetalsmeetaredeveloping.Thecolorgoesquicklyfrom green to red, then deepens to a purple and finally turns almostblack before they are finally ripe. The berries can be removed byrubbingthestemsgentlybetweenyourfingers.

According toDr. JamesDuke inTheGreenPharmacy, black elderberry has twocompounds that are flupreventive.Elderberry extract is availableonpharmacyshelvesandhealthfoodstoresasaflupreventive.Commonelderberryissimilarandmayhavethesameflupreventionproperties.

Elderberries can be used to make jelly, syrup, pies, or wine. Freshberries have a strong flavor that can be mellowed somewhat withdrying.

SummerWildflowers

Plantsthatbloominthesummerareoftensunloversandcanbefoundinfields,attheedgesofforests,andinopen,marshyareas.

Cattails

Cattails are common inmostwetlands, and in late spring the flower

budsbegintodevelop.Youwillnoticefirstaslightswellingatthetopofacentralstalk.Feelwithyourfingerstodetermineifitismatureenoughtoharvest. If so,pull the top leavesback toreveal thegreenish flowerspikes, two of them,male and female. Themale is at the top and thefemale,whichlaterbecomesthepartwerefertoasthe“hotdog,”isonthebottom.Theimmatureflowerspikesareedible,althoughthemaleismoretender.As the flower buds mature, the male flower begins to turn yellow.

Whenyoutapthespikeandseethepollenbeingdispersed,youknowitisreadytocollect.Putaplasticbagaroundthespikeandstripthepollenfromthestalk.Thepollencanthenbeaddedtocornmealorflowerforbread.Onceithasturnedbrown,it’spastitspeak.Eventuallythemaleflowersdryupanddropoff,leavingonlythefemalespike.

MallowFlowersandFruits

Mallowsarefoundworldwide.Thehabitatvariesfromcoastalmarshestofields,gardens,andmeadows.Theyaremembersofthesamefamilythat includes okra, hibiscus, hollyhock, and cotton, plus about 1,500otherspeciesthatgrowthroughouttheworld.Some mallows begin blooming at the peak of summer, producing

shadesofwhite,pink,andlavenderflowers.Thehibiscusflowersusedincommercialherbteasareinthemallowfamily.Thereareseveralspeciesof hibiscus that growwild.Wildmallow flowers can be eaten raw insaladsoraddedtoteablends.Immediately following the flowers are the fruits. Mallow fruits are

capsuleswithchambersthatcontaintheseeds.Thesizevarieswiththedifferent species. Rosemallows grow inwetland areas and have fruitsthatare larger thanthoseof theweedycommonmallowthatgrows inlawns and gardens and are referred to as cheeses because of the flat,wheel-like shape of the fruit. Rose mallow fruits measure up to twoinchesinlength.Likeokra,theygettoughquicklyandshouldbepickedwhileyoungandtender.

Rosemallowfruit

Milkweeds

Whilethereareanumberofmilkweeds,thecommonmilkweedistheonemostfrequentlyusedforfood.Inidealconditions,itmaygetuptosix feet tall. Flower buds begin developing in mid-summer and soonopenintofragrant,pinkish-coloredflowers.Apod-likefruitwitharoughsurfacesoonfollows.Flowerbuds,flowers,andyoungpodsarealledibleafter preparing by boiling for oneminute, pouring the water off, andboilinga second time, afterwhichyoucan strainanduseas a cookedvegetable.

Yucca

Yucca is in the agave family and is easily recognized by its sharp-pointed, dagger-like leaves that form a rosette. Curly, fibrous threadslinetheedgesofthelongleaves.Inthelatespringandearlysummer,aflower stalk arises from the center and produces large, white, bell-shaped flowersat the top.The flowers requirecross-pollination for thegreenish, oblong fruit to develop, and the only pollinator is the yuccamoth,whichcanusuallybefoundinsidetheflowers.

Aretheyuccarootstheysellatthegrocerystorefromthesameplant?Theyuccarootsoldatthegrocerystoreisnotrelatedtothenativeyuccaatall.Itactually belongs to the genus Manihot and is imported from the tropics. Thenativeyuccarootscontainsaponins,agroupofglycosidesthatformasoapyfoamwhendissolvedinwater.Therootstasteverybitterandarenoteasilydigested.

Theyoungflowerstalksofyuccaareediblewhenthey’reaboutafoottall. They resemble asparagus at this stage. Some taste better thanothers, even when growing side by side. Do the taste test beforeincluding them in a recipe. Yucca flowers are also edible. Thereproductive parts in the center are bitter and should be removed.Flowerscanbeeatenraworcookedwithothervegetables.

LusciousLegumes

Legumesareplantsthathavebean-likepodsandareeasilyrecognizedinthe wild because of their close resemblance to the many cultivatedvarieties that occur. Not all beans are edible. Some contain toxicalkaloids and should be avoided. Seeds of wild beans contain varyingamountsofcyanideandshouldbecookedbeforeeating.

Groundnuts

Groundnutsaremembersof thepea family thathavebean-likevineswith compound leaves. Look for them along the sunny edges ofwaterways, climbing up trees and shrubs along the banks. In mid-summer they develop clusters of maroon-colored blossoms that arefollowedbypodscontainingediblebeansthatlookandtastelikegardenpeas.

Mesquite

In the southwest is themesquite,a small tree in thepea family thatgrows along streams and in areas where the water table is relativelyhigh, from southern Kansas to southeastern California. Look for thespikesofgreenish-yellow flowers in theearly spring, followedbypodsthatbecomebrittleandbrownwhenfullyripe,usuallyinthefall.Gatherthepodswhentheyarematureandmakeaflourbygrindingthepodstomakeintocakesormush.Theseedsarehardandshouldbediscarded.

Redbud—theBeanTree

Soon after the redbud tree has finished blooming, pods begindeveloping.Itiswhilethepodsaredevelopingthatthedistinctiveheart-shaped leaves begin unfolding, partially hiding the flat pods. In thebeginningthepodsaregreenish-pinkincolor,becomingpinkandfinallyturning dark brown by the end of the summer. They are best whenpickedwhilestillinthegreenish-pinkphase,whentheyarebetweenonetotwoinchesinlength.Thisiswhentheyarethemosttender.Astheymature they become tough and not palatable. Redbud pods have asomewhattartflavorandcanbeusedasacookedvegetable.

WildBeans

Wild beans are climbing vines, often with three leaflets, lookingsimilartopoisonivyuntiltheybloom.Theflowerisacharacteristicpea-like flower thatmaybewhiteorvarying shadesofpinkand lavender.Thefruitisabean-likepodthatisverysimilartoourgardenvegetables.NativebeansincludethegenusStrophostylesthatgrowsintheeastern

partof theUnitedStatesandhas flowersand fruits thatgrow insmallclusters. In the southwest is the tepary bean in the genus Phaseolus,which hasmany cultivated species. In the same genus is anotherwildbeanthatgrowsalongtheMississippiandOhioRiversandtheGulfandAtlanticcoastalplains.Thepods,whenveryyoung,canbecookedlikegreen beans. After the seeds have developed, they can be shelled andusedasacookedbean.

SummerGreens

Manyofthesummergreensareannualsandcomeupinbackyardsandgardens.Theylikesunny,disturbedareasandgrowrapidly,withsomespeciessuchas lambsquartersandamaranthreachingasmuchaseighttotenfeet tall.Thesearebestpicked in theearlymorningbefore theydroopfromtheheatofthesun.

Goosefoots

Lambsquartersisthebestknownmemberofthegoosefootfamilyandcanbefoundthroughouttheworld.ItisaEuropeannativeandreadilybecomesnaturalizedinareaswhereitisintroduced.Theleavesaremildtastingandcanbeeatenraworcookedasaspinachsubstitute.Othergoosefootmembersinclude:

Epazote has become naturalized in southern states and has leavesthatareusedasabeanseasoning.Orache grows near salt marshes and has leaves that add a saltyseasoningtofoods.

GrassGrazing

Chewingon theendsofgrassblades is a commonpractice for somepeople. Themilky juice is refreshing and thirst quenching. Young leafblades can also be juiced like wheat grass. Avoid actually eating theleavessincethecelluloseintheleavesisindigestible.Ateacanbemadebysteepingtheleavesinhotwaterortheycanbedriedandpowdered.Barnyard grass, crabgrass, foxtail grass, andorchard grass are someofthegrasseswhoseleafbladescanbeused.Some plants look like grasses but instead are sedges, rushes, or

cattails, especially in wetlands. Chewing on the stems of these plantsshouldbedonewithcaution,especiallyifuncertainofthewaterquality.Sedgescanoftenbeidentifiedbytheirtriangularstem,whiletherusheshaveroundstemswithoutjointedleaves.Cattailleavesareflat.

MallowGreens

Mallow leaves, especially when they are young and tender, can beeatenrawinsaladsorcookedasapotherb.Themucilaginousleavesgivea thickeningquality tovegetabledishesorcasseroles.Theyare rich innutrients, including vitamins A, B1, B2, and C; iron; calcium; andessentialfattyacids.

Purslane

Purslaneisalow-growing,succulentherbthatwaitsuntilafterthelastfrosttoemerge,whichisusuallylatespring.Leavesareroundedatthetopandmaybeeitheralternateoropposite.Thesecanbetrimmedandthe plantwill continue to grow and sprawl out in different directions.The trimmings can be added raw to salads and soups or eaten as acookedgreen.

According to Dr. James Duke, purslane contains several antioxidants that fightagainstcancer.It isrichinvitaminC,beta-carotene,glutathione,andvitaminEand isoneof thebest sourcesofomega-3 fattyacids in theplantworld,whichhavebeenlinkedwithloweringcholesterollevels.

Small,yellowflowersappearinmid-summerfollowedbyblackseeds.Leaves,stems,flowers,andseedsarealledible.

SummerTeas

In the summerwhen it’s hot and youwant somethingmore than justwater,thereareanumberofplantsthatcanbeusedtomakerefreshingherbal teas. Adding ice to the drink can make it even more cooling.Herbs add flavor to thewater, plus additionalminerals and nutrients.

Someherbscanhaveacalmingeffectwhileothersmaybestimulating.Formaximumbenefits,pourboilingwaterovertheherbs,coverwithatightlid,andletsteepfortwentytothirtyminutes.

DaisyorAster-likeFlowers

Thesun-loversmaketheirappearanceallsummer.Daisiesandastersareinthesunflowerfamily,whichhaslotsofmembers.Theflowersofmostspeciesarebitter;however,someofthesemakeadainty-tastingteathatisrefreshingtodrinkwhenit’shot.OxeyeDaisyOxeyedaisyflowerslooklikelargechamomileflowersandtastevery

similarinatea.Thedarkgreenleaveswithdeeplobesformarosetteofbasal leaves and continue up the flower stalk, getting smaller as theynear the topwhere the large,white flower, up to two incheswide, islocated.Thepetalsarewhitewithayellowcenterthathasadepressioninthemiddle.Theycanbefoundinfields,pastures,androadsides.SweetGoldenrodThisisagoldenrodthatcanbedistinguishedfromallothergoldenrods

byitstaste,whichisasweet,anise-likeflavor.Theleavesarefromonetofourincheslongandnarrow,withsmoothedges.Aboutmid-summertheyellowclustersofflowersappearalongonesideofarchingbranches.LookforitindryfieldsandopenwoodsintheeasternUnitedStates.LifeEverlastingLife everlasting blooms later in the summer and looks like a lot of

other plants blooming at that time. The scent is the trademark. It’sunlikeanyother.The leavesare several inches longand feelwooly tothe touch with whitish hairs underneath. The flowers are white andcotton-like and fragrant, as are the leaves. It grows in dry clearings,fields,andedgesofwoodsthroughouttheeasternUnitedStates.

Mints

Allmintshaveasquarestem,butnotallplantswithasquarestemare

mints.Thereareanumberofmintsthathavebeenplantedinyardsandgardensandhaveescapedintothewild,oftenmixingwithothermints.They can be recognized by their square stems, opposite leaves, andflowerswithfivepetalsthatformanupperandlowerlip.Mostmembersarearomatic.HorseBalmandBeeBalmHorsebalmandbeebalmaremembersofthemintfamilythatbloom

in late summer with a smell that resembles thyme. Horse balm hasyellowish, purple-dotted flowers that grow inwhorls in the upper leafaxils with white or pale purple bracts at their base. It grows in dry,sandy soil along the coastal plain and in prairies of theMidwest. Beebalm has bright red, tubular flowers and grows in moist soil alongstreams.

AccordingtoDr.JamesDuke’sphytochemicaldatabase,www.ars-grin.gov/duke, horse balm is the best source of carvacrol. Research studies haveshown carvacrol helpsprevent thebreakdownof a compound that seems tobelackinginpeoplewithAlzheimer’s.ItseemsprobablethatdrinkingacupofhorsebalmteamightbeaneffectivemedicineagainstAlzheimer’sdisease.

HorsebalmisinthegenusMonardaalongwithseveralotherspeciesthat occur over most of the United States and southern Canada. Thefreshordriedleavescanbeusedtomakeatea.SkullcapThereareseveraltypesofskullcap,buttheonethatismostfrequently

used formaking tea ismad-dog skullcap. It grows inmoistwoodlandsnear swamps and blooms in late summer with small, bluish-purpleflowers that grow in one-sided racemes from the leaf axils. Its namecomes from its folk use for treating rabies. As a tea, it helps relievenervousconditionsincludinginsomniaandanxiety.

RedClover

Redcloverisinthepeafamilywithalternateleavesdividedintothreeleaflets with a V-shaped pattern near the end of each leaflet. Tiny,pinkish-purpleflowersdevelopintoaheadatthetopofthestem.Theyshould be gatheredwhen the flower heads are fully open, before theystartturningbrown.Redclovergrowsinfields,meadows,anddisturbedareasthroughouttheUnitedStatesandisoftenplantedforitsnitrogen-fixingabilities.Flowerscanbeusedfreshordriedinteablends.

Wintergreen

Wintergreen is in the heath family, along with blueberries andcranberries. It is a low-lying, evergreen herb that grows in acidwoodlands fromNewfoundland toManitoba and south toGeorgia andAlabama. It spreads on the forest floor with horizontal rhizomes justbeneath the surface. The leaves contain compounds that add awintergreenflavor to tea.Lookfor the littleblack,resinousdotsundertheleavesforpositiveidentification.

CHAPTER10

FallForaging

Whentheedgesandtopsoftheforestsstartturningyellowandred,andthefieldsandgrassyareasturngolden,youknowthatfallisapproaching.Itisoftenmarkedwithwarm,sunnydaysthatareidealforbeingoutdoorsharvestingwhathasbeendevelopingallsummer.Fruitsareripening,seedsarematuring,andnutsarefalling.Whensquirrelsandchipmunkscanbeseenscurryingaroundtreesgatheringnutsand storing or burying them, it is a sure sign that another harvest season hasarrivedwithyetanothercropreadytobepicked.

Hips,Haws,andMiniApples

The rose family contains a number of species with edible fruits thatripen in the fall, somebeginning to ripen in late summer.These fruitstend tobe less sweet than the serviceberriesandcherries that ripen inthe spring and summer. These fruits are high in vitamin C and E andhelpboosttheimmunesystemagainstthecoolertemperatures.

Hips—TheFruitoftheRose

One of the easiest to recognize and also one of the most commonbushesfoundthroughouttheUnitedStatesarethewildroses.Theygrowin themountains,at theedgeof the forest, in fieldsandcowpastures,andinswampsandmarshes.Thefruitoftheroseisahipthatcontainsseveralmature ovaries filledwith seeds. Calyx lobes are prominent atthe tip of the fruit. The fruits are edible and can be nibbled raw orsteepedinhotwatertomakerosehiptea.

Nature’sMiniApples

Hawthornsandcrabapplesareshrubsorsmalltreesintherosefamilythat produce fruit that look like miniature apples. They grow in theunderstoryof the forestoralong theedgesof fencerowsorabandoned

fields where they sometimes form thickets with stout thorns that armbranchesandtrunks.Inthespring,clustersofflowerswithfivefragrantpetalsareborneonthebranches.

Hawthornsareconsideredbymanyherbaliststobeahearttonicandhavebeenusedforheartproblemsincludinghighbloodpressureandangina.AccordingtoMichaelMurrayinTheHealingPowerofHerbs,hawthornsarerich in flavonoidsandhavebeenstudiedfortheirantioxidanteffects.

Thereareanumberofspeciesofhawthorns,mostbeingsmalltreesordenseshrubs.Fruitsaregenerallyredandsomewhatresemblethefruitoftheircloserelative,thewildrose.Onewaytodistinguishthemfromroses isby their long, stout thorns.A teacanbemadebysteeping thefruits inhotwater,or theycanblendedbewithother fruits tomakeajuicedrink.

Crabapples

Crabapplesareancestorsofapplesandhavealsobeendomesticated.SeveralspeciesthatarenativetotheUnitedStatesinclude:

SweetcrabapplesextendfromNewYorkwesttonortheastArkansasandsouthtonorthernGeorgia.The southern crabapple is found from Virginia south to northernFloridaandwesttoLouisiana.Prairie crabapples grow from northern Indiana south to ArkansasandfromOklahomanorthtosoutheasternSouthDakota.Oregon crabapples occur on the west coast from west-centralCalifornianorthwardtoAlaska.

Nativecrabapplescanbedistinguishedfromcultivatedcrabapplesbytheirtaste.Mostareextremelytart,withnosweetnessatall.

BerriesandBerry-likeFruits

Therearelotsofberriesthatripeninthefall.Alotofthemarebestleft for the birds. But mixed in among them are hidden treasures—flavors found nowhere else. Once you have identified which ones toleave for the birds, start experimenting by taste to see what theindividualfruitstastelike.

BlackGum—theLemonTree

Blackgumsareoneofthefirsttreestostartchangingcolorsinthefall.The leavesareoval-shapedand turn scarlet redwhilemostother treesstill have green leaves. This is also about the time the fruits startripening,turningblue-blackincolor.Bitingintothisfruitislikesuckingonalemon.There are several species in this family with edible fruits. Swampblackgumissimilartotheblackgum,butthefruitsaremorebitterandleave an aftertaste. Taste is often the bestway to distinguish betweenthese two species. The Ogeechee gum grows in wooded swamps fromFlorida to South Carolina, with sour-tasting fruits that turn red whenripe.

PawpawPatches

Pawpawsgrowinpatches,usuallyasanunderstorytreeintheforest.The fruits develop through the summer and look like short, greenbananas.Theygrow in clumpsof three to fouron thebranchesof thetrees and begin to ripen in late August, reaching their peak in lateSeptember,aboutthetimetheleavesstarttoturnyellow.Pawpawsdroptothegroundwhenripeandshouldbegatheredrightawaybeforetheyturnblack. If theyarenot fully ripe,youcanplace themona tableatroomtemperatureandtheywillcontinuetoripen.

Persimmons

Persimmons look likeminiature pumpkins and, coincidentally, ripenaboutthesametime.Itisbelievedbymanypeoplethatyouhavetowaituntilafterthefrosttoeatapersimmonbutthisisnotalwaystrue.Whilethere may still be persimmons on a tree when the frost occurs, theyactuallystartripeningbeforethefrost.

Persimmonfruitsmustberipebeforeeatingandatthattimeareverysweet,likedates. Unripe fruits contain astringent tannic acid and leave a drying, chalkysensation in themouth.Ripe persimmonpulp can be used in the sameway aspumpkinbutwithasuperiorflavor.

Ripepersimmons sometimesdevelopdark,mottled coloring and feelsofttothetouch.Whenripe,theydroptotheground.Strongwindswillsometimesblowunripepersimmons to thegroundaswell. If they stillfeel firm, theyarenotripe. If they lieonthegroundtoo longandfeelbubbly,theyhavestartedtoferment.

Passionfruits

Passionfruits,alsocalledmaypops,areberriesaboutthesizeofaneggthat look likeminiaturewatermelons. Juicypulp is containedwithinathick skin that turns yellowandwrinklywhen the fruits are ripe. Thejuice can be extracted andmade into a drink that has somewhat of acitrusflavor.

Spicebush

Spicebush is a shrub that is found in the easternUnitedStates fromMainesouthtoFloridaandwesttoTexasinthesouthandMissouriandIowatothenorth.Itgrowsintheunderstoryalongstreamsandindampwoodsandblendsinwiththegreeneryformostoftheyear.Inthespringit makes its appearance with yellow flowers that appear before the

leaves. After the leaves come out, it remains invisible again until thefruitsripenandturnbrightred.Thisisthetimetopickthem.Theycanbedriedandusedlaterasaspicyseasoningindesserts.

Sumacs

Sumacsaredistinguishedby their large,compound leavesanddenseclustersoffruitsthatdeveloponthebranches.Poisonsumachaswhiteberries. All species that bear red fruits can be used to make a tart,lemonade-likebeverage.Thefruitsarecoveredwithbrightredhairsthataretartwithmalicacid.Theyalsocontainascorbicacidandtannicacid.Thefruitsofsumacremainontheplantswellintothewinter,offeringasourceoffoodforwildlifewhenotherfoodsarescarce.Severalgamebirdsrelyonsumacasawinterfoodsource,asdosomeofthesongbirdsthatwinterinthenorth.

ColorfulCacti

Cactiaresucculent,spinyherbswithrounded,cylindrical,orflattenedstemsthatareanadaptationtothehot,dryconditionswheretheygrow.Even though cacti are normally associatedwith the southwest, severalspecies of prickly pear grow throughout the United States and as farnorthasCanadaindry,sandyandopen,rockyareas.Mostcactusspecieshave edible fruits. Some taste better than others. Depending on thelocation, somespecies start ripening in late summer,whileotherswaituntil the fall and into the winter to ripen. Cactus with edible fruitsincludebarrelcactus,hedgehogcactus,pricklypear,andsaguaro.

WildGrapes

Grapeswere already growing in the United Stateswhen the settlersfirst arrived. There are at least two dozen species that occur in theUnited States. They are easily recognized by their woody vines thatclimbhigh into trees,oftenat theedgesofwoods.The forked tendrils

andheart-shapedleavesdistinguishthemfromothervines.Wildgrapesare theancestorsof cultivatedgrapesandareedible,as

aretheseeds.Youngleavescanalsobeeaten.Allareedible,butsomearesweeterorlargerthanothers.Mostgrapesaresweettoeatstraightfromthevineandmakeexcellent jelly,pies,andwine.Sincethefruitscontain lots of natural pectin, jelly can be made without purchasingcommercialpectin,andhoneycanbesubstitutedsuccessfullyforsugar.

Muscadines

Themostpopularwildgrapeinareaswhereitgrowsisthemuscadinegrape.Thefruitsarelargerthanotherwildgrapes,withathick,tartskinand sweet, juicy pulp. Scuppernong grapes that are cultivated inbackyards or grown commercially are a variety of themuscadine andhave light-colored skin that is thinner than the muscadine. Thescuppernongalsogrowswildandissometimesreferredtoastheblondmuscadine.

Muscadinegrapes

Muscadinesbeginripeninginlatesummerandcontinueintothefall,hanging in small clusters rather than large bunches like other wildgrapes.Theycanbegatheredratherquicklybyholdingabucketundertheclustersandpickingthembythehandful,lettingthemdropintothe

bucket as they fall.Muscadines can be found fromDelaware south toFloridaandwesttoTexasandOklahoma.

Wild grapes contain seeds that are crunchy and somewhat woody tasting.Regardless,eatthemaswell.Grapeseeds,aswellastheleavesandskin,providearichsourceofresveratrol,ananti-agingcompound.Insteadofbuyinggrapeseedextract,eatthewildgrapes,seedsandall.

OtherGrapes

There are other grape species that are more tolerant of coldertemperatures and grow farther north than themuscadines. Fox grapescan be found as far north as Canada and west to Wisconsin andMichigan. The leaves arewider than other grapeswith either shallowlobesornolobes.Summergrapeshavesmallerfruitsthatarelesssweetthanotherwildgrapes.Lookforthedeeplobesonsomeoftheleavestodistinguishthisgrapefromothers.Wintergrapesalsohavesmallberriesthatgetsweeterafterafrost.

OregonGrape—NotaTrueGrape

Inthewestisafruitthatlookslikeagrape,butitisnotagrape.Itscommon name is Oregon grape, and it is in the barberry family. Thenameisreferringtothefruitsthatgrowinclustersandturndarkbluish-purplewhentheyripeninthefall.Theleavesaredarkgreenandshiny,somewhat resembling the leavesofAmericanholly.The fruits arebestmadeintojamsorjellies.

Viburnums

Viburnums are in the muskroot family and are large shrubs or smalltreeswith flat-topped clusters of red or blue-black berries that usuallyhangdownwhenripe.Duringthewintermonthstheytendtoshriveluplike raisins, giving them the common name “wild raisin.” Some aresweetandcanbeeatenrawasanibble.Otherstendtobebitter.Oncetheplanthasbeen identified as a viburnum, sample taste the fruit forsweetness.Somearemorepalatablethanothers.

HighbushCranberries

As their name implies, highbush cranberries grow on bushes, not inbogs.Theyarealsonotatruecranberry.Atfirstglance,youmightthinkit’sa smallmaple tree.The leavesareoppositeanddeeply three-lobedabove the middle like a maple. But that’s where the similarity ends.White flat-toppedclustersof flowersappearon thehighbushcranberryinlatespringorearlysummerandareoftwokinds.Theouterflowersare showy with five white petals, but sterile, while in the center arealmostinconspicuousfertileflowers.Thesewill be followed by a round fruit that turns bright red in theearlyfallasitripens.

Thereisasimilarshrubthatisalsocalledhighbushcranberrythatwasintroducedfrom Europe and also has red berries, but they are very bitter. It grows in asimilar habitat as the native species and looks similar except the leaves of theEuropeanspeciesaresmallerandwider.Thebestwaytodistinguishbetweenthetwoisbytaste.

Highbush cranberries grow in cooler climates and are common inCanadaandinthenorthernNewEnglandstates.Theyarefoundas farsouthasNewJerseyandwesttotheBlackHillsofSouthDakotaanddobestalongstreamsoralongwoodedborders.

Arrowwood

ArrowwoodisaviburnumthatiscommonintheeasternUnitedStateswithoval, coarsely toothed leaves. It alsohasdark, dry fruits that arebitterandinedible,althoughbirdsdoeatthem.

BlackHaw

Themostpopulargroupamongforagersistheblackhawgroup.Thereareseveralspeciesofblackhawsthatgrowinwoodedareasacrosstheeastern United States. They include the northern wild raisins,nannyberries,andblackhaw.Thereisalsoonecalledpossumhawthatisedibleandgrowsintheswampsbuttendstohaveamuckytaste.Theberriesstartoutredinthelatesummerandthenturnblue-blackinthefall when they ripen. They often remain on the plants through thewinter, sometimesdryingon thebushes.Rehydrating themby soakingtheminwatermaybenecessarybeforeusingthem.

Roots

In the fall, when the above-ground parts of a plant stop growing, thenutrientsandfoodarestoredbeneaththegroundintubers,bulbs,corms,rhizomes,and roots.The time togather theseparts iswhile the leavesaredormant,fromfalltoearlyspringwhentheystartshowingsignsofnewlife.

Groundnuts

Groundnutsarenotnuts;rathertheyaremembersofthepeafamily.Theirnamecomesfromthenut-liketubersthatgrowunderground.Theplantisabean-likevinewithcompoundleavesthatgrowsasaclimbingvine into trees and shrubs. If there are no trees to climb, it tends tosprawl over and around the grasses and other herbaceous plants. Thetime to locate them is mid-summer when they develop clusters ofmaroon-colored blossoms. Even though it’s a perennial, the leaves die

backinthefall.Lookfortheoldvinesandfollowthemtotheground.The tubersare justbeneath thesurfaceandgrow in longstrings.Theycanbeduginthefallandintothewinter,aslongasthegroundisnotfrozen. According to Dr. James Duke, groundnut tubers contain threetimesasmuchproteinaspotatoes.

Mallow

Mallow roots have a history of use for food. Itwas from themarshmallow that the original marsh mallow cream was made. During thewinter,thetopsdiebackbutundergroundthemucilaginousrootisstillaliveandgrowing.Therootsofsomespecieshavebeenusedascookedvegetables,madeintoaconfection,brewedasatea,oraddedtosoupinthewinter.

Nutgrass

Nutgrass is a sedge with many species that grow in wetlandsthroughout theworld. It canbe recognizedby its umbrella-like flowerheadwithgrass-likeleavesradiatingoutfromunderthefloweringrays.Flowerstalkshaveedges,atriangularstem,asischaracteristicofmanyofthesedges.Thetubersaresomewhatnuttytastingandcanbeduganytimethegroundisnotfrozen.Theycanbeeatenraw,roasted,orcookedasavegetable.

Yampa

Yampaisoneofeightspeciesandamemberofthecarrotfamilythatisfoundthroughoutthewest.Likeothermembersofthecarrotfamily,ithasflat-toppedclustersofsmall,whiteflowers.Thenarrowleaveslooklike stems and arise from clusters of edible roots. The time to gatherthemisinthefallaftertheplanthasgonetoseed.Therootsshouldbewashedandpeeledbeforeusingasacookedvegetable.Theycanalsobedriedandgroundasaflour.

SeedsandGrains

Seedsare the life-linesof theplants. It is from themthatnew lifewillemerge. Even though they may be small, they are often concentratedwithnutritionandsometimes flavor.Thesearebestwhenharvestedatmiddayafterthedewhasliftedjustbeforetheyarereadytodropfromtheplant.

AmericanLotus

Also referred to as water lily, the American lotus is native to theUnitedStatesaswellasmanyotherpartsoftheworld.ItsrangeincludesmostoftheeasternUnitedStates,westtoTexasandnorthtoIowaandMinnesota. The large, circular leaves, which measure up to two feetacross, may rise above the surface of the water with the centersomewhatdepressedwherethestemisattached.Waterisshedfromthesurface,andafterarain,dropletsofmoisturebeadupontheplant. Inlate summer, flowers are replaced by large, cone-shaped, flat-toppedreceptacles filled with edible seeds that can be harvested in earlyautumn.

EveningPrimrose—theNightBloomer

Eveningprimrosecanbespottedfromthecarwhiledrivingdowntheroad inmid-summer. Pale yellow flowerswith four petals droop fromthe tops of flowering stalks that can be up to eight feet tall. In theevening after the sun has set, mature buds start swelling and withinminutes burst open. The next morning as soon as the sun is up, theflowersdroopandthendie.Thenexteveningnewflowersopenandtheycontinueupthestalk.

Evening primrose seeds are a source of gamma linoleic acid and are grown

commercially for the oil that is extracted from them. They also containtryptophan that is removed from the oil. The oil is used to treat fibromyalgia,arthritis,andothercommonailments.Gatheringyourownseedsandusingthemasfoodwillgiveyouthesynergistichealthbenefits.

Followingtheflowersarethefour-chamberedseedcapsules,whicharegreenandthenturnbrownastheyripen.Lookfortheplantswhentheyare blooming and then come back about amonth later to harvest theseeds.Cliptheseedheadsoffandturnupsidedowninapaperbag.Thelittleblackseedswilldroptothebottom.Thesecanbesiftedandusedasaseasoning.

GrassSeeds

Bytheendofsummermanygrasseshavebloomedandaredevelopingseeds. As the leaves begin turning yellow, the seeds are reachingmaturity.Allgrassseedsareediblebutarenotalwayseasytoprocess.Ahuskthatmayhavestiffbarbsontheendsthatcouldgetstuckinyourthroat surrounds the seeds. Some release the seeds as they dry whileothers cling to the chaff. Separating the chaff from the grain is anecessaryandsometimesdifficultprocess.Grasseswhoseseedsareusedforfoodinclude:

Barnyardgrass isusually less than three feet talland found inoldpastures,barnyards,andotherdisturbedareas.Crabgrassisacommonweedgrassinlawnsandgardensandgrowsinclumps,sometimesformingamat.Foxtailbarleygrowsinclumpsuptotwofeettallandcanbefoundinoldpastures,roadsides,andedgesoffields.Foxtailgrassoftentowersaboveothergrassesinfieldsandgardenswiththeseedsformingtightclustersonthetips.Wildricegrowsinwetlandareasreachinguptotenfeettallandcanbedistinguished fromothergrassesby themale flowers thathangbeneaththefemaleflowers.

Grassseedscanbegroundupandusedasafloursubstitute.Insome

casestheyarebettercookedasagruel.Avoidusinganyseedsthatmightbemoldyorwilted.

