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The influence of role models, self-efficacy, carreerexploration, mentorship, educational aspirations,and academic enrichment on career aspirations ofyouth of youth in a precollege enrichmant programJacqueline A. ScottClark Atlanta University

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ABSTRACT

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP

SCOTT, JACQUELINE A. B.S. BETHUNE-COOKMAN COLLEGE, 1971

M.ED. UNIVERSITY OF CENTRAL FLORIDA, 1974

THE INFLUENCE OF ROLE MODELS, SELF-EFFICACY, CAREER

EXPLORATION, MENTORSHIP, EDUCATIONAL ASPIRATIONS,

AND ACADEMIC ENRICHMENT ON CAREER ASPIRATIONS

OF YOUTH IN A PRECOLLEGE ENRICHMENT PROGRAM

Advisor: Dr. Noran Moffett

Dissertation dated May 2010

The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship of roles models, self

efficacy, career exploration, mentorship, educational aspirations and academic

enrichment on the career aspirations of middle school students in a precollege enrichment

program at a medical school. Through precollege outreach programs, multiple strategies

have been utilized in attempts to increase minority student interest and academic

preparation for health profession training at the postsecondary and graduate levels. A

mixed method design consisting of both quantitative and qualitative elements was

utilized in data collection. A survey, interview process, and document analysis provided

the data on factors influential in career aspirations of middle school students in a

precollege enrichment program. Stepwise Regression statistical analysis revealed that

educational aspiration was found to predict career aspirations. The findings provide

1

evidence that educational aspiration is key in the career development process. One

observation may be that educational aspirations are related to strong self-efficacy, high

self esteem and high educational aspirations which translate into attainment of career and

self satisfaction.

THE iNFLUENCE OF ROLE MODELS, SELF-EFFICACY, CAREER

EXPLORATION, MENTORSHIP, EDUCATIONAL ASPIRATIONS,

AND ACADEMIC ENRICHMENT ON CAREER ASPIRATIONS

OF YOUTH IN A PRECOLLEGE ENRICHMENT PROGRAM

A DISSERTATION

SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF CLARK ATLANTA UNIVERSITY

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS

FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

BY

JACQUELINE A. SCOTT

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP

ATLANTA, GEORGIA

MAY2010

® 2010

JACQUELiNE A. SCOTT

All Rights Reserved

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

“For the LORD giveth wisdom: out of his mouth cometh knowledge and

understanding” (Proverbs 2:6 KJV). God has graciously given wisdom, knowledge and

understanding. Without His presence in my life I would not have been able to complete

this degree.

I thank my parents, Gertrude and Jimmie Atmore, who instilled the thirst for

knowledge in me, who always encouraged me and taught me the importance of

education. I acknowledge my family my husband, Charles and my two sons, Charles

Jr., and Cedric, and my grandson, Jeric, who have supported me through all my

endeavors and reassured me through all of my challenges.

To Dr. Noran Moffett, my committee chair, who provided counsel, guidance, and

encouragement through the research and final analysis of this dissertation and to Dr.

Shelia Gregory, who assisted me in galvanizing my thoughts to initiate the dissertation

process, thank you. I thank the members of my committee, Dr. Moses C. Norman and

Dr. Trevor Turner, for sharing their expertise in linguistics and statistics, respectively and

for asking probing questions that provided further insight into this project.

Many thanks to all my family members, circle of friends, co-workers, and

associates whose prayers, words of encouragement, offers of assistance, and love

provided the foundation, support, and inspiration for me to pursue and complete this

degree.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ii

LIST OF FIGURES vi

LIST OF TABLES vii

CHAPTER

INTRODUCTION 1

Background of the Problem 1

Precollege Science Enrichment Program 6

Purpose of the Study 8

Problem Statement 9

Significance of the Study 10

Research Questions 11

II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 13

Introduction 13

Role Models 14

Self-Efficacy 14

Career Exploration 15

Mentors 16

Parent and Family 17

Educational Aspirations 18

Academic Enrichment 18

Internal Factors 19

111

Table of Contents (continued)

CHAPTER PAGE

External Factors 19

Overview of Career Decision Theories 20

III. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 24

Purpose of the Study 26

Definition of the Variables 26

IV. METHODOLOGY 29

Research Design 29

Population 29

Survey 30

Pilot Study 32

Focus Group Guide 32

Document Analysis 34

Data Collection 37

Data Analysis 38

Limitations of the Study 38

V. RESULTS 40

Demographics of Survey Participants 41

Definition of Terms 49

Correlation of CIS Scale Variables 50

Factor Analysis of Subscales 52

Research Questions 56

iv

Table of Contents (continued)

CHAPTER PAGE

FocusGroup.63

Document Analysis 71

Summary of Results 72

VI. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 75

Research Questions 76

Conclusions 85

Recommendations 87

APPENDIX

A. Survey Reviewers’ Correspondence 90

B. Parental Consent Form 93

C. ANOVA Table 96

D. Career Influence Survey 97

E. Focus Group Guide 102

F. Test for Skewness 103

G. Casewise Diagnostic to Reveal Outliers 104

REFERENCES 105

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE PAGE

1. Theoretical Framework 25

2. Gender of Participants 42

3. Science Grades of Participants 43

4. Mathematics Grades of Participants 44

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE PAGE

1. Instrument Reliability .36

2. Categories of Students by Standard Occupational Classification

of Career Aspiration 45

3. Instrument Before and After Reliability Study 46

4. Subscales with Final Number of Items and Reliability Coefficients 47

5. Pearson’s Correlation Coefficients for Career Influence Subscales 48

6. Descriptive Statistics for CIS Subscale Variables that Influence

Career Aspirations 53

7. Factor Loadings and Communalities Based on a Principle

Component Analysis with Varimax Rotation for Nine

Subscales of the Career Influence Inventory 55

8. Correlation of Variables which Influence Career Aspirations 58

9. Effect Size of Each Variable 60

10. Stepwise Regression Model of Demographic and CIS Variables

with Career Aspirations (Mean Annual Salary) as Dependent

Variable 62

11. Career Aspirations of Participants in the Focus Group 65

vii

List of Tables (continued)

TABLE PAGE

12. Most Influential Persons in the Career Aspirations of

Participants 68

viii

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Advances in medicine stimulated by technological advances have changed what

once were considered terminal illnesses to that of chronic illnesses and have made some

procedures, such as organ transplants, more routine and safer. Yet despite these medical

miracles, the health problems of the poor, disenfranchised and marginal members of

society are continuing to increase at an alarming rate (King, et a!., 2004; American

Association of Medical Colleges [AAMC], 2003; Friscella, Franks, Gold, & Clancy,

2000). In the United States, the issue of underrepresented minorities in the medical

profession further compounds the problem of health care delivery systems and will

require creative efforts to counteract the obstacles of anti-affirmative action movements

(Reede, 2003). Underrepresented minorities have been defined as racial/ethnic groups

whose numerical representation in medicine is less than their numerical representation in

the general population (AAMC, 2003).

Background of the Problem

The racial/ethnic composition of the U. S. physician workforce is not reflective of

the general population. In 2001, African Americans, Hispanics, and Native Americans

represented six percent of U. S. physicians, while their representation in the general

2

population was 25.7% (Reede, 2003). The problem of underrepresented minorities in the

physician workforce has not decreased despite the efforts by medical schools,

philanthropic foundations, professional organizations, and the federal government. The

issue of underrepresentation has been further exacerbated by growth in the minority

population and a decrease in minority admissions to medical school.

Minority physicians have been and will continue to be in demand (Reede, 2003;

Cohen, 2003; Carlisle, Gardner, & Liu, 1998). In 2000, minorities comprised

approximately 26% of the U. S. population (Census, 2000). It is projected that by 2050,

the minority population is expected to increase to approximately 50% of the total U. S.

population (Census, 2000). The increase in minority population could mean that

racial/ethnic minorities may no longer qualify as minorities. Powe and Cooper (2004)

posits that the socioeconomic future of the U.S. depends upon how well the workforce

reflects the population and that a diverse workforce brings value to better services and

better workforce functioning.

Various studies have amplified relationships that already exist between health

care and minority physicians. According to the Sullivan Commission’s report, African

American patients are more likely to receive their care from African American doctors

(Sullivan Commission, 2004). Better patient-reported outcomes are evident in studies

where the patients and their physicians have similar race/ethnic background and language

(Cooper-Patrick, et al., 1999; Cooper, et al., 2003; Lee, Batal, Maselli, & Kutner, 2002;

Perez-Stable, Napoles-Springer, & Miramontes, 1997). A culturally diverse workforce is

essential to meeting the health care needs of the population. Diversity in the medical

3

workforce is essential in eliminating health disparities. A culturally diverse physician

workforce would foster better communication and treatment between physician and

patient. Despite their small numbers, minority physicians participate in and foster

research in the areas of health disparities. Minority physicians provide leadership and

serve as mentors and role models to support underrepresented minorities as they pursue

medical careers (Sullivan Commission, 2004; Institute of Medicine of the National

Academies [IOM], 2004). Minority physicians provide primary care to a large portion of

the nation’s underserved population, which are predominantly African American,

Hispanic and Native American (Saha, Taggart. Komaromy, & Bindman, 2000; Keith,

Bell, Swanson & Williams, 1985; Moy & Bartmen, 1995). As major contributors to

health care services in the U.S., minority physicians are instrumental in developing

models of care that specifically meet the needs of minority communities.

In the U.S. health care system, the minority population has poorer health

outcomes when compared to the majority population. Despite education, insurance

coverage, and income, racial and ethnic minorities have less access to health care (Isaacs

& Schroder, 2004). The unequal access to health care demonstrates that US racial and

ethnic minorities suffer disproportionately from diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular

disease, hypertension, cancer, and the human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immune

deficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS), experience a lower quality of health care delivery

services and are less likely to receive routine health maintenance services (Graham &

Richardson, 2006; Betancourt, 2006; Blumenthal & Kagen, 2002; Hood, 2001). As the

number of minority groups increases, there is also a subsequent increase in their need for

4

health care. The lack of diversity in the physician workforce has been the concern of

many (Petersdorf, Turner, & Nickens, 1990; Bureau of Health Professions [BHP], 1993;

JOM, 1994). The solution to the problem of health disparities is convoluted and cannot

be effortlessly solved. The epicenter of health care disparities is varied in source and

blame should not be attributed to any one entity (King & Wheeler, 2004). Health care

disparities may arise from complex interactions between health care systems, patients,

physician, institutions, and health care providers (Ayanian & Epstein, 1991; Johnson, et

al., 1993; Schulman, et al., 1999; Peterson, et a!., 1997). The source of which is difficult

to clearly provide explanation. Disparities in health care services cannot be blamed on

the medical system exclusively but rather from a broad spectrum of factors, more notably

including historic patterns of discrimination (Betancourt, 2006). These factors, which

have not been addressed effectively, are undermining patient health (Isaacs & Schroeder,

2004).