Pickerelweed

Pickerelweed isawetlandemergentplant thatgrowsthroughout theeasternUnitedStateswithlarge,darkgreenheart-shapedleavesonlongstalks. It blooms most of the summer with bluish-purple flowers thathavetwolips,eachcontainingthreelobeswithtwoyellowspotsontheuppermiddle lobe. Flowers grow in a cluster on a terminal spike thatquicklydevelopintoseedsfollowingtheflowers.Thesecanbestrippedoffandeatenraworaddedtosaladsorcookedvegetables.

PineSeeds

Pineseedsarethemoredesirablepartofthepinethatisusedforfood.Mostpineseedsareattachedtowingsandcanbefoundbyremovingthewoody scaleson thepinecone.Theyvary in sizeand tastebutall areedibleoncetheoutershellhasbeenremoved.SeveralspeciesofpinesinthewesternpartoftheUnitedStateshave

seedsthatareusedforfood,includingthepinyonpineinthesouthwest.Pinyon pine seeds are wingless. They are held in the cone by amembranethatisbrokenbythefrost,releasingtheseedstotheground.In the eastern United States, none of the pine trees produce seeds

comparabletothoseinthewest.Whitepineislargerthanmostandhasbeenusedasfood.

NutKnowledge

UsingnutsasasourceoffooddatesbacktotheAmericanIndians,whotaughtthesettlershowtogatherandpreparethemforfood.Nutswereamainstay of their diet, especially during the winter months when thefoodsupplybecamelow.Tolocatenuts,lookforthesquirrels.Sincenutsare one of their most sought-after foods, locating where squirrels are

mostactivemayleadyoutothenuttrees.Most nutmeats are sweet and high in protein. They are also rich in

unsaturated fats which give them a high caloric value, but nocholesterol.

BeechNuts

Beech treesare tall trees thatgrowinmaturehardwoodforests.Thetree can be spotted by its smooth, light gray bark. It’s the tree thatpeoplearetemptedtocarvetheirinitialsinto.Thenutsaresmall,onlyaboutone-half to three-fourthsof an inch long.Usually two triangularnutsareenclosedinapricklyhusk,andtheymatureinearlyautumn.

BlackWalnuts

Black walnuts are found in most of the eastern half of the UnitedStates.Theyarelargetreeswithcompoundleavesconsistingofseventonineteentoothedleafletsthatturnyellowinautumn.Thefruitisathick-shellednutwithridgesenclosedinagreenhuskthatdoesnotsplitopenatmaturity.

Nuts have been referred to as “brain food” due to their serotonin content.AccordingtoDr.JamesDuke,theblackwalnut,whichlookslikeabrain,isoneofthebestsourcesofserotonininthiscountry.This is befitting of the “Doctrine of Signatures” which is based on “like cureslike.”Inthiscase,thebrain-shapednutisoneofthebestsourcesofbrainfood.

Blackwalnutsbegindroppingintheearlyfallandshouldbegatheredsoonafter they fall. If theyremainon theground formore thana fewdays,theybecomeinfestedwithmaggotsandturnblack.

TheCherishedChestnut

American chestnuts, once considered giants in eastern forests,reachingheightsup toonehundred feet tallandaveraging five feet indiameter, are mostly memories today for those who have lived longenoughtorememberthem.Afungus,importedonnurserystock,spreadacross their range andwithin fifty years had almost completelywipedoutthepopulation.AfewarestillsurvivinginthehigherelevationsintheAppalachianmountains.There is another native chestnut, much smaller than the Americanchestnut, known as the chinkapin. Chinkapins are found in thesoutheastern United States, from New Jersey south to central Florida,often inmature oak-hickory forests. The outer hull is a spiny bur andcontainsashiny,darkbrownnut.

Hazelnuts

Hazelnuts are tall shrubs in the birch family that are most easilyspottedbythemalecatkinsthatforminthefallandlingerthroughthewinteruntilthefemaleflowerappearsinearlyspring.Theseflowersaremoredifficulttospot.Theyareverysmall,redpistillateflowersontheendsofthebranchesthatarepollinatedbythewind.Thefruitsdevelopslowlyoverthesummermonthsandareinvisibletotheuntrainedeye.Thenut isenclosed inagreen, leafyhusk that starts turningbrownasthenutmatures.

Hazelnutsenclosedintheirleafyhusk

Hickories

Hickoriesaretalltrees,usuallyfoundinolder,matureforests,wheretheunderstory isopen,allowing foreasywalkingandvisibility. In thefallthecompoundleaves,madeupoffivetonineleaflets,dependingonthespecies,turngoldenyellow,lightinguptheforestfloorwithawarmglowastheyfalltotheground.Thisisthetimetostartlookingforthenuts,whicharemosteasilyfoundbygentlykickingtheleavesasideasyouwalkthroughtheforest.Therearethirteenspeciesofnativehickories,whichareinthewalnutfamilyandcanbeidentifiedbytheirlarge,compoundleavesmadeupoffivetonineleaflets.Theyrangethroughtheeasternandsouthernpartofthe country.Hickory trees grow slowly, sometimes not producingnutsuntiltheyareeightyyearsold.Whenthehickorynutmatures,theouterhusk splits into four separate pieces and the nut drops to the ground.Eventhoughallhickorynutsareedible,sometastebetterthanothers.

OakNuts

Thenutofanoak tree isanacorn,and likeallnuts, ithasanouterhull. For the acorns, the outer hull is the scaly cap. Acorns containtannin,whichgives theacornabitter,drying taste.The tannincanberemovedthroughaleachingprocess.Onceithasbeenremoved,acornscanbeusedforfood.Oaks can be divided into red oaks and white oaks. White oaksgenerallyhavelesstanninthanredoaksandcanbedistinguishedfromthemby the leaves that lack thebristle tipson themargins.The fruitsusuallymatureinoneseasonratherthantwo,aswithmostredoaks.Start gathering acorns as soon as they start falling from the tree,otherwisetheywillbecomeinfestedwithweevils.Lookforthetinyholeintheshellthathasbeenpiercedbytheadultlayinghereggs.Thesecanbeleftforthesquirrels.Mature,ripeacornsshouldhaveashinyshell.Ifitisdullbrownortanincolororfeelslight,it’sprobablynogood.

CHAPTER11

WinterForaging

Wild foods are available year round, even in thewinter. This is a good time toexploretheoutdoors,whentheinsectpopulationisreducedtoaminimum,andthesnakes have becomemostly inactive. Trees have dropped their leaves, revealingfruits that before were concealed and now partially cover the green tips ofwoodlandherbs on the forest floor. Finding food in thewinter requires knowingwhere to look for edible plants, how to identify themwithout their leaves, andwhichpartscanbeeaten.

WinterBerries

Afterleaveshavedroppedfromthetrees,theberriesareexposed.Someof themare redand standoutagainst thedrabgraynessof thewinterforest.Othersaredark incolorandblend inwith the landscape,oftengoingundetected.Manyareedible.Whiteberriesareusuallytoxicandinclude poison ivy, poison oak, poison sumac, and mistletoe. Mostprovideasourceoffoodforbirdsthatarewinterresidents.

Barberries

Thecommonbarberry,nottobeconfusedwiththeJapanesebarberry,isathornyshrubthatgrowsinhedgerowsandedgesoffieldsandforestsacrossmuchofthenorthernUnitedStates.It’smosteasilyspottedinthespring when clusters of yellow flowers develop. The fruits of thecommon barberry hang in drooping clusters and ripen inmid-autumnand remain on the branches through thewinter. The fruits are edibleandcanbeusedtomakejelly.

Chokeberries

Chokeberries are small trees in the easternUnited States. There is aredandablackchokeberry.Redchokeberryiscommonalongwaterways

and in low,wetareas.The fruits turnbright redwhenripe in late falland remain through thewinter.The fruitsof theblack chokeberryareblack.Thefruitsareratherdryandgetcaughtinthethroatwheneatenraw,givingthemthenamechokeberry.

Cranberries

Cranberriesareintheheathfamilyandgrowinwet,boggyareasfromNewfoundlandallthewaysouthtoNorthCarolina.Thelargecranberryis thesamespecies that iscultivatedandsold ingrocerystores for thewinterholidays. It has trailing stems that can extendout twoor threefeet.Othercranberriesinclude:

Thesmallcranberryissimilartothelargecranberrybuthassmallerleavesthatarewhiterbeneathwithrollededges.Themountaincranberrygrowsmoreuprightandhasasmallclusteroffruitsonthestem.

Cranberries ripen in the late fall,usuallyaftera frostandremainontheplantsthroughthewinter,needingnostorage.Therawfruit is tartandastringentbyitselfbutcanbeaddedtosaladsormadeintodessertsorjuices.

PartridgeberriesandWintergreen

Partridgeberryandwintergreen,thoughnotrelated,lookverysimilar,and both grow in the shade of the forest floor in eastern and centralwoodlands, often together. Both plants produce red fruits that remainthroughoutthewinter.Partridgeberryisatrailing,evergreenvineinthebedstrawfamily.Thewoodystemshavepaired,roundishleavesaboutone-halfinchlongandoftenwithwhite veins.White, tubular flowerswith four petals appearearlytomid-summer,coveringtheforestfloorwithawhitecarpet.

Partridgeberriesareknownasthetwo-eyedfruit.Ittakestwoflowerstomakeafruit.

Theflowersareinpairswiththeovariesfusingtoformasingle,red,berry-likefruitthatretainsthetwoblossomscarswhicharereferredtoasthetwoeyes.Partridgeberriesareedibleandripeninthelatefall,oftenremainingonthevinethroughthewinter.Althoughtheyarelackingintaste,theymakeacolorfuladditiontofruitsaladsandareapleasantnibblewhilehikinginthewoods.Wintergreenleaveslackthewhiteveins,areovalshapedandslightlytoothed.Theyalso trail on the forest floor.Theberrieshaveadistinctwintergreentasteandcanbenibbledormadeintotea.

PricklyPearCactus

Prickly pear is the most widespread cactus with various speciesoccurring throughout much of the United States. The harvest seasonextendsintothewinterinsomeareas.Thefruits,alsocalledtunas,varyconsiderablyinsize,color,andflavor.Usuallythedarker,redonesareriperandjuicier.Tongsorleatherglovesarerecommendedforgatheringcactusfruitssincetheirsurfaceiscoveredwithtinyspines.Thesecanbepartially removed by rolling the fruits in sand. Use a sharp knife toremovethethinlayerofskinfromthefruit.Theremainingspinesliftoffwiththepeel.Oncepeeled,pricklypearfruitscanbeeatenraw.Boiledandstrained,the juice can be used to make juice and jelly. Cut the fruits in half,removetheseeds,anddrythefruitstostoreforfutureuse.

ToyonBerries

The toyon berry is in the rose family and is an evergreen shrub orsmalltreethatislimitedinitsrangetolowerelevationsfromnorthernto southern California. It blooms in the summer with white flowersfollowed by the fruit, which looks like little apples and ripens in thewinter.Theberriescanbeeatenrawbutcanalsobedriedandgroundintoflour,steepedinhotwaterfortea,ormadeintopiesorjellies.

WinterGreens

Inthewinterwhentheleaveshavedroppedandthegrasseshaveturnedbrown,lookforgreenpatches.Thesecanbeinyards,meadows,edgesofforests,oralongwaterways.Theymayappearatfirstasweeds,butonceyou’velearnedtoidentifysomeofthewildgreens,youwillrealizethisisfood.

Chickweed

Chickweedisanannualthatgerminatesinthefallandgrowsthroughthewinter.Lookforthepatchesofgreeninyourlawntolocateit.Theyoungplantshaveslender, sprawlingstemswithpaired leaves thataresmall, less than one inch long. The tops can be trimmed off until thespringwhenitfinallybloomsandgoestoseed.Chickweedcanbeeatenraworaddedtosaladsandherbspreads.

CornSalad

Corn salad is a low-growing annual herb in the valerian family thatwaitsuntilaftertheweatherhascooledofftogerminate.Itoftengrowsintheshadeofotherplantsalongtheedgesofditches,canals,ordampareas throughout the winter. The basal leaves are small with smoothmarginsandroundedtips.Assoonastheweatherstartstogetwarm,aflowerstalkariseswithsmall,whiteorpaleblueflowersinflat-toppedclusterssurroundedbyleafybracts.Theyoungleavescanbeeatenrawandaddedtosalads.

Crucifers

Thecrucifers,alsoknownasthecross-bearers,areaworldwidegroupofplantsbelongingtothemustardfamily.Duringthewinter,whenmostplantsaredormant,theyoungbasalleavesaregrowing.Theyappearasgreen patches in gardens, lawns, or forests. The young leaves can bepicked throughout the winter in mild climates. In cold climates, theywill die back if hit by a hard frost or snowbutwill re-emerge duringwarminterludes.

Miner’sLettuce

Miner’slettuceisanannualherbinthepurslanefamilythatcomesupabout mid-winter after the winter rains. Basal leaves are oval ortriangular inshape,with long,succulent leafstems.Theflowerstalk isdistinct,withcup-likeupper leaves surrounding the stem.Small,whiteflowersgrowinclustersonstemsrisingabovethecup.Leavesareedibleraworcooked.Miner’slettucecanbefoundindamp,shadyareasfromAlaska south to Mexico and from the Rocky Mountains west to thePacificOcean.

Lichens

They come in all shapes and colors—red, yellow, green, blue, brown.Somehang frombranches in long strands,whileothershavea leaflikeshape and cling to dead trees or rocks. Others grow on the trunks oftrees, while still others just sit on top of the ground. They are veryabundantandcanbefoundthroughouttheworld.Lichensareacombinationofafungusandanalga.Togethertheyactas a single entity and receive minerals from rain water and from therocks, trees, soil andother surfaces onwhich they grow. In a survivalsituation,lichenscanbeeatenraw,butifpossible,shouldbesoakedforseveralhours.Lichenscontainlichenin,astarchthatiswatersolubleandlife-sustaining.Lichenscanbegroupedintothreegeneralcategories:

Crustose lichens form a crust on the trunks of trees or on rocks,appearingasdabsofpaint.Foliose lichens have a leaflike shape and are attached to rocks,branches,orlogs.Fruticoselichensaremadeofthin,irregularstrandswoventogetherandhangfromthetreesorsitontheground.

RockTripe

Rocktripeisafolioselichenthatgrowsonrocksinopenwoodsfromthe Arctic south to the northern United States and in the mountainssouth to Georgia. The top surface is gray to olive-brown while theunderside isblack. It is attachednear thecenterandexpandsoutwardveryslowly,formingacircularshapeasitgrows.Afterarain,whileitiswet, it feels leathery and smooth. As it dries, it becomes brittle. Rocktripecanbegatheredbytearingoffpieces, leavingthecenterattachedso it will continue to grow. Rock tripe is edible and can be added tosoups.

ReindeerMoss

Reindeermossismorefrequentlyfoundinnorthernstates,althoughitoccurs in patches as far south as Virginia. It grows on the ground inlargecolonieswithmassesofround,hollow,silvery-graystems.

IcelandMoss

Iceland moss can found in the far north and forms mats that areleaflike and are olive-green to brown, sometimeswith red blotches. Itgrowsonthebaregroundinthearcticandinthemountainsandhillsofthe northern states and along the coast of New England. During dryconditionsthestemsandbranchescurlupandthenflattenoutwhenitiswet. Iceland moss contains bitter properties and should be parboiledbeforeusing.

Roots

Winter iswhenmostof theplantworldappears tobesleeping.Leavesdrop to the ground, vines hang limply, and grasses turn brown.However, this nonliving appearance is just an illusion. The plants areverymuchalive,andallittakesisalittlediggingbeneaththesurfacetorealize this is true. In colder climates thismay not be possible unlessthereisawarmspellandthegroundbeginstothaw.Butforthosewholiveinmildclimates,thereislotsoffoodjustbeneaththesurface.Manyoftheediblerootsinwetlandareasarebestwhenharvestedin

the winter, a time when the water is cold and the tops are dormant.Scouting out the area in advance andmarking the area is helpful forfinding the plants once the leaves have died back. Otherwise, findingandidentifyingtherootsmaybedifficult.

Biennials

Biennials areherbs that formabasal rosetteof leaves the first year,often in the late summerafter the seedshavebeendispersed from theprevious year’s plants. The roots of some biennials are edible andcontinue to grow through the winter. These can be dug at any timebeforetheplantsendsuptheflowerstalkthenextspring.EveningPrimroseEvening primrose is a biennial that comes up from seed in late

summerorearly fall and formsabasal rosetteof leaves thatareoftenspeckledwithredspotsandremaingreenthroughthewinter.Awhite,starchytaprootdevelopsundergroundandcanbeduganytimethroughthewinteras longas theground isnot frozen.Rootscanbeusedasacookedvegetableorwithothervegetables.

EveningPrimrosetapflowerandroot

BurdockBurdockisabiennialherbinthesunflowerfamilythatwasbroughttoAmericabyEuropeans,whogotitfromAsia,whereithasalwaysbeenvaluedasfood.Duringitsfirstyear,itdevelopsabasalrosetteofleavesthatarelargeandfuzzyandcontinuestogrowthroughthewinter.Thisisthetimetodiguptheroots.

Burdockoftencomesupalongtheedgesoffieldsorinmeadowsthatgetmowedperiodically. The plantwill continue to growuntil it finally gets to bloom andproduce seeds.Meanwhile, the root is also growing.And even though it hasn’tbloomed,itcanstillbetoughandwoody.

ThistlesThistlesarebiennialsinthesunflowerfamilythatdeveloptheirleavesinthefall.Theyareoftenseeninfieldsandpasturesoralongtheedgesofforests.Lookforthelarge,sharplyspinedleaves,usuallywithlobes,anddigitup.Thelong,skinnytaprootisedibleandcanbecookedasavegetable.

Cattails

Thereissomepartofthecattailthatisavailableallyear,eveninthewinter.Oncetheleaveshavediedback,thestarchisstoredintheroots.Cattailshavehorizontal rhizomes that spreadout inalldirections.Therhizome is a source of starch. Fall and winter is the time to dig forcattails.Near the base of the plant, just beneath themuck, is a small,whitesproutthathasalreadystarteddevelopingfornextyear’sgrowth.The size varies from one to four inches and has a taste similar tocucumber.Buried evendeeper in themud is theunderground, starchyrhizome that can be used as a flour substitute. In a survival situation,you can chew on the root straight from the ground and spit out thefibers.

Chicory

When chicory is young, the basal leaves look very much like adandelion,withdeeplobesonsomeplantsandshallowlobesonothers.Thedifferenceiswhenitblooms.Youcanspotitasyou’redrivingdownthe road inmid-summer.Beautiful blue flowers line the roadways andfencerows,andaddcolortothefields.Thisischicory,whoserootisusedtomakethecommercialbeveragesoldasacoffeesubstitute.Itsendsupastiffflowerstalkthatproducesblueraysthataresquareatthetopwithfringes.Bymiddaytheflowershaveclosedupandwillbereplacedwithnew flowers the next day. Chicory is a perennial, so once you havelocated it you can return in the fall and winter to dig up the white,fleshytaproots.

DuckPotatoes

Also referred to as arrowheads or wapato, duck potatoes aredistributed throughout the United States. Not all species havearrowhead-shapedleaves.Somehavelinearorlance-shapedleavesthatemergefromtherootsinshallowwater.Theflowerstalkarisesfromthesame root system with no apparent leaves. Flowers with three whitepetals grow in whorls of three on the stalk and are followed by a

greenishballalsoinwhorlsofthree.Rootsextendoutfromthebaseofthe plant, sometimes up to two feet, with tubers that develop on theends. The tubers look and taste very much like potatoes and can besteamedorfriedasyouwouldpotatoes.

Arrow arum also has heart-shaped leaves and is oftenmistaken for arrowhead.Leaves have three prominent veins arising from the base and flowers that aresurroundedbyaleaflikespathe.Darkgreentoblackseedsfollowtheflowers.Therootscontaincalciumoxalatecrystalsthatresultinintenseburningofthemouthandthroatifnotproperlyprepared.

Gatheringthetuberscanbedifficult.Theymatureinlatefallorearlywinteraftertheleaveshavestartedtodieback,andalsoaboutthetimethattemperaturesstarttodropbelowfreezing.Notonlydotherootsgodeep and out, but the tubers are also embedded tightly in the muck.Breakingthemfreerequiresbreakingupthemuckandcanbestbedoneby using a digging fork and stomping around in the muck. Wearingwaders is recommended,as theycanserveasprotectionnotonly fromthecoldwater,butalsofromreptilesthatmightbeawakenedfromtheirwintersleep.

GarlicandOnions—theSmellWillTell

Garlic and onions are in the lily family, with grass-like leaves thatformclumpsinthewinter.Theeasiestwaytotellthedifferencebetweengarlicandonionistodiguptheroots.Fieldgarlichascloves,whiletheonionhasasinglebulb.Thedistinctivecharacteristicforbothspeciesisthestrongsmell.Ifitdoesn’thavetheonionorgarlicsmell,don’teatit.Thedeathcamas,alsointhelilyfamily, lookssimilarbutdoesn’thavetheonionsmell.Therootscanbedugallwinteras longasthegroundisn’tfrozen.

JerusalemArtichoke

Jerusalem artichokes are neither an artichoke nor are they fromJerusalem.TheyareamemberofthesunflowerfamilyandnativetotheplainsofthecentralUnitedStates.ItisnownaturalizedthroughoutmostoftheUnitedStatesandcultivatedinEnglandforitsedibletubersthatcan be gathered all winter as long as the ground isn’t frozen. Theyspreadbytubersandwillquicklycolonizeanareawhenintroduced. Itproducesflowerstalksthatmayreachsixtotwelvefeethighwithyellowsunflower-likeflowersuptothreeincheswideinlatesummer.Waituntilithasfinishedbloomingandgonetoseedbeforeharvestingthetubers.Afrostsometimesimprovestheirflavor.Toharvest,pullthestalkoutofthegroundfirstandshakeanytubers

loose that are still attached.Use a shovel to scoop down about a footawayfromtheplant,beingcarefulnottocutupthetubers.Tubersareroundandknobbylookingandcanbeseveralincheslong.Theycanbescrubbedandeatenraworcookedasavegetable.

Toothwort—theHerbThatBites

Toothwort, pepper-root, and crinkle-root are just someof thenamesgiventothislowlyingwoodlandherbthatbelongstothegenusDentaria.Thereare several speciesofDentaria thatarenative toNorthAmericaandgrowfromQuebectoFlorida,extendingouttoLouisianaandnorthtoMinnesota.Toothwortappears inthewinter,afterall theotherplantshavedied

back.Coarselytoothedleavesareinpairsanddividedintothreeleafletswithprominent,whiteveins.Thedenserootsformamatandappearaspatchesof green that standouton the forest floor. It growsallwinteruntil the days start gettingwarm, then it sends up a flower stalk andblooms. The flowers are white with four petals, characteristic of themustard family, towhich it belongs.After theplant produces seeds, itdiesbackanddisappearsuntilthenextwinter.The root is thepart that is edible andhas a strong,horseradish-like

flavor.Itcanbegratedandusedtoaddaspicyflavortosaladsandsaladdressings.

TreeParts

Asautumnapproachesandleavesdroptotheforestfloor,treebranchesareexposed,asarethetwigs,buds,andbark.Eventhoughtheleavesaregone,itisstillpossibletoidentifytreesjustbylookingattheseskeletalfeatures.Sometreeshavetwigsthatcanbeusedtomaketea,whilethebudsofotherscanbeeaten,andinasurvivalsituation,thebarkofsometreescanbeused.

InnerBark

Trees have an outer bark and an inner bark. The outer bark is thelayerthatprotectsthetreefrominjuries.Theinnerbarkcarriesfoodthatismadeintheleavestothebranches,trunk,androots.Thesapwood,orxylemlayer,carriessapfromtherootstotheleaves.Harvesting the innerbark involves scoring the treewithaknife and

cuttingoffstrips,removingthehard,outerbark.Theinnerbarkisthendriedandgroundintoflourasanemergencyfood.Treeswhosebarkcanbe used for food include alder, ash, basswood, beech, birch, elm, fir,maple,pine,poplar,spruce,andwillow.

TreeSap

Inlatewinterorearlyspring,certaintreesaretappedtocollectsap.Insomeplacestherearemaplesyrupfestivals.Sugarmapleistheonemostfrequentlytapped.Cool,frostynightsandwarm,sunnydaysareneededfor the sap to rise. Other trees that can be tapped include birches,basswood,andhickory.

TwigsandBuds

Thebudsonatreeareactuallymadeupofminiatureleavesintheirembryonic stage.Scales thatvary innumberand sizeaccording to thetree on which they are growing protect most buds. Buds that appearlargeronthesametreeareusuallyflowerbuds.Terminalbudsappearat

the end of the branch and are usually larger than the axillary budslocatedintheleafaxils.The buds are arranged on the branch either in pairs or alternating.

Sometimes theyare inwhorls,with threeormoreencircling the stem.Belowthebudisaleafscarwherethepreviousyear’sleafwasattached.Onthesurfaceoftheleafscarisavaryingnumberofsmalldotsorlines,calledbundlescars,wheresapwaschanneledfromtheleaftothestem.These dots and lines present a variety of patterns that can help toidentifythetree.Usingahandlensisnecessaryinsomecaseswhenthebundlescarsareverysmall.Twigsandbudsofsometreesandshrubscanbenibbledontorelieve

thirst,orinsomecases,tomaketea,includingalder,arborvitae,balsamfir,sassafras,spicebush,andsweetbirch.Sassafrasflowerbudsarelargeandcanbeaddedtosaladsalongwiththeleafbuds,whicharesmaller.

EvergreenLeaves

Conifers have needle-like leaves and are known by most peoplebecauseoftheiruseasaChristmastree.Mostconifersareevergreenandthe needles of some can be used tomake awinter tea that is rich invitaminCbysteepingtheneedlesinhotwater.OtherconifersthatcanbeusedtomakeateaincludeDouglasfir,hemlock,spruce,andlarch.Therearealsobroad-leavedevergreensthatkeeptheirleavesallyear.

Redbayandbaylaurelarebothmembersofthelaurelfamilyandhaveleavesthatcanbeusedthroughthewintermonthsasaseasoning.Thebay laurel growson thewest coast inCaliforniawhile the redbay is anativeshrubontheeastcoast,growingfromDelawaresouthtoFloridaandwesttoTexas.Bayberry,alsocalledwaxmyrtle,isnotrelatedtothebays,butithasa

scentthatissimilartothebayleaf.Itisamedium-sizedshruborsmalltreethatgrowsontheeastcoast,withleavesthataremuchsmallerthantheotherbays. It isamemberof thewaxmyrtle familyandhas leavesthatarearomaticwhencrushedandcanbeusedinthesamewayasbayleavesforseasoning.Theleavescanalsobesteepedinhotwatertomakeastimulatingtea.

CHAPTER12

GrowingWild

Theseedsarethere.Alltheyneedisspaceandanopportunitytogrow.Ifyouhaveayardorgarden,dedicateapartofittothewildplants.Scatterseedsofwildplantsyou would like to see grow there and then sit back and see what happens. Letnature take its course.Watch for the seedlings and then learn to distinguish onefrom another. Cultivate those that have food and nutritional value and removethosethatdon’t.Growingwildplantsisconnectingwithnature.

WeedsfromSeeds

Thousandsoftinyseedsarelyingdormantinthesoil,justwaitingforanopportunitytogerminateandgrow.Sometimesallittakesisdisturbingthe soil by tilling the ground and removing the existing vegetation asonedoeswhenplantingagarden.Soilmounds fromdirtexcavationorbanksalongditchesareotherexamplesofdisturbedareasthatprovideabreedinggroundforyoungplantstogrow.

Annuals

Theannualsareoneofthefirstplantstoemergeinbaresoilthathasbeen disturbed. This includes amaranth, chickweed, corn salad,lambsquarters, miner’s lettuce, purslane, and wild mustards. Theseplants bloom, produce seed, and then die, all within one season.Chickweedandmembersofthemustardfamilyemergeintheearlyfallwhenithasstartedtocooldownandwillgrowuntilitgetstoocoldoraheavy frost sets themback.But as soonas it startswarmingupagain,theycomeback.Notalltheseedssproutatonetime.Whentheyfinallystartbloomingyouknowthatspringisontheway.

Biennials

Following the annuals and sometimes mixed in with them are the

biennials. Seeds of biennials, including evening primrose, thistle, andburdockmaygerminatefromlatespringtoearlyfall.Theycontinuetogrowthroughthewinterandinthespringofthesecondyearsendupaflowerstalk,bloom,andgotoseed.Ifmowedorcutdownbeforetheyget a chance to bloom and produce seed, theymay continue to comebackuntiltheyfinallygetanopportunitytogotoseed.

Perennials

Perennialsarethoseplantsthatcontinuetocomebackyearafteryear.They will come up along with the annuals and biennials, and if notcontrolledoreliminated,willeventuallyreplacethem.Someperennialsdroptheirleavesinthefallandgrownewonesinthespring.Thetopsofothersdiebackcompletelybuttherootremainsaliveundergroundandsends up new growth the next spring. Some plants are short-livedperennialsandmaycomebackforseveralyearsandthendieback.

Succession

One thing that is certain innature is thatnothing stays the same.Theprocess of going from one plant community to the next is calledsuccessionandbeginswiththebaresoil. Italsooccurswhenthereisalightgapcreatedintheforestasaresultoftreescomingdowninstorms.Timberingaforestopensituptolight,andnewgrowthemergesaswell.Forest fires occur naturally as a result of lightning strikes, making itpossibleforseedsthatneedtheheatfromfiretogerminate.Marshesorponds that are filled in, either by nature or people, turn quickly intomeadows.

Meadows

An area that has been cleared of vegetation will experience anexplosion of seed sprouting that will include not only the herbaceousplants,butalsograsses,vines,andtreeseedlings.Theseareplantsthatlike the sunandgrowrapidly.Chickweed,wildmustards,oxeyedaisy,

plantain,wildcarrot,andthistlearesomeoftheannualsandbiennialsthat come up in a meadow. At the same time, perennial grasses,seedlings for vines, honeysuckle, wild grapes, and tree seedlings willemerge. The brambles, including blackberries, raspberries, and wildroses will start making their appearance. If not cut back, they willeventually crowd out the low-growing annuals and some of thebiennials.Mowing ameadow once or twice a yearwill keep it in themeadowstageandpreventthenextstageofsuccessionfromhappening.

PioneerPines

Pines are often referred to as the pioneers of the forest.While theymaynotalwaysbethefirsttreeseedlingstomoveintoanarea,theyareusually the fastest growing. Pines are part of a large family that alsoincludes larches, hemlocks, firs, spruces, and Douglas firs and can befoundthroughouttheUnitedStates,oftencomingupinanareathathasexperienced a fire. They need a lot of sunlight, can tolerate poor soil,and are often drought resistant. They have long taproots that extenddeepintotheearthforwater.Pines provide shade, allowing herbaceous plants and hardwoods togrowintheirunderstory.Astheneedlesdroptotheground,theybuildupathick layerofpinestraw.Pinesarenotable toreproduce in theirownshade,sincetheyneedalotofsunlighttogrow.Theseedshowever,willstillgerminateandmayliveforacoupleofyearsbeforedyingout.

TheGrowingForest

Maples, sweetgum, and poplars are some of the fast-growinghardwood trees that come up in the understory of the forest. Thesearrive with the pines that eventually will tower over them. Vines ofdifferent species form tangles of dense thicketswhile reaching for thelight, sometimes forming spirals around the trees. Sometimes a treegrowsoverthem,leavinginterestingshapesandpatternsinthetrunkofthetree.Adiversityofunderstorytreesandshrubsgrowintheseforests,including serviceberries, crabapples, hawthorns, andblueberries. These

forests are usually dense and difficult to walk through. The slower-growing hardwoods in the understory will eventually replace thosehardwoodtreesthatareintolerantofshade.

AMatureForest

Whenaforestreachesthestagewhereitisabletoreproduceitself,itisamature,orclimaxforest.Oaksareoftenthedominanttreesintheseforestsandtowerover theotherplants.Theyformathickcanopythatprevents sunlight from reaching the forest floor and create an openunderstory.Fewer,ifanyvinesgrowinanolderforest.Acarpetofmossandfernssometimescoverstheforestfloor.

Anumberoftheplantsthatgrowontheforestfloorarerareorendangeredfromoverharvestingor from lossofhabitat.Manyof theseplants,especiallyorchids,requirethespecialconditions inwhichtheyaregrowingto liveandoftendon’tsurvive being transplanted. If you need to move them, include as much dirtaroundthemaspossible.

Theforestflooriswhereyoucanlookforearlyspringwildflowersthatbloombefore the treeshavegrown their leaveswhen theycan receivethe peak sunlight. Brush aside the leafmaterial and youwill seewildginger, partridgeberry, wintergreen, trilliums, orchids, and otherregionalwildflowers.

SeedSavvy

Seeds are contained in an assortment of packages in nature. Some areprettyobvious,whileothersarewellhidden.Theseeds themselvesaredistinctfromeachother.Lookingforseedsforcesyoutolookatplantsinadifferentwayandtoseebeyondthegreenleaves.

Seedsofwildplantsarecontainedinfruitsthataredispersedinnatureinanumberofways.Someareattachedtowingsandarecarriedbythewind.Thesearethepines,maples,ash,andtulippoplar.Chestnutsandburdockhave seeds thatarehitchhikerswithbarbs thatallow them toattach themselves to fur or clothing of those passing by. Most nutssimply drop to the ground, making them easy for squirrels andchipmunks togather.Theydon’talwayseatwhat theygather. Instead,theystorethenuts,oftenbyburyingthemintheground.However,theydon’tnecessarilyrememberwheretheyburiedthemandthenextspring,thosethatwereforgottensproutandnewseedlingsemerge.Manyseedsarecontainedwithinediblefruitsandarecarriedbybirdsto new areas where they are either dropped or passed through thedigestivesystem.Whenyoustartseeingpersimmonseedsonthetrailinthefall,youknowthepersimmonsareripe.Thisisalsotruewithotherfruits. Look for the seeds in the scat of raccoons, opossums, and foxesthat eat the fruits. The undigested seeds pass through the system, andthe next spring, if conditions are right, they will grow into seedlings.Manyseedsaredispersedthisway.

SavingSeeds

Saving seeds begins in the spring,when the firstwild greens bloomand go to seed. Seeds can be collected in areas where you wouldn’tnormallyforage,suchasroadsidesorpollutedwaterways.Alwaysbeonthelookoutforthatwildediblethatyouhavewantedtotryandwatchforittoproduceseeds.Collectafewseedstogettheplantstarted.Ifyoualreadyhaveplantsestablished,besuretoleavesomeatharvesttimetoreseed.Plants that grow and reproduce in a particular region over severalgenerations adapt to the conditions of that region, resulting in ageneticallystrongerplantthatwillmaintainitshealthandproducemoreheavilyunderbothnormalandstressfulsituations.Theseplantsusuallyhave a natural resistance to insect invasion and require a minimalamountofwaterandfertilizers.Whenpossible,grownativeplants.Theyhavebeenaroundfora longtimeandhaveproventheycanwithstandtheenvironmentalconditionsofthatregion.

Plastic bags are easier to carry to the field than paper for collecting seeds.However,seedsshouldbetransferredtoapaperbagassoonasyougethometodryandtopreventmoldfromgrowing.Labelthebag,includingthenameoftheplant,whereyoufoundit,andthedate.

SeedStorage

Ifyouplantokeepyourseedonlyuntilthenextseason,ormaybefora couple of years, find the coolest, driest place in your house to storethem. Avoid excess heat and humidity if possible. A filing cabinet,cardboardbox,orairtightboxworkswell.Forlong-termstorage,seedscan be frozen. Before freezing them, put the seeds in glass jars alongwith silica gel packets added to reduce themoisture and seal.Wait acoupleofdaysbeforeremovingthepacketsandthenresealandfreeze.Evenifyoudon’thavesilicagelyoucanstillsealtheseedsinjarsandfreeze.Theywillremainviableforanumberofyearswhenstoredthisway.Berry seeds can also bedried and stored thisway.Mash the berries

first,andtrytoremoveasmuchofthefleshypulpasyoucan.Forsomeberries,youwillneedtowashthem,usingastrainerwithafineenoughmeshtopreventtheseedsfromslippingthrough.Whentheseedshavebeencleaned,placethembetweenpapertowelstoabsorbthemoistureandchangeasneeded.

StartingSeeds

Aswinter settles in andmostplantshavegone to seed, it is time tolookatseedsthathavebeencollectedthroughtheyearandstartsortingand categorizing. It is also the time to decidewhat areas youwant todedicatetowildplantsandremoveanyyoudon’twant.Someplantscanbe started in pots and left outside through the winter, especially if

they’renativeplants.Theadvantageinstartingseedsinpotsisthatonceyouhaveplantedthemandlabeledthemyouwillknowwhattheyarewhen they come up and can get to know them as they grow throughtheirchanges.

AmericanLotus

TheAmericanlotusiswidelyplantedinpondsfor itsaestheticvalueand in some places has established itself as a weed, spreading byundergroundrhizomesandseeds.Lotusseedshaveahard,impermeableseedcoatandcanremainviableforalongperiodoftime.Seedsmaybepropagated by using a file to scarify the pointed tip of the seeds andsoakingtheminwarmwater,changingthewatertwiceadayuntilsignsofgerminationappear,usuallytwotothreeweeks.Rootsofestablishedplantscanalsobedividedinthespring.Lotusplantsdobestinfullsunandamoist,loamysoil.

TheForager’sGarden

Ifyouwanttobeasuccessfulgardeneranddon’thavealotoftimetospendmaintainingit, thengrowwildplants.Manyof themarediseaseandinsectresistantandrequirelittlemaintenance.Iftheyareplantsthatare native to your area, then those are plants that are adapted to theenvironmentandgenerallyrequirelittlecareorwatering.Growingwildvegetables is one way of making sure you always have your favoriteediblesnearby.Plants that grow and reproduce in a particular region over several

generations adapt to the conditions of that region, resulting in ageneticallystrongerplantthatwillmaintainitshealthandproducemoreheavilyunderbothnormaland stressful situations.Suchplantsusuallyhave a natural resistance to insect invasion and require a minimalamountofwater.Theonlyfertilizerneededisorganiccompost.

SowingWildSeeds

Havingawildvegetablegardenisn’tlimitedtothoseseedsthatareinthesoil.Prepareagardenbedasyouwouldforanyvegetablecropandincludeorganiccompost.Thenscatteryourseeds,includingannualsandbiennials that provide greens for a wild salad. If you have your owncompostpile,anydiscardedfruitscontainingseedsarelikelytocomeupalso.As seedlingsemerge,waituntilyoucan identify thembeforeyouremovethem.Berriesareeasily started fromseed.Collect themwhenmatureor insome cases, after they have dried on the plant. If you’re not going toplantthemrightaway,theyshouldbedriedbyspreadingthemoutonamator tray.Scatter indisturbedsoil in the fall inapartlysunnyarea.Coverwithalayerofdirtandmulchtopreventthemfromdryingout.Eventhoughberryplantswillcomeupintheforest, theywillproducemorefruitsiftheygetmoresunlight.

WoodyPlants

Seeds from trees, shrubs, andvines that requiremore space togrowthantheherbs,canbeplantedintheirnaturalhabitat.Germinationratesand seeddormancy ratesvarywith individual seeds.Theymaynotallgerminate the first season. Itmaybe severalyearsbeforegermination.Someseedsmustfirstpassthroughthedigestivetractofananimal,somerequire cold temperatures,whileothersneedheat froma fire tobreaktheirdormancy.

Maintenance

Even a wild garden requires a certain amount of maintenance. Ifunattended,bythesecondorthirdyear,successionbecomesobviousasgrasses and tree seedlings crowd out the herbaceous plants. Tend to awildgardenasyouwouldadomesticatedgardenbyremovingunwantedgrasses and undesirable weeds. Watering is generally not necessaryunlessitisanunusuallydryseason.

CreatingaWetlandCommunity

Plantsthatgrowinawetarealikedampsoil.Manyoftheseplantsformcolonies and have large, showy flowers. This includes a number ofwetland plants that are also edible. These plants can usually tolerateshort drying-out periods as well as occasional flooding. Creating awetland community involves having a way to hold water. Wetlandcommunities develop around natural and artificial ponds, along riversandstreams,marshes,andswamps.

WaterContainers

Artificiallycreatedwaterpondsandstreamsorsimplyputtingapottedplantinacontainerthatcanholdwateraremeansofholdingwaterforgrowingwetlandplants.Thewaterdepthshouldbeat leastteninches.The soil in a marsh or swamp is mucky and made up of partiallydecomposed plantmaterial. If possible, use rich soil from the earth tolinethecontainer.Youcanbuildupelevationwithsticksorbranchesforplantsthatlikewetsoilbutdon’tlikebeingsubmerged.Containers come inall shapesand sizes. Small tubsareexcellent forstarters with one or two plants. Turning a children’s play pool into awater pond is an excellentway to recycle the poolwhen the child nolonger needs it. Pond liners can be used in excavated or low areas tocollectwater.Theyshouldbethickenoughtopreventtherootsofplantsfrombreakingthrough.Youcaneitherputtheplantsinthepoolorpondoryoucanput thepottedplantdirectly into thepool.Theplantsmaystillneedadditionalwateringwhenthereisalong,dryperiod.

WetlandPlantstoGrow

Tubers and rhizomes of plants such as arrowheads, groundnuts, andcattailscanfillasmallpondinashortperiodof time.Allyouneedtostartisafewtubersandseveralinchesofsoil.Someofthesetubers,suchas arrowhead, are generally ready to be harvested in thewinterwhenthewateriscoldandthetopsaredormant,makingthemdifficulttofind

innatureandevenmoredifficulttodig.Inasmallpond,therootsforma mat and can be lifted by hand and the tubers removed fromunderneath. And there’s no doubt aboutwhat it is, whereas in naturethereareamultitudeofotherrootsandtuberstodistinguishitfrom.Cranberries grow in wet, boggy areas, often with sphagnum moss.

Theycanbeestablishedbybuildingupamoundinapoolorpondsotheplant is above the standingwater. If youhavea source for sphagnum,use that as amulch around the plant.While theymay survive in theshade,youwillhaveabetterchanceofgettingfruitifitgetssomedirectsunlight.

ForestGardening

The word “gardening” brings to mind neat rows of vegetables witheitherfullorpartialexposuretothesun.Butthereisanotherapproachonecan take, and that is forest gardening.A forest garden is simplyagarden modeled after a forest, complete with layers that include thecanopy, understory, shrubs, herbaceous plants, and a ground cover ontheforestfloor.Woodyvinesgrowupthroughthelayerstothetreetops.Asa result, there isusuallyadiversityofplants thatofferavarietyofflowers for pollinating insects, food, and sometimes medicine. Forestgardeningprovidesnativeplantswithahabitattogrowinandrequireslittlemaintenance.

GrowingNutTrees

Nut trees often form the canopy of the forest. Fall is the time forplantingnutsifyouareinterestedingrowingyourowntrees.Itisbestto choose healthy,well-formed nuts from a tree that is native to yourarea.Startinga tree fromseedcanbedonequiteeasily.After thenutsfallandlieonthegroundpartiallycoveredwithmoistleaves,theywillstart to sprout on their own in a few weeks. Nuts can sometimes besprouted by placing them in a shallow dish of water wrapped in amoistenedpapertowel.Somenuts,includingacorns,whengatheredinaplasticbagandleftintherefrigeratorfortoolongwillalsosprout.They

canalsobe startedbyburying them inapotofdirt andputting themoutside.Waterthemlikeyouwouldanyplantyou’restartingfromseed.Thesecanalsobeplanteddirectlyintothesoilwhereyouwantthemtogrow.Sincetheynaturallydropfromthetreesinthefall,thisisagoodtimetoplantthem.Once thenuthas sprouted and the root is two to three inches long,

transfer the nut to a container deep enough for the root and placeoutdoorsinapartiallyshadedlocationandkeepmoist.Whentheseedlingisseveralinchestallitisreadytobetransferredto

its permanent home, either in the spring or fall, when conditions arefavorable for growth.Water regularly until it has adjusted to its newenvironment.The time it takes before nuts are produced varieswith the different

trees or shrubs. Oak nut production can begin in three to five years,whereashickorytreesmaytakeuptofortyyearstoproducenuts.Onceestablished,theywillprovideyouwithasourceoffoodandnutritionformanyyearstocome.

CultivatingWoodlandShrubs

Ifyouhaveawoodedarea,chancesaretheshrubsarealreadythere,eitherinaseedlingstageorhiddenamongotherplants.Findoutwhatshrubsgrowinyourareaandwhichonesprovidefood.Manyareberryproducersandcanbeintroducedifthey’renotpresent.Nativenurseriesaresourcesforgettingwildplantstocultivate.

Canyoustarttreesorshrubsbydiggingupsproutsfromtheparentplant?It depends on which plant it is. Cuttings can successfully be taken from someplants,whileothers,eventhoughitmayappearthatyouhaveplentyofroots,justdon’tsurvive.Thesurvivalrateishigherifyouareabletogettheprimaryroot.

TheForestFloor

Theforest floor iswheretheshade lovers live.This includesa lotofthe early blooming wildflowers, mosses, and ferns. A woodlandwildflower garden is fun and easy to grow. All it needs is shade,moisture,andspace.Itrequiresmoremaintenancethantheotherlayers,otherwise successionwill occur as taller,more aggressive plantsmovein.

CHAPTER13

IntotheForager’sKitchen

Thekitchen iswheremagichappens. It isachemical laboratory,whereyoumix,measure,combineingredients,andhopefully,comeupwithadishthatexceedsallexpectations.A forager’skitchendoesn’t looktoodifferent fromaregularkitchenexceptforthepresenceofunusualorinterestinglookinggadgets.Plantsbroughtinfrom the field often require special treatment tomake them palatable, and veryoften that treatment requires tools that a regular kitchen wouldn’t have. It’sthroughexperiencethatyouwilldevelopyourkitchenaccordingtoyourneeds.

GadgetsandUtensils

Every forager has their favorite cooking gadgets and utensils. Findingtools that can help you process plants in an energy-efficient way willmakeiteasiertoincludetheminyourdietonaregularbasis.Oftenyouwillfindthatyoualreadyhavethetoolsyouneed.Preparingwildfoodsoften involves being creative and adapting to the situation. However,therearecertainbasicsthateveryoneshouldhave.

StrainersandJuicers

Strainers arenecessary and shouldbe included in anykitchen.Theycome in an assortment of sizes and have lots of uses. Extracting juicefromfruitsrequiresseparatingthepulpfromtheseeds.Onewaythiscanbedoneistopressthefruitthroughthestrainerusingaspoon.Youcanalso line the strainer with a coffee filter and pour tea through it toremoveplantparticles.Colandersworkforlargeitems,especiallywhenrinsing or draining liquids. Salad spinners are wonderful tools forspinningoffmoistureforherbsandsaladgreens.Reusable,cottonclothbags can also be used as a strainer and are especially useful whenmakingwildteas.Afoleyfoodmillisastepaboveastrainer.Fruitisstrainedbyturning

a handle attached to a press. It pushes the pulp through the strainer

whileholdingbacktheseeds.

Avoidusing a commercial juicer or blenderwhen juicing fruits such as grapes,cherries,orotherfruitswithahardseed.Theseedwillalsobecrushed,addingawoodytasteinsomeinstances.Cherries,apples,andplumscontaincyanideintheseedsandshouldnotbeeaten.

Steamjuicersaremoreexpensivethanstrainersorfoodmillsbutworkgreattoextractjuicefromfruit,especiallyifyou’reworkingwithalargequantity of fruit. The juice that is extracted is concentrated, with noaddedliquid,retainingmorevitaminsandnutrients.

GrindersandNutPickers

Grindingtoolsareneededfornuts,seeds,andotherdriedplantpartstobe turned into flour.Stonesworkwell for thispurpose.Butnot justanystone.Itneedstofitcomfortablyinthepalmofyourhand.Alargerstone is needed as a base to pound onto. If no stones are available, ahammer will do. A nut picker is handy for removing nuts from theirshells. If you’re not able to find one commercially, try using a nail orotherobjectwithasharp,pointedtip.Youcanalsobuyelectriccoffeeorseedgrindersthatarequickerandeasierifyou’regoingtobedoingalotof grinding. A blender or food processor will work for grinding orchoppingsomeplants.

PotsandPans

Every kitchen needs at least one pot to cook in and one pan forbaking.Moreisbetter.Theycomeinallsizes.Slowcookersaregoodforsoupsandstews.Skilletsarehandy for stir-friesand fritters.Thesecanbeeitherironskilletsorelectricforconvenience.Potsofdifferentsizesforboilingwaterandsteamingvegetablesarealsouseful.

Teakettlesforboilingwaterandteapotsforsteepingherbsforwildteaareamust.Anypan that canholdwaterandbeplacedon theburnercan serve as a teakettle. There are also electric teakettles as well ascoffeepotsthatcanserveasateapot.Coffeepotsaregoodforherbsthatneed to simmer on a low temperature or to keep tea hot until you’rereadytoserveit.Using steam to cook vegetables rather than boiling them preservesmoreoftheflavorandnutrients.Thiscanbedonewithasteamcookerthathas twopots.Thebottom is likea saucepan thatholds thewater.The other pot holds the food. It sits on the bottom pot and acts as astrainer with holes in the bottom. As the water heats, steam risesthrough the openings and cooks the food. The water that is used forsteamingvegetablescanthenbeusedasabrothorastheliquidthatisneededforarecipe.

StorageandServingContainers

Ifyoureturnfromthefieldwithagoodyieldyouwillneedcontainersto store the excess. Before storing them, they still need somepreparation. If you’re going to store them in the pantry, theymust becleanedanddriedfirst.Driedherbscanbestoredinglassjars.Freezingisanotherwayofstoringplantfoods.Freezerbagsorplasticbowlscanbeusedforthis.Anassortmentofjarsofdifferentsizesandfreezerbagsshouldalwaysbeavailable.Onceyouhavepreparedyourdishyouwillneedsomethingtoserveiton.Traysfromnaturalmaterialssuchaswoodenplatesorbowlsprovideanattractivedisplay.Otherwise,anyplateorbowlworks.Trays also can be used as drying racks. Line the bottoms withnewspapers or paper towels to absorb moisture and place in a well-ventilated area. Especially in humid areas, a dehydrator is handy fordryingplantsthatotherwisewouldtakealongtimeornotdryatall.

StockingthePantry

Justbecauseyou’recookingwithwildplantsdoesn’tmean thatall theingredients have to be wild. However, the pantry can serve as thestorageareaforherbsandseasoningsthatyouhavegatheredanddriedaswellascommercialitems.

Sweeteners

If you like to make desserts you will need sweeteners. It doesn’tnecessarilyhavetobewhitesugar.Thereisalsorawsugar,honey,agavenectar, syrup, andmolasses to choose from at the grocery store.Wildfruitpreservesandsyrupscanalsobeusedasasweetener.Somefruitsare sweeter than others and can be dried and ground for use as asweetener. Persimmons are one of these fruits. When dried as fruitleather,thetasteisverysimilartodates.Grinditupanduseasasugarsubstitute.

Ifyouarehavingaprobleminyourkitchenorpantrywith Indianmealmoths,onesolutionthatwasmentionedinalocalnewspaperwastousetheleavesofthebaytree.Youcanalsoexperimentwithusingtheleavesofbayberryorredbayifyouliveneartheeastcoast,orotherfragrantherbsinyourarea.

Flours

Flours are good to have for use as thickeners and flavors, plus theyadd bulk to other ingredients. Flour or meal can be obtained from anumberofwildplantsandeitherusedaloneorwithregularflourasanextender,dependingontheuse.Pollencollectedfromcattailsandpinesissoftandaddsflufftopancakemixorotherflour.Nutsandseedscanbegroundupandused toaddanutty flavor tobreadsandcakes.Theseeds of lambsquarters, amaranth, wild buckwheat, dock, and mostgrasses canbedried, groundup, and stored in thepantryor frozen to

supplementothertypesofflour.

OilsandVinegars

Olive oil is good for general cooking and can be used in stir-fries,saladdressings,andothervegetabledishes.Therearealsoanumberofotheroils, includingpeanut, sunflower seed, coconut, and sesame seedoil that add flavor. Butter can be used instead of oil inmost recipes.Experimentwith the different flavors in creating your recipes and seewhatworksforyou.

NutsandSeeds

Nuts and seeds add flavor to lots of dishes. You should have acombinationofwildandcultivatednutsandseedsthatincludeeveningprimrose seeds, mustard seeds, sunflower seeds, pumpkin seeds, chiaseeds, and hemp seeds. Nuts are good for about a year in their shellbeforebecomingrancid.Otherwisetheyshouldbefrozenuntilreadytouse.Seeds,whendry,canbestoredinglassjarsinthepantry.

WildSubstitutes

Findingrecipeswithwildfoodsisusuallyprettyrareunlessyouhaveawildfoodscookbookonyourbookshelf.However,mostwildplantshavea cultivated counterpart.Whenwonderinghow to use a plant, taste itfirstandseewhatitremindsyouof.Ifthetasteisunlikeanythingyou’veever known, then look at the texture to determine what it resembles.Remember, thekitchen isa laboratoryandyou’reexperimenting.Takenotes.

MilkSubstitutes

Fruitbeverages,juices,orteascanbeusedasasubstituteformilkinmanyfoods.Insomecasesyoumayneedtouselessthantherecipecalls

for.Nutsareagreatsourceofmilk,especiallyhickorynuts.Thewaterthat is strained from thenuts afterpoundingand soaking them is richand creamy andmakes awonderful addition to any recipe calling formilk.

PectinSources

Thereareanumberoffruitsthatarehighinpectin,especiallywhenunripe. This includeswild cherries, grapes, black gums, and especiallycrabapples. What crabapples lack in sweetness, they make up for inpectin,especiallyintheskin.Becauseoftheirhighpectincontent,theycanbeusedasasourceofpectinwhenmakingjamsorjelliesfromfruitsthatareloworlackinginpectin.Concentratedliquidpectincanalsobemadeandstoredforlateruse.

HorseradishSubstitutes

Toothwort,alsoreferredtobyitsgenusname,dentaria,isamemberof the mustard family and has a root that resembles horseradish inflavor.Winter is the time to look for toothwort.This iswhen the low-lying herb makes its appearance on the forest floor. Three coarselytoothedleafletswithprominent,whiteveinshelptolocateit.Other members of the mustard family that resemble horseradish in

flavor includebittercress andpeppergrass.Both are annuals that comeup in the fall, grow through the winter, and produce small, whiteflowers in theearlyspring.The leaves, flowers,andflowerbudscanbeusedtoaddahorseradish-likeflavortosaladsanddressings.

Seasonings

Redbayandbaylaurelarebothmembersofthelaurelfamilyandhaveleaves that,when crushed,have a smell that is similar to thebay leafandcanbeusedasasubstituteforbayleavesincooking.SeveralspeciesofbayberryinthegenusMyricahaveleaveswithafragrantscentsimilarto the bay leaf and can be used aswell. Flowers and young leaves of

sassafrasarespicytastingandcanbeaddedtorice,soups,andvegetabledishes.Cultivatedonionsandgarliccanbesubstitutedwithfieldgarlic,wild

onions,orrampsinthoseareaswhereitgrows.

Spicebush—aNativeAllspice

Spicebushberriesturnbrightredwhentheyareripe,turningdarkincolor as they dry. They can be dried by using a dehydrator or byspreadingthemoutonamattoair-dry.Oncetheyarethoroughlydried,theycanbegroundup,usingeitheramortarandpestleastheIndiansdid, or put in a coffee grinder or blender. Some prefer to remove thehard seed in the center while others grind it up with the berry. Theground-upberries shouldbe stored in tightlycoveredglass jars.Dried,ground-upberriescanbeusedasasubstituteforallspice.Becausetheyhavesuchastrongflavor,theamountusedshouldbereducedtoabouthalfofthecommercialbrand.

SaltPlants

Withoutsalt,somefoodstasteblandnomatterwhatseasoningsyouadd.If you live near a salt marsh on the east coast, from eastern NewBrunswickandNovaScotiasouthalongthecoasttoGeorgia,chancesareyouhaveplantsthatcontainsaltintheirstemsorleaves.Plantsthatlivein a salty environment have to adapt by either excreting the salt orstoringitintheirstems.

Saltwort

Saltwort,alsoreferredtobyitsgenusname,Salicornia,growsontheedgesofsaltmarshesandtidalcreeksalongtheeastcoastfromEasternNewBrunswickandNovaScotiasouthalongthecoasttoGeorgia.Therearealso several specieson thewestcoastaswellasaroundsalineandalkaline lakesontheGreatPlains, in theRockies,andtheGreatBasin.

Theyareoneofthefirstplantstocolonizeonbaretidalflats.Thename“Salicornia”comesfromtheword“sal,”whichmeanssalt,and“cornus,”meaninghorn,fromthestemsontheplantthatlooklikelittle horns. Common names vary from saltwort to glasswort,pickleweed,andmarshsamphire.Membersofthegoosefootfamily,theyare characterized by succulent stems with leaves that are reduced toblunt scales, an adaptation to conserve water and protect themselvesfromdehydration.Lashedbysaltwindsandinsomecases,immersedbyincoming tides, they remain in place by spreading their rootsundergroundtoformamatthatpreventsthemfrombeinguprootedbytidalwaters.Minute green flowers are inconspicuous andborne in thehollowsoftheupperjoints,followedbysmallseeds.Salicornia is not the only plant from which salt can be obtained.Orach, another member of the goosefoot family, also grows in saltmarshesandhasasaltytasteaswell.Theleavesarefleshyandshapedlikeanarrow.Smallclustersofflowersgrowintheleafaxils.Theyoungleavesandtipscanbeusedtoaddasaltyflavortofood.Saltmarshcordgrasshasadaptedtoasaltyenvironmentbyexcretingexcess salt from its leaves. Try rubbing the leaf blade between twofingersandthenlickyourfingers.Thisprocesscanalsobeusedtotestthesaltinessofthewater. If thewater ismildlysalty,youmaynotgetmuchsaltatall.Atothertimesyoumayactuallybeabletocollectsaltcrystals that can be used for salt. Cordgrasses often grow in the saltmarshwithSalicornia.

FromtheFieldtotheTable

Bringing wild plants home for dinner involvesmore than just pickingthem.Forsomeplantsthereisaprocessinvolvedbeforethey’rereadytoeat.Skillandpatiencearerequired,assomeoftheworkcanbetedious.Therewardscomewhenyousitdowntoeat.

MakingTea

Herbsused tomake teas canusuallybeused fresh from the fieldordriedfor lateruse.Teasfromflowersandleavesareusuallysteepedinhotwatertomakeaninfusion.Todrinkasabeverage,theyonlyneedtosteepforafewminutes.Formedicinalbenefitstheyshouldsteepfortentotwentyminutes.Adecoctionismadeofroots,bark,andtwigsbyfirstbringingthewatertoaboilandthensimmeringthemfortentotwentyminutes.Plants can also be dried and used to make tea. Berries should becrushedbefore steepingand then strained througha filter.Generallyateaspoonofdriedherbsissufficientforacupoftea.Whilesteeping,theyshouldbecoveredsotheessencedoesn’tescapeinthesteam.

GreensandVegetables

Manyof thewildgreensaregood justas theyare, straight fromthefieldintothesaladbowl.Thosethataretoobitterforyourtastecanbemellowed by cooking. Certain ones must be cooked before eating toremove toxins that otherwise might make you sick. Still others needadditionalpeelingortrimmingawayofpartsthatareinedible.CactusPadsCactus pads are edible and can be made into delicious recipes, butthey are armedanddangerous. Theyhave sharp spines surroundedbytufts of bristly hairs that pierce the skin and are difficult to see. Theymustberemovedbeforeyoucaneatthem.Useyoungcactuspadswhiletheyaretender.Tongsarerecommendedforremovingthem.Rollinthesandorgrassfirsttoremoveasmanyspinesasyoucan.Ithelpstosteamorboilthemtosoftentheremainingspines.Usingasharpknife,removetheskinsandthorns.Cutofftheouteredgesandanyrubberytips,andthenscrapeorcutoutanyremainingspines.Rinseunderrunningwaterandinspectcarefullyundergoodlightingforanyadditionalspines.Youdon’twant these to end up in your tongue or throat later. Otherwise,they’rereadytobeslicedordicedforwhateverrecipeyouareusing.PokeYoung poke leaves and stalks are both edible but should never beeaten raw.Youwill throwup.The stalks are somewhat likeasparagus

whenpreparedwithouttheleaves.Beginwiththelowerleavesandpeeldown the stalk, removing the layerof skinwhileyou’reat it.Youcankeep the young leaves at the top and either add to the stalks or keepseparatelyandprepareasacookedgreen.Preparebycoveringtheyoungleavesandstalkswithcoldwater.Bringjusttothepointofboilingandstrain. Repeat the process a second time. Poke is now ready to use insalads,cookedasvegetables,orasanasparagussubstitute.

Fruits

Serviceberries, blueberries, blackberries, and raspberries are amongthefruitsthatneednopreparationtoeatoruseinrecipes.Others,likecherries and plums have seeds in the center that must be separatedbeforeusing.Asimplewaytodothiswheninthefield is toput fruitslikewildcherryorblackgumberriesinazip-topbag,addalittlewater,zipthebag,andthenmashthefruitsbetweenthepalmsofyourhands.Youcanmakeyourfruitjuicewhilehikingandthenstrainittoremovetheseeds.A foley foodmill isamust forprocessingcertain fruits.Persimmons

have large, flat seeds thatare separated from thepulpbypressing therawfruitsthroughthefoodmill.Wildcherries,blackgums,mayapples,andpassionfruitsareamongthosethathaveseedsthatclingtothepulpandseparatemoreeasilywhenheated.Addjustenoughwatertocoverthe fruits. Bring to a gentle boil for ten to fifteen minutes to get thejuicesflowingandthenpressthroughthefoodmill.Wildgrapesget specialattention,dependingonhowyou’regoing to

usethem.Ifyouwanttomakeapieorjam,youwillwanttokeepthehullsbutgetridoftheseeds.Youcandothisbysqueezingthepulpoutthe stem end and separating it from the hulls. Heat the pulp ten orfifteenminutesuntil the juicesareflowingandthenstrainthroughthefoleyfoodmill.Takethejuicethatyougetandputitbackinwiththehullsandmixitupwell.Itisnowreadyforuse.Onthehigherend is thesteamjuicer,whichcanbeabitexpensive.

Juice isextractedfromthe fruitsusingsteam.Thiscomes inhandyforsmall fruits like crabapples or rosehips that canbe tedious toprocess

otherwise.

Nuts

Nutshaveanouterhull thatcontains thenut,which isahardshell,insidewhichisthenutmeat.Forsomenuts,includingthehickoriesandchestnuts, the outer hull splits open and the nut drops to the ground.Whenblackwalnutsmaturetheydroptothegroundwiththeouterhullintact.Once the black walnut hull has been removed, rinse the nuts in a

bucketofwater,removinganythatfloat,andspreadinasinglelayeronamat or well-ventilated area to dry. Drying times will vary andmaytake fromaweek to amonth,dependingon the conditions.Oncedry,blackwalnutscanbestoredinacool,dryplaceuntilreadytouse.Nutshaveashell thatmustbecracked toget to thenutmeat inside.

Some are harder than others. Hickory nuts and black walnuts have athickshellthatcanonlybecrackedwitharockorhammer.Crackingthenutsrequiresskillthatcomeswithpractice.Findarockthatfits inthepalmofyourhand.Useanotherflatstonetoplacethenuton.Thengiveit a sharp blow.When the right spot is hit, the shellwill crack open,revealingthechambersofnutmeatinside.Nutpickerscanthenbeusedtopickoutthenutmeat.

Thegreenhulls surroundingtheblackwalnutshouldberemovedrightawaytopreventbecominginfestedwithmaggots.Removingthemwithoutgettingstainedcanbetricky.Theeasiestwayistoplacethewalnutsinthedrivewaybehindthewheelsofyourcarandbackoutoverthem.Wearinggloves,breakawaytheouterhullsandremovethenut.

Nuts can also be crushed and boiled. The nutmeat floats to the top,which can be skimmed off, and the heavier shells sink to the bottom.

The strained liquid, or nut milk, can be used as a drink or added tobread,cookies,orcakes,addinganuttyflavor.All acorns are edible. However, they also contain tannic acid that

makesthemtasteverybitter.Thetannincanberemovedbysoakingtheacorns in water. Once acorns have been gathered, either shell themimmediately or freeze them inside the shell until you’re ready to usethem.Otherwisetheymaystartsproutingorgetmoldy.