Studies have documented that African Americans and Hispanics are at a greater

risk than whites of not receiving the recommended health care needed (Asch, et al., 2006)

and that African Americans are less likely to receive life saving therapy when compared

to their white counterparts (Canto, et a!., 2000). Racial disparities were also documented

by the National Medicare 1998 Health Plan Employer Data and Information Set (HEDIS)

Survey. The results from this survey demonstrated that Blacks were significantly less

likely than whites to receive each of the HEDIS measured services, specifically breast

cancer screening, eye examinations for patients with diabetes, and beta blocker use after

myocardial infarction (Schneider, Zaslavsky, & Epstein, 2002).

5

Educational Pipeline Diversity

Naturally, a lack of diversity in the physician workforce can be linked to a lack of

diversity in the educational pipeline. According to the American Association of Medical

College’s (AAMC) FACTS- Applicants, Matriculants and Graduates (2006), only 7.2%

of all medical students are black; only 16% of medical students represent racial or ethnic

minority groups. Though the current percentages are low in comparison to the majority

population numbers, these figures do represent a slight increase in enrollment annually

between 2002 and 2006.

Many minorities do not pursue the medical degree due to such barriers as role

stereotypes, economic and financial barriers, gender biases, lack of direction from early

authority figures, feelings of unequal treatment due to race, and lack of mentors (Fruen &

Cantwell, 1983; Bright, Duefield, & Stone, 1998; Sullivan Commission, 2003). Unequal

access to medical education opportunities for minority students is still evident. Strategies

are needed to improve recruitment, matriculation, retention, and graduation rates of

minority students as they move through the educational pipeline (Cohen, et al., 2002).

There is a need to develop a health care workforce that is aligned with the racial

and ethnic diversity present in the population. One strategy to improve access and

quality of health care for the underserved is to increase the number of practitioners in

health and allied health professions (Cohen, Gabriel, & Terrell, 200~; Saha et a!., 2003;

Fiscella, Franks, Gold, & Clancy, 2000). It has been postulated that medical

professionals from disadvantaged populations are more likely to work in underserved

areas (Cooper-Patrick et al., 1999; Saha, et a!., 2000; Reede, 2003). Higher education in

6

its quest to contribute to a diverse health care workforce need to attract and retain

underrepresented minorities in the educational pipeline.

Precollege Science Enrichment Program

Program Description

The precollege science program, referred to as the Academy, is an academic

enrichment academy designed to stimulate the interest of minority elementary and middle

school students in pursuing degrees in biomedical research and health professions. The

Academy has a regular school component and a summer school component. The summer

component is a Summer Science Camp and the regular school component is a Saturday

Science Academy.

The goals of the Academy are (a) to develop an academic and educational

pipeline through which students between grades 4-12 can participate in science and

mathematics activities, (b) to increase the number of students enrolling in upper level

science and mathematics courses upon reaching middle and high school, and (c) to

provide linkages between elementary school, middle school, high school, college and

medical and allied health school.

The Academy provides enrichment for elementary and middle school students to

enhance their knowledge in science, mathematics, health and science. technology,

engineering and mathematics (STEM) fields. Students are involved in challenging hands

on activities while making the learning of science and mathematics fun. The students

also develop science and health projects, explore health careers and the contributions of

Africans and African Americans to science and medicine, and participate in educational

7

field trips and cultural activities. Some of the cultural activities in which students

participate include chess, African dance, Capoeira, gymnastics, and Kiswahili.

In 1994, the medical school received a grant from the Howard Hughes Medical

Institute to develop a series of pipeline programs to encourage and increase the number of

students from underserved backgrounds to pursue careers in medicine and biomedical

science. Along with the concept of a hands-on science enrichment program was also the

idea to name the program after a positive role model in medicine. With this in mind, the

director contacted a prominent pediatric neurosurgeon in November 1994 and requested

permission to use his name for the newly established program which would be housed at

the medical school. After receiving a favorable response, the Academy was initiated in

June of 1995 with the enrollment of 28 fourth and fifth grade students. In the 15 years

that the program has been in existence it has expanded to include middle school grades,

beginning with the middle grades in 1997, a Summer Science Camp and a Saturday

Academy. Additional funding from the program has been granted from the National

Science Foundation, Elementary Education Science Program, and Health Careers

Opportunity Program. Although funding for the program does not currently exist, the

goals and objectives for the middle school component remain the same.

The instructional methodologies inherent in the Academy’s program are hands

on, guided inquiry approaches. The National Science Education Standards report

considers inquiry to be the overarching goal of scientific literacy (National Research

Council, 1996). These approaches often begin with a question to engage the student.

Students then proceed to design a way to answer the question, collect the data, and

8

construct a possible answer that will presented to other students. The guided inquiry

usually begins with the students conducting an investigation, collecting the data, making

observations and explaining the outcomes. The students are then asked to design their

own experiment to solve a problem similar to the one in the guided inquiry session. The

classrooms are learner-centered where teachers respect and understand their students’

prior experiences and use these as a foundation on which to build new understandings

(Duckworth, 1987). By working together in small groups, the knowledge-centered

environment is achieved. Students begin to make connections among ideas in an

environment that promotes problem solving behavior (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking,

1999). The teacher’s role is to facilitate in development of the student’s understanding of

major ideas. Classes are not textbook-centered. Textbooks are not major features of

learning sessions and are used only as references.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to investigate career aspirations with respect to

several factors that are influential in the career decision making process. On the basis of

previous research, several factors were identified as impacting career aspirations. These

factors are the influence of role models, self-efficacy, career exploration, and academic

achievement. This study is designed to study the relationship of role models, self

efficacy, career exploration, mentorship, educational aspirations, and academic

enrichment (independent variables) on career aspirations (dependent variable) of middle

school youth in a health careers pre-college pipeline program.

9

The medical school has a Health Career Pre-College Pipeline Program whose

purpose is to increase the number of underrepresented minorities in the health

professions. The program is designed to increase diversity in the health professions and

subsequently eliminate health disparities. The results from the study can be used as an

indicator of the number of students who have participated in the program and have made

the decision to persist to a health career. Medical school personnel coordinating

community outreach programs will have data to assist in the development of instructional

enrichment programs that result in persistent academic achievement for African

American students toward a medical degree.

Problem Statement

The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Minority Health

and the Health Resources and Services Administration, Bureau of Health Professions,

have funded grant awards for several years to increase minority and disadvantaged

representation in the health profession workforce. Through pipeline programs, multiple

strategies have been utilized in attempts to increase minority student interest and

academic preparation for health profession training at the postsecondary and graduate

levels. In particular, the Health Careers Opportunity Program (HCOP) has served as a

major funding source for higher education institutions to increase minority participation

in the health professions. The medical school has received HCOP funds since 1997. In

March 2006, the Office of Public Health and Science and the Office of Minority Health

published an annotated bibliography on the evaluation of pipeline programs. The

majority of the evaluation studies focused on students at the undergraduate, post

10

baccalaureate, graduate or medical school level. These programs are essentially at the

end of the pipeline and do not take into account precollege interventions.

The federal government has been the major sponsor of pre-college intervention

programs. Programs like the TRIO programs consisting of Upward Bound, Talent

Search, Student Support Services and Gaining Early Awareness and Readiness for

Undergraduate Programs (GEAR UP) have provided a range of opportunities for low

income students to access and persist through a college education. Similarly, the Health

Careers Opportunity Program (HCOP) program is designed to increase the diversity in

the health care professions. While billions of dollars in funding have been awarded to

these programs, there is little evidence that these programs are meeting their objectives.

There is a lack of evaluation data to demonstrate that health occupation pipeline

programs increase the number of minority physicians. The major problem is the lack of

rigorous evaluation data on these programs. Many programs are not well designed and

they do not lend themselves to a program evaluation that tests attainment of objectives. It

is very difficult to demonstrate the impact of these programs or determine, in the case of

HCOP sponsored programs, if the program is successful in increasing the number of

minority students choosing to become a medical doctor and persisting to obtain a

professional degree. This research study will identify several variables and determine

their influence on career aspirations.

Significance of the Study

The federal government is currently receiving criticism for its economic policies

and the propensity to spend tax payer dollars with a measure of accountability. This

11

study will have several implications for the HCOP program and other career development

programs with similar objectives. The results of this study will be translated into

practical interventions to facilitate students’ career aspirations and provide assistance in

counseling students to persistence to a health career. Systematic procedures will be

designed to assist students in making better career decisions. Parents, teachers,

counselors, and educational leaders will be able to guide students in creating a career path

that will lead to a health career.

Career academies have demonstrated success in engaging students in school,

although established partnerships with community based organizations and businesses

have been minimally involved in increasing career opportunities for students (Noguera,

2003). Delpit (1988) warns that discontinuities between the curriculum, the pedagogy,

assessment, culture and family influence may result in a lack of participation, lack of self

confidence and a disconnect with future goals. Unless educational leaders can identify

those factors that attract students to careers in health professions, the gap between career

aspirations and persistence to career attainment will continue to increase. This study will

add to the body of knowledge of variables that influence the career decision making

process and career aspirations.

Research Questions

RQ 1: Is there a significant relationship between role models and the career

aspirations of African-American youth?

RQ2: Is there a significant relationship between self-efficacy and the career

aspirations of African-American youth?

12

RQ3: Is there a significant relationship between career exploration and the

career aspirations of African-American youth?

RQ4: Is there a significant relationship between educational aspirations and the

career aspirations of African-Americar’ youth?

RQ5: Is there a significant relationship bet’~ een academic enrichment and the

career aspirations of African-American youth?

RQ6: Is there a significant relationship between mentorship and the career

aspirations of African-American youth?

RQ7: How significant were other external factors in the career aspirations of

African-American youth?

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Introduction

Career choice is the result of a series of many decisions. The career development

process is a life-long process. Choosing a career path generally begins during

adolescence and continues throughout high school. Many decisions are made that will

impact the career choice. There are many factors such as self-efficacy, role models,

career exploration, academic enrichment and parents and family that may be influential in

career aspirations of young people.

Theories abound on the factors that contribute to career choice. The decisions

that an individual makes along the career development pathway are grounded in the

individual’s gender, race, social class, skills, abilities, interests, and personal experiences.

Theories related to career choice are discussed at the end of the literature review.