Doallacornshavetobeleachedbeforeyoucaneatthem?LiveoaksthatgrowontheeastcoastfromVirginiasouthtoFloridaandwesttoTexasproduceacornsthatarelowintanninandcanbeeatenraw.Whenmaturetheyturnshinybrownanddropfromthetree.Immature,greenacornssometimesdropfromthetreesearlybuttastebitter.

Oncetheacornshavebeenshelled,putthemintheblenderandchopthemup.Youcanuseaclothbagtoputthegroundupacornmealintoandthenputintoapotofwater.Whenthewaterturnsdark,pouritoffandaddmore.Repeattheprocessuntilthewaterremainsclear.Youcanthen spread theacornmealona trayanddry inadehydratororonabakingdishintheovenonalowtemperature,turningoccasionally.

Roots

Most roots can be scrubbed and sliced and they’re ready to use.However,somerequireadditionalpreparationforspecificuses,whetherit’sgoingtobeforflour,beverages,orsomeotheruse.CattailsCattail roots can be harvested year-round. They have underground

rhizomesthatcontainstarchandcanbeusedasafloursubstitute.Therootsfirsthavetobecoveredwithwater,thenpoundedandbrokenuptobreak the starch free that settles to thebottom.After thewaterhascleared,strainthewateroff,leavingthestarchatthebottom.Thisstarch

canbeusedasisordriedandstoredforlateruse.Thebesttimefortherhizome is during thewinter,when the above-ground parts have diedbackandthestarchisstoredintheroots.ChicoryandDandelionsChicoryanddandelionrootsareedibleandcanbechoppedandadded

to soups with no additional preparation. However, if you plan to usethemasabeverageornoncaffeinatedcoffeesubstitute,theyhavetoberoasted. Scrape off as much of the tough outer skin and rootlets aspossible.Placerootsonacookiesheetanddryintheovenat200°Funtilbrownandbrittle,about twohours.Oncetheyarecompletelydry,putthemintheblenderorcoffeegrindertopulverizethem.

Seeds

Seedsshouldbegatheredinpaperbagsfordrying.Turningtheplantsupside down in the bag allows the seeds to drop to the bottom.Thrashingthebagagainstaboardhelpstoreleasetheseeds.Sometimesthe seeds canbe stripped from theplants.Wildbeans,whendry, splitopenandthebeanspopout.Regardlessofhowtheseedsaregathered,thereisusuallyplantdebris

mixed inwith them that you don’t want to include in your recipe. Astrainerwithholeslargeenoughfortheseedstopassthroughbutsmallenough to keep the debris out works for small seeds like eveningprimrose. Screens canbeusedas strainers andcome indifferentmeshsizes for largerseeds likebeans.Pickawindydayandgooutsidewithyourseedsandtransferthemfromonecontainertoanother,lettingthewindcarryawaythechaffandouterhulls.Seedsthatareroundcanbeplacedonstiffpaperandheldupatananglewheretheywillrolldown,leavingthehusksbehind.

TheseedsoftheAmericanlotus,whenmature,areaboutthesizeofasmallacornandhaveahard, thickshellwhenripe thatmustbeparched first to loosen the

inner kernel. The seeds can then be cracked, the shell removed, and eitherroasted,boiled,ordriedandgroundintoflour.

WildFoodNutrition

Wild foods are more than just empty calories. They are concentratedwithvitaminsandnutrientsaswellascompoundsthatcanhelprelievecertainailments.Ifyouknowwhichplantscontaincertainnutrientsthatyouneed,youcanharvestthoseplantsandeatyourwaytogoodhealth.

EattheWeeds

Cancer-fighting antioxidants are found in a number of wild greens.Antioxidants are a group of vitamins, minerals, and enzymes that arebelievedtohelpslowtheagingprocess.Purslaneisonethat,inadditiontovitaminCandbeta-carotene,also is rich inomega-3 fattyacidsandmayhelplowercholesterol.Eveningprimroseseedscontaingammalinoleicacid,whichhasbeen

reported to have a number of health benefits. It also containstryptophan,whichisanaminoacidthatisnecessaryfortheproductionofniacinandisusedbythebraintoproduceserotonin.

Eatingrawisbecomingpopularamongsomepeoplewhoare trying to improvetheirhealthorrecoverfromaseriousillness.Beingonarawfoodsdietinvolveseatingfoodsthathaven’tbeencooked,grilled,orsteamed,sincecookingathightemperaturesmaykillcertainenzymesnecessarytodigest food.Rawfoodsmaybedehydratedatatemperaturenomorethan110°F.Theymayalsobefrozenorfermented.

Followingisalistofotherplantsandthenutrientstheycontain:

Violets are a source of vitamin C and rutin, a compound thatstrengthensbloodvessels.Grape seeds, leaves, and Japanese knotweed are sources ofresveratrol,ananti-inflammatorycompound.Dandelions,stingingnettles,chickweed,andothergreensaregoodsourcesofcalciumandiron.Horsebalmandbeebalmcontainthymol,anaturalantiseptic.Purslane, burdock, and chickweed are sources for magnesium,which is vital to enzyme activity and assists in calcium andpotassiumuptake.Red clover and groundnuts provide genistein, an isoflavone thatpossiblypreventsthespreadofbreastcancer.Bittercress, burdock, dandelion, and lambsquarters containphosphorous, essential for growth and maintenance of all bodytissues.Wildgreens includingpokeweed,watercress,andpurslane,aswellas rose hips, pine needles, sumac, and false solomon’s seal aresourcesforvitaminC.

Nuts

Hickory nuts are very nutritious.One poundof shelled hickory nutshasoverthreethousandcaloriesandmorethanthreehundredgramsoffataccordingtotheUSDAHandbookoftheNutritionalContentsofFoods.The fat includes essential fatty acids shown to prevent heart disease.Theyalsoprovideprotein,carbohydrates, iron,phosphorous,and traceminerals. Hickory nuts and blackwalnuts are a source of serotonin, amoodelevator.

CHAPTER14

StoringWildPlants

Wild food is seasonal.Theharvest seasonarriveswhenthecrop is ready. If it’saproductiveyear,theremaybemorethancanbeeatenbeforeitgoesbad.Youcanstretch the season through differentmethods of storing the plants,making themavailable for use even when they’re out of season. Otherwise, you won’t haveanotheropportunityuntilnextyear.Thereareanumberofmethodsthatyoucanusetostorewildfoods,andtheoneyouusewilldependonwhatyou’restoringandtheclimatewhereyoulive.

Dehydration

Theeasiestandoldestmethodofpreservingandstoringplantsistodrythem.Drying themshrinks thevolume, so they takeup less spaceandhaveashelflifeofatleastoneyear,untilthenextharvestseasoncomesaround.Herbs,nuts,berries,andseedscanallbedriedandstoreduntilreadytouse.Toreuse,dependingonthepartanduse,youcanrehydratethembylettingthemsteepinhotwaterat leasttentofifteenminutes,forsomethingslonger.

AirDrying

Airdrying is theeasiest andmost convenientway todryyourplantmaterials.Allyouneedisspaceandaircirculation.Youcaneasilyturnacornerofyourkitchenorporchintoadryingareabyopeningwindows,getting a fan, and either hanging the plants or spreading them on adryingrack.HangingHerbsMany herbs can be tied and hung in bundles in a roomwith good

circulationtodry.Plantswithlongstemsandsmallleavesworkwellforthis.Plants collected for seeds canbedried thiswayaswell, allowingthe seeds to drop to the bottom of a paper bag. Peppergrass, eveningprimrose seeds, lambsquarters, amaranth, mints, and goldenrods are

examples of plants to air dry. Cut them near the base, remove anyyelloworinsect-eatenleaves,tieatthebaseinsmallbuncheswithstringor a rubber band, and hang them from rafters if available.Otherwise,find a corner with good circulation and use clothesline string or adecorativesticktohangthemfrom.Makesuretheyarefarenoughapartnottotouch.Thiswillgiveanherbalsmelltoyourroom.DryingRacksScreensmakegooddrying racks.Justmakesure they’rewashedandsterilizedandelevatedenoughsoaircancirculateunderneath.Thesearehandytohaveforwhenyoucomeinfromthefieldandyoudon’thavetimetoprocesswhatyouhavegathered.Youcanspreadyourplantsontherackandleavethem.Justremembertoturnthemperiodically.Thisworkswellforlargerplantmaterialsuchasrootsortwigs.Italsoworksforflowerssuchasoxeyedaisyandmints.Large,juicyfruitsshouldbecut in half to prevent gettingmoldy on the inside and to dry quicker.Placing racksona tableunderaceiling fanwithopenwindowsworksreallywell.BasketsBaskets made from natural materials are convenient containers andprovidestorageforlotsofitems.Nutsstoredinhangingbasketsfromtherafterswill last at least through thewinter.However, they are rich inoilsandwillgorancidquicklyinhot,humidclimates.Otherplantsthatdrywellinbasketsincludesumacclusters,wildbeans,andtheseedsofplantsthatarelargeenoughnottofallthroughthecracksinthebasket.Somerootscanbestoredtemporarilyinbaskets.

SolarDrying

Usingthesuntodryfoodsisthemostnaturalandnutritionalwaytopreserve them. Solar dryers are easy to build and give you anopportunitytostorewhatyouhavegathereduntilyouneedit.Alarge,open-topcardboardboxcanbeturnedintoasolardryerwithjustafewmodifications, or you can build one with plywood. Pizza boxes haveevenbeenusedforsmallitems.Maintainingatemperatureof110°andprovidingaircirculationaretheprimaryfactorstoconsider.

Dehydrators

Dehydrators are sold commercially that can greatly speed up thedrying process, especially in a humid environment. Themore efficientoneshaveafanandathermostat,whichishelpfulforthosewhowanttoretain enzymes that otherwise would be destroyed by heat. An oventurneddowntoitslowestsettingcanbeusedtodrysomethings.Asolarovencanalsobeusedasadehydrator.Wild greens dry well in a dehydrator. The quick drying processenablesthemtoretaintheirgreencoloraswellasnutrients.Oncetheyaredry,youcanpowderthem,eitherinacoffeegrinderorbetweenthepalmsofyourhands,vacuumsealorputinaglassjar,label,anddate.Berries drywell but need to be turned periodically so theywill dryevenly.Dryingelderberriesontraysinthesunhelpsreducetheirstrongflavor.Youcanmakefruitleatherbyspreadingpuréedfruitsonadryingsheet, either in a dehydrator or outdoors in partial sunlight. Whendrying fruits outdoors, it might be helpful to cover them withcheesecloth to prevent flies and other insects from finding them,dependingonwhereyoulive.

Vacuumsealingyourfoodisessentialifyouwanttostoreitforlongerperiodsoftime.Avacuumsealerisusedforthispurpose.Itconsistsofavacuummachineandvacuumsealbags,whichusuallycomewiththemachine.Itworksbysuckingoutalltheairfromthebagandthenusingheattosealit.

RootStorage

Harvestingandstoringedibleroots forwinteruse isacustomthathasbeenpracticed formanyyears.Root storagecanbedoneusingseveralmethods,dependingonwhereyouliveandhowcoldyourwintersare.

IntheGround

Someroots,likeJerusalemartichokes,eveningprimrose,andburdockcanbestoredbysimplyleavingtheminthegroundanddiggingthemupwhen needed. The disadvantagewith thismethod is thatwhen you’reready to use them the ground may be frozen, weather may not becooperating, or youmay notwant to take the time to go out and digthem. Another problem in areas with warmer temperatures is thatundergroundrodentsandbeetlelarvaemayfeedonthembeforeyougetto them.Or if there is a reallywarm spell, some roots, like Jerusalemartichokes,willstarttosprout.

ColdStorage

Coldstorageinvolveskeepingrootsalive,butdormant.Inareaswithcold winters where the ground remains frozen for periods of time,havingrootsinstorageisconvenient.Whenyoudigthemup,besuretokeep some soil around them. You want to keep them cool enough sotheydon’tgrowbutwarmenoughsotheydon’tfreeze.Iftheydryout,theywilldiealso.Arootcellarorbasementcanbeusedforsomeroots.If you have an outbuilding or other storage facility with goodventilation, it canbe turned into a drying roomaswell.Awoodenorcardboardboxcanbeusedforsmallquantitiesortheycanbelayeredinmoundsorpitsbetweensandorstraw.Oldnewspaperscanalsobeusedfor layering.Youmaywant to try severalmethods in thebeginning toseewhat’sgoingtoworkbestforyouandtheareawhereyoulive.

Freezing

Freezingwildfoodsisonewaytostorethemandrequireslittletimeandpreparation. Many plants can be brought in from the field, washed,placed in freezer containers, and frozen with no extra preparation.Freezingthemstopsthegrowthoforganismsthatwouldspoilthefood.Freezercontainersorpackagingmaterialsshouldbewaterproofandeasytosealinordertoprotecttheplantsfromdryingout,whichcanresultin

freezerburn.

FreezingFruits

Fruits generally do well frozen, retaining much of their nutritionalvalue,flavor,texture,andcolor.Thisincludesblueberries,blackberries,elderberries, persimmons, and pawpaws. Cherries, grapes, and blackgumsareamongthosefruitsthathaveseedsinside.It’sagoodpracticeto remove these seeds before freezing them to make sure they don’taccidentallyendupinarecipe.

FreezingGreensandVegetables

Wildgreensandvegetablescanbefrozen,butnotallofthem.Thosewithahighwatercontent,likesomeofthesaladgreens,don’tdoaswellasthosewithlesswater.Greensandvegetablesshouldbeblanchedfirstby immersing them inhotwateror steamand thencooling them.Thelengthof time isdeterminedby the sizeand texture.Cookingkills theenzymesthatwouldcausethemtolosetheirflavor,color,andtexture.Vegetablesthathavebeencookedandareleftovercanbefrozenforfutureuses.Thisincludessoups,stir-fries,andcasseroles.Putinfreezercontainersorjarstofreeze.Alwaysleaveroomatthetopforexpansionfromthemoistureinthefood.

Grape leaves canbe frozen in advance to use through the year for stuffing. Toprepareforfreezing,rinseeachleafandlayitinalargepot,stackingtheleavesontopofeachother.Coverwithwaterandsprinklewithsalt.Cookonlowheatfor20to30minutes,untiltheleavesturndarkgreen.Drainandputinafreezerbagorcontainer,keepingflat.Letcoolbeforefreezing.

FreezingNutsandSeeds

Freezingnutsandseedsextendstheirshelflifelongerthandrying.Putthe entire nut in its shell in a freezer bag, label and date it, and it’sready.Nothawingisnecessarywhenyou’rereadytousethem.Theycanbeusedstraight fromthe freezer. If space isa factor,youwillwant toshellthemfirst.

Canning

Canningistheprocesswherebysterilizedfoodisstoredinsterilizedjarsthatare sealed.Theprocessing timesandmethodusedwilldependonthe types of foods and their acidity level. Always use good-qualitycanningjars,regardlessoftheprocessused,aswellasnewcanninglidsandtongsforliftinghotjars.Sterilizethelidsbypouringboilingwateroverthemandlettingthemsoakforatleasttenminutesbeforeusing.

OpenKettleMethod

Theeasiestmethodistheopenkettlemethod.Hot,fullycookedfoodis poured into hot, sterilized jars, topped with hot, sterilized canninglids,andsealed.Avacuumisformedthatsealsthelidinplace.Afterthejarshavecooledtestthesealbypressingdownonthelidinitscenter.Ifitdoesn’tspringbackandissomewhatconcave,ithassealed.Otherwise,storeitintherefrigeratoranduseitrightaway.Thismethodisusuallyonlyusedforjams,jellies,andsyrups.

BoilingWaterBath

Theboilingwaterbathisusedtoincreasetheshelflifeofyourcannedfoodsandisusedforstrong-acidfoodsincludingjams,jellies,andsyrupsaswellassomeacidicvegetables.It’sagoodpracticetousetheboilingwaterbath for any foods that you’represerving, just tobeon the safeside. A large canner is used for this purpose. It has a rack inside thecannertosetthejarsintoandisfilledwithboilingwater,coveringthetops of the jars by one or two inches. Thewater is then boiled for aperiodoftime,dependingonwhat’sbeingcanned.

Canyouincreasetheacidityof low-acid foodsthatyouwanttocanusingtheboilingwaterbath?Vinegar,lemonjuice,andcitricacidareusedtoincreasetheacidityforspecificfoodsbeingcannedtopreventthegrowthofmicro-organismsthatcausefoodtospoil.Theoneusedandtheamountisdeterminedbywhatyou’recanning.Ifit’sawildfoodnotonthecanningcharts,followtheguidelinesforonethatissimilarintextureandsize.

PressureCanning

Pressure canning is the method used for low-acid foods that needhighertemperaturesthantheboilingwaterbathtokilloff thebacteriathatcause spoilage.The temperaturemust reach240°Fand isdonebycreatingsteamunderpressure.Apressurecannerisnecessaryforthis.

Always check your pressure canner in advance to make sure it is operatingcorrectly.Gaugesusedtoindicatethepressuremustbeaccurate.Gasketsshouldbe intactwithout nicks or breaks thatwill allow steam to leak out. Follow thedirectionsthatcomewiththepressurecannerforsafeusage.

Preserves

Fruitsarepreservedinanumberofwaysindifferentforms.Makingjellyorjamoutofwildfruitsisonewayofpreservingthefruitandenjoyingityearround.Thesefoodscanprovideyouwithsweetenersfordessertsand additions to other dishes. The process is simple and can be donewithlittleeffortorexpense.

Somewildfruitshavemorepectinthanothersandcanbemadeintojelly without adding extra pectin. Wild grapes, for instance, containnatural pectin, especially in the unripe state and will jell withoutcommercial pectin. Other fruits high in pectin include barberry,blackberry,cranberry,currants,andplums.Pawpaw, persimmon, sumac, blueberry, and elderberry are amongthosethatarelowinpectin.Combinefruitsthatarehighinpectinwiththosethataren’ttoensurethattheywilljell.Liquidpectincanbemadefromsomefruitssuchascrabapplesorhawthorns.

Jelly

Jellyismadefromfruitjuicethatisgenerallyextractedfromthefruitthrough a cooking process and strained through a sieve or foley foodmilltoremovetheseeds.Jellyisclearandfirm,holdingitsshapewhenremoved from the jar.Wild cherry,wildplum,black gum,blackberry,passionfruit,andmayappleareamongthosefruitsusedtomakejelly.

Jam

Jam is made by crushing or grinding the fruit and mixing it withsugar.Cooking itwill cause themixture to thickenandgel,dependingon the fruits and the amount of natural pectin in them. Blueberries,elderberries,andstrawberriesareexamplesoffruitsusedtomakejams.

Preserves

Preserves aremadewith large chunks of fruit immersed in a syrup.Sometimestheyarecooked,buttheprocesscanalsobedonewithrawfruits and requires no cooking. The syrup can be made with honey,sugar,maplesyrup,oragavenectarsprinkledordribbledoverthefruitand letting it stand for aperiodof time. It canalsobemadewithhotwaterandsugarorhoneypouredoverthefruit.

Syrup

Honeyormaplesyrupissometimesusedasasweetenerwhenmakingpreserves.Thiswilloftenresultinasyrupthatcanbepouredratherthana jelly,which is firm,especially ifnopectin isused.Thesyrupcanbeusedasatoppingonpancakesorasasauceforfruitdishes.

FruitButter

Fruit butters are made by blending or puréeing fruits, either in ablenderorafoodprocessorandthencookingwithsugaruntilitisthickwithasmoothconsistency.Thepulpleftoverwhensteam-juicingfruitslikeblackcherryorblackgumisgoodformakingfruitbutters.Othertypesofpreservesincludethese:

Marmaladehascitrusandotherfruitsadded.Conservehasraisins,nuts,andspices.Chutneyhas spices,vinegar, anda sweetenermixedwithchoppedfruitsorvegetables.

Fermentation

Fermentation is the process that occurs when sugar and yeast cometogether and alcohol is the result. Many wild fruits, includingpersimmons, have naturally occurring yeast in them as well as sugar.Whenthefruitsdroptothegroundandliethereforacoupleofdays,thesugarandyeaststartinteractingandgettingbubbly.Ifitfeelssoftwhenyoupickitup,sniffit.Chancesarefermentationishappening.

WildWines

Makingwildwines isanactivity thathasbeenhappening fora longtime. It’s one way of preserving your harvest of not only fruits, butflowersandherbsaswell.Makingwinecanbeascientificprocessthatrequires the measuring and adding of chemicals to ensure a superior

product, or it can be a simple process with nothing added but sugar.However, thescientificprocessusually isn’tnecessary.Mostwild fruitsarealreadycoveredwithwildyeaststhatstartthefermentationprocess.Wineyeastcanbeaddedtoassurethatfermentationoccurs.There are a few items that will be needed for winemaking. They

include:

Alargecrock(2–5gallons),bucket,orone-gallonglassjarsCheeseclothormuslintocoverthecontainerAnairlockforthesecondaryfermentationAsmallhoseorplastictubingforsiphoningwineWinebottleswithcorkstosiphonthewineinto

Vinegars

Sometimesthewinemakingprocessdoesn’tstopwhenitreacheswine.Iffruitflieshavemanagedtogetintoyourwinemakingcontainer,theymayhavecontaminateditwithbacteriathatturnswinetovinegar.Orifthe process is allowed to continue naturallywithout being interruptedwith a secondary fermentation or bottling process, it will turn intovinegar.Youcanstarttheprocessbyusingtheleftoversfromwinemakingafter

siphoningoffthewinefor itssecondaryfermentation.Puttheleftoversinacontainerand let it stand for twoor threedays,uncovered.Whenyoubegintosmellvinegar,you’llknowit’sready.Pourwarmwateroverthemixtureandstrain.Vinegarthatcomesfromwineisaptlyknownaswinevinegar.Therearealsoothertypesofvinegars.Applecidervinegarcomesfrom

apple cider and rice vinegar comes from rice wine. Distilled whitevinegar is made from grains and is the cheapest andmost commonlyusedformakingherbvinegars.Steepingherbsinvinegarisonewaytopreservethem.Youcanuseyourimaginationtomakesomeinterestingvinegarstouseinsaladdressings.

Tinctures,Cordials,andElixirs

Tinctures, cordials, and elixirs are made with herbs preserved inalcohol. Tinctures are highly concentrated extracts of herbs and areusuallypreservedinasolutionofalcoholandwater.Vinegarorglycerincanalsobeusedasasubstituteforalcohol.Theycanbeusedasaformofmedicationorasafoodsupplement.Cordials and elixirs are similar to tinctures except that they have a

sweetener added.Cordials are stimulatingbeverages that aremeant tobesharedwithfriendsandarebothwarmingandheart-warming.Elixirsaremadewithherbsthataretonicsandcanbetakendailyforaspecificperiodoftime.

CHAPTER15

Beverages

BeeBalmandBlackTeaBerryLeafTeaBlackCherryJuiceBlackberryCordialBlackberryWineBlackGumJuiceClover-MintTeaChrysanthemumTeaDandyFizzElderflowerPunchElder-LemonElixirGrapeWineGreenDrinkNutMilkPersimmonSmoothiePersimmonWinePineNeedleTeaRoseHipCiderRosePetalTeaSassafrasTeaSleepyTimeHerbTeaSumacAdeSumacElixirSweetSummerTeaWildGrapeJuiceTwigTeaWintergreenTeaBasicYauponTeaYauponChaiTea

BeeBalmandBlackTea

Arefreshingdrinktohaveinthesummerwhenthebeebalmisinbloom.CombinewithblackteaforatastesimilartoEarlGrey.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES81quartofwater1cupfreshbeebalmleaves2bagsofblacktea1tablespoonhoney(optional)

1.Bringwatertoaboil.

2.Put leaves and teabags in a teapot. Pourhotwater intotheteapot.

3.Coverandletsteep5–10minutes.

4.Strainandaddhoney.Chillbeforeserving.

BerryLeafTea

Foracaffeine-freetea,usetheleavesofwildstrawberry,blackberry,andraspberrytomakeapleasant-tastingbeverage.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES41quartboilingwater½ cup dried strawberry, blackberry, or raspberry leaves 1 tablespoon fresh ordriedberries1tablespoonmaplesyruporagavenectar

InfusionsandDecoctionsWhenleaves,flowers,ortendertipsofplantsaresteepedinhotwater,itiscalledaninfusion.Tougherplantpartssuchasstems,innerbark,thickleaves, or roots need to be simmered for at least 10–20 minutes toextracttheirpropertiesandarecalleddecoctions.

1.Pourwateroverleavesandberries.

2.Coverandletsteep10–15minutes.

3.Sweetentotastewithmaplesyrup.

BlackCherryJuice

Servedoverice,thisisaflavorfuldrinkthatenergizesandrejuvenatesonahotsummerday.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES42cupswildblackcherries1quartofwater2tablespoonsmaplesyrup

SurvivingtheHeatWhen hiking in the summer months, look for the cherry trees.Sometimeswaterjustisn’tenoughintheheat.Ifyoufindacherrytree,picksomeripecherriesandputtheminazip-topbagtonibbleonasyouhike.

1.Placewashedcherriesinapanandaddjustenoughwatertocoverthem.

2.Bring to a boil and continue boiling for 15 minutes,mashingthecherriesastheycooktoreleasethejuice.

3.Pourthroughastrainerorfoleyfoodmilltoseparatethejuicefromtheseeds.

4.Sweetenwithmaplesyrupandaddwatertoequal1quart.Chillandserve.

BlackberryCordial

Atastydrinktosharewithfriendsafterdinner.

INGREDIENTS | MAKES1QUART2cupscrushedblackberries½cuphoney3cupsblackberrybrandy

BerryToppingSavetheberriesfromtheBlackberryCordialanduseasatoppingonicecream, cakes, and other desserts. This is one way to preserve yoursurplusofberriesinthesummer.

1.Addhoneytocrushedblackberriesinquartjar.

2.Coverwithbrandyandshakewell.

3.Letstandforatleast1week.

4.Pourmixturethroughstrainerandbottle.

BlackberryWine

Asmooth-tastingwinethatisgoodtodrinkasadessertwine.

INGREDIENTS | 10–12WINEBOTTLES1½gallonsblackberries1½gallonswater5poundssugar

CrockversusCrockPotsCrocks are large, earthenware containers thatwere frequently used bycountrypeopleforpickling,fermenting,orwinemaking.Crockpotsareelectriccookersandarealsoearthenwarecontainersbuttheysit insideanothercontainerandareusedforslowcooking.

1.Wash berries carefully and remove any that are moldy.Crush them and put into a 5-gallon crock or largesterilizedbucket,addingenoughwatertocoverthem.Putalid,muslin,orcheeseclothoverthetopandletstandfor24hours.

2.Straintheberriesthroughtheclothandreturnthejuicetothe crock. Add the sugar. Cover and let stand for 4–5days.

3.Stireachdayandskimthefoamoffthetop.

4.Strainthejuice.Addenoughwatertomake2gallons.Putingallon jarswithairlocksandrubberstoppers inplace.Letstand2weeks.

5.Whenthefermentationiscomplete,usetheplastictubingtosiphonthewineintosterilizedbottles.Corkandwaitatleast3monthsbeforeopeningyourfirstbottle.

BlackGumJuice

Usethejuicetomakejelly,syrup,orglazeforcakes,pies,andicecream.

INGREDIENTS | MAKESAPPROXIMATELY1CUPJUICE2cupsblackgumberriesWater,tocoverberriesRawsugar,totaste

1.Remove fruits from stems, place in a saucepan, and addjustenoughwatertocoverthefruits.

2.Bringtoagentleboilforabout10minutes,untilthejuiceisflowing.

3.Press through a sieve or foley food mill to extract thejuice.

4.Dilutethejuicetodesiredstrengthandaddsugartotaste.

Clover-MintTea

Pouredoverice,thisisarefreshingteatodrinkonahotsummerday.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES22cupsboilingwater1tablespoonfreshredcloverflowers2tablespoonsfreshmintleaves

TeaAromaHerbscontainessentialoilsthatareextractedbyhotwaterwhensteepedforaperiodoftime.Coveringtheteapotwithalidpreventstheoilsfromescapingwithsteam.Mintsoftenhaveastrongfragranceandaddflavortoteasthatotherwisewouldtastebland.

1.Pourboilingwaterovertheflowersandmintleaves.2.Coverandletsteepfor10–15minutes.Chillandserve.

ChrysanthemumTea

Asweet,fragrantbeveragethatisrelaxingtohaveintheeveningtohelpyousleepatnight.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES41quartboilingwater1tablespoondriedoxeyedaisyflowers1tablespoondriedlifeeverlastingleaves2tablespoonsfreshlemonbalmleaves

1.Pourboilingwateroverherbs.2.Coverandletsteep10–15minutes.3.Strainandserve.

DandyFizz

Thisistheteetotaler’sversionofdandelionwine.

INGREDIENTS | MAKES½GALLON1cupdandelionflowerpetals,pulledapartfromstem2cupsboilingwater2lemons,cutinthinslices2oranges,cutinthinslices½cupmaplesyrup

1.Coverflowerswithboilingwater.Coverandletsteepuntilcool.2.Addremainingingredientsandletstand1–2days.3.Strainandserve.

ElderflowerPunch

Enjoythefloweryflavorofthisrefreshingpunch.Floatelderflowerpetalsonthesurfaceforanaddeddecorativetouch.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES86largeheadselderflowers2quartsboilingwater2lemons,squeezedandcutinwedges3tablespoonsmaplesyrup

1.Usescissorstoremoveflowersfromstems.2.Coverwithboilingwater.3.Addlemonsandmaplesyrup.Chillandserve.

ElderWisdomElderisadiaphoreticherbthateliminatestoxinsthroughperspiration.Ithasgentlecleansingpropertiesthatstimulatebloodflow.Drinkingelderflowerteaonaregularbasiswillhelptodetoxifythebody.

Elder-LemonElixir

Servewithlemonadeovericeforarefreshingdrinkonahotsummerday.

INGREDIENTS | MAKES1QUART10–15headselderflowers20–25lemonverbenaleaves3–6sprigsoffreshlemonbalm3–6sprigsofsweetgoldenrodleaves2cupsboilingwater2cupslemonliqueurHoneyormaplesyrup,totaste

1. Steep the elder flowers, lemon verbena leaves, lemonbalm,andsweetgoldenrodleavesinboilingwaterfor15–20minutesandstrain.

2. Add lemon liqueur and sweeten to tastewith honey ormaplesyrup.

3.Serveoverice.

IcedDrinksIfyoulikeyourbeveragesiced,makethesamedrinkaheadoftimeandfreeze it in icecube trays.Thiswillprevent the icecube fromdilutingthestrengthofyourdrink.

GrapeWine

Thisisarobustwinethatonlygetsbetterwithage.Drinktoyourgoodhealth,asitisrichinresveratrol,aheart-healthy

compound.

INGREDIENTS | MAKES1GALLON6poundswildgrapes(muscadine,fox,orsummer)3quartswater2poundssugar1½cupsorangejuice1packagewineyeast

AirlocksAirlocksaremadeofplasticorglassthatfitintoacorkorrubberstopperandareplacedonthe jugorcontainer for thesecondary fermentation,which is anaerobic. They are filled initially halfway with water. Asfermentationoccurs,itallowsthegasestoescapeandatthesametimepreventsunwantedmaterialsfromgettingin.

1.Mashgrapeswithyourhandsin5-galloncrockorbucket.

2.Addwater and sugar to the crock or bucket. Coverwithcheeseclothormuslinandletstand24hours.

3.Letorangejuicereachroomtemperaturebysettingitoutfor2hours.Add room-temperatureorange juice towineyeastincloseablecontainer.Coverandshakevigorously.Letstanduntilbubblybeforeaddingtothegrapemixture.

4.Stirdaily,pressingpulpatthesametimetoextractmorejuice.

5.After about a week, siphon wine into gallon jugs andattachairlock.

6.When the fermentation is complete,afterabout3weeks,

siphonintocleanjugsandreattachairlock.

7.After2months,siphonintobottles.

GreenDrink

Drinkyourwaytohealthwiththisvibrant,energizingdrink.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES22 cups fresh,wildgreens (dandelion, stingingnettle, violets, chickweed, etc.)1carrot,cutinchunks2cupspineapplejuice1frozenbanana

Putalltheingredientsinablenderandmixuntilcreamy.

SmoothiesThe arrival of blenders broughtwith it a newway of blending foods.Smoothies were created, using fruits or vegetables and a liquid base,such as juice, milk, yogurt, or tea. They can be hot or cold, with orwithoutice,orevenfrozen.Acoldsmoothieisagreatwaytocooloffonahotsummerday.