Students in middle school, generally 10 to 14 years old, are developmentally at a

stage which demands a curriculum that encourages the child to investigate areas of

interest for deeper exploration. Students in middle school are also beginning to develop

attitudes and values about learning, work and adulthood. Career planning and career

guidance are very important parts of the middle school concept. Understanding those

factors that are influential in the career choice process of adolescents can help students

14

broaden their aspirations beyond the stereotypes of gender, socioeconomic status and

ethnicity.

Role Models

Brown (2006) posits that all young people should have adult role models to

provide guidance. He lists a cadre of role models and points out their less than perfect

lives but highlights their resiliency to succeed. Karunanayake and Nauta (2004) found

that students. 94% Caucasians and 81% African Americans, tend to have role models

whose predominant race was the same as their own. This study also revealed that there

was no difference in the number of career role models identified across groups. The

findings suggests in terms of making academic and career decisions both groups,

Caucasian and minority students have access to role models. Quimby and DeSantis

(2006), investigated self-efficacy and role model influence on career choice across

Holland’s career types Realistic, Investigative. Artistic, Social, Enterprising and

Conventional (RIASEC). These researchers found that self-efficacy and role model

influence accounted for significant variance in career choice in all six RIASEC types.

The findings provided support for the relationships between roles models, self-efficacy

and career choice.

Self-Efficacy

The career aspirations and trajectories of adolescents between the ages of 11 and

15 years were assessed (Bandura, Barbaranelli, Caprara, & Pasorelli, 2001). The results

showed that children’s aspirations and belief in their personal efficacy were significant in

career choice. The study determined the career path of influence by assessing perceived

15

efficacy and aspirations, level of academic achievement and perceived occupational self-

efficacy during year one of the study and career choice was assessed one year later.

African American adolescents demonstrated different results in terms of self-efficacy

(Alliman-Brisset, Turner, & Skovholt, 2004). This study demonstrated that for girls,

parent’s emotional support was the predictor of efficacy in career planning and

exploration, knowledge of self and others, career decision making and school to career

transitions. Parents’ career-related modeling was the predictor of boys’ self-efficacy in

these same areas. No treatment effects were found in an experimental study to assess

technical and scientific self-efficacy and career interest in seventh and grade students

(Dawes, Horan, & Hackett, 2000). Students were randomly assigned to a technology

education program or a controlled curriculum to determine the impact of performance

accomplishments on self-efficacy and career interest. There were differences in pre- to

posttest results.

Career Exploration

Originally, in career development theory, career exploration was assumed to

occur during the late years of adolescence (Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axeirad, & Herma,

1951; Super, 1957, 1963). Career exploration is part of the developmental process of

middle school youth and is usually prominent during late adolescence. It now is viewed

as a dynamic process that occurs throughout the life span and occurs at all ages and

stages of development (Super, 1990).

Career exploration has been examined to determine the impact on career decision

making. Gibbons, Borders, Wiles, Stephan, and Davis (2006) surveyed ninth graders

16

regarding educational and career plans and the resources used in career decision making.

The study showed a discrepancy between career plans and accurate information on

college costs. The study also provided information on preparation for the world of work.

Many students surveyed had researched information about a specific career or talked to

someone in their family, but many had never taken a career interest inventory or been

involved in classes related to the career interest. Dziuban, Tango, and Hynes (1994)

tested college students in terms of career exploration and indecisiveness. Students first

indicated their career intentions and then were placed in a treatment and control group.

The treatment group was given the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and the Strong Interest

Inventory for career interests. The treatment group received their result and was told to

use the results as “effects” and to write perceived causes that resulted in their personality

and vocation profiles. Decision shifting in terms of career intent was shown in the

treatment group but not in the control group. This study provides support for the need for

career exploration experiences in the career decision process. Middle and high school

students were examined to determine the impact of career exploration on career certainty

(Schulenberg & Vondracek, 1993). The study demonstrated that during adolescence,

career exploration and vocational identity searching supports higher career certainty and

a greater consideration of work values.

Mentors

There is a growing genre of research that indicates that mentoring can have an

impact on youth and is instrumental in fostering personal and professional growth and

development of young people. Dappen and Isemhagen (2005) urge the use of research-

17

based best practices to contribute to a successful mentoring program. Student

perspectives on their mentors in a community science outreach program were collected

by MacDonald and Sherman (2007). Students viewed their mentor as flexible in content,

timing and ways of relating to the student and making them see the significance in

science using both real world problems and interdisciplinary connections. The mentors

inspired the students and fostered an interest in science. Mentors were found to be most

helpful through role modeling, verbal encouragement, personal support and providing

career guidance in a study of Mexican American students conducted by Flores and Obasi

(2005).

Parent and Family

Usinger (2005) examined parental perceptions of adolescents enrolled in low

achieving school. This longitudinal study revealed although parents wanted their

children to do well in the future, 66% of the parents were distanced from the student’s

concept of the future career by indicating a lack of participation in the child’s career

decision. Jacob, et al. (2006) found that parents play an important role in their children’s

career aspirations and that career choices are gender typed based on parental

expectations. Fisher and Padmawidjaja (1999) investigated parental factors that

influence career development among Mexican and African-American college students.

For both groups, parents played a major role in encouragement, educational expectations,

critical life e~ ents and work identity.

18

Educational Aspirations

Early studies of educational attainment provided evidence that education

aspirations were indications of future plans of students (Sewell, Hauser, & Wolf, 1970;

Campbell, 1983). Howley (2006) in a comparative study of rural and non-rural children,

found that rural children were just as likely as urban children to aspire to education at the

post secondary education. The major difference in rural and non-rural children was the

educational aspiration at the graduate level. Rural children were less likely than non-

rural children to aspire to graduate level education.

In a study of high school students in North Carolina school districts, the results

reported that a majority of the students planned to attend a four year undergraduate

institution and perceived their parents also aspired for them to go to college (Gibbons,

Borders, Wiles, Stephan, & Davis, 2006). Aspirations are an important part of the goal

setting process. Students with educational aspirations approach their education with the

expectation of reaching higher levels.

Academic Enrichment

Academic enrichment support is defined as instructional services that are

designed to increase academic performance, such as summer programs, after school

programs, Saturday programs, tutoring, test preparation, and enrichment courses. For

first generation students enrolled in college, who participated in a precollege invention

program for academic enrichment, the motivation to enroll was associated with expected

improvement in social, economic and occupational standing (Ayala & Striplen, 2002).

19

Precollege intervention programs place emphasis on academic development,

attitudes, and beliefs about higher education. These programs are important in off-setting

the negative effects of school or community influences by providing elements that are

important for success (Gullatt & Jan, 2003).

Academic enrichment provides many benefits to African-American youth. These

programs often disrupt developmental processes that are negative. Academic failure and

student drop outs are less likely with students involved in academic enrichment.

Enrichment programs give children an opportunity to experience success by supporting

student learning and strengthening skills. Many academic enrichment programs espouse

the philosophy that college is not out of reach.

Internal Factors

There are several internal factors that motivate people in the career choice

process. People orientation, career certainly, cultural context of careers, altruism,

aptitude, career beliefs, sense of belonging, and community reciprocity or giving back to

the community (Schulenberg & Vondracek, 1993; Naylor & Krumboltz, 1994;

Harrington, 1998). Internal factors are more personal in nature. Conflict in values,

religious beliefs, lack of confidence, fear and decisions about career paths due to a

potential for several careers are internal factors that need to be resolve before the career

decision process is completed.

External Factors

Each individual lives and operates in an environment that has an individual level,

interpersonal level and a sociocultural level (Cook, Heppner & O’Brien, 2002). Further

20

research into the factors that make up and interact within this ecological system is

important (Flores, Spanierman, & Obasi, 2003). These factors include critical incidents,

significant others, structural factor in family, role conflict, economics of the

neighborhood, opportunity for higher education located in the local area, and industry

provisions for students. Jackson and Nutini (2002) identified several external barriers

that impacted career related learning among multicultural middle school students. These

included lack of a safe and nurturing environment, low income, stereotyping,

discrimination and lack of social support.

Overview of Career Decision Theories

There are many potential variables that may influence student success and

persistence to career attainment. Today there is no single factor or single theory that fully

explains the career decision process. Career decision making is a process that develops

over a lifetime. Several theoretical models can be applied to explain this development.

Three models in particular lend support to the lifelong development: (a) Ginzberg,

Ginsburg, Axelrad, and Herma theory (1951), (b) Super’s Theory of Vocational Choice

(1954), and (c) Holland (1973). Other theories provide the bases for the motivation for

making the decision and may serve to explain various factors influential in the care

decision process.

Ginzberg’s, et al. (1951) theory is based on the premise that it is a development

path that leads to career choice. The theory looks at the whole individual and the

development of a career decision across time. According to Ginzberg, et al., the career

decision-making process occurs in three phases, each occurring at a specific

21

developmental stage: (a) fantasy stage—childhood, (b) tentative stage preteen through

high school, and (c) the realistic stage mid adolescence through young adulthood.

During these periods, the individual makes a series of decisions that gradually reduces the

number of choices left. The individual makes a compromise with each choice that is

made.

Super’s (1954) theory of vocational choice is a developmental self-concept theory

and it considers the changes that an individual goes through over time. The theory takes

into account that self-concept changes as a result of personal experiences. A key aspect

of the model assumes that people choose occupations that permit them to express their

self-concepts.

The personality-contingent model of career development (Holland, 1959) is a

model that is established though heredity and the individual’s life history of interacting

with environmental demands. Holland personality theory classifies persons into types

based on their propensity toward a certain work environment. The basic premise of this

theory is that an individual will select a career similar to their type of personality fit.

Holland’s theory classifies the person or personality as realistic, investigative, artistic,

social, enterprising or conventional (RIASEC), which also represents the six types of

environments.

Krumboltz’ s social learning theory varies from the theories of Super and

Ginzberg, et al. in that Krumboltz’s theory is a learning theory rather than a

developmental theory. Krumboltz ‘s theory brings into play several attributes such as

social learning, environmental conditions and events, genetic influences, and learning

22

experiences. The theory is based on the assumption that personality and behavior

interacts to form the self-concept (Krumboltz & Mitchell, 1990).

According to Krumboltz, there are four factors which influence career

development. These are (a) genetic influences or endowments race, sex, disabilities,

talents, (b) environmental conditions number ofjoh opportunities, nature of training

opportunities, rate of economic return, social policies (diploma, testing policies),

(c) learning experiences associative-cognitive connections, stereotypes and

instrumental, which produce consequences, act on environment, and (d) task approach

skills such as setting and self-observation (Krumboltz & Mitchell, 1990).