NutMilk

Usethismilkasasubstituteforregularmilktoaddanuttyflavortoyourrecipe.

Nutmilkscanbestoredintherefrigeratorforuptooneweek.Freezeitforlongerstorage.Shakewellbeforeusing.

INGREDIENTS | MAKES1QUART1cupshelled,pre-soakednuts(hickory,beech,hazelnut,pecan)3cupswater

1.Putnutsandhalfthewaterintoablenderandmixuntilsmooth.2.Addremainingwaterandblendagain.3.Storeintherefrigeratoruntilreadytouse.

PersimmonSmoothie

Asmooth,creamytexturewithallthesweetnessoficecream.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES2½cuppersimmonpulp1cupvanillaormapleyogurt¼cuporangejuiceCrushedice

Placeallingredientsinablenderandblenduntilsmooth.

PersimmonWine

Youwillbeamazedatthetasteandappearanceofthisfine-tastingwine.Notfortheteetotaler.

INGREDIENTS | MAKES1GALLON1packagewineyeastJuicefrom4oranges,roomtemperature3poundspersimmonpulp2¼poundssugar7pintswaterJuiceof3lemons

1.Addyeasttoorangejuiceandletstanduntilbubbly.

2.In a wide-mouth gallon jug, combine persimmon pulp,halfof thesugar,2pintswater, lemonjuice,andorangejuicewithyeastadded.

3.Letstandfor1week,stirringdaily.

4.Strain mixture through cheesecloth and return to wide-mouthjug.

5.Addremainingsugarandletstand2days.

6.Siphon into a gallon jug for secondary fermentation andattachanairlock.

7.Filltheairlockwithwatertothehalfwayline.

8.Fermentation is completewhen thebrew stopsbubbling,about10–12days.Siphonintobottlesandinsertacorkinthetop.

PineNeedleTea

AdrinkhighinvitaminCthatisavailableyear-round.Spruceneedlescanbeusedaswell.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES43–5clustersofpineneedles1quartboilingwaterJuiceof1lemonMaplesyrup,totaste

MakeItMedicinalThelongeryousteeppineneedletea,thestrongeritbecomes,makingitmoreofamedicinethanatea.Drinktheteaasacoldorfluremedyortoboosttheimmunesystem.

1.Usingkitchenscissors,snipneedlesinto1to2-inch-longpieces.2.Pourboilingwateroverneedles.Addlemonjuice.3.Coverandletsteep5minutes.4.Sweetentotastewithmaplesyrupandserve.

RoseHipCider

ArichblendofwinterfruitsinahotteathatisrichinvitaminsCandE.Agoodteatodrinkduringthefluandcoldseason.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES8–10½cuprosehips,cutinhalf¼cuphawthornberries½cupcranberries,chopped4cupsboilingwater2cinnamonsticks2cupscrabapplejuice2cupsapplejuice2cupscranberryjuice

1.Choprosehips,hawthornberries,andcranberriesinblender.2.Putinsaucepanandcoverwithboilingwater.Letsimmerfor20–30minutes.3.Addremainingingredientsandsimmeronlowfor1hour.4.Ladleintocupsandserve.

RosePetalTea

Afloweryflavorthatisboththirst-quenchingandrefreshing.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES412wildroses,oranyrosesthathaven’tbeensprayedwithpesticides16ounceswater

Removepetalsandplaceinaglassorjarfilledwithwater.Letstand2–3hours,preferablyinthesun,beforeserving.FlowerEssencesThe essence of a flower can be captured by placing fresh flowers in aglassbowlofspringwateronasunnydayafterthedewhaslifted.Fillthebowlthree-quartersfullofwater.Sniptheflowerheadsoffnearthetop and let them float in the water in full sunlight for at least threehours. Preserve the essenceby addingone teaspoonbrandy, vodka, orotherspiritspercupofwater.

SassafrasTea

Thisistherootthatwasoriginallyusedtoflavorrootbeerandtheteahasadistinctiverootbeerflavor.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES412sassafrasrootsaboutthesizeofapencil1quartwaterSweetenertotaste(optional)

1.Wash roots and place in water. Bring to a boil. Reduceheat and cook until water turns a dark red. The longeryoucooktherootsthemoreconcentratedthetea.

2.Strainthroughafiltertoremovesediments,addsweetenerifdesired,andservehotorcold.

SafroleSafrole is a compound found in sassafras roots that was used inexperimentalresearch.Itwasdiscoveredtopossiblybeacarcinogen,sothe FDA banned it. Sassafras is used as a tonic that is generally onlydrunk in the spring to thin and purify the blood. Practicemoderationwhenmakinganddrinkingsassafrastea.

SleepyTimeHerbTea

Acalmingandrelaxingteatodrinkbeforeretiringfortheevening.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES42tablespoonsfreshskullcapleaves2tablespoonsfreshpassionvineleavesandstems2tablespoonsfreshmintleaves2tablespoonsfreshlemonbalmleaves2tablespoonslifeeverlastingleaves1quartboilingwaterSweetener,totaste(optional)

1.Washherbsandplaceinteapot.Pourboilingwateroverherbs.2.Coverandletsteepfor10–15minutes.Sweetenifdesiredandserve.

CombiningHerbsforTeaWhen combining herbs to make a tea, know what the effects ofindividualherbsarefirst.Combinenomorethanthreetofiveherbsatonetimewhenmakingtea.

SumacAde

Enjoythiscitrus-tastingbeveragethatisgoodhotorcold.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES6–84–6largeclustersofripesumacfruits2quartscoldwaterSweetener,totaste(optional)

1.Over a large bowl, rub the stems between your fingers,looseningthefruitsandlettingthemdropintothebowl.

2.Put the fruits in a quart-size bottle or pitcher and coverwithcoldwater.Thewatershouldstartturningpinkrightaway.Thelongeritsits,thepinkeritwillbecome.

3.Pour through a strainer lined with a coffee filter andsweetentotaste.

SumacElixir

Atonictotakethroughthewintertohelpfightagainstcoldsandviruses.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES4–61cupsumacberries2cupscoldwaterHoney,totasteSplashofpineapplejuice1shotvanillavodka1shotlemonliqueur1shotpomegranateliqueur

1.Steepthesumacberriesincoldwaterfor8–10hours,untilthewaterturnsred.

2.Strainandaddremainingingredients.

3.Serveoverice.

SweetSummerTea

Ateathatisbothcoolingandrefreshing.Besuretochilltheservingpitcheraheadoftime.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES41quartboilingwater½cupfreshsweetgoldenrodleaves½cupfreshlemonbalmleaves½cuplemonverbenaleaves

1.Pour boiling water over leaves in teapot. Cover and letsteepfor10–15minutes.

2.Chillandserve.

WildGrapeJuice

Asparkling,alcohol-freedrinkthatcanbeservedwithanymeal.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES6–84cupswildgrapes½cupwater1litergingerale

1.Addwatertograpesandbringtoagentleboil.2.Continuetocookforabout15minutesoruntilthegrapesaresoft.3.Strainthroughafoodmillorsievetoextractthejuice.4.Addgingeraleandchill.

TwigTea

Makingthisteafillsyourkitchenwithawonderfularomaofwintergreenmixedwithaspicysmell.Makethisteaconcentratedandthendiluteto

desiredstrength.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES41cupsweetbirchtwigs,cutinto2-inchpieces1cupspicebushtwigs,cutinto2-inchpieces1quartboilingwaterSweetener,totaste(optional)

WintergreenToothpicksThe twigs from sweetbirchwereatone timeused tomake toothpicksthatwerenaturallyflavoredwithawintergreentaste.Twigscanalsobefrayedontheendsandusedasatoothbrush.

Covertwigswithboilingwaterandletsimmer10–20minutes.Sweetenifdesiredandservehotorchilled.

WintergreenTea

Addsweetbirchtwigstothepotforamoreintensewintergreenflavor.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES41cupwintergreenleaves1quartboilingwaterSweetener,totaste(optional)

1.Crushtheleavesandcoverwithboilingwater.2.Coverandletsimmerfor15–20minutes.Sweetenifdesiredandserve.

BasicYauponTea

Acaffeinatedteathathasatasteandappearancesimilartogreentea.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES41cupyauponleaves,removedfromthetwigsorbranches1quartboilingwaterSweetener,totaste(optional)

1.Roastleavesin200°Fovenuntildryandcrumbly(about30minutes).2.Coverwithboilingwaterandsimmerabout20minutes.3.Strainthroughacoffeefilterandsweetentotaste.

YauponChaiTea

Theextraspicesandseasoningsturnthisintoagourmetwildtea.Youcanpreservethistastybeveragebyaddingvanillarumtothedrink.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES44teaspoonsroastedyauponleaves4cupsboilingwater3–4gingerslicesPinchofcardamomseeds¼vanillabean,cutintosmallpiecesMaplesyrup,totaste

1.Coverroastedleaveswithboilingwater.2.Addgingerslices,cardamomseeds,andvanillabean.3.Steepabout20minutes.Strainthroughacoffeefilterandsweetentotastewithmaplesyrup.

CHAPTER16

Appetizers,Salads,Sauces,andSpreads

BlackberryPreservesCrabappleSauceCranappleSaladCranberrySauceCactusSaladDippingSauceElderberrySyrupFruitNutSpreadGroundCherrySalsaHerbVinegarJerusalemArtichokeSaladPersimmonJamPetalPetitsPricklyPearJellyRoastedChestnutsRoastedLiveOakAcornsSeedSeasoningSugarCookiePizzaCrustSweetandSourDressingToastedMapleNutsWildMuscadinePreservesWildPlumButterWildflowerPitasWildflowerPizzaToppingYuccaFlowerCakes

BlackberryPreserves

Thisisanexcellentpreservethatrequiresnocookingandiseasytomake.

INGREDIENTS | MAKES1CUP1cupfreshblackberries(orraspberries)¼cuprawhoney

1.Addhoneytoblackberriesandmash.2.Chillfor1hourbeforeserving.

CrabappleSauce

Usethissauceasatoppingoncakes,hotbiscuits,orasapiefilling.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES8–102cupscrabapples1quartwater¼cuphoney¼teaspooncinnamon

1.Wash crabapples and remove blossom ends and brownparts. Place in a large saucepan, cover with water, andbringtoaboil.

2.Coverandsimmeruntilsoft,about15minutes.

3.Removecrabapplesfrompotandsetwateraside.

4.Cutcrabapplesintoquartersandremoveseeds.

5.Put in blender with enough water from cooking thecrabapplestopuree.

6.Return to saucepan and add honey and cinnamon.Continuetocookonlowheat10–15minutes.

7.Serve hot or store in the refrigerator in glass jars untilreadytouse.

CranappleSalad

Afruity,nuttysaladthatwillteaseyourtastebudswithitssweetandsourflavors.Tokeepitraw,putthecranberriesintoablenderandchopintofine

pieces.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES82cupswildcranberries(ifavailable)1cupmaplesyrup,ortotaste1stalkcelery,chopped2mediumapples,chopped¼cupnuts,chopped

CranberriesforCystitisResearch studies show that cranberries and blueberries both containcompounds that prevent bacteria from adhering to the bladder walls,thus preventing a bladder infection, also called cystitis. They alsocontainarbutin,whichisbothanantibioticandadiuretic.

1.Putcranberriesandmaplesyrupinsmallsaucepan.

2.Bringtoagentleboilandcontinuetocookabout15–20minutes,untilberrieshavepoppedandstarttothicken.

3.Removefromheatandaddremainingingredients.Chill1hourbeforeserving.

CranberrySauce

Thisisabasiccranberrysaucerecipethatcanbeusedaloneorwithothersalads.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES8–102cupswildcranberries(ifavailable)1cupmaplesyrup1cupwater

1.Combine cranberries, maple syrup, and water in asaucepan.

2.Bring to aboil.Reduceheat and continue to cookabout10–15 minutes, until berries burst and sauce hasthickened.

3.Coolinrefrigeratorfor1–2hoursbeforeserving.

CactusSalad

Atastytoppingforsalads,beans,andothervegetabledishes.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES44–5cactuspads, steameduntil tenderand spines removed1greenbellpepper,thinlysliced1hotpepper,chopped3 wild onions (or green onions), chopped finely ¼ cup vinegar and olive oildressing

1.Cutcactuspadsintostrips.2.Tosswithpeppersandonionsinalargebowl.3.Pourdressingovermixedvegetablesandmarinateatleast30minutes.

DippingSauce

Greattousewithspringrollsorasasauceoncookedvegetables.

INGREDIENTS | MAKES½CUPSAUCE¼cuptamari¼cupwater1tablespooncornstarch1tablespoonsesameseeds,browned1tablespoongroundgarlicmustardseeds(orothermustardseeds)½cupfinelychoppedgarlicmustardorpeppergrassleaves2tablespoonssesameoil2clovesgarlic,grated¼teaspoonginger,grated2tablespoonslimejuice1tablespoonmaplesyrup

1.Combine tamari, water, and cornstarch in a small saucepan.Cookonmedium-highheatuntilmixturecomestoaboil.

2.Reduceheatandcontinuetocookabout10minutesuntilthesaucehasthickenedandbecomeclear.

3.Addremainingingredientsandmixwell.

4.Coolandserve.

ElderberrySyrup

Usealoneorwithotherfruitjuicestoboosttheimmunesystemagainstfluviruses.

INGREDIENTS | MAKES2CUPS1cupdriedelderberries1quartwater½cuphoney

StabilizersStabilizers are preservatives and are used to extend the shelf life of aparticularherborfruit.Themostcommonstabilizerisalcohol,whetherit is vodka, brandy, or grain alcohol. If you want to prepare enoughelderberry syrup tohave through the flu season, add½cupbrandy totherecipe.

1.Coverelderberrieswithwaterinamediumpotandbringtoaboil.

2.Reduce heat and continue to simmer until water isreducedbyhalf,about30–45minutes.

3.Strain through a sieve or foley food mill to remove theseeds.

4.Mixinthehoneyandstoreintherefrigeratoruntilreadytouse.

FruitNutSpread

Spreadonnutbreadsorcrackersorasafillinginwontonwrappers.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES8–101cupwildberries,mashed¾cupnuts,finelychopped8ouncescreamcheese,softened¼cupmapleyogurt

Stirwildberriesandnutsintocreamcheeseandyogurtuntilcreamyandsmooth.Useasaspreadonbreadorcrackers.

GroundCherrySalsa

Thissalsahasarichflavorthatmakesitafavoriteasadippingsauceorservedoverstir-friedvegetables.

INGREDIENTS | MAKES2CUPS1½cupsgroundcherries1hotpepper1clovegarlic½smallonion

1.Removecherriesfromtheirpaperyhusksandrinseincoldwater.

2.Coverwithwaterand simmeruntil theyare softbutnotburstingopen(about10–15minutes).

3.Choppeppers,garlic,andonionintolargepieces.

4.Putallingredientsintotheblenderwith¼cupwaterfromthe cooking liquid and blend for a few seconds untilmixed.

HerbVinegar

Usetomixwithoilforsaladdressingsorasamarinadeforvegetables.

INGREDIENTS | MAKES12OUNCES3–5sprigsofpeppergrass¼cupdentariaroot,chopped1tablespoonmustardseeds1tablespoonfieldgarlicclovesorwildonion12ouncesapplecidervinegar(orwhitewinevinegar)

1.Put the herbs in a sterilized jar and coverwith vinegar,fillingtowithin½inchofthetop.

2.Coverthetopwithplasticwrapfirstifusingametallidtopreventrust.

3.Putinacool,darkplacefor2–3weeks.

4.Strainandbottle.

JerusalemArtichokeSalad

Anearthytastingsaladthatcanbeenjoyedallwinter.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES6–810 medium-sized Jerusalem artichokes, scrubbed and grated 3 wild onions orfieldgarlic,choppedfinelywithtopsincluded½cupcranberriesorblueberries1teaspoonWildHerbSeasoning(Chapter18)orSeedSeasoning(Chapter16)¼cupSweetandSourDressing(Chapter16)2cupswildsaladgreens

1.PlaceJerusalemartichokesandwildonionsinalargebowl.Mixwell.2.Addcranberriesandseasoning.3.Pourdressingovermixtureandletmarinatefor1hour.4.Serveonabedofwildsaladgreens.

PersimmonJam

Makesadeliciousspreadforhot,butteredbiscuits.Addcreamcheesetomakeafrostingtoputoncakes.

INGREDIENTS | MAKESAPPROXIMATELY3CUPS2cupspersimmonpulp1cupsugar2ouncesliquidpectin

1.Combinepersimmonpulpandsugarandbringthemixturetoaboil.2.Addtheliquidpectinandboilfor1minutelonger.3.Pourintohot,sterilizedjarsandseal.

PetalPetits

Usetheflowerpetalsasabaseforyourfavoritejellyorspreadtomakeanattractive,edibledisplay.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES8–1010yuccaflowers8ouncescreamcheese,softened1tablespoonwildsyruporpreserves(blackgum,cherry,blackberry)¼teaspoonvanillaflavoring1cupedibleflowers(violet,wildpansy,redbud)

BeCreativeThere are a number of edible flowers that can be used a base forpreserves or other filling.Hibiscus flowersworkwell for this purpose.Look for flowers thatare largeenoughand stiff enough tocontain thefilling.Usesmallberriesasatoppinginsteadofflowersforavariation.

1.Removepetalsfromyuccaflowers,discardingthecenterparts.2.Inamediumbowl,mixcreamcheesewithpreservesandvanillaflavoring.3.Spoonadollopofcreamcheesemixtureinthecenterofeachpetal.4.Topeachonewithanedibleflower.Chillandserve.

PricklyPearJelly

Adelightfullycolorfuljellytouseasaspreadoncrackers,breads,andcakes.

INGREDIENTS | MAKESAPPROXIMATELY2CUPS2½cupspricklypearjuice6ouncesfruitpectinJuiceof1lemon2cupssugar

1.Combinejuiceandfruitpectininasaucepan.Bringtoaboil,stirringconstantly.2.Addthelemonjuiceandsugar.3.Bringtoahardboilandboilfor3minutes.4.Removefromtheburner,pourintosterilizedjars,andseal.

RoastedChestnuts

Tryroastingtheseoveranopenfiretocapturethewoodflavorfromthesmoke.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES62dozenchestnuts

1.Preheatovento400°F.2.CutanXintoeachchestnutontheflatside.3.Placeonabakingsheetandbakefor30–35minutes,turningfrequently.4.Peelwhilestillwarm.

RoastedLiveOakAcorns

Liveoakacorns,whenripe,arelowintanninandcanberoastedstraightoutoftheshellwithnoleachingprocessnecessary.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES62cupsunbrokenliveoakacorns,shellsremoved1tablespoonpeanutoil

1.Preheatovento350°F.2. Coat acorns with peanut oil and spread on a cookie sheet. Bake for 10–15minutes.3.Coolandserve.

SeedSeasoning

Ahealthyseasoningthatisrichinomega-3sandomega-6s.Sprinkleonwildsaladsorvegetabledishes.Makeaspreadbyadding2tablespoonssunflowerseedoil,finelymincedgarlic,andgratedginger.

INGREDIENTS | MAKESAPPROXIMATELY1CUP2tablespoonssunflowerseeds2tablespoonschiaseeds2tablespoonspumpkinseeds2tablespoonsflaxseeds1tablespooneveningprimroseseeds2tablespoonshempseedsPinchofgroundcardamomseedsPinchofgroundturmericPinchofcinnamon

1.Grind sunflower seeds, chia seeds, pumpkin seeds, flaxseeds, and evening primrose seeds in a coffee grinder.Placeinbowl.

2.Addremainingingredientsandmixwell.

SugarCookiePizzaCrust

Theperfectcrusttobringoutthesweetnessofspringwildflowers.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES6–8¹⁄³cupbutter,softened½cuprawsugar¹⁄³cuphoney1egg1teaspoonvanilla1cupwholewheatflour¼cupgroundnuts2teaspoonsbakingpowder

1.Preheatovento350°F.

2.In a large mixing bowl, cream together butter, sugar,honey,andegg.Addvanilla.

3.Stirtogetherflourandbakingpowderandaddtocreamedmixture.

4.Dropbyspoonfulsontogreasedcookiesheetabout½inchapart. Use the back of a spoon to flatten until dough istouchingtocreateonelargecookie.

5.Bakeabout12minutes.Cool.Useas thecrust tomakeawildflowerpizza.

SweetandSourDressing

Greattouseonwildsalads,stir-fries,orothervegetabledishes.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES101tablespoonmaplesyrupJuicefrom½lemon¼cupricevinegar1cupsunflowerseedoil1tablespoonfinelychoppedhickorynuts½teaspoongroundgarlicmustardseeds1 tablespoon peppergrass leaves, finely chopped 1 teaspoon evening primroseseeds,ground

Combineallingredientsinaclosedjarandshakeuntilblended.

ToastedMapleNuts

Atastywaytoboostyourserotoninlevelsonawintrydaywhenyouhavetobeinside.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES41cupnuts(blackwalnuts,hickory,pecans)1tablespooncoconutoilorbutter2tablespoonsmaplesyrup

1.Preheatovento350°F.2.Heatoilorbutterinsaucepan.Addmaplesyrupandmixwell.3.Coatnutsinoilmixture.Spreadevenlyonabakingdish.4.Roastnutsinoven10–12minutes,turningafter5minutes.

WildMuscadinePreserves

Thetextureandflavormakethisafavorite.Useasaspreadonhotbiscuits,asafillingforfruitroll-ups,ortomakeapie.

INGREDIENTS | MAKESAPPROXIMATELY4CUPS3cupsmuscadinegrapes,hulledandseeded½cuphoney¼cupwater

1.Combine grapes, honey, and water in a saucepan andbringtoaboil.

2.Continue to boil gently for 10–15 minutes, stirringoccasionally,untilitisthickened.

3.Pourintosterilizedjarsandseal.

GrapeSeedsIf you miss removing all the seeds from the grapes when processingthem,that’sokay.Grapeseeds, liketheskinandyoungleaves,containresveratrol, an antioxidant that helps reduce inflammation as well asother health benefits. Instead of buying seedless grapes at the grocerystore,andthengrapeseedextractatthehealthfoodstore,trynibblingonwildgrapes,seedsandall.

WildPlumButter

Useanyofthewildplumstomakethisbutter.Serveonhotbiscuitsorscones.

INGREDIENTS | MAKES2CUPS2cupswildplumpulp1cuprawsugar

1.Combinethepulpandsugar.Bringtoaboil.2.Reduceheatandsimmer15–20minutes,untilithasthickened.3.Pourintosterilizedglassjarsandseal.

WildflowerPitas

Thisisawonderfulwaytousetheediblespringwildflowers.Reducethecaloriesbyeliminatingthepitaandaddasatoppingtoyour

salad.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES62 cups assorted edible flowers (henbit, dead nettle, wood sorrel, violets, wildpansies,redbud,wildmustard)1cupmixedsaladgreens1tablespoonlemonjuice1tablespoonmaplesyrup6pitabreads

1.Combineflowersandgreensinalargebowl.2.Inasmallbowl,mixlemonjuiceandmaplesyrupandpouroversaladmixture.3.Stuffinpitabreadsandserve.

WildflowerPizzaTopping

Allthecolorsofspringarrangedonatastycookiecrust.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES68ouncescreamcheese,softened2tablespoonshoney1teaspoonvanilla1tablespoonwildberrysyrup1SugarCookiePizzaCrust(Chapter16)2cupsassortedwildedibleflowers(redbud,violet,pansy,oxalis,blacklocust)1tablespoonrawsugar

1.Inalargemixingbowl,creamtogethercreamcheeseandhoney.2.Addvanillaandberrysyrup.3.SpreadoncooledSugarCookiePizzaCrust.4.Arrangewildflowersontopofpizza.Sprinklewithrawsugar.5.Chillandserve.

YuccaFlowerCakes

Serveasabaseforcheesespreads,spreads,orsauces.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES61cupyuccaflowerpetals2eggs½cupsourcream¼cupflour1 tablespoonWildHerbSeasoning (seeChapter18)Vegetableoilorbutter, forfrying

1.Removethepetalsoftheflowersanddiscardthecenters.2.Blendyuccaflowers,eggs,andsourcreamintheblender.3.Addflourandherbseasoning.4.Dropbyspoonfulsonhot,oiledgriddleandcookuntilbrownoneachside.5.ServewithpestoorGroundCherrySalsa(Chapter16).

CHAPTER17

SoupsandVegetableDishes

ArtichokesandGroundnutsCasseroleBroiledJapaneseKnotweedCattailandCheeseCasseroleCreamedArrowheadTubersFriedNopalesHerbTofuKitten-on-the-CobMilkweedBudsPinkMashedPotatoeswithEveningPrimroseRootsPokeandPastaPurslane-PotatoSoupRedbudStirFriesRoastedRootsRockTripeSoupRootSoupSaltwortBallsSassaf-RiceSpringFriesSpringRollsStir-FriedMilkweedBuds,Flowers,andPodsStuffedWildGrapeLeavesSourwoodPotatoesThistleStalkswithHazelnutButterDipVegetablePizzaWatercressSoupWildBeanTacosWildBeansandGreensWildRiceandGroundnutsYuccaFlowerStalksauGratinWildStuffedSquash

ArtichokesandGroundnutsCasserole

Thisheartycasserolewithitsearthyflavorsmakesatastysidedishforanymeal.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES81tablespoonbutteroroil2cupsJerusalemartichokesscrubbedandsliced1cupgroundnuts,scrubbedandsliced1smallonion,chopped½cupflour1tablespoonWildHerbSeasoning(Chapter18)Saltandpepper,totaste½cupsourcreamormilk1cupgratedcheese

1.Preheatovento350°F.2.Greasethebottomofabakingdishwithbutteroroil.3.Spreadartichokes,groundnuts,andonionsonbottomofbakingdish.4.In a small bowl,mix flour, herb seasoning, salt, and pepper. Sprinkle over theroots.5.Spoonsourcreamorpourmilkovermixture.6.Topwithalayerofcheese.7.Bakefor40–45minutes.

BroiledJapaneseKnotweed

Easy-to-preparesidedishthatcanbeservedaloneorwithothervegetables.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES6–810–12Japaneseknotweedspears,about6inchesinlength1tablespoonbutterforgreasingbakingdish1teaspoonWildHerbSeasoning(Chapter18)2tablespoonsbutter,melted

1.Preheatovento350°F.2.Arrangeknotweedspearsonbottomofbutteredbakingdish.3.Mixherbseasoningwithmeltedbutter.Dribbleoverknotweedspears.4.Bakefor10minutes.

CattailandCheeseCasserole

Serveasasidedishalongwithawildsaladtomakeyourmealcomplete.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES41egg,beaten½cupsourcream3cupssteamedcattailbuds,scrapedfromthestalks1teaspoonWildHerbSeasoning(Chapter18)1cupsoftbreadcrumbsHotwaterasneededformixing1cupgratedcheese

1.Preheatovento350°F.2.Inalargebowl,combineeggandsourcream.3.Addcattailbuds,herbseasoning,andbreadcrumbs.Mixwell.4.Pourintogreasedbakingdishandsprinklecheeseontop.5.Bakeapproximately30minutes,oruntildone.

CreamedArrowheadTubers

Ifyoudidn’tknowbetter,youwouldthinkyou’reeatingseasoned,butteredpotatoes.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES42cupsarrowheadtubers,washedandscrubbed1tablespoonbutter1smallonion,chopped2celerystalks,chopped2carrots,chopped¼cupsourcream1teaspoonWildHerbSeasoning(Chapter18)

1.Slice arrowhead tubers. Place into a large saucepan andcoverwithwater.Boilgentlyabout20–30minutes,untiltender.

2.Draintubers,reservingliquid.

3.Inasaucepanovermediumheat,meltthebutter.Addtheonion,celery,andcarrotsandsautéuntiltender,about10minutes.

4.Add sautéed vegetables, sour cream, and seasonings tocookedtubers.Mixwelltocombineandserve.

FriedNopales

Chopandsprinkleoverbeansandothercookedvegetables.ThisisgoodservedwithGroundCherrySalsa(Chapter16).

INGREDIENTS | SERVES4–62tablespoonsoliveoil1mediumonion,chopped1mediumgreenbellpepper,chopped1cayenneorchilipepper,chopped6–8cactuspads,spinesremoved,cutintostrips1tablespoonWildHerbSeasoning(Chapter18)

1.Inaskilletovermedium-highheataddtheoliveoil.Onceit is hot add the onions, peppers, and cactus strips andsautéabout10–15minutes,untiltender.

2.Reduce heat, add Wild Herb Seasoning, and let simmer10–20minutes.

HerbTofu

Ablendoftofuwithwildgreensthatisgoodservedwithriceorpasta,onthesideorasatopping.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES6–816ouncesextra-firmtofu,cutintocubes2tablespoonsoliveoil4garliccloves,chopped1mediumonion,chopped2 cups wild greens, chopped (dandelion, nettles, heal-all, lambsquarters, wildmustard)1cupGroundCherrySalsa(Chapter16)(ordicedtomatoes)

1.Inamedium-sizesaucepansautétofuinoliveoilabout10minutes,untilbrownandcrispy,andsetaside.2.In a separate medium-size pan, sauté garlic and onions in olive oil about 10minutes,untilgolden.3.Reduceheatandaddgreens.Cookabout5–10minutes,untilwilted.4.Combinesautéedtofuwithcookedvegetables.5.Addsalsaortomatoesandletsimmerabout10minutesandserve.

Kitten-on-the-Cob

Atastethatisamazinglysimilartocorn.Itevenhasaspikegoingthroughthecentertoholdoneitherend.Eatlikeyouwouldcorn-on-the-cob.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES4–610–12malecattailbuds2tablespoonsmeltedbutter1teaspoonWildHerbSeasoning(Chapter18)

1.Remove the green sheath around the cattail buds andplaceinthetopofasteamer.

2.Steamcookabout10–15minutes.Placeinshallowdish.

3.In a small bowl combine herb seasoning and meltedbutter.Dribbleoverkittensandserve.

MilkweedBuds

Onceproperlyprepared,thesetastybudscanbeaddedtosalads,soups,orothervegetabledishes.

INGREDIENTS | MAKES2CUPS2cupsmilkweedbuds,largestemsremovedWatertocovermilkweedbuds

1.Bring pot of water to a boil. Add milkweed buds andflowers.Boilfor1minute.Strainwater.

2.Bringasecondpotofwatertoaboil.Again,addbudsandflowersandboil for1minute.Drainand serveasa sidedishoraddedtoothervegetables.

PinkMashedPotatoeswithEveningPrimroseRoots

Eveningprimroseroots,whencooked,takeonapinkishhue,tintingregularpotatoeswiththeircolor.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES4–63medium-sizedpotatoes,chopped4eveningprimroseroots,scrapedandchopped1tablespoondriedWildHerbSeasoning(Chapter18)½teaspooneveningprimroseseeds½teaspoonceleryseedsSaltandpepper,totaste½cupsourcream2tablespoonsbutter

1.Steam cook the potatoes, evening primrose roots, herbseasoning,primrose seeds,andcelery seeds forabout20minutes.

2.Put ina largebowlandaddremainingingredients.Mashwithaforkorpotatomasher,addingbrothfromcookingtodesiredthickness.

PokeandPasta

Turnthisintoasaladbyaddingwildsaladgreensandedibleflowers.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES62tablespoonsbutterorvegetableoil2tablespoonsflour1cupmilk(ormilksubstitute)2cupsprepared(cookedtwice)pokeshoots,cutin1-inchlengths1cupcheese,grated1tablespoonWildHerbSeasoning(Chapter18)2cupscookedpasta

1.Heatbutter inskillet.Stir in flouruntilsmoothandcook5–10minutesuntillightbrown.

2.Addmilk and cook onmedium heat, stirring constantly,about10minutes,untilsaucestartstobubble.

3.Remove from heat and add cooked poke, cheese, andseasonings.Serveovercookedpasta.

Purslane-PotatoSoup

Thisisadelicioussoupthatcanalsobemadewithwatercress,pokeleaves,nettles,orotherwildgreensthatareavailable.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES6–82tablespoonsoil1mediumonion,chopped2stalkscelery,finelychopped1quartwater1cuppurslaneleavesorotherwildgreens;use½cupifdried3mediumpotatoes,scrubbedanddiced2mediumeveningprimroseroots,scrubbedandchopped1cupsourcream2tablespoonsbutter½teaspooneveningprimroseseedsSaltandpepper,totasteOptionalseasonings:basil,dill,chives,parsley,wildoniontops

Purslane—MoreThanJustaWeedTheweedypurslanethatshowsup inmostpeople’sgardenswhodon’tsprayherbicidesneedbeaweednolonger.Inadditiontoseveralcancer-fightingantioxidants, it’salso loadedwithascorbicacid,betacarotene,vitaminE,andomega-3fattyacidsthathavebeenshowntohelplowercholesterollevelsaswellasotherhealthbenefits.