Self-efficacy, expectancy, and values are outgrowths from the social cognitive

theory. Self-efficacy has been at the center of the social cognitive theory in its

application to career development. Krumboltz’s theory is grounded in Bandura’s (1977)

theory of self-efficacy. Self-efficacy can be defined as the belief in one’s capabilities to

produce or attain. Krumboltz’s theory of career decision making and development is

based on social learning.

People are motivated to achieve based on fulfilling a need. Maslow’s (1943)

hierarchy of needs states that as one need is satisfied, beginning with the lowest level,

then another need emerges. Career decisions are often based on expectant outcomes.

Expectancy theory involves estimations of the likelihood of success, the likelihood that a

behavior will result in a specific outcome, and the positive or negative value that is

placed on each outcome (Vroom, 1964). Locke’s (1968) Theory of Goal Setting involves

23

a relationship between how difficult a goal and people’s performance of a task. The more

specific a goal, the better the task is performed.

A theoretical relationship between personal and environmental factors in the

career choice of youth is the foundation of this literature review. Many of the theories

fail to take into account race and ethnicity. Studies conducted to support theories often

do not include African Americans. The overall literature review is deficient in research

on factors that are influential in the career choice decision of African-American youth.

Academic enrichment has been shown to provide elements that are important for success

such as increased academic achievement. Educational aspirations and self-efficacy

beliefs were significant in career choice. In terms of making career decision, African-

American youth have access to role models. Mentors were found to be effective in

personal support and career guidance. Parents provide significant influence in

educational expectation and work identity. Career exploration and vocational identity

lead to higher career certainty and greater consideration of work values in adolescents.

However, more career exploration and information about careers are needed for the

decision making process. Many studies pointed out the importance of cultural

considerations and how they impact the career aspirations of African-American youth.

CHAPTER III

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The career aspirations model used in this study was developed and grounded in

Krumboltz’s (1990) Career Decision Making Theory and is based on a combination of

internal and external factors influencing the decision making process. Krumboltz

proposed that people develop beliefs about the careers and their role in life based on the

consequences derived from learning experiences. A positive learning experience with a

career develops into a positive belief about self in that career. Whether realistic or not,

career choices are influenced by these beliefs. Observational learning experiences

derived from models also have an influence on career choice. The role models may be

parents, teachers, artists, civic leaders, clergy, doctors, or other professionals. Positive

role models, reinforcement and rewards are likely to lead to career planning skills.

Figure 1 is a schematic of the career aspirations model. It displays the various

components of the study perceived to be influential in the career decision making

process. The medical school Precollege Health Careers Pipeline Program was devised

with several perspectives of career goals in mind. The program was designed to begin

with students at age nine or ten and continue with students who are age 14 to 15. The

entry age range supports the concept of early intervention and the importance of goal

setting during adolescence.

24

25

Figure 1. Theoretical Framework

The model shows that career choice may be the action of one variable or the

interaction of several variables. The external variables are career exploration, role model,

parental influence, academic enrichment, and mentor influence. The internal variables

are self-efficacy and educational aspirations. Any or all of these variables may be

Personal Variables

26

moderated by gender and socioeconomic status. These variables are influential in the

career decision making process. The interaction of the internal and external variables

during the career decision process results in the identification of career aspirations.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to investigate career aspirations with respect to

several factors that are influential in the career decision making process. On the basis of

previous research, several factors were identified as impacting career aspirations. These

factors are the influence of role models, self-efficacy, career exploration, mentor,

educational aspirations and academic enrichment. This study is designed to show the

relationship of role models, self-efficacy, career exploration, mentor, educational

aspirations and academic enrichment (independent variables) on career aspirations as

measured by anticipated annual mean salary (dependent variable) of middle school youth

in a health careers precollege pipeline program, the Academy. Internal and external

variables influential in career aspirations will be investigated in a focus group setting.

Role models, self-efficacy, career exploration, informal mentorship, educational

aspirations and academic enrichment are components of the Academy, the program from

which the participants will be extracted.

Definition of the Variables

Career Aspirations A chosen occupation or profession to which a student

aspires.

27

Role Model An individual who is an example for others; an individual who

represents the standard; persons who are emulated (Pleiss & Feidhusen, 1995); a person,

either living or deceased, who is admired and whose behavior is imitated.

Self-Efficacy A person’s belief in his or her ability to succeed in a particular

situation (Bandura, 1977).

Career Exploration Those activities, tools, seminars, resources, games, lessons

in which an individual engages to increase their knowledge of career options and skills

needed to prepare a specific career.

Academic Enrichment Support Instructional services that are designed to

increase academic performance, such as summer programs, after school programs,

Saturday programs, tutoring, test preparation, and enrichment courses.

Educational Aspirations The level of education that the student hopes to secure.

The levels may be classified as completion of high school, attend a vocation or technical

college, attend community college, attend four year college, attend graduate school, and

attend profession school such as medical school or school of pharmacy.

Mentor A person who provides academic, social, emotional, and career

development support.

Parental Influence The construct of parental or familial support, assistance in

performance accomplishment, emotional support, encouragement, concern, attitude,

reinforcement patterns, expectations, income, and education.

Internal Variables Variables that are personal or have attributes that are

personal.

28

External Variables Variables that have attributes that are linked to the

environment, such as lack of a role model.

The dependent variable, career aspirations, was measured by the United States

Bureau of Labor Statistic anticipated annual mean salary for careers identified.

Respondents identified the career aspirations, their anticipated career, which was

assigned the code based on the Bureau of Labor Statistics Standard Occupational

Classification. The independent variables were measured by responses on the Career

Influence Survey with Likert type scale measures.

CHAPTER IV

METHODOLOGY

Research Design

The research design proposed for this study was a mixed method design

consisting of both quantitative and qualitative elements. A survey, semistructured

interview, and document analysis provided the data on factors influential in career

aspirations of middle school students in the precollege enrichment program. The mixed

method research design was chosen because it adds a level of legitimacy through the

utilization of multiple approaches to answer research questions (Johnson &

Onwuegbuzie, 2004). The mixed method research design allowed for triangulation of

data to answer research questions involved in this case study of students from a single

program.

Population

The target population in this study consisted of 97 African-American middle

school students, ranging in age from 11 to 15 years old, with an approximately equal

number of males (46) and females (51), who are participants in a precollege enrichment

program. Parental consent was required for students to participate in the study. Students

who had attended the program for a minimum of one summer and two semesters were

allowed to participate in the study. The population consisted of rising seventh, eighth,

and ninth graders enrolled in the precollege program, a component of the health careers

29

30

pipeline program. Less than one percent of the students have been identified as learning

disabled in the program. To participate in the program, students must be motivated and

interested in learning science/health principles. Students were from school districts in the

metro-Atlanta area including public, private and home schools. The study was controlled

for errors by a 100% response rate of the target population.

Survey

A survey was used as one of the data collection methods. The survey, Career

Influence Survey (CIS), was developed with a multi-item scale with four to six items per

scale to measure influence on career aspirations. A review of the literature on factors

influential in career aspirations was conducted to select items that have been tested and

are reliable. Additional items were developed by the researcher. The survey instrument

contained 7 subscales with 5 to 14 statements of influence grouped under each subscale.

The subscales were Mentor, Career Exploration, Parent and Family, Role Models,

Educational Aspirations, Self-efficacy and Academic Enrichment. The subscales were

developed to observe general patterns for questions that measure the same trait, variable,

or construct. The CIS contained three sections. Section one of the survey consisted of

eleven demographic items which focused on the respondents’ personal characteristics

such as gender, grade level and educational levels of family members. Section two of the

survey ascertained information about the factors which were influential in the selection of

the respondents’ career aspirations as measured by anticipated annual mean salary.

Section two contained 73 career item statements with a five point Likert scale to

determine level of influence of each item in the subscale. Values for levels of agreement

31

with statements were: I = Strongly Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Undecided, 4 = Agree,

and 5 = Strongly Agree. Section three of the survey instrument had two parts, one which

contained a list of 13 individuals or persons, such as classmate, father, and the other part

consisted of 7 additional factors which may be influential such as TV show or high

salary. Section three utilized a five point Likert scale to determine level of influence with

numerical values. These values are: 1 — Not Influential, 2 = Somewhat Influential, 3 =

Not Applicable, 4= Influential, and 5 = Very Influential.

The Department of Educational Leadership conferred with the researcher to

validate the instrument and to evaluate item convergence and item discrimination. Item

convergence determined if the statements within each subscale were related and item

discrimination determined if items in different subscales were measuring two different

constructs. Construct validity was determined by conducting item convergence and item

discrimination analysis (Schmitz, et al., 2004; Van Roy, Veenstra, & Clench-Aas, 2008).

This procedure established interobserver reliability. Items that have a low correlation

with its scale were removed. Middle and high school language arts and science teachers

reviewed the instrument for face validity, construct validity, clarity, and readability

(Appendix A). Content and face validity of the instrument was determined through the

SPSS Reliability procedures. Cronbach’s coefficient (Cronbach, 1951) alpha for the

survey instrument was determined.

Pilot Study

The Career Influence Survey instrument was piloted with African-American

middle school students who did not participate in the study. These students were

32

enrollees at a local middle school in an adjacent county. Further improvements, clarity

and readability of the survey instrument resulted from the pilot study. Middle school

students participating in the pilot test were asked to evaluate the survey instructions,

demographic elements, and survey statements for clarity and readability. The Career

Influence Survey was further refined based on data collected from the pilot test. CIS

statements which were ambiguous were eliminated. Pilot testing of the survey allowed

for examination of frequencies of responses and items with many missing responses were

eliminated. Upon completion of the pilot test, and to establish content validity, students

participating in the pilot study were asked whether they felt the statements on the CIS

addressed career aspiration variables that were important to them. Revisions were made

to the CIS following the pilot test with middle school students.

Focus Group Guide

The interview questions were developed to be used in a focus group session of ten

middle school students. The interview questions were designed to gather information

about students’ career aspirations and the factors contributing to those aspirations, the

person influential in the career decision, internal and external factors related to the career

aspirations. A total of eight questions were developed. The interview questions were

evaluated by a panel of three teachers to assess clarity. The focus group consisted often

participants, who had already completed the CIS survey. The focus group questions

revolved around other external and internal factors which may also contribute to the

career aspirations of African American youth. The focus group interview followed the

33

methods of Bogdan and Bikien (2003). The following questions were used in the focus

group session. The researcher probed as needed after each major question.

1. What are your career aspirations?

2. How did you make the decision to choose this career?

3. Who had the most influence on your career aspirations?

4. What had the most influence on your career aspirations?

5. How effective were people, resources and tools in helping you make a career

decision?