1.Heatoilinsaucepanandsautéonionsandceleryabout10minutes,untiltheonionsaretransparent.

2.Bringwatertoaboilinmedium-sizedsouppot.

3.Add sautéed vegetables, greens, potatoes, and eveningprimrose roots. Cook on medium heat about 20–30minutes,untilrootsaretender.

4.Stir in sour cream, butter, evening primrose seeds, andseasonings.

5.Letflavorsblendatleast5minutesbeforeserving.

RedbudStirFries

Thesearelikesnowpeasbutwithatartflavor.Servewithrice,potatoes,orothervegetables.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES42tablespoonsbutter1cupredbudpods,endsremoved1smallonion,chopped2carrots,chopped1teaspoonSeedSeasoning(Chapter18)

1.Meltbutterinaskilletovermediumheat.Addtheredbudpods,onion,andcarrotsandsauté10–15minutes.

2.Turnoffheat,addseedseasoning,mixwell,andcover.Letstandfor5minutesbeforeserving.

RoastedRoots

Youcanusewhateverrootsareavailableforthisrecipeaswellasothervegetables.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES8–106eveningprimroseroots,scrapedandcutinsmallpieces3burdockroots,peeledandchopped1poundJerusalemartichokes,scrubbedandsliced½cupcoconutmilk¼cupbutter,melted¼cupmaplesyrup2tablespoonsgratedginger2tablespoonsWildHerbSeasoning(Chapter18)

1.Steam evening primrose roots and burdock roots 20minutes,untiltender.

2.CombinewithJerusalemartichokerootsina12-inchironskillet.

3. Add the coconut milk, butter, syrup, Wild HerbSeasoning,andginger.Coatvegetableswithmixture.

4.Place the vegetables in the iron skillet and place in theoven.Roastabout20minutes.

5.Remove from oven, toss and turn roots and then roastabout 20 minutes more, until the roots are tender andnicelyglazed.

6.Serveasasidedishoroverrice.

RockTripeSoup

Thisisastrengtheningandwarmingsouptohaveduringthecoldwintermonths.

Servewithquinoa,rice,orothergrain.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES42quartswater½cuprocktripe,brokenupintosmallpieces1mediumonion,chopped2stalkscelery,chopped2carrots,chopped2tablespoonsbutterorvegetableoil2tablespoonsWildHerbSeasoning(Chapter18)½teaspooneveningprimroseseedsSalt,totaste1cayenneorchilipepper,cutinhalfandseedsremoved1teaspoonfilépowder

FiléPowderFilé powder is used in gumbo recipes as a thickener and is sold inspecialty stores and gourmet shops. If you look at the ingredients, theonlythinglistedissassafrasleaves.Youcanmakeyourownfilépowderby gathering the young leaves and either dehydrating them in adehydratororspreadingthemonascreenuntildryandthenpowderingthem.Addtothecookeddishafteryouhaveremoveditfromtheheat.Cookingwithfiléwillresultinastringy,unappealingtexture.

1.Inamediumsouppot,bringwatertoaboilandaddtherocktripe.Reduceheattomedium.

2.Inaskilletovermediumheat,sautétheonion,celery,andcarrotsinbutterorvegetableoilfor10–15minutes.AddWildHerbSeasoningandeveningprimroseseedsandmixwell.

3.Add to soup pot along with salt and cayenne pepper.Simmerfor1hour.

4.Removefromheatandaddfilépowder.

RootSoup

Arobustsouptohaveonacold,winterday,packedwithvitaminsandnutrients.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES8–101quartwater2cupsstingingnettlegreens,chopped4–6eveningprimroseroots,peeledandchopped4–6Jerusalemartichoketubers,chopped1cupchoppedroots,combinationofdandelionroots,burdockroots,yellowdockroots,orotherroots,dependingonwhat’savailable½cuprocktripebrokenupintosmallpieces2tablespoonsvegetableoilorbutter1mediumonion,chopped2celerystalks,chopped3carrots,choppedFieldgarlicorwildoniontops,chopped1driedcayenneorchilipepper½teaspooneveningprimroseseedsSaltandpepper,totaste

LiverCleansersHerbs thatareused to cleanse the liverare calledhepaticherbs.Theyhelpbytriggeringtheflowofbileandincludedandelionroot,burdockroot, and yellow dock root. Their roots grow deep into the ground,makingthemrichinmineralsandusefulasalivertonic.

1.Heatwatertoboilinginamedium-sizedsouppot.

2.Addnettlesandletcookfor2minutes.

3.Addchoppedroots.

4.Heat oil or butter in saucepan and sauté onions, celery,

andcarrots.

5.Add to soup pot, along with field garlic or onion tops,pepper,andeveningprimroseseeds.Cookonmediumlowheatforatleast30minutes.Seasonwithsaltandpeppertotaste.

SaltwortBalls

Addyourownspecialblendofwildherbsandseasonings.Servewithsoupsorsalads.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES41cupsaltwort,choppedfine½cupwildgreens(dandelions,mustards,lambsquarters,etc.),chopped1egg1cuppreparedstuffingmix,cornmeal,orotherflour¾cupgratedcheese½cupmincedonionVegetableoilorbutterforfrying

1.Inamediumbowl,combinesaltwortandwildgreensandmixwell.Addtheremainingingredientsandmix.

2.Form into balls and fry in heated oil or butter 5–10minutes,rollingwithaspoononallsidesuntilbrown.

Sassaf-Rice

Awonderfulblendofflavorandcolor.Servewithstir-friesorothercookedvegetables.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES6–82cupscookedwildrice2tablespoonsbutter,melted1cupsassafrasflowers1teaspoonfilépowderSprinkleofgroundturmericSprinkleofgroundcardamomseed1teaspoonWildHerbSeasoning(Chapter18)3greenonions,chopped½cupgreenbriertips

1.Inalargebowl,addbuttertowildriceandmixwell.Stirinsassafrasflowers.

2.Combinefilépowder,groundturmeric,groundcardamonseed,andWildHerbSeasoningandmixinwithrice.

3.Garnishwithgreenonionsandgreenbriertips.

SpringFries

ThisisagreatdishtoserveoverwildricewithGroundCherrySalsa(Chapter16)orcactussaladontop.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES43–4 wild onions or field garlic (or 1 medium onion), chopped 2 tablespoonsbutteroroliveoil4thistlestalks,peeled2cupswildmustardflowerbudsandflowers4–5 cattail hearts or flower buds, steamed and stripped 1 cup yucca flowers,petalsremoved

In a skillet overmediumheat, sauté onions or garlic 5–10minutes inbutter or olive oil. Add remaining ingredients and simmer for 10–15minutes.

SpringRolls

Thesecanbeservedraw,retainingthefreshandcrispflavorofspringvegetables.

INGREDIENTS | MAKES2DOZENROLLS2 cups wild greens, chopped (peppergrass, heal-all, oxeye daisy, chickweed,dandelion)6wildonions(marinatedovernightinsugarwater)½teaspoonginger,grated1carrot,grated¼teaspoonfinelymincedmintleaves1tablespoonlimejuice1tablespoonsoysauceSpringrollwrappersHotwaterfordippingwrappers

1.In a large bowl, combine greens, vegetables, ginger, andmintleaves.Addlimejuiceandsoysauce,mixingwell.

2.Dip wrappers into hot water and hold until soft andpliable,about10seconds.

3.Spoon1tablespoonmixtureontowrappersandroll.

MarinatedWildOnionsandGarlicThe strong smell and taste of wild onions and wild garlic can bemellowedbymarinatingtheminsugarwater.Layertheminajarwithonionsorgarliconthebottomlayer.Sprinklesugaroverthebulbsandcontinue to layer. Add enough water to cover the bulbs and let sitovernight.

Stir-FriedMilkweedBuds,Flowers,andPods

Theseflowerbudslookjustlikelittlegreenpeaswhencookedandmakeaniceadditiontopotatodishes.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES6–82tablespoonsbutter(orvegetableoil)1mediumonion,chopped2–3carrots,chopped2cupsprecookedmilkweedbuds,flowers,andpods

1.Meltbutterinsaucepanovermediumheat.2.Sautéonionsandcarrotsinmeltedbutterabout5minutes.3.Add precookedmilkweed buds and flowers to onions and carrots. Reduce heatandsimmerfor5–10minutes.4.Serveasasidedishorwithrice.

StuffedWildGrapeLeaves

Whengatheringgrapeleaves,lookforthetender,lightergreenleavesratherthanthedarker,olderonesforbettertasteandtexture.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES123dozengrapeleavesSeasalt,asneeded2cupsWildRiceandGroundnuts (Chapter17) as a stuffingmix2 tablespoonsoliveoil

GrapeCasseroleGrape leaves come in different sizes, depending on the species. If theleavesaretoosmallforrolling,layertheminthebottomofanoiledorbutteredcasseroledishandputthewildricestuffingmixontopoftheleaves.Endwitha layerofgrape leavesontop.Sprinklewitholiveoilandbakeat325°Fforabout20minutes.

1.Rinse each leaf and lay it in a large pot, stacking theleavesontopofeachother.

2.Coverwithwaterandsprinklewithsalt.Cookonlowheatfor20–30minutes,untiltheleavesturndarkgreen.

3.Putatablespoonofthestuffingmixnearthestemendoftheleaf.

4.Foldinthesidesandrolltightly.

5.Place on an oiled baking dish and brush the tops witholiveoil.

6.Bakeat325°Fforabout20minutes.Servewarmorcold.

SourwoodPotatoes

Usingtheleavesfromthesourwoodtreeincookingimpartsamild,lemonyflavor.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES43tablespoonsbutter15–20sourwoodleaves3mediumpotatoes,slicedthinly1tablespoonWildHerbSeasoning(Chapter18)

1.Preheatovento400°F.2.Use1tablespoonofbuttertogreasethebottomofbakingdish.3.Linethebottomofthedishwithhalfthesourwoodleaves.4.Layerthepotatoesontopofthesourwoodleaves.5.Sprinkleherbseasoningontopofthepotatoes.6.Thinlyslicetheremainingbutterandlaytheslicesofbutterontopofseasoning.7.Layerremainingsourwoodleavesontop.Sprinklealittlewaterovertheleaves.8.Coverandbake40–45minutes.

ThistleStalkswithHazelnutButterDip

Sweeterthanceleryonceyougetpastthespines.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES6½cuphazelnutbutter(orothernutbutter)¼cupplainyogurt3tablespoonshoney2teaspoonssesameoil½teaspoonlemonjuice12thistlestalks,peeledandcutinhalflengthwise

1.In a large bowl combine the hazelnut butter, yogurt,honey,sesameoil,andlemonjuice.Mixuntilsmooth.

2.Fillthistlestalkswithdipandserve.

VegetablePizza

Addingafewwildtoppingstoyourpizzacantransformitintoagourmetpizzawithflavorsfoundonlyinthewild.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES44clovesgarlic,chopped1tablespoonoliveoil2cupschoppedwildgreens1cupGroundCherrySalsa(Chapter16)(orotherpizzasauce)1pizzacrust1smallredonion,thinlysliced1cupgratedcheese

1.Preheatovento425°F.

2.Inaskilletovermediumheat,sautégarlicfor2–5minutesinoliveoil.

3.Reduce heat and add greens. Cook 5–10 minutes, untilwilted.

4.Spreadgroundcherrysalsa(orsauce)onbottomofpizzacrust.

5.Add greens with a layer of sliced onions on top of thegreens.

6.Sprinkle with cheese and bake 15–20 minutes, untilcheesehasmelted.

WatercressSoup

Uplandcress,bittercress,orwintercresscanalsobeusedtomakethisnutritionalsoup.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES44tablespoonsbutter1onion,chopped4clovesgarlic,finelychopped1cupwatercressleaves,chopped2cupsvegetablebroth1bayleaf1cupsourcreamSeveralsprigsofoxeyedaisyleaves,forgarnish

VegetableBrothWater that has been used for steaming vegetables is good to use as avegetablebroth.Youcanalsomakeabrothbyadding1tablespoonWildHerbSeasoning(Chapter18)to2cupsofhotwaterandletitsteep.

1.Meltbutterinsaucepanandsautéonionsandgarlicfor5–10minutes.

2.Reduce heat and add chopped greens. Cover and letsimmer5–10minutes.

3.Putvegetablebrothinasouppotandbringtoaboil.

4.Add vegetables and bay leaf to the soup pot, cover andsimmerfor20minutes.

5.Stir in sour cream, garnishwith oxeye daisy leaves, andserve.

WildBeanTacos

Ahigh-proteindishfullofflavorthatissatisfyingandfilling.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES6½cupwildonionorfieldgarlic,minced1tablespoonoliveoil2cupscooked,shelledwildbeans,mashed1cupcookedwildrice12tacoshells1cupGroundCherrySalsa(Chapter16)1cupCheddarcheese,grated

1.Sautéwildonionsorfieldgarlicinoliveoil5–10minutes,untiltender.2.Addthewildbeansandcookedricetotheonionsorgarlicandmixwell.3.Spoon2tablespoonsmixtureintotacoshells.4.Add1teaspoonGroundCherrySalsatoeachshell.5.Sprinklewithgratedcheese.Meltinovenonlowbroil.

WildBeansandGreens

Serveasatoppingonwildrice,pasta,orothercookedgrain.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES44clovesgarlic,chopped1mediumonion,chopped2tablespoonsoliveoil2cupswildgreens,washedandchopped(lambsquarters,dandelion,heal-all,wildmustard)2cupswildbeans,cooked½cupGroundCherrySalsa(Chapter16)(or1cupdicedtomatoes)1tablespoonricevinegar

1.In a skillet overmediumheat, sauté garlic and onion inoliveoil5–10minutes,untilsoft.

2.Lowerheat and add greens. Cover and let simmer about10minutes.

3.Add cooked beans and salsa (or tomatoes) and cookanother10minutes.

4.Turnoffheatandaddvinegar.Coverandletstandfor2–3minutesbeforeserving.

WildRiceandGroundnuts

Useasastuffingwithgrapeleavestomakedolmasorasamaindish.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES4–61mediumonion,minced1stalkcelery,chopped2tablespoonsoliveoil1cupwildrice½cupgroundnuts,scrubbedandthinlysliced2½cupshickorynutmilk(orwater)½cupshelledhickorynuts½cupdriedcranberriesorblueberries

1.Inaskilletovermediumheat,sautéonionsandceleryinolive oil. Add rice and groundnuts and stir until rice iscoatedwithoil.

2.Add ricemixture to nutmilk (orwater) inmedium panandbringtoaboil.Coverandsimmerabout30minutes,oruntilwaterisabsorbed.

3.Add nuts and berries. Cover and let steep for 5–10minutes.

YuccaFlowerStalksauGratin

Gatherthesebeforetheflowerbudshavestartedtodevelop.Somestalksarebitter,sosampleeachonebeforecookingwiththem.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES42cupsyuccastalks,peeledandcutinto2-inchpieces3tablespoonsbutter½cupgratedcheese2tablespoonssourcream

1.Steam-cookyuccastalksfor25–30minutes,untiltender.2.Arrangeinbottomofservingdish.3.Meltbutterinsaucepan.Addcheeseandsourcream.Stiruntilblended.4.Pouroveryuccastalksandserve.

WildStuffedSquash

Usethisstuffingmixforanywintersquashorasasidedishforyourholidaydinner.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES42acornsquashes(orbutternutsquash)1clovegarlic,crushed½cuponion,chopped2stalkscelery,chopped¼cupnuts,chopped(hickory,walnut,hazelnut,pecan)¼cupsunflowerseeds½teaspoongarlicmustardseeds,ground½teaspooneveningprimroseseeds,ground3–4tablespoonsbutter½teaspoonsage1cupwholewheatbreadcrumbs¼cupdriedwildcranberriesorblueberries½cupcheese,grated

1.Preheatovento350°F.

2.Cutsquashinhalf,removeseeds,andbakefor30minutes.

3.Inaskilletovermediumheat,sautégarlic,onions,celery,nuts, and seeds for about 10 minutes in butter or untilsoft.

4.Addremainingingredientsexceptcheese.Cook5minutes.

5.Removefromheat.Mixincheese.

6.Packstuffingintosquashandbakefor25minutes.

CHAPTER18

GreenCuisine

BakedPurslaneDandelionQuicheGreenCakesHerbDipKudzuChipsLambsquartersPieMallowLasagnaNettlePestoPokeRoll-UpsPokeandPestoRicewithWildGreensSowThistleTempuraSpringSaladStuffedVioletsWildFrittatasWildGreenBurritosWildGreenQuesadillasWildHerbSeasoning

BakedPurslane

Thisdishisgoodforalloccasionsandcanbeservedforbreakfastaswellaslunchordinner.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES4–61tablespoonbutter2cupspurslanegreens,freshtips1cupdriedbreadcrumbs3eggs,wellbeaten¼cupsourcream1cupcheese,grated

1.Preheatovento350°F.Butteracasseroledish.

2.Ina largebowl,tosstogetherpurslaneandbreadcrumbs3.Add sour cream to beaten eggs and combine withpurslaneandbreadcrumbs.

4.Pourintobutteredcasseroledish.Topwithgratedcheese.Bake30–35minutes,untilfirm.

DandelionQuiche

Thequichethat’sfullofvitamins.Thisisonewaytousethedandelionsgrowing

inyouryardandgetyourvitaminsatthesametime.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES61tablespoonoliveoil2clovesgarlic,minced2cupsdandeliongreens,chopped3eggs½cupsourcream1teaspoonWildHerbSeasoning(Chapter18)1unbakedpieshell1cupcheese,grated

1.Preheatovento325°F.

2.In a skillet over medium heat, heat the olive oil. Addgarlic and sauté for 2–5 minutes. Reduce heat and adddandeliongreens.Coverandletsimmer5–10minutes.

3.In a separate bowl, mix eggs and sour cream. Adddandelionmixtureandherbseasoning.

4.Pourintothepieshellandsprinklecheeseontop.

5.Bake45minutesoruntilfirm.

DandelionasaDiureticDandelionhas diuretic properties that cleanse the kidneys andurinarytractbyflushingouttoxinsthroughincreasedurination.Usetheleavesasgreensortheroastedrootstomakeateatohelpdetoxifythebody.

GreenCakes

Topthesecakeswithawildherbcheesespreadandediblewildflowersandservewithsouporsalad.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES6–8¾cupsourcreamormilk2eggs,beaten1½cupscornmealorflour1teaspoonbakingpowder1¼cupswildgreens,chopped3greenonionsorwildonions,chopped1chiliorcayennepepper,chopped1cupCheddarcheese,grated

1.Combinesourcreamormilkwitheggsinlargemixingbowl.2.Addcornmealandbakingpowder.3.Foldingreens,onions,peppers,andcheese.4.Dropbyspoonfulsontohot,oiledgriddleorfryingpan.5.Fry5–10minutesoneachsideoruntilgoldenbrown.

HerbDip

Usethisasadipforvegetablesorasaspreadoncrackersorbread.

INGREDIENTS | MAKESAPPROXIMATELY2CUPS2tablespoonsvegetableoil1mediumonion,chopped3clovesgarlic,chopped3cupschoppedwildgreens(or½cupdriedgreens)1cupsourcream1cupgratedcheese1cupwildmustardflowers/flowerbuds

1.Inaskilletovermediumhighheat,addthevegetableoil.Oncetheoilishot,sautéonionsandgarlic.

2.Addwildgreensandcookonlowheat10–15minutes.

3.Removefromheatandfoldinsourcream,gratedcheese,flowers,andflowerbuds.

KudzuChips

Usetheyoungest,mosttenderleavesforcooking.Eatwhilestillwarmtoenjoythecrispnessofthisexoticdish.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES61cupflour1tablespooncornstarchDashofcayennepepper1cupcoldwater30youngkudzuleaves2tablespoonscoconutoilorbutterforfrying

1.Inamediumbowl,combineflour,cornstarch,andcayennepepper.2.Addwaterandstiruntilsmooth.3.Dipleavesinbatterandfryinhotoil2–5minutesonbothsidesuntilbrown.

KudzuforHangoversResearchhasshownthatkudzucontainsacompoundknownasdaidzenthatmayhelpthosesufferingfromhangovers.Evenbetter,itmayreducethecravingforalcohol,preventingthehangoverbeforeiteverhappens.

LambsquartersPie

Likeaquichebutwithoutacrust.UsetheGroundCherrySalsa(Chapter16)asaspreadontop.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES42tablespoonsbutter1onion,diced3eggs,beaten1cupsourcream2cupslambsquarters,chopped1teaspoonWildHerbSeasoning(Chapter18)1cupwholewheatflour2teaspoonsbakingpowder1cupCheddarcheese,grated

1.Preheatovento350°F.

2.Meltbutter ina saucepan.Sautéonionsabout5minutesuntiltranslucent.

3.Addeggsandsourcreamtoablenderandmixwell.Addlambsquartersandherbseasoningandblenduntilgreensarecoarselychopped.

4.In medium bowl, combine egg mixture with flour andbakingpowder.Mixwell.

5.Stir in sautéed onions and grated cheese. Pour intobutteredpiepanandbakefor35minutes,oruntilfirm.

MallowLasagna

Themucilaginousqualityofthemallowleavesactsasanaturalthickenerforthelasagna.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES8–106wildonions,marinatedovernightinsugarwater(or1mediumonion,chopped)4clovesgarlic,chopped2tablespoonsoliveoil¼cupWildHerbSeasoning(Chapter18)½cupgratedParmesancheese1teaspoondriedbasil1cupricottacheese8ounceslasagnanoodles,cooked2cupstomatosauce2cupscommonmallowleaves,choppedfine1cupmozzarellacheese

1.Preheatovento375°F.

2.Inaskilletovermediumheat, sautégarlicandonions inoliveoil5–10minutesoruntiltender.

3.In a large bowl, mix Wild Herb Seasoning, half theParmesancheese,anddriedbasilwithricottacheese.

4.Butteroroilabakingdishandputa layerofnoodlesonthebottom.

5.Add layers of sauce, mallow leaves, ricotta cheese, andmozzarellacheese.

6.Repeat the process, ending with a layer of mozzarellacheese.

7.Coverandbakeabout40–45minutes.

8.UncoverandsprinklewiththeremainingParmesancheeseandbakeanother10minutes.

9.Removefromovenandletcoolabout5–10minutesbeforeserving.

NettlePesto

Nettleisoneofthebestsourcesofproteinintheplantworld.Itisalsorichiniron,calcium,magnesium,zinc,andothervitaminsand

minerals.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES6–82cupsfreshstingingnettle(canalsousechickweed,cress,orgarlicmustard)¼cupfreshparsley2clovesgarlic1cuptoastedpecans½teaspoonsalt¼cupoliveoil½cupgratedParmesancheese

1.Processallingredientsinfoodprocessoruntilasmoothpasteisformed.2.Serveoncrackers,bread,orwithpasta.

PokeRoll-Ups

ThesecanbeeatenaloneordippedintoGroundCherrySalsa(Chapter16)foraddedflavor.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES1010–12pokeshoots,peeledandparboiled in2changesofwater1cupHerbDip(Chapter18)WontonwrappersCoconutoilorbutterforfrying

1.Cutpokeinto1-inchsections(orthelengthofwontonwrappersbeingused).2.Spread1tablespoonHerbDiponwontonwrapperandplaceapokeshootinthecenter.3.Moistentheedgesandrollthewrapperlikeacigar,pinchingtheendstogether.4.Fryinoilorbutterabout5minutesuntilbrownonbothsides.

PokeandPesto

Servethisasasidedishorwithothervegetables.Ithasthetasteandtextureofasparagus.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES8–101largeonion,thinlysliced2clovesgarlic,minced2tablespoonscoconutoilorbutter2dozenpokeweedshoots,peeledandparboiledin2changesofwaterJuiceof1lemon¹⁄³cupNettlePesto(Chapter18)

Poke—Edible,Poisonous,andMedicinalPoke,wheneatenraw,willmakeyouthrowup.However,whencookedthroughtwochangesofwater,itbecomesanutritionalgreen.Pokeweedcontains vitamin A, large quantities of vitamin C and minerals.AccordingtoDr.JamesDuke,theleavesalsocontainantiviralproteinsthatmighthelptofightcancersandviruses.

1.Preheatovento350°F.2.In a skillet over medium heat, sauté onions and garlic in oil or butter untilgolden.3.Spreadpokeweedshootsinbottomofshallowbakingdish.4.Squeezelemonjuiceoverthepoke.5.Layeronionsandgarlicontopofpokeweedshoots.6.TopwithNettlePesto,evenlydistributed.7.Bakefor20minutes.

RicewithWildGreens

Addcookedredbudpods,cattailshoots,thistlestalks,orotherwildvegetablesthatareinseasonforaddedflavor.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES6–81½cupswildonions,leeks,orgarlic,thinlysliced1tablespoonvegetableoilorbutter1cupfreshgreens,chopped1cupcookedriceParmesancheese,optionalSplashoflemonjuiceorbalsamicvinegarOxeyedaisyleaves,forgarnish

1.Sauté leeks inoilorbutter for2–3minutes.Reduceheatandaddwildgreensandcook5–10minutes,untilwilted.Add a splash of lemon juice or balsamic vinegar. Stir incookedriceandletstand5minutes.

2.SprinkleParmesancheeseon topandgarnishwithoxeyedaisyleavesandserve.

SowThistleTempura

ServedippedintamariandsprinkledwithParmesanorwithyourfavoritedippingsauce.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES81cuppancakemix¼cuppineorcattailpollen(ifavailable)½teaspooncayennepepper1½cupsbeer2dozenyoungsowthistleleafrosettes2tablespoonscoconutoiloroliveoilforfrying

1.In a medium bowl combine pancake mix, pollen, andpepper.

2.Addbeertodryingredientsandstiruntilwellblended.

3.Dip leaf rosettes into batter and fry in hot, coconut oilabout5minutes,untilbrownoneachside.

SpringSalad

Saladmakingisatitsbestintheearlyspring.Takeadvantageofthistimetogatherthewildgreensandediblewildflowersforabeautifulandtasty

salad.Stuffintoapitaoruseasafillingforasaladwrap.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES8–101cupchickweedflowersandtips1cupfieldpansyandvioletflowers1cupdandelionleaves1cupsheepsorrelleaves1cupheal-allleaves1cupgreenbriertips1cupuplandcressleaves,flowerbuds,andflowers1cupredbudflowers½cupyoungsassafrasleavesPlantainseedsfrom1flowerstalk(optional)Juiceof1lemon1tablespoonmaplesyrup

1.Inalargemixingbowl,tossallgreenstogether.2.Inasmallbowl,combinelemonjuiceandmaplesyrup.Pouroversaladmixtureandserve.

PlantagoSeedsSeeds of Plantago species, commonly known as plantain, containpsyllium, which is a fiber laxative that helps prevent constipation bycleansing the bowels. Seeds can be stripped and added to the seedseasoningortosaladsasneeded.

StuffedViolets

Thesemakeanattractivedisplayandaregoodforediblearrangements.

INGREDIENTS | MAKES2DOZEN8ouncescreamcheese,softened1tablespoonfruitpreservesorjam2dozenvioletleaves4dozenvioletandwildpansyflowers1tablespoonmapleorrawsugar

1.Inamediumbowl,mixcreamcheeseandfruitpreserves.2.Putadabinthecenterofeachvioletleaf.3.Topwithacoupleofflowers.Sprinklesugaroverflowers.4.Chill30minutesandserve.

WildFrittatas

Thisislikealazycook’somelet.Itrequiresnoflipping.Putitinthepan,coverit,andsetthetimersoyoudon’tforgetit.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES81mediumonion,chopped3clovesmincedgarlic3tablespoonsbutter2cupswildgreens,chopped3eggs,beaten1cupmilkorsourcream1cupgratedcheeseDashofcayennepepper

WhatIsaFrittata?Afrittataissimilartoanomeletexceptthattheingredientsaremixedinwiththeeggmixture,covered,andcookedonlowheatorbakedwithouthavingtoflipit.

1.Inaskilletovermediumheat,sautégarlicandonions5–10minutesinbutter.Reduceheattoalowtemperature.

2.Addwildgreensandmixwell.Spreadevenlyinpan.

3.Inaseparatebowl,beateggsandaddsourcream.

4.Pouroversautéedgarlicandonionsandgreens.

5.Sprinkle with cayenne pepper and grated cheese. Coverpanandcookonlowheat30–45minutes,untilfirm.

WildGreenBurritos

Usewhatevergreensareinseasontomakethesewildburritos.Substitutecookedpokeweedshootsforthegreensforalittlevariation.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES62tablespoonsoliveoil1mediumonion,chopped3clovesgarlic,chopped2cupswildgreens,chopped½cupsourcream6flourtortillas2cupsgratedCheddarcheese

BitterHerbsBitterherbstastebitter.Therearetastezonesonthetongueforsweet,salty,sour,andbitter.Thebitterzonereactstothetasteofbitterherbsbystimulatingsalivaflow,enhancingdigestionandassimilationoffood.Bitter herbs are both adaptogens and tonics, helping the body absorbnutrientsandflushouttoxins.

1.Inaskilletoverhighheat,sautéonionsandgarlicinhotoliveoilfor5–10minutes,untilsoft.

2.Lower heat and add greens. Cook on low heat 10–15minutes,untilleavesarewilted.

3.Stirinsourcream.

4.Fill each tortillawith a large spoonful of cooked greens.Sprinkle with grated cheese. Fold in one end of tortillaandroll.

WildGreenQuesadillas

UsewildgreensasthefillingandservewithGroundCherrySalsa(Chapter16).

INGREDIENTS | SERVES4–61mediumonion,chopped2clovesgarlic,chopped1chilipepper,chopped2tablespoonsoliveoil3–4cupswildgreens,chopped¼cupsourcream10flourtortillas1cupgratedcheese2tablespoonsbutterorcoconutoilforfrying

1.In a skillet over medium heat, sauté garlic, onions, andpepperinhotoliveoil5–10minutes,untilsoft.

2.Lower heat and add chopped greens. Cook for 15–20minutes,untiltender.

3.Stirinsourcream.

4.Spread2tablespoonsofgreensmixtureontohalfofflourtortilla.Topwithgratedcheeseandfoldinhalf.

5.Brown each side in hot buttered or oiled skillet 5–10minutesuntilbrownoneachside.

WildHerbSeasoning

Ablendofdriedgreensandjustenoughspicetoaddflavorandnutritiontoanyvegetabledish.

INGREDIENTS | MAKES1CUP1cupdriedgreens(cress,purslane,stingingnettle,kudzu)¼cupdriedsaltwort(ifavailable)1 tablespoon dried wild chives (wild onion and garlic tops)¼ teaspoon garlicmustardseeds(orothermustardseeds)¼teaspooneveningprimroseseeds

1.Blendingredientsinblenderorcoffeegrinder.2.Useasasprinkleonyourfavoritevegetabledishes,salads,orsoups.

SaltSubstituteUsing saltwort or any of the other plants with a high salt contenteliminates the need for using commercial table salt in a recipe.Whenavailable,usetheseplantsasasubstituteforsalt.

CHAPTER19

Breads

AcornGriddleCakesBeanBreadCattailPollenCakesBlueberryPancakesCranberryNutBreadDandelionFrittersElderFlowerFrittersGreenBarsGreenFrittersNutBreadPawpawNutBreadPersimmonBiscuitsQueenAnne’sLaceCornbreadPersimmonBreadRaspberrySconesRockTripeCrackersStrawberryBread

AcornGriddleCakes

Afulfillingwaytostartthedaywithgriddlecakesservedwithrealmaplesyrup.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES122cupsacornmeal2cupsflourorpancakemix1cupmaple-flavoredyogurt½cupwaterorenoughforpancakeconsistency¼cupbutterorvegetableoilforfrying

1.Combineingredientsandmixuntilwellblended.2.Dropbyspoonfulsontohot,oiledgriddlepan.3.Brown5–10minutesoneachsideoruntilbrownandserve.

BeanBread

Thiscanalsobebakedinabakingdishat350°F.ServewithGroundCherrySalsa(Chapter16).