6. Were there internal factors that were influential in your career aspirations?

7. Were there external factors that were influential in your career aspirations?

8. How would you improve your career decision-making process?

Participants were notified in advance of the date for the focus group. Informed

consent and permission to participate were collected prior to the focus group session.

During the focus group, participants were given the (a) purpose of the focus group,

(b) statement of confidentiality, (c) permission to tape record the session, and (d)

permission to follow-up by phone if clarification was needed. Rules were given for the

focus group such as only one person will speak at a time and responses are neutral, with

no right or wrong answers.

Ten students who completed the Career Influence Survey were randomly selected

to participate in the focus group interviews. An equal number of males and females were

selected. An opening script for the facilitator was established and confidentiality

statement signed by subjects and facilitator.

34

Document Analysis

Document analysis was the final method that was used to collect data for the

study. There were three primary document sources: information from program annual

reports, student essays which include rationale for program participation, and reports

obtained from program database. These documents were analyzed to obtain detailed

information related to factors concerning career aspirations. A list of careers to which the

middle school students aspired was developed. A document analysis worksheet was

developed which lists the identification of the document: type of document, author, date

published and the rationale for use of the document in the study. Each document was

reviewed for indicators of career aspirations and factors that contribute to the aspirations

and any internal and external factors which may have contributed to career aspirations.

Pilot Study Results

The Career Influence Survey initially consisted of 98 items with 9 categories:

academic enrichment, career exploration, people, parent/family, role model, self-efficacy,

mentor and other. A panel of four reviewers, one middle school science teacher, one high

school science teacher and two language arts teachers responded with feedback on the

CIS. One of the middle school language arts teachers is also a reading specialist and the

other language arts teacher teaches high school English. The teachers reviewed the

survey to determine if the items within each subscale were related and if items in

different subscales were measuring two different constructs. They were asked to respond

to the following questions in reference to the survey: Do the survey items appear to be

measuring the constructs? Is there evidence that one concept is different from other

35

closely related concepts? Is there evidence that different measure of the same concept

yield similar results? Are there any extraneous content in the survey? Are the survey

items representative of the property that is to be measured? Are important aspects of the

construct covered? Does the measure employed assess the theoretical concept? The

responses are listed in Appendix A.

The teachers agreed that the items measured the constructs and that each category

of independent variables was different from the other measures. They agreed that the

survey items were representative of the property that was to be measured and that the

items measured the theoretical concept.

Student reactions to the CIS were: there were too many questions, they were

confused about what to do if they did not have an answer, the survey was not kid

friendly; it was difficult to place the “X” in the boxes, and many did not know the

vocabulary such as efficacy, praise, influential, and inclined.

All items were entered into analysis to determine instrument reliability and

reliability of each survey subscale. Nineteen items were eliminated from the Career

Influence Survey. The results are presented in Table 1.

36

Table 1

Instrument Reliability

Final

Before Instrument

Item Pilot Cronbach’s Items Cronbach’s

Reduction Survey Subscales Items Alpha Deleted Alpha

Total Survey 95 .061 .068

Mentor 8 .026 5,6,8 .676

Career Exploration 11 .601 14,15 .682

Self-efficacy 17 .485 53,56,58 .703

Parent/Family 8 .499 22,25 .556

Academic

Enrichment 8 .182 66,69,73 .641

Educational

Aspirations 14 .515 40,44 .705

Role Model 7 .278 29,31,32 .561

People 13 .224 75 .767

Other 9 .814 0 .814

After Item

Reduction Total Survey 76 .838

The teachers who reviewed the Career Influence Survey did not identify any items

on the survey that should be deleted. Three items were eliminated from the survey based

37

on student comments. Following the pilot study, student comments and the reliability

analysis, the number of items was reduced from 95 to 76 and Cronbach’s alpha was .838.

Originally 12 students were expected to participate in the pilot testing of the

Career Influence Survey. Of the 100 CIS surveys that were submitted for pilot testing, 53

were returned and 47 were usable. The number of students in the pilot test was far

greater than anticipated.

Data Collection

Administration of the Career Influence Survey instrument took place in the

science and mathematics classes during the second week of the summer science program.

Teachers were given instructions on CIS administration prior to administration of the CIS

survey to their classes. The students were given an hour and a half to complete the CIS

instrument. The number of middle school participants was 115 students.

Demographic information was collected from the precollege program data base

for middle school students participating in the study. The database contains variables

including gender, socioeconomic status as determined from free and reduced lunch

certification, family structure, number of siblings, and family income.

Data were collected from the focus group interview through two methods. The

interview session facilitator and observer took notes during the interview and the

interview was also audio-recorded. The observational notes included the group’s mood,

body language, silent agreements, quotes, who was speaking and other observations. The

focus group participants (10) were randomly selected from those students who had

completed the CIS instrument.

38

Documents from the participant’s application and essay, program annual reports,

report cards, and documents from the program data base were used to collect data on

indicators of career aspirations. Career aspirations were measured by anticipated annual

mean salary.

Data Analysis

The data from this study were analyzed in several ways. The Statistical Package

for the Social Sciences (SPSS) package was used to analyze the data collected. First,

correlation coefficients were computed to determine the relationship between career

aspirations as measured by annual mean salary and each variable. Multiple regression

analysis was conducted to measure the relationship between the independent variables

and their contribution toward the variance in explaining career aspirations, the outcome

variable, as measured by annual mean salary. The prediction equation measured the

amount of variance in career aspirations that can be explained by role model, career

exploration, self-efficacy, mentor, parent, educational aspirations, and academic

enrichment. Stepwise regression analyses were conducted to investigate the relationship

between each variable and career aspirations. Data from the focus group and document

analysis were triangulated to further identify influence of variables on career aspirations.

Limitations of the Study

This research has a mixed method case study design. The results of the study are

limited in its generalization to the population of students in the precollege health careers

pipeline program. Recommendations will be made to the medical school administration

and program coordinators. The limitations were:

39

1. Students in the program have an opportunity to attend the program for a

maximum of five summers and five fall and spring sessions. The subjects in

the study consist of middle school students who have participated in the

program for at least two years which constitutes two Saturday sessions (fall

and spring), and a summer session.

2. The study was limited to those middle school students who were present and

responded to the CIS during the science and math classes. Other students,

rising ninth graders, who were participating in the high school program, were

attending a program in the next level of the pipeline.

3. A survey instrument, the CIS, was developed to collect data on contributors of

career aspirations. The survey instrument was a self-report instrument to

determine which factors contributes to career aspirations.

4. The results of the study were interpreted as associations or correlations. The

study was limited in terms of causality.

CHAPTER V

RESULTS

The purpose of this study was to identify variables which were influential in

determining career aspirations of middle school students to investigate perceived career

aspirations with respect to several factors that are influential in the career decision

making process. These factors are role models, self-efficacy, career exploration,

mentorship, educational aspirations, parent/family and academic enrichment

(independent variables) on career aspirations as measured by annual mean salary

(dependent variable) of middle school youth in a health careers precollege pipeline

program. The analyses in this chapter were designed to illustrate relationships among

perceived factors which were influential in predicting anticipated career choice. The

study sought to identify those variables which were influential in determining the

perceived career and vocational aspirations of the study participants. A mixed-method

design was employed in the collection of data. A survey was developed, the Career

Influence Survey (CIS), and a focus group with ten students who completed the survey

were conducted to assess other external variables perceived to be influential in the career

decision process.

Significant levels of 0.05 and 0.01 were used for statistical tests. The data were

analyzed by the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS), versions 16.0 and

17.0. To determine the correlation between survey items, Pearson’s product moment

40

41

correlations were calculated. Factor analyses were used as the data reduction method to

reduce the number of items and to explain correlations among multiple outcomes that are

the results of a few factors. To answer the research questions, correlation and regression

analyses were used. Cronbach’s alpha was used to test for internal consistency of items

and summated subscales of the CIS.

Demographic data are described in the first section of the chapter. The second

section describes the results of the pilot study. The next section will describe the

independent and dependent variables and address the research questions. The research

questions will be answered in the fourth section. The last section lists the responses from

the focus group session to further identify variables, either external or internal that

influenced career aspirations.

Demographics of Survey Participants

Survey Responses

One hundred CIS surveys were distributed to seventh and eighth grade classes of

the summer program. Only those students who had been in the Academy at least one

year and a summer were included as survey respondents. Each seventh and eighth

summer camp teacher was given a list of students who met this criterion. Teachers were

given instructions on administration procedures for the survey. The research coordinator

of the high school research program was given 15 CIS surveys, along with instructions

for completing, and requested to give rising ninth grade students the survey. Of the 115

surveys distributed, 97 usable surveys were returned from the seventh and eighth grade

respondents and two from the ninth grade students.

42

Participants

There were 97 students from the Academy who completed usable Career

Influence Surveys. The parents of all of these students had signed the Parental Consent

Form (Appendix B) required for participation as a survey respondent. The grade levels

of students responding consisted of 45.4% seventh graders, 52.6% eighth graders and

2.1% ninth graders. Science and mathematics traditionally have been viewed as male

dominant fields. In the study, there were slightly more females than male participants,

with 47.4 % male and 52.6% females (Figure 2). Research shows that while the number

of African Americans preparing to participate in higher education is diminishing, the

number of males making the same preparation is spiraling downward at a faster rate when

compared to females. The Academy appears to be serving a double need. It is

encouraging females to enter the fields of science and mathematics and it is motivating

males to stay in school. The program structure and culturally sensitive pedagogy may

reflect the safe and nurturing environment which is often necessary for African-

American students to increase their self esteem and self-efficacy in academics.

515049484746454443

Fern aleMale

Figure 2. Gender of Participants

43

Participants were asked to include their current mathematics and science grade in

the demographic section of the survey instrument. While grades in these content areas

are not determining factors in career aspirations, they are more reflective of a student’s

personality rather than level of academic achievement. Students who earn high grades

may view the grades as a guiding factor in future academic achievement. Students may

also view the discipline that is required to earn high grades as a predecessor to other

levels of achievement. The distribution of grades from the participants’ cohort showed

that in science, 48.5% earned an A, 37.1% earned a B, 7.2% earned a C, 1.0% earned a D

and 6.2% not reporting a grade for science (Figure 3). In terms of mathematics, the

grades were similar, 45.400 earned an A, 39.20o earned a B, 9.3°o earned a C, 1.0%

earned an F, and 5.2° o not reporting any grade for mathematics (Figure 4).

1% 6% -~

7°Io :.~

\III~JB

490./0 •cDO

37% DNR

Figure 3. Science Grades of Participants

44

1% 5%

Figure 4. Mathematics Grades of Participants

•cDFDNR

The study participants were middle school students in a summer science camp at

the time of the data was collected. Rising grade level classification showed that 45.4 %

were rising seventh graders, 52.6% were rising eighth graders and 2.10/0 were rising ninth

graders. All the respondents were classified as African Americans, with 90.7% attending

public school. The respondents ranged in age from eleven (8.2%) to 14 (20.6%) years

old. The majority of the respondents were 13 years old (41.2%) followed by age 12

(29.9%).

Students were asked to identify their career aspirations, what they would like to

be when they become adults. The responses were subdivided into three categories:

health-related occupations, semi-health related occupations and non-health occupations

(Table 2). Thirty seven percent of the students select non-health related, 22% chose

semi-health related, and 40% chose health related occupations as their career aspirations.

Females more often than males chose an anticipated career in the health occupations

domain. Career aspirations for the majority of males were for careers in the

entertainment and sports domain.

Categories

Health-Related

Occupations

Subtotal

Semi-Health Related

Occupational

Subtotal

Non-Health Related

Occupations

Subtotal

Total

BLS SOC Domains

Health Care Practitioners and

Technical Occupations

Computer

Architecture and Engineering

Life, Physical, Social Science

Community and Social Services

Protective Service Occupations

Food Preparation

Personal Care and Services

Management

Legal

Education Train and Library

Occupations

Art, Design, Entertainment,

Sports, and Media Occupations

10 28 38

5 0 5

5 1 6

1 2 3

0 1

1 2 3

2 0 2

0 1 1

14 7

2 3

0 5

16 7 23

19 16 35

43 51 94

Table 2

Categories ofStudents by Standard Occupational Class~fIcation ofCareer Aspiration

45

Male Female Total

10 28 38

21

5

5

46

Results of the Pilot Study

A total of 100 Career Influence Surveys were sent to a local middle school for

pilot testing with sixth and eighth grade students. The classroom teachers were given

written instructions on the administration of the survey. Of the 100, 53 surveys were

returned and 47 were usable. Item conversion and item discrimination analyses were

conducted on the 47 usable survey instruments.

Instrument Reliability Results

The original instrument, Career Influence Survey, consisted of 95 items prior to

the pilot study, with a reliability coefficient of .061 (Table 3). The final survey was

considered to be highly reliable (Number of items = 76; alpha .838). After piloting, the

instrument was subjected to data reduction to create subscales and to test for reliability.

To create the subscales in SPSS, the transformlcompute and compute a new variable

methodology were utilized and those items that did not have consistency with the rest or

were given a higher alpha if the items were omitted and removed before the subscales

were created.

Table 3

Instrument Before and After Reliability Study

Number of Items Cronbach’ s Alpha

Before Pilot 95 .061

After Pilot 76 .838

47

To further reduce the number of items for data analysis, transformation of items

was conducted by taking the average score of all of the items and creating one composite

scaled score. Each composite score that was created was saved as a variable and given a

subscale name. The subscale scores were retested for reliability following the omission

of items (Table 4). The aiphas for the subscales are lower than the alpha for the entire

instrument, giving the subscales of the instrument a moderate to high reliability (Table 5).

Composite scores for the career influence subscales were computed based on the means

of the items identified as relating to that subscale.

Table 4

Subscales with Final Number ofItems and Reliability Coefficients

Subscales Number of Items Reliability Coefficient

Mentor 5 .676

Career Exploration 9 .682

Self-efficacy 14 .703

Parent/Family 6 .556

Academic Enrichment 5 .640

Educational Aspiration 12 .705

Role Model 4 .561

People 12 .767

Other 9 .814

48

Table 5

Pearson ‘s Correlation Coefficients for Career Influence Subscales

Mentor

Career Exploration

Parent! Family

Role Model

Educational Aspirations

Self-efficacy

Academic Enrichment

People

Other

Career

Mentor Exploration

.286**

.266*

.199

.031

.212*

.023

.299**

.137

-.082

.274**

.262 * *

.166

.044

.174

.038

Parent!

Family

.-064

.064

-.0 19

-.005

.041

.054

Role

Model

.189

.288**

.220*

.166

.082

Self- Academic

Efficacy Enrichment People Other

Educational

Aspirations

374* *

.065

.158

.013

Mentor

Career Exploration

Parent/Family

Role Model

Educational Aspirations

Self-efficacy 1

Academic Enrichment .270**

People .306** .319**

Other .113 .215* .511~~

**Coii.elation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

*Coffelation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)

49

Definition of Terms

The following section reviews the definition of terms used in the study.

Academic Enrichment Support: Instructional services that are designed to

increase academic performance, such as summer programs, after school programs,

Saturday programs, tutoring, test preparation, and enrichment courses.

Career Aspirations: A chosen occupation or profession measured by anticipated

annual mean salary.

Career Exploration: Those activities, tools, seminars, resources, games, lessons

in which an individual engages to increase their knowledge of career options and skills

needed to prepare a specific career.

Educational Aspirations: The level of education that the student hopes to secure.

The levels may be classified as completion of high school, attend a vocation or technical

college, attend community college, attend four year college, attend graduate school,

attend profession school such as medical school or school of pharmacy.

External Variables: Variables that have attributes that are linked to the

environment, such as lack of a role model.

Internal Variables: Variables that are personal or have attributes that are

personal.

Mentor: A person who provides academic, social, emotional, and career

development support.

50

Parent and Family: The construct of parental or familial support, assistance in

performance accomplishment, emotional support, encouragement, concern, attitude,

reinforcement patterns, expectations, income, and education.

Role Model: An individual who is an example for others; an individual who

represents the standard; persons who are emulated (Pleiss & Feldhusen, 1995); a person,

either living or deceased, who is admired and whose behavior is imitated.

Self-Efficacy: A person’s belief in his or her ability to succeed in a particular

situation (Bandura, 1977).

The dependent variable, career aspirations, was measured by the anticipated annual

mean salary associated with the prospective occupation chosen as identified by the

Bureau of Labor Statistics. Respondents identified the career aspirations which were

assigned a code based on the Bureau of Labor Statistics Standard Occupational

Classification. The independent variables were measured by responses on the Career

Influence Survey with Likert type scale measures.

Correlation of CIS Scale Variables

Nine groups of variables were assessed and analyzed as subscales from the Career

Influence Survey: mentorship, career exploration, parent and family, role model, self

efficacy, academic enrichment, educational aspirations, people, and other variables. The

correlations demonstrate the degree of relatedness of the subscales to each other.

Significant correlations were found among having a mentor and career

exploration (r 0.286; P<.01; N 91) and having a mentor and parent/family influence

as factors in career aspirations (r 0.266; P< 0.05; N 91). Students who talk to adults

51

about their careers are more likely to have identified a career interest compared to

students who do not talk to adults. The question of “what do you want to be when you

grow up?” often emerges as a basic inquiry in adult and children interactions. Even more

influential are the presence of work-based mentors who provide an opportunity for

students to explore various career pathways in order to make informed career decisions.

Career exploration also correlated significantl3 with educational aspirations (r

0.262; P<0.01; N = 97) and with having a role model (r =.274; P<0.01; N = 97). There

was a positive correlation between the qualities that are considered important in a role

model and self-efficacy (r 0.288; P<0.01; N = 96). Self-efficacy and academy

enrichment displayed significant correlations with two other subscale variables from the

Career Inventory Survey. Self-efficacy correlated with academic enrichment (r = 0.270;

P<0.01; N = 95) and the People subscale (r = 0.306; P<0.01; N 95). Academic

enrichment had a positive correlation with the People subscale which represented people

outside the family (r = 0.319; P<0.01; N = 95) and Other Influence subscale variables

such as labor market trends, television show, opportunity to change socioeconomic (SES)

level, recognition, and rewards (r 0.215; P<0.05; N = 95).

Additional significant correlations among the subscale of the CIS were academic

enrichment and role model (r = 0.220; P .05; N 95). Self-efficacy correlated

significantly with the mentor subscale (r 0.2 12; P<0.05; N — 91).

52

Factor Analysis of Subscales

Traditionally, factor analysis has been used as a data reduction procedure. The

purpose of conducting factor analyses in this study was not to reduce the data or variables

any further but to look for patterns among the variables.

The relationship among the independent variables was examined through

correlation analysis to measure and interpret the strength and direction of the relationship

between the variables. The Career Influence Survey initially consisted of 98 items.

Following the pilot study of the CIS, the number of items was reduced 95. Through

reliability studies the number of items was further reduced to 76. The major data

reduction strategy utilized was reliability analysis. Concomitantly, factor analyses

allowed for the examination of linear correlations among variables, and to identify

homogeneity among groups of variables.

Nine variables associated with influence on career aspirations were factor

analyzed. To ensure that the variables are meritorious for factor analysis, they were

assessed against each other. The descriptive information about the factors is presented in

Table 6. Five of the nine subscales of career influence correlated at least 0.3 with at least

one other subscale. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy was .603

which is greater than the recommended value of .5, and the Bartlett’s test of sphericity

was significant (Chi square = 112.963, P<.00l), which supports the factorability of the

correlation matrix. This means that the inter-correlation matrix is not an identity matrix.

53

Table 6

Descriptive Statisticsfor CIS Subscale Variables that Influence Career Aspirations

Career Aspirations ( as measured by Mean Annual Salary)

Std.

Mean

114928.77

3.64

3.59

3.17

4.19

4.37

4.17

3.30

3.62

3.57

Deviation

60395.00

.84

.65

.58

.73

.44

.51

1.01

.81

.80

Range

26610 - 262850

1.00-5.00

2.11-5.00

2.17-5.00

2.25-5.00

2.73-5.00

1.67-5.00

1.20-5.00

1.33-5.00

1.67-5.00

The career aspirations as measured by anticipated mean value for annual salary

(M 114928.77, SD = 60395) suggest that the students reported high paying occupations

as the type of career to which they aspire. The skewness and kurtosis for each variable

were investigated and all the variables were within the normal distribution with no

outliers. Only two career influence subscales, educational aspirations and self-efficacy,

produced absolute values greater than 1.0 for skewness and kurtosis. Students reported

items on the subscales of educational aspirations (M 4.37, SD .44) role model (M —

CIS Subscales

Mentor

Career Exploration

Parent/Family

Role Model

Educational Aspirations

Self-efficacy

Academic Enrichment

People

Other

54

4.19, SD =.73) and self-efficacy (M —4.17, SD .51) as influential in perceived career

aspirations. Items on the Parent Family subscale had the lowest mean in terms of

influence on the perceived career aspirations of middle school students. The mean and

standard deviation are given for the subscales of the Career Influence Inventory. The

independent or predictor variables are Mentor, Career Exploration, Persons or Family

Members, Role Model, Educational Aspiration, Self-Efficacy, Academic Enrichment,

Other variables, and Influential People. The students’ career aspirations is the dependent

or criterion variable and is linked to the career to which the students aspire. Through data

reduction, the items on the Career Influence Survey were reduced to subscales variables

in SPSS. The mean was highest for subscales related to educational aspirations (M =

4.37, SD .44), role model (M = 4.19, SD .73) and self-efficacy (M = 4.17, SD = .51).