INGREDIENTS | SERVES82eggs,beaten¾cupsourcream1¼cupswildbeans,cooked2cupscornmeal1teaspoonbakingpowder¼cuphotwater3greenonions,chopped1chilipepper,chopped1tablespoonmolasses1cupCheddarcheese,grated

1.Combinesourcreamwitheggs.

2.Addbeans,cornmeal,andbakingpowder.Addenoughhotwaterforpancakeconsistency.Stirinthemolasses.

3.Foldinonions,peppers,andcheese.

4.Dropbyspoonfulsontohot,oiledgriddleorfryingpan.

5.Fry5–10minutesoneachsideoruntilgoldenbrown.

CattailPollenCakes

Amazinglydeliciousblendofcattailpollenandcornmeal.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES123eggs2cupscornmeal2cupscattailpollen2tablespoonsmolasses2tablespoonsbutter,melted1cuphotwaterorenoughformixturetobeconsistencyofpancakebatter¼cupcoconutoilforfrying(canalsouseregularvegetableoil)

1.Inalargemixingbowl,combineingredientsinorderlisted.2.Dropbyspoonfulsonhot,oiledgriddlepan.3.Brown5–10minutesoneachsideandserve.

BlueberryPancakes

Useawildberrysyrupwithbutterasatastytopping.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES41cuppancakemix1tablespoonbutter,melted1cupmapleyogurtEnoughwaterforpancakeconsistency1cupwildblueberriesOilorbutterforfrying

1.Inalargemixingbowl,combinepancakemix,butter,andyogurt.

2.Addenoughwaterfordesiredpancakeconsistency.

3.Stirinblueberries.

4.Dropby spoonfuls onhot, oiledgriddle andbrown5–10minutesoneachside.

CranberryNutBread

Justthebreadtoservewithcheesespreadsfortheholidays.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES8–102tablespoonsvegetableoilorbutter,softened¾cuphoney2eggs,slightlybeaten1½teaspoonbakingpowder½teaspoonbakingsoda2cupsflour1cupwildcranberries,chopped(ifavailable)1cuphickorynuts,chopped

1.Preheatovento350°F.2.Creambutterorvegetableoilwithhoney.Addeggs.3.Combinedryingredientsandaddtocreamedmixture.4.Stirinwildcranberriesandnuts.5.Spoonintogreasedloafpan.6.Bake40–45minutes,untildone.

DandelionFritters

Enjoytheflowerytasteofthesefritterswhilegainingthehealthbenefitsofthisnutritionalherb.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES6–82cupsdandelionflowers2eggs,beaten¾cupsourcream3–4fieldgarlicbulbsorgreenonions,chopped2cupscornmealmuffinmix1cupCheddarcheese,grated1tablespoonmolasses(optional)½cuphotwaterButterorcoconutoilforfrying

1.Remove sepals from base of dandelion flowers usingkitchenscissorsorsharpknifeandbreakuppetals.

2.Stirintobeateneggsandaddsourcream.Addremainingingredients and enough hotwater for the consistency ofpancakebatter.

3.Drop by spoonfuls onto hot, oiled griddle or frying pan.Fry5–10minutesoneachsideuntilgoldenbrown.

TheDandelionHarvestThe secret to getting good-tasting dandelions is towatch for that firstburstofyellowcolorintheearlyspring.Thesearethebesttastingandmakethebestfritters,wine,andcordials.Theytendtogetmorebitterasthedaysgetwarmer.

ElderFlowerFritters

Anutritious,flowery-tastingfritterthatisgoodservedwithwildpreservesorsyrup.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES10–122eggs,beaten1cupsourcream2cupselderflowers,largestemsremoved2cupspancakemix2tablespoonsbutterorcoconutoilforfrying

1.Inalargebowl,combinebeateneggsandsourcream,andaddflowers.

2.Addpancakemixandmixwell.

3.Dropbyspoonfulsonhot,oiledskilletorgriddleandcook5–10minutesuntilbrownoneachside.

GreenBars

Easytomakeandfullofflavor.AddGroundCherrySalsa(Chapter16)ontopforaddedflavor.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES10–122tablespoonsbutterorshortening3eggs,beaten1cupsourcream1cupflour1teaspoonbakingpowder2cupswildgreens,choppedfine1cupcheese,grated

1.Preheatovento350°F.2.Inasaucepanovermediumheat,meltbutterinpan.3.Mixsourcreamwithbeateneggsandcombinewithremainingingredients.4.Pourintomedium-sizebakingpan.5.Bakefor35minutes,untilfirm.6.Cool10minutes,cutintosquares,andserve.

GreenFritters

Thesearegoodwithsoupsorsaladsandcanbeeatenhotorcold.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES4–6¾cupsourcream(ormilk)2eggs,beaten1½cupspancakemix1¼cupswildgreens3wildonions(orgreenonions)1cupCheddarcheese,gratedOilorbutterforfrying

1.Inalargebowl,combinesourcreamwitheggs.

2.Addpancakemix,wildgreens,onions,andcheese.

3.Drop by spoonfuls onto hot, oiled griddle or frying panandcookoneachside5–10minutes,untilbrown.

NutBread

Amildlysweetbreadthatgoeswellwithanywildberrypreserveorjam.

INGREDIENTS | MAKES1LOAF2tablespoonsbutter,melted¾cuphoney2eggs,beaten2teaspoonsbakingpowder2cupsflour1cuphickorynuts,chopped(orotheravailablewildnuts)

1.Preheatovento350°F.2.Cream melted butter with honey and add beaten eggs in medium-size mixingbowl.3.Addbakingpowderandflourtocreamedmixture.4.Stirinnuts.Spoonintogreasedloafpan.5.Bakefor40–45minutes.6.Cool10–15minutesbeforeremovingfrompan.

PawpawNutBread

Thisbreadissimilarintastetobananabread.

INGREDIENTS | MAKES1LOAF¹⁄³cupbutter,softened²⁄³cuphoney2eggs3tablespoonsplainyogurt½cuppawpawpulp2cupswholewheatflour1teaspoonbakingpowder½cupchoppedpecans

1.Preheatovento350°F.2.Creambutterandhoneyinlargebowl.Addeggsandbeat.3.Stirinyogurtandpawpawpulp.4.Combineflourandbakingpowderwithyogurtmixture.5.Stirinpecans.Pourintoagreasedloafpan.Bakefor40–45minutesoruntildone.6.Cool10minutesbeforeremovingfrompan.

PersimmonBiscuits

Thesearedeliciousservedhotwithbutterandhoney.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES122cupsbiscuitmix½cupbutter,melted½cuppersimmonpulp¼cupmapleyogurt

1.Preheatovento350°F.

2.Put thebiscuitmix in a roundbowl.Makeawell in thecenter.

3.Pourmeltedbutter,persimmonpulp,andyogurt intothewell.

4.Work from the inside out, stirring the flour into themixturegradually.Whenthedoughstartstothicken,useyourfingerstoformaball,dustingitwithflourtokeepitfromstickingtoyourfingers.

5.Rollintosmall,flattenedballs.

6.Bake10–12minutes,untilgoldenbrown.

QueenAnne’sLaceCornbread

Adainty-lookingbreadwithahintofcarrottaste.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES12–162tablespoonsbutter3eggs,beaten2cupssourcream1½cupscornmealmuffinmix1½cupsflour1cupgratedcheese½cuphotwater2cupsQueenAnne’slaceflowers,largestemsremoved

1.Preheatovento350°F.

2.Meltbutterinlargecastironskillet.

3.Inalargebowl,combineeggsandsourcream.

4.Addcornmeal,flour,cheese,andwater,andmixwell.

5.Addmelted butter to cornmealmixture. Fold in QueenAnne’slaceflowersandpourintohot,buttered,castironskillet.Bakefor35minutes,oruntilfirm.

PositiveIdentificationOneway topositively identifyQueenAnne’s lacewhen inbloom is tolookforthereddot,whichisactuallyafloretlocatednearthecenter.

PersimmonBread

Thisisasweetbreadthatisgoodwithafruitandnutcheesespreadandservedwithhotcider.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES62eggs,beaten¼cupvegetableoilorbutter,softened²⁄³cuphoney2tablespoonsplainyogurt2cupsflour1teaspoonbakingpowder1cuppersimmonpulp½cupchoppednuts(optional)

1.Preheatovento350°F.2.Combineingredientsintheorderlisted.Mixwell.3.Pourintoagreasedloafpan.4.Bake45–50minutes.5.Cool10–15minutesbeforeremovingfrompan.

RaspberryScones

Servewithbutterorwildpreserveswhilestillwarm.Leftoverscanbefrozenandheatedupasneeded.

INGREDIENTS | MAKES122cupsflour2tablespoonsbakingpowder1egg,beaten½cupmapleyogurt1tablespoonmaplesyrup1cupraspberries¹⁄³cupbutter,melted

SconesScones are like biscuits but they are sweeter and are oftenmadewithdifferent fruits, including blueberries, blackberries, and raspberries.Sometimes they are cooked on a griddle and are usually served withbutterandjam.

1.Preheatovento400°F.

2.Mix the flour and baking powder in a large bowl andcreateawellinthecenter.

3.Addtheegg,yogurt,maplesyrup,raspberries,andbutterintothewell.

4.Graduallystirtheflourintothemiddle,workingfromtheinsideout.

5.Usealargetablespoontodropthedoughontothebakingsheetandbakefor15–20minutes.

6.Servewarm.

RockTripeCrackers

Trythesewithfriendsforadinnerpartyservedwithawildfruitjamorpreserves.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES10–12¾cupwholewheatflour1cupall-purposeflour¼cupnutflour2tablespoonssunflowerseeds,ground1teaspoonsalt1½teaspoonsbakingpowder¼cuprocktripe,ground¼cupsourcream1tablespoonbutter,melted½cupicewater

1.Preheatovento350°F.

2.Inalargebowl,mixtogetherthedryingredients.

3.Stirinsourcreamandmeltedbutter.

4.Addtheicewaterandkneadlightly.

5.Rolltoone-eighth-inchthicknessonaflouredsurface.Addmoreflourasneededtopreventthedoughfromsticking.Cuttodesiredshapeandsize.

6.Placeonalightlygreasedcookiesheetandpricktopswithafork.

7.Bake10minutesoruntillightlybrowned.

StrawberryBread

Awonderfulspringtimetreatspreadwithcreamcheeseandstrawberrypreservesacrossthetop.

INGREDIENTS | MAKES1LOAF¼cuphoney¼cupbutter,melted1egg,beaten1½cupswholewheatflour3teaspoonsbakingpowder1cupwildstrawberries

1.Preheatovento325°F.2.Addhoneyandbuttertobeateneggandblend.3.Putflourandbakingpowderinalargebowlandmakeawellinthecenter.4.Pourineggmixtureandaddstrawberries.Blendwell.5.Pourintoagreasedloafpanandbakeabout1hour.6.Cool10–15minutesbeforeremovingfrompan.

CHAPTER20

Desserts

AcornChipCookieBarsBerryCheesecakeBerryCheesecakePieBeechNutPieBerryCreamPuffsBlackCherryIceCreamBlackberryCobblerBlackberryCrumbCakeBlackGumSyrupBlueberryPoundCakeBlueberryOatmealBarsChocolateCherryBarsElderCoffeecakeFruit-NutCrunchGreatGrapePieHazelnutTartHickoryBitesHickoryCrepesNutToppingNuttyCrumbCrustPassionfruitBarsPassionfruitCreamPiePassionfruitPiePassionfruitTartsPawpawPuddingPersimmonIceCreamPersimmonCakePersimmonFrostingPersimmonPiePersimmonPuddingRoseHipCookiesServiceberryCoffeeCakeWildBerryCrepes

WildStrawberryPieWildflowerCheesecake

AcornChipCookieBars

Ahigh-proteincookietoservewithhot,mulledappleciderwithrosehips.

INGREDIENTS | MAKES16SQUARES¼cupbutter,softened¼cupmolasses2tablespoonshoney¼cupplainyogurt¼cupcreamcheese½teaspoonvanilla1cupacorns,finelychopped1cupwholewheatflour1teaspoonbakingpowder

1.Preheatovento350°F.2.Creamtogetherbutter,molasses,andhoney.3.Blendyogurt,creamcheese,andvanillaandaddtobuttermixture.4.Stirinremainingingredients.5.Spreadin8-inchsquarebakingdish.6.Bakefor25–30minutes.7.Cool10–15minutes,cutintosquaresandserve.

BerryCheesecake

Soyummyyouwillwanttogooutandgatherlotsofberries.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES88ouncescreamcheese,softened½cupplainyogurt¼cuphoney1granolaorgrahamcrackercrust1 cup blueberries, blackberries, or raspberries, sweetened with honey 1tablespooncornstarch¼cupwater

1.Mix cream cheese, yogurt, and honey and spread ontocrust.

2.Drainliquidsfromberries.Spreadberriesontopofcreamcheesemixture.

3.Addwaterandcornstarchtodrainedliquidandcookonmedium heat until mixture begins to boil, stirringconstantly,for1minute,oruntilclear.

4.Spoon glaze over berries. Chill at least 30 minutes andserve.

BerryCheesecakePie

Useblackgumsyruporblackcherrysyruptoswirladecorativetouchonthispie.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES88ouncescreamcheese,softened¼cupsugar1egg,beaten2tablespoonsmilk½teaspoonvanilla¼cupberrysyrup1piecrust

1.Preheatovento350°F.2.Combinesugarandcreamcheeseandbeatuntilsmooth.3.Addegg,milk,andvanilla.Spreadoverpiecrust.4.Swirlberrysyrupintocreamcheesemixture.5.Bake25–30minutes.

BeechNutPie

Eventhoughthey’resmall,beechnutsaresweetandtastyand,whenavailable,makedeliciouspies.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES8½cupbutter¾cuprawsugar3eggs1cupmaplesyrup1cupbeechnuts(orpecans)1teaspoonvanilla1unbakedpieshell

1.Preheatovento350°F.2.Creambutterandrawsugar.3.Beatineggs,oneatatime.4.Stirinmaplesyrup,nuts,andvanilla.5.Pourintopieshellandbake45minutes.

FindingBeechNutsBeechnutsarenotalwayseasy to find.Beechtreesbloomearly in thespring andareoften followedby a late, heavy frost. This prevents thenutmeatfromdeveloping,eventhoughtheouterhullandtheshellhavedeveloped.Veryoftentheshellisemptyofnutmeat.Youwillknowit’sagoodyearwhenyouseethecrowsarrivinginflocksandlandinginthebeechtrees,knockingthenutsoutintheprocess.

BerryCreamPuffs

Soyummy!Theymeltinyourmouth.

INGREDIENTS | MAKES241cupberries(blueberries,serviceberries,blackberries,mulberries)¼cupsugar8ouncescreamcheese,softened24wontonwrappersOilorbutterforfrying

1.Placeberriesinasaucepanwithjustenoughwatertogetthe juices flowing.Add sugar and cookonmediumheatfor10–15minutes,mashingtheberrieswhilecooking.

2. Remove from heat and mix wild berry mixture withcreamcheeseinamedium-sizebowl.

3.Place 1 tablespoon berry mixture in the center of eachwonton wrapper and fold edges around the mixture,moistening the edges of thewrapperwithwater so theywillstick.

4.Fryinoilorbutter5–10minutes,oruntilbrownoneachside.

5.Cool5–10minutesbeforeserving.

BlackCherryIceCream

Incrediblydelicious!Andstrengtheningaswell,withalltheblood-buildingbenefitsofblackcherries.

INGREDIENTS | MAKES1GALLON4cupsmilk2¾cupssugar3cupsblackcherryjuice5cupswhippingcream2tablespoonsvanilla

1.Combineallingredientsinlargebowl.2.Pourintotheicecreamcanisterandfreezeaccordingtodirections.

BlackberryCobbler

Capturethetastesofsummerberriesinthiseasy-to-makerecipe.Usestrawberries,raspberries,mulberries,orwhateverjuicyfruitisavailable.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES8–104cupsblackberries¼cuphoney1½tablespoonscornstarch¼cupbrownsugar(orrawsugar)1tablespoonbutter1tablespoonlemonjuice½cupflour½cuprawsugar2tablespoonsbutter,softened1egg,slightlybeaten

BerriesforBetterVisionScientific research has shown that blueberries, huckleberries,blackberries, wild cherries, elderberries, and other dark-colored fruitscontain anthocyanosides, an antioxidant that helps prevent maculardegenerationandimprovevision.

1.Preheatovento350°F.

2.Addhoneytoblackberriesandmixwell.Letstandfor30minutes.

3.Drainliquidfromblackberriesintoasaucepan.

4.Spreadblackberriesinbottomofbakingdish.

5.Mixcornstarch,sugar,anddrainedfruit juice.Cookuntilmixtureisthickened,about15minutes.

6.Add butter and lemon juice andmixwell. Pourmixture

overfruit.

7.Inaseparatebowl,combineflour,rawsugar,butter,andegg.Beatwithspoonuntilbatterissmooth.

8.Drop by spoonfuls over fruit mixture, spreading evenly.Bake30–35minutes,untildone.

BlackberryCrumbCake

Canalsobeusedwithraspberriesandmulberries.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES8¼cupbutter,softened¼cuphoney1egg,beaten1cupflour1½teaspoonsbakingpowder¹⁄³cupplainyogurt1teaspoonvanilla2cupsblackberries,sweetened½cuprawsugar¼cupbutter,softened¹⁄³cupflour

1.Preheatovento350°F.

2.Inalargemixingbowl,creambutterandhoney.

3.Addbeatenegg.

4.In a separate bowl, combine dry ingredients. Add tocreamedmixture.

5.Foldinyogurtandvanilla.

6.Pourbatterintogreasedandflouredcakepan.

7.Coverwithblackberries.

8.Tomakethe topping,creamthesugarandbutter.Stir inflour until mixture is crumbly. Sprinkle crumb toppingoverblackberries.

9.Bakefor45minutes.

BlackGumSyrup

It’samazingtotastetheflavortransformationthatoccurswhenyouaddalittlesugartoblackgumjuice.

INGREDIENTS | MAKES1CUPSYRUP1cupblackgumjuice½cuprawsugar

HealthyDessertsWhen supplementing recipes with commercial products, it is best toavoid white flour, white sugar, margarine, and other saturated,polyunsaturated, and hydrogenated fats. Choose organic fruits andvegetablesthataregrownlocallywhenpossible.

1.Combinejuiceandsugarinasaucepanandbringtoarapidboilfor30minutes.2.Pourintosterilizedglassjarandseal.

BlueberryPoundCake

Acreamy,moistcakethatneedsnotopping.It’sdeliciousasitis.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES12–161standard-sizepackagevanilla-flavoredcakemix½cupbutter,softened8ouncescreamcheese,softened3eggs2cupswildblueberries(orserviceberries)

1.Preheatovento350°F.2.Combinecakemix,butter,creamcheese,andeggsandmixuntilsmooth.3.Foldinblueberries.Pourintobuttered,9×13bakingpan.4.Bakefor45minutes,oruntildone.

BlueberryOatmealBars

Containstherich,fullflavorofblueberries.Canalsousewildstrawberries,elderberries,orblackberries.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES121¾cupquick-cookingoats1cupflour1cupgroundnuts(hickoryorpecans)¾cuprawsugar¾cupbutter,melted2cupswildblueberries2tablespoonshoney¼cupwater2tablespoonscornstarch

Quick-CookingOatsVersusOld-FashionedOatsThedifferenceisthewaytheoatsareprocessed.Oatgroatsaresteamed,rolled, and flaked to produce rolled oats. Quick-cooking oats havethinner flakes and cook more quickly. They are less chewy than old-fashionedoats.Toturnold-fashionedoatsintoquick-cookingoats,putintheblenderandgrindtodesiredtexture.

1.Preheatovento350°F.

2.Inalargebowl,combineoats,flour,nuts,andsugar.

3.Addbutterandmixuntilcrumbly.

4.Press half the mixture into bottom of medium-size,butteredbakingdish.Setremainingmixtureaside.

5.Combine blueberries, honey, water, and cornstarch in asaucepanandbringtoaboil.Reduceheatandcook10–15minutes,untilmixturethickensandbecomesclear.

6.Pourovermixtureinbakingdish.

7.Sprinkleremainingoatsmixtureovertheberries.

8.Bake20minutes,untilgoldenbrown.

ChocolateCherryBars

Servewithblackcherryicecreamtogetthefullblackcherryflavor.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES10–12½cupbutter,melted1cuphoney3eggs¹⁄³cupblackcherrysyrup1teaspoonvanilla1½cupswholewheatflour½cupcocoa2teaspoonsbakingpowder

1.Preheatovento350°F.2.Inalargebowl,mixbutterandhoney.3.Beatineggs,blackcherrysyrup,andvanilla.4.Stirinflour,cocoa,andbakingpowder.5.Pourintogreased9×13bakingdish.6.Bakefor35–40minutes.7.Cool.Cutintosquares.

ElderCoffeecake

Thiscanalsobemadewithblueberries.Servewithicecreamoryogurt.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES8–10½cupbutter,softened¾cuphoney2eggs,beaten1¾cupflour2teaspoonsbakingpowder1¼cupplainyogurt1teaspoonvanilla1cupelderberries,sweetenedtotaste½cupchoppednuts¼cuprawsugar

1.Preheatovento350°F.2.Creambutter,honey,andeggsuntilfluffy.3.Addflourandbakingpowdertobuttermixtureandblend.4.Foldinyogurtandvanilla.5.Pourintogreasedandflouredcakepan.6.Spoonelderberriesoversurface,pressinglightlyintobatter.7.Combinenutsandsugarandsprinkleoverberries.8.Bakefor40–45minutes.

Fruit-NutCrunch

Ahealthydessertthatyoucanenjoyduringtheholidays.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES6–8½cupbutter,softened½cupoats½cupnuts,chopped½cupwholewheatflour1cuprawsugar2cupsberries(blueberries,cranberries,blackberries,raspberries)¼cuphoney

1.Preheatovento350°F.2.Mixbutterwithoats,nuts,flour,andsugaruntilcrumbly.3.Press half the mixture evenly on bottom of buttered baking dish. Reserveremainingcrumbsfortopping.4.Placetheberriesinasaucepanandcookgentlyfor10–15minutes.5.Addhoneyandmix.6.Pourtheberriesovertheoatmixtureinthebakingdish.Topwithremainingoatmixture.7.Bakefor30–35minutes.

GreatGrapePie

Soincrediblyfulloftasteandtexturethatyouwanttokeepcomingbackformore.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES83cupsmuscadinegrapes,hulledandseeded½cuphoney3tablespoonsflour1unbakedpieshell

1.Preheatovento350°F.

2.Placegrapes in saucepanandaddhoneyand flour.Cookonmediumheatforabout15–20minutes,untilmixtureisthickenedandclear.

3.Pourintounbakedpieshell.

4.Bakefor30–35minutes.

HazelnutTart

Adeliciouswaytoenjoythebountyofyourharvest.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES86tablespoonsbutter,melted1cuprawsugar2eggs,beaten¼cupmapleyogurt1cuphazelnuts,chopped1preparedcrumbcrust

1.Preheatovento350°F.2.Inalargebowl,mixbutterandsugar.3.Addbeateneggs,yogurt,andhazelnuts.4.Pourintopiecrustandbakefor30–35minutes.

HickoryBites

Thesehigh-proteinbitesaregoodtotakewithyouwhenhikingordoingoutsideactivitiesforquickburstsofenergy.

INGREDIENTS | MAKES7DOZEN²⁄³cupbutter,softened²⁄³cuprawsugar¼cuphoney2eggs²⁄³cupchoppedhickorynuts2cupsoats2cupsflour1teaspoonbakingsoda²⁄³cupwildblueberries²⁄³cuphickorynutmilk

1.Preheatovento350°F.2.Inalargemixingbowl,creambutter,sugar,andhoney.3.Addremainingingredientsandmixthoroughly.4.Dropbyteaspoonfulsontobakingdish.5.Bakefor12minutes.

FreezingTipsWhenmaking a large quantity of cookies, freezewhat you don’t neednow by arranging the cooled cookies in a plastic container linedwithplasticwrap,placing thewrapbetween the layers.Whenready touse,thawandheatinoventodesiredtemperature.

HickoryCrepes

Usewildstrawberries,blueberries,blackberries,raspberries,orwhateverberriesareinseasonasafilling.

INGREDIENTS | 6–8CREPES1cuphickorynutmilk¾cuppancakemix2eggs2tablespoonsbutterorcoconutoil

1.Mixnutmilk,pancakemix,andeggs.

2.Heat butter or oil in small, nonstick skillet. Pour¼ cupbatteracross thebottom.Cookabout2minutesoneachside until lightly brown. Use warm crepes when addingfilling.

NutTopping

Atastyadditiontomostcakesorpies.Sprinklethistoppingoverthetopbeforebaking.

INGREDIENTS | COVERS1CAKEORPIEFOR6–8PEOPLE2cupsnuts¼cuprawsugar¼cupsoftenedbutter

SoakingNutsBeforeYouEatThemAccording to nutrition experts, nuts contain enzyme inhibitors thatprevent them from sprouting. Soaking them releases this enzyme,makingthenuteasiertodigest.

1.Put nuts in blender or coffee grinder and grind. Place in a bowl andmixwithsugar.2.Addsoftenedbutterandmixthoroughlyuntilcrumbly.3.Sprinklemixtureovercakesorpies.

NuttyCrumbCrust

Useasacrustortoppingonbakedfruitpies,cakes,orotherdesserts.

INGREDIENTS | MAKES1PIECRUST¹⁄³cupbutter,softened¹⁄³cupsugar1cupflour½cupgroundnuts(hickory,beech,hazelnut,pecan)

1.Preheatovento400°F.

2.Creambutterandsugar.

3.Combinebuttermixturewithflourandnutsuntilmixtureiscrumbly.Setasidehalfofthemixturefortopping.

4.Presslightlyinbutteredpiepan.

5.Bakefor10–12minutes.

6.Cool.

PassionfruitBars

Adessertwiththetartnessoflemons.Useaberrysauceasatopping.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES12¹⁄³cupbutter¾cuphoney2eggs1½cupsflour1teaspoonbakingpowder2cupspassionfruitjuice

1.Preheatovento350°F.2.Inalargemixingbowl,blendbutterandhoney.3.Beatineggsoneatatime.4.Addflourandbakingpowder.Stirinpassionfruitjuice.5.Pourintoamedium-sizebakingdishandbakefor35–40minutes.

PassionfruitCreamPie

Asmooth,creamytexturewithalltheflavorsofpassionfruit.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES81cuppassionfruitjuice1cansweetenedcondensedmilk1cupwhippingcreamPreparedpiecrust

1.Whip passionfruit juice, condensed milk, and whippedcreamtogether.Placeintopreparedpiecrust.

2.Chillfor30minutesandserve.

PassionfruitPie

Servewithwhippingcreamorhomemadeicecream.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES81cupflour½teaspoonbakingpowder1cupsugar3eggs,separated2cupspassionfruitjuice1crumbpiecrust

1.Preheatovento350°F.2.Siftflour,bakingpowder,and½cupsugartogether.3.Inaseparatebowl,beateggwhitesuntilsoftpeaksform.4.Addremaining½cupsugargraduallyandbeatuntilstiffpeaksform.Setaside.5.Inaseparatebowlbeateggyolks.Stirinpassionfruitjuice.6.Addflourmixturegradually.7.Foldinbeateneggwhites.8.Spoonmixtureintocrumbpiecrust.9.Bakefor35–40minutes.Cool.Chillfor1hour.

PassionfruitTarts

Thispieissimilarintexturetolemonorkeylimepiebutwiththewildflavorofpassionfruit.

Servewithwhippedcreamorcoolwhip.

INGREDIENTS | MAKES1PIE1cuprawsugar2tablespoonsbutter,softened4eggs,beaten1cuppassionfruitpulp,seedsremoved1crumbornutpiecrust

1.Preheatovento350°F.

2.Cream butter and sugar together. Add sugar and buttermixturetobeateneggsandmixwell.

3.Stirinpassionfruitpulp.

4.Pourintopieshellandbake20minutes,untilfirm.

PawpawPudding

Thiscanalsobemadewithpersimmonpulp,whichalsohasapudding-liketexture.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES8–10¼cuppawpawpulp2cupsmapleyogurt1 vanilla bean, sliced in half and the inside pulp scraped out (or 1 teaspoonvanillaflavoring)

1.Inalargebowl,addpawpawpulptoyogurt.2.Stirinvanillaandserve.

PersimmonIceCream

Creamyanddelicious!Servewithpersimmonpudding,cake,orpie.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES8–103cupspersimmonpulp1cupsugar½cuphoney¼teaspooncinnamon1cupplainyogurt¼cuporangejuice1teaspoonvanillaflavoring2cupswhippingcream

1.Inalargebowl,combineallingredients,mixingwell.2.Pourintoicecreamcanister.3.Freezeinicecreammakeraccordingtomanufacturer’sdirections.

PersimmonCake

Youcan’tbeatthisforaholidaydessert,withrichnessandtexturenotfoundelsewhere.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES12½cupvegetableoilorbutter2cupsrawsugar3eggs,slightlybeaten½cupplainyogurt2cupspersimmonpulp3cupsflour4teaspoonsbakingpowder1teaspooncinnamon1cupnuts1(9×13)bakingpanor28cakepans

1.Preheatovento350°F.2.Creamvegetableoil(orbutter)andsugar.3.Addbeateneggs,yogurt,andpersimmonpulp.4.Combinedryingredientsandstirintomixture.5.Pourintogreasedandflouredcakepan(s).6.Bakeuntilfirm,about35minutes.

PersimmonFrosting

Arichandcreamyfrostingthatmeltsinyourmouth.

INGREDIENTS | COVERS1CAKE1cupconfectioner’ssugar2tablespoonspersimmonpulp½teaspoonvanillaflavoring

1.Combineconfectioner’ssugarandpersimmonpulp.2.Addvanillaflavoringandmixuntilsmooth.3.Spreadthinlyacrosscooledpersimmoncake.

PersimmonPie

Servewithwhippedcreamoryourfavoritehomemadeicecream.Greatfortheholidays!

INGREDIENTS | SERVES6–81cupflour¾cuprawsugar½teaspoonbakingpowder¼teaspooncinnamon1cuppersimmonpulp¹⁄³cupplainyogurt1egg,beaten1teaspoonvanillaextract1(9-inch)unbakedpieshell

1.Preheatovento350°F.2.Combinedryingredients.3.Stirinpersimmonpulp,yogurt,egg,andvanilla.4.Pourintopieshellandbakefor30–35minutes,untilfirm.

PersimmonPudding

Servewithwhippingcreamorhomemadeicecream.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES81egg,slightlybeaten½cupmapleyogurt½cupbutter,softened2cupspersimmonpulp2cupsbiscuitmix1cuprawsugar1teaspoonvanillaflavoring

1.Preheatovento350°F.2.Mixingredientsuntilsmooth.3.Pourintoagreasedbakingdishandbakefor30minutes,oruntilfirm.4.Cutintosquaresandserve.

RoseHipCookies

AcookiethatisrichinvitaminCandfullofflavor.

INGREDIENTS | MAKES4DOZEN¾cupbutter,softened1cuprawsugar2eggs,beaten¾cupplainyogurt2cupsflour2cupsoatmeal1teaspooncinnamon1cuplargerosehips,deseededandchopped½cupnuts,chopped

1.Preheatovento400°F.2.Creambutterandsugar.Addeggsandyogurt.3.Inaseparatebowl,combinedryingredients.Addtoyogurtmixture.4.Stirinremainingingredients.Dropbyspoonfulsonbakingsheet.5.Bakefor15minutes.

ServiceberryCoffeeCake

Aberrycakewiththeflavorofalmonds.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES8½cupbutter,softened1¼cupsrawsugaror¾cuphoney2eggs,beaten1¾cupsflour1¾teaspoonsbakingpowder1¼cupsplainyogurt1cupserviceberries(orblueberries)1 cup chopped nuts (hickory, hazelnut, black walnut, pecan) 2 tablespoonscoconutoil,melted1tablespoonrawsugar

1.Preheatovento350°F.

2.Creamtogetherbutter,sugar,andeggsuntilfluffy.

3.Addflourandbakingpowder.Stirinyogurt.

4.Pourintogreasedbakingpan.

5.Addchoppednutstomeltedcoconutoil,coatingwell.

6.Spreadberriesandnutsevenlyoverthetop.Sprinklewithrawsugar.Bakeforabout30–35minutes,oruntilfirm.