Principal component analysis with Varimax rotation was used to identify career

aspiration scores for the factors associated with the Career Influence Survey. The initial

eigenvalues showed that 26.97° o of the variance was attributed to the first factor, 14.73%

was attributed to the second factor and 13.97% of the variance was attributed to the third

factor, with remaining variance associated with factor components four through nine. A

cumulative variance of 55.68% was attributed to the first three factor components (Table

7).

55

Table 7

Factor Loadings and Communalities Based on a Principle Component Analysis with

Varimax Rotationfor Nine Subscales ofthe Career Influence Inventory

Loadings

Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Communality

Educational Aspiration .666 -.065 .011 .448

Career Exploration .66] -.080 .203 .485

Self-efficacy .620 .395 -.055 .544

Role Model .619 .260 -.060 .454

People .169 .790 .174 .683

Other -.161 .777 .161 .655

Academic Enrichment .264 .577 -.3 14 .501

Mentor .304 .193 .745 .684

Parent and Family -.093 -.007 .74] .557

Eigenvalue 2.428 1.326 1.258

% of Total Variance 26.974% 14.736°o 13.975%

Total Variance 55.685%

The career influence subscale variables that contributed to variance loaded on a

factor component with a loading of .5 or above. There was no cross loading among any

of the career influence subscale variables. All of the career influence subscales were

retained in the analysis.

56

To summarize, the nine career influence subscale variables were reduced to three

factors. The three factors contributed to 55.69% of the variance among the variables.

Factor 1 appears to measure efficacy. Efficacy in self, education, and career coupled with

the concept that self-efficacy is developed when a student has a role model who is

accomplished in a career to which the student aspires. Factor II appears to measure

environmentalfactors such as significant individuals outside the family such as teacher or

counselor, other influences such as labor market trends or opportunity to provide a

service or change socioeconomic level linked with academic enrichment in the

environment. Factor III is related to afamily core. These three factor components were

labeled as the extracted factors and were saved for further comparisons.

Research Questions

The research questions were analyzed by correlation and regression analyses. The

descriptive statistics for the dependent and independent variables are presented in Table

6. The dependent variable is career aspirations as defined by anticipated mean annual

salary of the student and the independent variables represent composite scores of the

subscales from the Career Influence Survey and other demographic variables. The

annual salaries and perceived career choice codes were taken from the Bureau of Labor

Statistics Standard Occupational classification and the Occupation Employment

Statistics, May 2008 National Occupational Employment and Wage Estimates for the

United States.

57

The research questions that were to be answered by this study are:

RQ 1: Is there a significant relationship between role models and the career

aspirations of African-American youth?

RQ2: Is there a significant relationship between self-efficacy and the career

aspirations of African-American youth?

RQ3: Is there a significant relationship between career exploration and the

career aspirations of African-American youth?

RQ4: Is there a significant relationship between educational aspirations and the

career aspirations of African-American youth?

RQ5: Is there a significant relationship between academic enrichment and the

career aspirations of African-American youth?

RQ6: Is there a significant relationship between mentorship and the career

aspirations of African-American youth?

RQ7: How significant were other external factors in the career aspirations of

African-American youth?

None of the variables correlated strongly or was significant in relationship to the

dependent variable, career aspirations. Career exploration, having a role model,

educational aspirations, and self-efficacy, all correlated positively with career aspirations.

The other independent variables having a mentor, parent/family, academic enrichment,

people, and other—correlated negatively with career aspirations (Table 8).

All variables were entered into a regression analysis. The enter method was used

in the initial analysis. There was only one regression model reported from the analysis.

58

Table 8

Correlation of Variables which Influence Career Aspirations

Career ParentJ Role I Education

Variable Mentor Exploration Family Model Aspirations

Career Aspirations -.081 .159 -.109 .006 .118

Mentor .286** .266* .199 .031

Career Exploration -.082 .274” .262”

Parent/Family -.064 .064

Role Model .189

Educational Aspirations

Self-Efficacy

Academic Enrich

People

Self- Academic

Variable Efficacy Enrichment People Other

Career Aspirations .118 -.052 -.05 7 -.032

Mentor .212* .023 .299** .137

Career Exploration .166 .044 .174 .038

Parent/Family -.019 -.005 .041 .054

Role Model .288* .220* .166 .082

Educational Aspirations .374” .065 .158 .013

Self-Efficacy .270” .306** .113

Academic Enrichment .319” .215*

People .511”

59

This model reported 6.8% of the of variance in the dependent variable, career

aspirations, was accounted for by the independent variables from the CIS instrument,

mentor, career exploration, parent/family, role model, educational aspiration, self-

efficacy, academic enrichment, people, and other (R2 = .068, p> .05, df 96). This

means that 93.2 % of the variance resides elsewhere and cannot be determined by the

variables from the CIS. There are unmeasured variables that may share common

variance with the independent variables specified in the model. These unmeasured

variables may account for more than the 6.8% produced by the independent variables

entered into the analysis. The model is not a strong model based on these variables.

There was a low correlation between the observed and predicted values of the dependent

variable, R = .26 1. The ANOVA table (Appendix C) shows the P .8 14, which is

greater than Pc05, which renders the model insignificant.

The multiple regression analysis was conducted to predict the influence of the

following variable on perceived career aspirations as measured by mean annual salary

expected from a certain career: mentor, career exploration, parent/family, role model,

educational aspiration, self-efficacy, academic enrichment, people, and other.

To answer the research questions, all variables were entered simultaneously into

the analysis (Culpepper & Austin, 2006). Career exploration (f3 = .172, P = .142),

educational aspiration (13 .045, P = .38 1), self-efficacy (f3 = .140, p = .252), and other (13

.024, p = .844), were positively related, although not significant, to the career

aspirations of the middle school students as defined by annual mean salary. The

remaining independent variables were negatively related to the outcome, annual mean

60

salary: mentor (13 = -.106, P = .38 1), parent/family (13 -.063, P .572), role model (13 —

-.048, P = .67 1), academic enrichment (13 -.063 P .581), and people (13 -.084,

P =.528) (Table 9).

Table 9

Effect Size ofEach Variable

Multiple regression weights

Career aspirations, (as measured 13 b P

by Mean Annual Salary) (constant) 60869.43

Career exploration .172 15129.39 .142

Self-efficacy .140 14925.45 .252

Mentor -.106 -7361.52 .381

People -.084 -5741.33 .528

Parent/Family -.063 -5972.60 .572

Academic enrichment -.063 -3476.19 .581

Role model -.048 -3707.58 .671

Educational aspiration .045 5525.23 .381

Other .024 1691.08 .844

The regression equation for this model can be written as follows:

Career Aspirations (Ann Mean Salary) = 60869.43 +15129*Career Exploration +

14925.45*Self~Efficacy - 7361.52*Mentor ~5741.33*People - 3476.19*

Parent/Family - 3476.19*Academic Enrichment - 3707.58*Role Model +

5525.23 *Educational Aspirations + 1691.08 * Other

61

To investigate the influence of other independent variables and their influence on

career aspirations as measured by annual mean salary, other variables were introduced

into the model to determine if these variables accounted for more than 6.8% of the

variable in the dependent variable.

Unmeasured variables included mother’s level of education, math grade, mother’s

standard occupational code, student standard occupation code, father’s standard

occupational code, science grade, father’s level of education, mother’s mean annual

salary, and father’s annual mean salary were correlated with student’s career aspirations

as measured by annual mean salary. These variables were subjected to stepwise

regression (Lease, 2003) to determine if any of these variables would increase the amount

of variance contributing to the dependent variable, career aspirations.

The first step of the analysis produced one model which was significant, R2 =

37.9%, P<.05, and df= 44. Father’s level of education (P<.05) was the variable that

appeared to be significant in contributing to the variance in the career aspirations of

middle school students. During steps two and three, no variables were entered into the

analysis through the step wise method. During step four, the amount of variance

increased and educational aspirations (P = .04) and mother’s level of education (P = .03)

were significant independent variables in the model (R2 = 55%, P = .08, and df= 42).

Educational aspirations (P .02) was the only independent variable entered into step five

of the regression analysis. The statistics for step five of the regression analysis are

11.9%, P<.05, and df= 42. The regression equation is as follows: Career Aspirations

(Annual Mean Salary) 100443.76 + 50840.27*Educational aspirations.

62

A review of Table 7 (Factor Loadings and Communalities Based on a Principle

Component Analysis with Varimax Rotation for Nine Subscales ofthe Career Influence

Inventory) accounted for 55% of the variance from the factor loadings. It appears that

similar results were produced in step four of the stepwise regression model (Table 10).

Educational aspirations and mother’s level of education positively associated with career

aspirations. The father’s level of education regressed negatively with career aspirations.

There is a negative relationship between father’s level of education and career

aspirations. If there is an increase in father’s level of education, there is a decrease in

career aspirations.

Table 10

Stepwise Regression Model ofDemographic and CIS Variables with Career Aspirations

(Mean Annual Salary) as Dependent Variable

Step in the Regression

Model Variables in the Model R2 P<.05 B

Father’s Level of 3 7.9% Yes -.404

Education

2. No variables entered

3. No variables entered

63

Table 10 (continued)

Step in the Regression

Model

4.

Focus Group

All of the students were attentive as the overview and purpose of the focus group

was given. Students were told they could decline participation and ask to be excused if

they did not want to participate (Scanlon, et al., 2008). The students were told that the

focus group session was voluntary and parents had given prior permission for each of

them to participate. All responses are reported anonymously.

There were ten participants randomly selected to participate in the focus group.

These students completed the Career Influence Survey prior to participating in the focus

group. The students were also told that responses and comments would be recorded.

Observations

1. Students readily raised their hands to respond to questions. Students were

enthusiastic about answering questions.

2. Thoughtfulness was evident as they responded. The students were

enthusiastic about sharing their career aspirations.

Variables in the Model R2 P<.05 B

Educational Aspiration 55% No .381

Mother’s Level of

Education .429

5 Educational Aspiration 1 1.9% yes .344

64

3. One student seemed disengaged, uninterested. There was no real response to

the first two questions or subsequent questions. The student was asked if

dismissal from the group was preferred and the response was no. The student

preferred to remain in the group.