WildBerryCrepes

Usewhateverberryisinseasonandtopwithyogurtoryourfavoritewildsyrup.

INGREDIENTS | MAKES6–8CREPES1cupricottacheese8ouncescreamcheese½cupwildberries1tablespoonmaplesyrup6–8hickorycrepes(orregular)Butterorcoconutoilforfrying

1.Inalargebowl,blendricottaandcreamcheesewithberriesandmaplesyrup.2.Placeaspoonfulofberrymixtureinthecenterofeachcrepe.3.Foldthesidesinandrolltoenclosethefilling.4.Heat butter or oil in skillet and brown crepes for about 5–10minutes on eachside.

WildStrawberryPie

Youwillknowit’swildbytheintenseflavorandsweetness.Youcanalsouseotherberries,dependingonwhat’sinseasonandavailable.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES82cupswildstrawberries3tablespoonshoney1granolaorgrahamcrackerpiecrust1tablespooncornstarch¼cupwater

1.Addhoneytowildstrawberriesandallowtostandatleast1hour.

2.Drainliquidfromstrawberriesintosaucepan.

3.Arrangestrawberriesoncrust.

4.Addwaterandcornstarchtodrainedliquidandcookonmedium heat until mixture begins to boil, stirringconstantly,for1minute,oruntilclear.

5.Spoon glaze over strawberries. Chill at least 30minutesandserve.

WildflowerCheesecake

Anenticingdessertthatreflectsallthecolorsandfragrancesofspring.

INGREDIENTS | SERVES81¹⁄³cupsgrahamcrackercrumbs¼cupbutter,softened8ouncescreamcheese,softened½cupplainyogurt¼cuphoney1teaspoonvanilla2cupsediblewildflowers1teaspoonsugar

1.Inamediumbowl,combinegrahamcrackercrumbsandbutter.2.Pressthemixtureevenlyonbottomofbuttered8piepan.3.In a large bowl, combine cream cheese, yogurt, honey, and vanilla until wellblended.4.Spoonmixtureovercrumbs,spreadinggentlywithspatula.5.Arrangewildflowersontop.Sprinklesugaroverwildflowers.6.Chillforatleast2hoursbeforeserving.

APPENDIXA

CommonNamestoLatinNames

Alder Alnusspp.Amanita Amanitaspp.Amaranth Amaranthusspp.Americanchestnut CastaneadentataAmericanlotus NelumboluteaAmericanplum PrunusamericanaArborvitae,Northernwhitecedar ThujaoccidentalisArrowarum PeltandravirginicaArrowhead Sagittariaspp.Arrowwood ViburnumdentatumAsh Fraxinusspp.Asiaticdayflower CommelinacommunisAtlanticwhitecedar ChamaecyparisthyoidesAutumnolive ElaeagnusumbellateAzalea Rhododendronspp.Bacopa BacopamonnieriBalsamfir AbiesbalsameaBarnyardgrass Echinochloacrus-galliBarrelcactus FerocactuscylindraceusBasketbushsumac RhustrilobataBasswood TiliaamericanaBaylaurel LaurusnobilisBayberry MyricapennsylvanicaBeachplum PrunusmaritimaBearberry ArctostaphylosalpinaBedstraw Galiumspp.Beebalm MonardadidymaBeech FagusgrandifoliaBig-toothedaspen PopulusgrandidentataBirch Betulaspp.Bittersweetnightshade SolanumdulcamaraBlackchokeberry AroniamelanocarpaBlackgum Nyssasylvatica

Blackhaw ViburnumprunifoliumBlacklocust Robiniapseudo-acaciaBlackneedlerush JuncusroemerianusBlacknightshade SolanumnigrumBlackwalnut JuglansnigraBlackwillow SalixnigraBlackberry Rubusspp.Blueberry Vacciniumspp.Buckeye Aesculusspp.Buckwheat EriogonumfasciculatumBunchberry CornuscanadensisBurdock Arctiumspp.Buttercup Ranunculusspp.Cactus Opuntiaspp.Cattail Typhaspp.Chaparral CrotoncorymbulosusCherry Prunusspp.Chestnut CastaneadentataChickasawplum PrunusangustifoliaChickweed StellariamediaChicory CichoriumintybusChinkapin CastaneapumilaChokeberry Aroniaspp.Coffeeberry Rhamnuscrocea,R.californica,R.purshianaCommonbarberry BerberisvulgarisCommonmilkweed AsclepiassyriacaCornsalad Valerianellaspp.Crabapple Malusspp.Crabgrass DigitariasanguinaliCranberry VacciniummacrocarponCress  Barbareaspp.Crotalaria Crotolariaspp.Dandelion TaraxacumofficinaleDangleberry GaylussaciafrondosaDeadnettle LamiumpurpureumDeathcamas Zigadenusspp.Deerberry Vacciniumstamineum

Dewberry Rubusspp.Dogbane ApocynumcannabinumDouglasfir PseudotsugamensiesiiEasternredcedar JuniperusvirginianaElder SambucuscanadensisElm Ulmusspp.Epazote ChenopodiumambrosioidesEphedra Ephedraspp.Eveningprimrose OenotherabiennisFalsedandelion PyrrhopappuscarolinianusFalsehellebore VeratrumvirideFalsemorel Gyromitraspp.Farkleberry VacciniumarboreumFieldgarlic AlliumoleraceumFir Abiesspp.Foxgrape VitislabruscaFoxtailgrass Setariaspp.Garlicmustard  AlliariapetiolataGoldenrod Solidagospp.Gooseberry Ribesspp.Groundcherry  Physallisspp.Groundnut ApiosamericanaGroundsel SeneciovulgarisHawthorn Crataegusspp.Hazelnut Corylusspp.Heal-all PrunellavulgarisHedgehogcactus Echinocereusspp.Hemlock Tsugaspp.Henbit  LamiumamplexicauleHickory Caryaspp.Highbushcranberry ViburnumopulusHobblebush Viburnumspp.Honeylocust GleditsiatriacanthosHoneysuckle Loniceraspp.Horsebalm MonardapunctataHorsenettle SolanumcarolinenseHuckleberries Gaylussaciaspp.

Icelandmoss CetrariaislandicaIndiancucumberroot MedeolavirginicaInkberry IlexglabraJack-in-the-pulpit ArisaematriphyllumJapanesebarberry BerberisthunbergiiJapanesehoneysuckle LonicerajaponicaJapaneseknotweed PolygonumcuspidatumJerusalemartichoke HelianthustuberosusJewelweed Impatiensspp.Jimsonweed DaturastramoniumJohnsongrass SorghumhalepenseKinnikinnick Arctostaphylosuva-ursiKudzu PuerariamontanaLambsquarters ChenopodiumalbumLarch Larixspp.Lemonadeberrysumac RhusintegrifoliaLifeeverlasting PseudognaphaliumobtusifoliumLiveoak QuercusvirginianaLocoweed Astragalusspp.Longleafpine PinuspalustrisLupine  Lupinusspp.Mad-dogskullcap ScutellarialaterifloraMallow Malvaspp.Manzanita Arctostaphylosspp.Maple Acerspp.Mayapple PodophyllumpeltatumMesquite Prosopisspp.Miner’slettuce ClaytoniaperfoliataMoonseed MenispermumcanadenseMormontea Ephedraspp.Morningglory  Ipomoeaspp.Mountaincranberry Vacciniumvitis-idaeaMountainlaurel KalmialatifoliaMulberry Morusspp.Multiflorarose RosamultifloraMustard Brassicaspp.Nannyberry Viburnumlentago

Nutgrass Cyperusspp.Oak Quercusspp.Ocotillo FouquieriasplendensOgeecheegum NyssaogecheOrache  Atriplexspp.Orchardgrass Dactylisspp.Oregoncrabapple MalusfuscaOregongrape Berberisspp.Oxeyedaisy LeucanthemumvulgarePaperbirch BetulapapyriferaPartridgeberry MitchellarepensPassionflower PassifloraincarnataPawpaw AsiminatrilobaPeppergrass LepidiumvirginicumPersimmon DiospyrosvirginianaPeyote LophophorawilliamsiiPhragmites Phragmitesaustralis,P.communisPickerelweed PontederiacordataPine Pinusspp.Pinyonpine Pinusedulis,P.monophylla,P.quadrifoliaPitchpine PinusrigidaPlantain Plantagospp.Plum Prunusspp.Poisonhemlock ConiummaculatumPoisonivy ToxicodendronradicansPoisonoak Toxicodendronpubescens,T.diversilobumPoisonsumac ToxicodendronvernixPokeweed PhytolaccaamericanaPoplar  Populusspp.Possumhaw ViburnumnudumPrairiecrabapple MalusioensisPrecatorybean,rosarypea AbrusprecatoriusPricklypearcactus Opuntiaspp.Purslane PortulacaoleraceaQuakingaspen PopulustremuloidesQueenAnne’slace DaucuscarotaRagweed Ambrosiaspp.

Ramps AlliumtricoccumRaspberry Rubusspp.Redchokeberry AroniaarbutifoliaRedclover TrifoliumpratenseRedmulberry MorusrubraRedoak Quercusfalcata,Q.gravesii,Q.rubra,QtexanaRedbay Perseaborbonia,P.palustrisRedbud CerciscanadensisReindeermoss CladoniarangiferinaRiverbirch BetulanigraRocktripe Umbilicariaspp.andGyrophoraspp.Rosemallow HibiscusmoscheutosRussianolive EleagnusangustifoliaSagebrush Artemisiaspp.Saguarocactus CarnegieagiganteaSaltwort Salicorniaspp.Sassafras SassafrasalbidumSearocket CakilaedentulaSeasideeveningprimrose OenotherahumifusaSedge Carexspp.Serviceberry Amelanchierspp.Sheepsorrel RumexacetosellaSkullcap Scutellariaspp.Smallcranberry VacciniumoxycoccosSmoothsumac  Rhusglabra,R.pulvinataSourwood OxydendrumarboreumSoutherncrabapple MalusangustifoliaSowthistle SonchusoleraceusSparkleberryVacciniumarboreumSpicebush LinderabenzoinSpringbeauty Claytoniaspp.Spruce Piceaspp.St.Johnswort Hypericumspp.Staghornsumac RhustyphinaStingingnettle UrticadioicaSugarbushsumac RhusovataSummergrape Vitisaestivalis

Swampazalea RhododendronviscosumSwampblackgum NyssabifloraSweetbirch BetulalentaSweetcrabapple MaluscoronariaSweetgoldenrod SolidagoodoraSweetgum LiquidambarstyracifluaTeparybean PhaseolusacutifoliusTexasmulberry MorusmicrophyllaThistle  Cirsiumspp.Toothwort Dentariaspp.Toyon HeteromelesarbutifoliaTrillium Trilliumspp.Viburnum Viburnumspp.Violet Violaspp.Virginiacreeper ParthenocissusquinquefoliaWaterhemlock CicutamaculataWaterlily Nymphaeaspp.Waterparsnip SiumsuaveWatercress NasturtiumofficinaleWaxmyrtle MyricaceriferaWhiteoak QuercusalbaWildbean StrophostyleshelvolaWildblackcherry PrunusserotinaWildcarrot DaucuscarotaWildgarlic Alliumspp.Wildginger AsarumcanadenseWildgrape Vitisspp.Wildlettuce LactucacanadensisWildmustard Brassicaspp.Wildonion Alliumspp.Wildrice Zizaniaaquatica,Z.latifolia,Z.palustris,Z.texanaWildrose Rosaspp.Wildstrawberry Fragariaspp.Willow Salixspp.Wintergrape VitiscinereaWintergreen GaultheriaprocumbensWoodsorrel Oxalisspp.

Yampa Perideridiaspp.Yauponholly IlexvomitoriaYellowdock RumexcrispusYellowjessamine GelsemiumsempervirensYucca Yuccaspp.

APPENDIXB

HelpfulReading

Arora, David.Mushrooms Demystified. Berkeley, CA: Ten Speed Press,1979.Benyus, Janine M. The Field Guide to Wildlife Habitats of the EasternUnitedStates.NewYork:Simon&SchusterInc.,1989.Brill, “Wildman” Steve, and Evelyn Dean. Identifying and HarvestingEdibleandMedicinalPlants.NewYork:HearstBooks,1994.Cohen, Russ.Wild Plants I Have Known and Eaten. Essex, MA: EssexCountyGreenbeltAssociation,Inc.,2004.Derby,BlancheCybele.MyWildFriends—FreeFoodfromFieldandForest.Northampton,MA:WhiteStarPress,1997.Derig, Betty B., and Margaret C. Fuller. Wild Berries of the West.Missoula,MT:MountainPressPublishingCo.,2001.Duke, JamesA.Amazing SecretHealers inYourBackyard.Emmaus,PA:RodalePress,Inc.,1998.Duke,JamesA.TheGreenPharmacy.Emmaus,PA:RodalePress,1997.Duke, JamesA.HandbookofEdibleWeeds. BocaRaton, FL: CRCPress,1992.Elpel, Thomas J. Botany in a Day—The Patterns Method of PlantIdentification.Pony,MT:HOPSPress,LLC.1996.Fernald,MerrittLyndon,andAlfredCharlesKinsey.RevisedbyReedC.Rollins.EdibleWildPlantsofNorthAmerica.NewYork,Hagerstown,SanFrancisco,London:Harper&Row,Publishers,1943.Freitus,Joe.WildPreserves.Washington,DC:StoneWallPress,Inc.1977.Gibbons, Euell, and Gordon Tucker. Handbook of Edible Wild Plants.VirginiaBeach/Norfolk,VA:Donning,1979.Greenspan,Sharon.WildlySuccessfulEating™:RawandLivingFoodBasics.Unpublishedduplicatedpaper,2009.Hertzberg,Ruth,BeatriceVaughan,andJanetGreene.Putting FoodBy.Brattleboro,VTandLexington,MA:TheStephenGreenePress,1973.Johnson, Cathy. The Wild Foods Cookbook. New York: Penguin BooksUSA,Inc.1989.Kallas,John.EdibleWildPlants.Layton,UT:GibbsSmith,2010.Kavasch,Barrie.NativeHarvests—RecipesandBotanicalsof theAmerican

Indians.NewYork:RandomHouse,Inc.1977.Kingsbury,JohnM.DeadlyHarvest—AGuidetoCommonPoisonousPlants.NewYork:Holt,RinehartandWinston,1965.Kirk, Donald R. Wild Edible Plants of the Western United States.Healdsburg,CA:NaturegraphPublishers,1970.Knopf, Alfred A. The Audubon Society Field Guide to North AmericanWildflowers:EasternRegion.NewYork,NY:ChanticleerPress,1979.Krochmal,Connie,andArnoldKrochmal.ANaturalist’sGuidetoCookingwithWildPlants.NewYork:Quadrangle/TheNewYorkTimesBookCo.,1974.Moerman,DanielE.NativeAmericanEthnobotany.Portland,OR:TimberPress,1998.Mogelon,Ronna.Wild in theKitchen:Recipes forWildFruits,WeedsandSeeds.NewYork:M.EvansandCompany,Inc.,2001.Muenscher, Walter Conrad. Poisonous Plants of the United States. NewYork:CollierBooks,1975.Niethammer, Carolyn. American Indian Cooking. Lincoln and London:UniversityofNebraskaPress,1999.Nyerges,Christopher.GuidetoWildFoodsandUsefulPlants.Chicago,IL:ChicagoReviewPress,1999.Radford,AlbertE.,HarryE.Ahles,C.RitchieBell,C.Ritchie.ManualoftheVascularFloraof theCarolinas.ChapelHill:TheUniversityofNorthCarolinaPress.1964.Shababy, Doreen. The Wild & Weedy Apothecary. Woodbury, MN:LlewellynmPublications,2010.Shurtleff,William,andAkikoAyoagi.TheBookofKudzu.Brookline,MA:AutumnPress,1977.Stadelmann,Peter.WaterGardens.Hauppauge,NY:Barron’sEducationalSeries,Inc.,1990.Sutton, Ann, and Myron Sutton. Eastern Forests. New York: Alfred A.Knopf,1985.Tatum, Billy Joe. Wild Foods Field Guide and Cookbook. New York:WorkmanPublishingCo.,1976.Thayer,Sam.Nature’sGarden.Birchwood,WI:Forager’sHarvest,2010.Thayer,Sam.TheForager’sHarvest.Ogema,WI:Forager’sHarvest,2006.Vargas,Pattie,andRichGulling.CountryWines—Making&UsingWinesfromHerbs,Fruits,Flowers&More.Pownal,VT:StoreyCommunications,

Inc.,1992.

WebsiteResources

ForestryOutreachSiteThis site contains information on forest communities.www.fw.vt.edu/dendro/Forsite/contents.htmNationalParkServiceThis site contains information on ecosystems in the national parks.www.nps.gov/index.htmPlantsPoisonoustoLivestockThis site contains information on plants that have caused livestockpoisoning.http://extension.missouri.edu/publicationsPoisonousPlantsofNorthCarolinaThis is a site for poisonous plants.www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts./hort/consumer/poison/poison.htmInvasivePlantAtlasThis site contains information on invasive plants of the United States.www.invasiveplantatlas.org/index.htmlNational Invasive Species Information Center This site containsinformation on invasive species.www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/plants/main.shtmlUSDANaturalResourcesConservationServiceThis site contains information on invasive and noxious weeds.http://plants.usda.gov/java/noxiousDriverWeedsGoneWildThis site has information on alien plant invaders of natural areas.www.nps.gov/plants/alienDr. Duke’s Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases Thiswebsitecontainsinformationonphytochemicals.www.ars-grin.gov/dukeGreenPharmacyBotanicalDeskReferenceThisisDr.JimDuke’ssiteforgreenpharmacybotanicals.www.greenpharmacy.comHarvardGazetteThis site contains the study on kudzu being used to cut alcoholconsumption. http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2005/05/kudzu-cuts-alcohol-consumptionWetlands

This is the United States Environmental Protection Agency site onwetlands.http://water.epa.gov/type/wetlandsUSDAPlantsDatabaseThis site contains plant profiles for the United States.http://plants.usda.gov/index.htmlStoringSeedsThissitecontainsinformationonseedstoragetimesandviability.http://growingtaste.com/storage.shtml-DIRNWFarms&FoodA website with news, local food, and farms in the Pacific Northwest.http://nwfarmsandfood.com/index.phpNationalCenterforHomeFoodPreservationThissitecontainsinformationonpreservingfoodusingpressurecanners.www.uga.edu/nchfp/publications/uga/using_press_canners.htmlCanningPantryA site with information on pressure canners and pressure canning.www.canningpantry.com/using-pressure-canners.htmlHomeAppliancesandKitchenMachinesThis is a site with a listing of home appliances and kitchen tools.www.galttech.com/research/household-DIY-tools

Index

Acorns,140–41,176–77,215,253,263Airlocks,198Alkaloids,43Allergies,34–35,43Amanitas,51Amaranths,54Americanlotus.SeeWaterliliesAnnuals,22,29,156Appetizerrecipes,209–10,213–15,217,219–20Apples,miniature,127–28Aquaticroots,67–68Aquaticseeds,68–69Arrowheads,30,67–68,150–51,223Arrowwood,134Arumfamily,68Asiaticdayflower,96Aspen-birthforests,78–79Astersforherbalteas,123–24Autumnolive,87–88Backyardforaging,71–74,99–102Barberries,61,143Bark,innertree,152Baskets,182Beans,121,237,253Bedstraw,54Beebalm,124,192Beechnuts,65,138,264

Berriesfall,128–31gathering,3,29mythsabout,37recipesusing,192,211,263–64,265,271,280fromseed,160,162spring,110–11summer,33,112–14,116–17visionand,266winter,143–45Beverages,108–10,191–206.SeealsoTeasBiennials,22,148–49,156Birchfamily,63,65Blackberries,116,193–94,208,266–67Blackcherries,193,265,270Blackgumtrees,59,128–29,175,195,268Blackhaw,134Blackwalnuts,139,175–76Blueberries,113–14,254,268,269Bogs,80–81Breadrecipes,252–61Buckwheat,53,84Burdock,51,149,179,183Cacti,59,130–31,144–45,214Cactuspads,42,174,210Canningwildfoods,185–87Cattails,68,105,117–18,177recipesusing,223,225,254roots,149Cedarglades,77

Chaparralcommunity,84Cherries,59,114–15,175,212.SeealsoBlackcherriesChestnuts,139,175,215Chickweed,54,95,99,145,179Chicory,150,177Childrenandforaging,18–19,46Chokeberries,143Coldstorage,183–84Coniferousforests,76–77Containers,9,168–69Cordials,190,193Cornsalad,54,145–46Crabapples,127,128,208Cranberries,143–44,164,209,255Crocksvs.crockpots,194Crucifers,53,146Custardapplefamily,60Cystitis,209Daisiesforherbalteas,123–24Dandelions,33,101,105,179asadiuretic,241recipesusing,196,241,255roots,177Deciduousforests,78Decoctions,192Dehydrationofwildfoods,181–83Dermatitis,35Deserts,84–85Dessertrecipes,262–81Diuretics,dandelion,241

Dogbane,103Dryingracks,181–82Duckpotatoes,150–51Duke,James,91,95,117,122,124,139,246Dunes,83Ebonyfamily,60Elderberries,117,211,270Elderflowers,106–7,117,197,256Elixirs,190,197,204Emergencyactionafterplantpoisonings,47–48Endangeredplantspecies,28–29Eveningprimrose,55,136,148,178,226Evergreenleaves,153–54Executions,40Exoticplants.SeeInvasiveplantsFall,20,33,126–41berries,128–31fruits,59–61,127–31nutsin,138–41rootsin,134–35seedsandgrainsin,135–38viburnumsin,133–34wildgrapesin,131–32

Falsemorels,51Families,plant,52–69Farms,8Fermentation,188–90Fields,abandoned,74Filépowder,229Fish,40

Flours,170Flowernectar,poisonous,48Flowers.SeeWildflowersFoodallergies,35Foragingwithchildren,18–19findingplacesfor,5–8andreconnectingwithnature,xi–xii,1safetyprecautions,12–13sustainable,2–3tipson,10–12toptenreasonsfor,xForestedswamps,80Forestgardening,164–65Forests,75–79,83–84,158–59,165Freezingfood,184–85,272Freshwatermarshes,81–82Fruitbutters/preserves,188Fruits.SeealsoBerriesdehydrating,182–83fall,59–61,128–31freezing,184gettingacquaintedwith,4–5,16harvesting,3,11poisonous,49processing,toeat,175ripenessof,11seasonalbenefitsof,33spring,57–59summer,33,57–59,112–17typesof,24–25winter,61–62

Fungicides,36–37Garden,personal,71–72,161–62,164–65Garlic,151Garlicmustard,88–89Genusnames,31–32Gloves,9Glycosides,44Gooseberryfamily,58Goosefoots,62,121Grapefamily,61Grapeleaves,185,233Grapelook-alikes,poisonous,49Grapes,wild.SeeWildgrapesGrasses,66,122,137Greens,53–54,179freezing,184–85gathering,2,4,71–72poisonous,48preparing,toeat,174recipesusing,199,224,232,237,240–51,256–57spring,99–102summer,121–23winter,20,145–46

Grindingtools,168Groundcherries,115,212Groundnuts,120,134–35,222,238Habitats,70–85Hawthorns,127–28Hazelnuts,140,272Heal-all,54,99

HealingPowerofHerbs,The(Murray),127Heathberries,58,113–14Hedgerows,75Hemlock,40,45,50,74Hepaticherbs,230Herbicides,36Herbs,55,68.SeealsoGreensdrying,181–82hepatic,230recipesusing,212,251

Hickorytrees,79,140nutsfrom,175–76,179recipesusingnutsfrom,238,255,257,272,273

Highbushcranberries,133Highdesertcommunities,84–85Hobbs,Christopher,106Hollyfamily,63Honeysuckle,Japanese,89–90Horsebalm,124,179Horseradishsubstitutes,171Hunting,8,40Icelandmoss,147Infusions,192Injuriesfromplants,42–43Inkberries,113Insecticides,35–36Invasiveplants,86–97Jam,187–88,213Japanesehoneysuckle,89–90Japaneseknotweed,90–91,222

Jelly,187,214Jerusalemartichokes,151,183,213,222Journals,plant,25–26Juicers,167Kitchens,forager’s,167–70Kudzu,92–93,243Lambsquarters,54,73,121,243Laurelfamily,55,62–63,65Leaves,10,22–23,29,62–63,102Legumes,24,49,107,120–21Lichens,146–47Lifeeverlasting,124Lilies,57,69,103,136,161,178Lotuslilyfamily,68Madderfamily,61Magicpotions,41Mallow,55–56,118,122,135,244Maritimeforests,83–84Marshes,6,81–82Mayapples,59,115–16,175Meadows,74,157Medicine,32–34,41,47,201Mesquite,120Milksubstitutes,171Milkweeds,48,56,103–4,118–19,225,233Milkysap,38Miner’slettuce,146Miniatureapples,127–28Mints,63–64,124–25,195

Mixeddeciduousforests,78Morels,false,51Mormontea,108Mountainforests,78–79Mulberries,58,111Multiflorarose,93–94Murders,poisonousplantsand,40Murray,Michael,127Muscadinegrapes,131–32,218,271Mushrooms,poisonous,51Muskrootfamily,58,62Mustards,53,57,100–101,105–6,119NationalWildandScenicRiversAct,7Nativevs.naturalizedplants,71Nettles,53,101–2,179,245Nightshades,poisonous,50Non-indigenousplants.SeeInvasiveplantsNutgrass,135NutMilk,199Nutpickers,168,176Nutrition,wildfood,178–79Nuts,65–66,164–65,179fall,20,34,138–41freezing,185gathering,3,20identifying,5milkfrom,199processing,toeat,175–77,273recipesusing,211,215,217,255,257–58,271,273–74stockingpantrieswith,170

Oaktrees,79,140–41Oats,269Oils,170Onions,151Oregongrapes,132Overharvesting,29Oxalates,44–45Oxeyedaisies,123Pans,168Pantries,kitchen,169–70Partridgeberries,144Passionflowers,61Passionfruits,130,175,274–76Pawpaws,60,129,258,276Peafamily,56–57Perennials,156–57Persimmons,129,175maleandfemale,60recipesusing,200,213,258,259,277–79

Pesticides,35–37Photography,plant,26Photosensitization,45Phragmites,94–95Pickerelweed,69,137Pinebarrens,77Pines,66–67,76,157–58Pineseeds,138Plantfamilies,52–69Plantjournals,25–26

Plantnames,29–32,282–84Plantsgathering,2gettingacquaintedwith,4–5,10,16–17growingfromseeds,155–65invasive.SeeInvasiveplantslawsontheremovalof,7liningfreshwatercreeksandrivers,6asmedicine,32–34,41,47mythsabout,37–38nativevs.naturalized,71partsof,20–25photographing,26poisonous.SeePoisonousplantsrareandendangeredspecies,28–29relationshipbetweenpeopleand,17–18seasonalcyclesof,19–20sketching,25–26storing,180–90sunlovers,74–75

Plums,114–15,218Poisonivy,38,45Poisonousplants,13,39–51avoiding,45–47categoriesofeffectsof,42–45childrenand,46emergencyactionand,47–48historyofusageof,40–42identificationof,46–47inthepeafamily,56typesof,48–51

Poke,73,174,226,245,246Pokeweed,48,51,54,104,179Pots,168Preserves,188,208,218Pricklypearcactus,144–45,214Privateproperty,foragingon,7–8Publiclands,6–7Purslane,54,122–23,237nutrientsin,178,179recipesusing,227,241

QueenAnne’sLaceCornbread,259Rareandendangeredplantspecies,28–29Raspberries,116,260Rawfoods,179Redbuds,107,120,228Redclover,125,179,195Reindeermoss,147Religiousceremonies,41–42Resinoidsandresins,45Riparianhabitats,81Rocktripe,147,229,261Rootsaquatic,67–68diggingup,3–4,11,20,29fall,134–35gettingacquaintedwith,5plantfamilies,54–55,57poisonous,50–51preparing,toeat,177

recipesusing,226,228,230spring,103–4storageof,183–84typesof,21winter,148–52

Rosefamily,62Rosehips,93,127,179,201,279Russianolive,87–88Safetyprecautions,12–13Safrole,202Saladrecipes,209,210,213,248Salicornia,62,82,172–73Saltmarshes,82Saltplants,172–73Saltwort,172–73,231,251Sap,12,38,153Sassafras,102,107,108–9,202,231Sauces,208,209,210Scientificplantnames,31–32Scones,260Seasideforaging,83–84Seedsaquatic,68–69birdsand,25fall,135–38freezing,185growingwildplantsfrom,155–65harvesting,12plantfamiliesand,66–67

processing,toeat,177–78recipeusing,216savingandstoring,159–61sowing,162starting,inpots,161stockingpantrieswith,170

Serviceberries,110,280Shadetrees,73–74Sheepsorrel,96Shoots,22,103–5Sketchingplants,25–26Skullcap,125Smokeexposure,47Soil,mucky,82Solardrying,182Souprecipes,227,229,230,236Sourwood,102,234SowThistleTempura,247Spicebush,109,130,172Spring,19,98–111berries,110–11ediblebudsandflowers,105–7fruits,57–59greens,99–102rootsandshoots,103–5teasandbeverages,108–10

Spruce-firforests,79Squash,239Stabilizers,211

Storagecontainers,168–69Storingwildfoods,180–90Strainers,167Strawberries,111,261,281Substitutesforwildfoods,170–72,268Succession,157–59Sumacs,64,130,179,203,204Summer,20,112–25berries,33,112–14,116–17fruits,33,57–59,112–17greens,121–23legumes,120–21teas,123–25wildflowers,117–19Sunflowerfamily,57Sustainableforaging,2–3Swamps,forested,80Sweetbirch,109Sweeteners,169Sweetgoldenrod,123Syrups,188,211,268Taxonomy.SeePlantfamiliesTeas,63–65,173–74,195recipesfor,192,195–96,201–6spring,108–10summer,123–25Thistles,104,149,234,247Tinctures,190Tonics,33Toolsforforaging,10

Toothpicks,wintergreen,205Toothwort,151–52,171Toyonberries,145Trees.SeealsoLeavesinnerbarkof,152nut,growing,164–65sapof,12,38,153shade,73–74inspring,102,105–7inwinter,153Understory,forest,75Vacuumsealingfood,183Vegetables,54–57freezing,184–85preparing,toeat,174recipesusing,221–28,231–32,234–35,237–39Viburnums,133–34Vinegar,170,189–90,212Viningfruitfamilies,60–61Violets,57,100,106,179,248Walnuts,65–66Watercontainers,163Waterhemlock,45,50Waterlilies,69,136,161,178Waterplants,67–69Waxmyrtlefamily,63Websiteresources,286Weeds,16,95–97,156–57,178–79Wetlands,79–82,163–64WildernessActof1964,7

Wildflowers,54–57awarenessof,4,16partsof,23–24inpersonalyards,72–73picking,3,10–11recipesusing,219,281spring,105–7summer,117–19Wildgrapes,131–32,175,197,205,233Wildgreens.SeeGreensWildrice,12,238Wines,wild,189,194,200Winter,20,142–54berries,143–45fruits,61–62greens,145–46lichens,146–47nuts,34roots,148–52trees,152–54Wintergreen,125,144,205,206Woodlands,75–78,165Yampa,135Yardforaging,71–74,99–102Yauponholly,109–10Yellowdock,96–97Yucca,119,214,220,238

PhotoCreditsHeal-all ©istockphoto/mountainberryphoto Wild thistle©istockphoto/hsvrs Chickweed flowers ©istockphoto/tanukiphoto

Violets ©istockphoto/tytyeu Red clover©istockphoto/mountainberryphoto Stinging nettle©istockphoto/westhoffMayapple©istockphoto/kathryn8Serviceberries ©istockphoto/merrymoonmary Oxeye daisies©istockphoto/LordRunarWild garlic ©istockphoto/fotolinchen Cattails©istockphoto/plinney Elderberries ©istockphoto/rafal_olechowskiDewberries ©istockphoto/janol Crabapple ©istockphoto/cislanderGround cherry ©istockphoto/typo-graphics Hawthorn berries©istockphoto/valerie_shanin Black walnuts ©istockphoto/epanthaChestnut ©istockphoto/Beakydave Persimmons©istockphoto/DeniceBreauxChicoryflowers©istockphoto/Dole08Reindeer lichen ©istockphoto/Pi-Lens Wintergreen©istockphoto/doug4537Prickly pear cactus ©istockphoto/jfmetcalf Barberries ©istockphoto/SweetCapture