4. Students were very honest in sharing personal facts related to their career

aspirations.

5. Students were listening and attentive as others responded.

6. Some students were uncertain about question being asked. Reframing the

question relieved the uncertainty. Some students provided very mature and

thoughtful answers.

7. Some students started laying heads on desk toward the end. The length of

study probably was just right to keep students engaged, about one hour.

Overall students were very comfortable answering the focus group questions and

were eager to share their responses. The responses to proposed career varied from

physician, nurse, artist/basketball player/dancer/singer, fashion designer/artist,

mathematician, pediatrician, pharmacist, obstetrics gynecologist, and civil engineer to I

do not know.

Table 11 displays the career aspirations of students in the focus group session.

Half of the students indicated they were interested in a health-related occupation. Two

students were interested in semi-health related careers: mathematics and civil

engineering. The remainder of the students aspired to non-health related occupation in

art and fashion design.

65

Table 11

Career Aspirations ofParticipants in the Focus Group

Categories BLS SOC Domains Career Total

Health Related Health Care Practitioners Pediatric Cardiovascular

Occupations Surgeonand Technical Occupations

Nurse5

Pediatrician

Pharmacist

Obstetrics /Gynocologist

Semi Health Related Computer Mathematician

Occupational Architecture and Engineering Civil Engineer 2

Life, Physical, Social Science

Community and Social

Services

Protective Service Occupations

Food Preparation

Personal Care and Services

Non Health Related Management Artist

Occupations Legal Fashion Designer

Education Train and Library

66

Table 11 (continued)

Categories BLS SOC Domains Career Total

Occupations 2

Art, Design, Entertainment,

Sports, and Media Occupations

No Response

Total 10

Students were asked, “Why are you interested in this particular field?” The

students who chose health care careers overwhelmingly indicated that they like to help or

enjoy helping people. Students who indicated a field outside of health indicated that they

were interested in their chosen career field because they were gifted or had skills in the

area. One student stated that he wants to be a civil engineer because he likes designing

bridges and that he is really good in geometry. The student who selected the career

choice of artist/basketball player/dancer/singer has a definite interest in the sports and

entertainment area and has developed an interest because of his passion for those areas

and hobbies of the student. Other students who indicated their career aspiration is to

become an artist or fashion designer and chose these areas because they like to spend

time designing or painting. Their interest developed from a hobby.

Student responses for how they went about making the career decision ranged

from reading a book about a leading person in the field, viewing paintings of a famous

artist, through career exploration, excelling in the subject area such as mathematics,

enjoyment in working with children, my sister’s friend is going into pharmacy, my

67

mother works in a hospital. One student indicated that his mother worked in a related

area. He enjoys art and geometry so he put the two fields together and decided on civil

engineering.

Responses to “Who had the most influence on your career aspirations?” included

family members. Responses included:

My brother because every time at first, this program because he started with this

program. It was great. Since my brother wants to be a brain surgeon man, then I

would be the heart guy. My aunt inspired me the most because when she was a

little girl, her parents were on drugs and she grew up to be the dean of John

Hopkins and I kind of thought that working in the hospital would be nice so I

started thinking about being a doctor but I thought doctors would be a little bit too

much so I brought it down just a little bit to be a nurse.

My grandmother because like when she was in college she dropped out and she

influenced all her grand kids to finish college and follow their dreams and I would

say teachers too, because we really did projects and research on things that we

really wanted to be.

My dad; he is also gifted in math and he would like me to go on and be a

mathematician, he said strive for dream and I will follow that.

My sister inspired me to be a pharmacist, because she is going into it but she also

kept helping me go for my goals and that is one of my goals.

68

My sister, because she is going to be a pharmacist also.

My mom inspired me. She was going to become a doctor but she could not deal

with blood, so she would always told me about all of these different kinds of

doctors.

The most influential persons were family members (see Table 12). Grandparents,

brother, sisters, aunt, brother, dad and mothers were most influential in the career

aspirations of focus group members. One student did not respond to any of the questions

but did not want to be excused from the group. He was told that the group was voluntary

and he could be excused if he did not want to participate. He did not leave the group and

probably wanted to stay and learn from what the other group members had to share.

Table 12

Most Influential Persons in the Career Aspirations ofParticipants

Family Member Reason

Brother He wants to be a brain surgeon and so do I.

Aunt My aunt’s parents were on drugs and she succeeded in

spite of her situations.

Grandmother My grandmother was a college drop-out and she wants me

to complete college.

Grandparents They think I have a lot of talent and they inspire me to be a

fashion designer and artist.

Dad My father is gifted in mathematics and so am I.

69

Table 12 (continued)

Family Member Reason

Sister My sister is going to be a pharmacist and I want to be a

pharmacist also.

Sister She is going to be a pharmacist and I will follow in her

footsteps.

Mom My mom wanted to be a doctor but did not like to deal

with blood.

Mother My mother has a job like my career interest

No Response No Response

How effective were people, resources and tools in helping you make a career

decision? Twice as many students indicated that people verses tools, were effective in

helping them in their career aspirations. The students indicated family members as the

people who were influential in inspiring them towards the career to which they aspire.

Tools and resources identified by students included books, TV shows, visits to hospitals,

art classes, web sites and research tools on careers.

Student responses to internal motivation for the selected vocational aspirations

were as follows:

I just like helping people and I like, I really like helping people and that is one of

my internal motivators. My internal thing would be how can I put this? I think

that my mom likes helping people so I watched her from a distance I thought that

70

it looks kind of fun so I said I want to help people when I grow up. Something

influential, I really don’t know. My mom, she really pushed me to do well in

school. Really so I can be able to get to my career and basically pay her back her

money. I would not call it internal really but I just have a thing for fashion and

drawing, my family members inspired me so. I don’t know, I don’t have an

internal influence on becoming a mathematician. For me, internally, I feel there

are so many kids out there that need help from other people cause their families

may not be able to support them as well as our families may be able to do. My

mom has really helped me. She has gone on three mission trips to Africa. My

grandmother recently died of cancer but the doctors really did not know what was

wrong with her and they were giving her all kinds of medicines and they didn’t

know what the effect would have on her so I’m so I guess that is why I want to

become a pharmacists so that it doesn’t happen to anyone else’s family member. I

really don’t know of what my internal influence is. My dad died when I was a

baby. I know what his career was so I am going to do the same.

External motivational factors influencing career aspirations include hearing a

famous doctor speak, visiting John Hopkins, attending an art show and viewing many

types of drawings, sketches, paintings and sculptures, talking to people who are in the

fashion design business, talking to a pediatrician about her experiences in medical school.

One student could not think of any external motivators.

71

Document Analysis

Three sets of documents were examined for information on career aspirations:

annual report, student applications, and the precollege health enrichment program

database. The annual report lists the number of Academy students who completed health

career posters and the number of student who completed health or science projects.

Annual reports for the past five years, 2004-2008 were reviewed. There were 340

science and health career posters created during the five year period: pediatric

neurosurgeon (115); orthopedic surgeon (35); nurse (75); pharmacist (25); pediatrician

(50) pediatric neurosurgeon (115); orthopedic surgeon (35); nurse (75); pharmacist (25);

pediatrician (50); engineer (18), mathematician (5), computer science (17).

The new student application process includes the development of a narrative

essay on why the student wants to be a participant in the Academy. Essays of new

applicants from 2004-2008 were reviewed and 209 (83%) of the new applicants indicated

they wanted to become a medical doctor. The high percentage of students with career

aspirations to become a medical doctor may be using the career as a means of securing a

position in the Academy.

A random sampling of 250 students from the Academy database files revealed

that projected occupations included: doctor (97), dentist (14), youth correctional officer

(1), orthopedic doctor (9), model (3), marine biologist (3), teacher (4), basketball player

(7), football player (4), fashion designer (2), rapper (3), veterinarian (10), engineer (5),

pediatric nurse (9), pediatrician (62), dermatologist (2), lawyer (4), and computer

programmer (11). The diversity in anticipated careers is not surprising. Many students

72

are at the beginning of the career development process and may change their goals as

they explore other careers.

Summary of Results

RQ 1: Is there a significant relationship between role models and the career

aspirations of African-American youth?

• There was no significant relationship between career aspirations and

having a role model.

• There is a significant relationship between academic enrichment and

having a role model.

RQ2: Is there a significant relationship between self-efficacy and the career

aspirations of African-American youth?

• There is no significant relationship between career aspirations and

possessing self-efficacy.

• There is a significant relationship between self-efficacy and having a

role model.

• There is a significant relationship between self-efficacy and

educational aspirations.

• There is a significant relationship between self-efficacy and academic

enrichment.

RQ3: Is there a significant relationship between career exploration and the

career aspirations of African-American youth?

73

• There is no significant relationship between career exploration and

career aspirations.

• There is a significant relationship between career exploration and

having a mentor.

RQ4: Is there a significant relationship between educational aspirations and the

career aspirations of African-American youth?

• There is a significant relationship between educational aspiration and

career aspirations.

• There is a significant relationship between educational aspirations and

career exploration.

RQ5: Is there a significant relationship between academic enrichment and the

career aspirations of African-American youth?

• There is no significant relationship between academic enrichment and

career aspirations.

• There is a significant relationship between academic enrichment and

the people subscale of the Career Influence Survey.

RQ6: Is there a significant relationship between mentorship and the career

aspirations of African-American youth?

• There is no significant relationship between mentorship and career

choice.

• There is a significant relationship between mentorship and career

education.

74

• There is a significant relationship between mentorship and

parent/family subscale of the Career Influence Survey.

RQ7: How significant were other external factors in the career aspirations of

African-American youth?

• There is a significant relationship between father’s educational level

and career aspirations.

• There is a significant relationship between mother’s educational level

and career aspirations.

• There is no significant relationship between mother’s and father’s

annual mean salary and career aspirations.

CHAPTER VI

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The purpose of this chapter is to present a summary of the findings of the study,

to state the conclusions derived from those findings, and to make recommendation related

to the problem. The goal of this study was to investigate career aspirations with respect

to several factors that are influential in the career decision making process. On the basis

of previous research, several factors were identified as impacting career aspirations and

career choice. These factors as reported in the literature are the influence of role models,

self-efficacy, career exploration, and academic achievement. This study is designed to

study the relationship of role models, self-efficacy, career exploration, mentorship,

educational aspirations, and academic enrichment (independent variables) on career

aspirations (dependent variable) of middle school youth in a health careers precollege

pipeline program. This chapter includes conclusions derived from the findings,

recommendation for middle school educators and recommendation for further research.

The main purpose of this study was to identify variables that are associated with

career aspirations of middle school students participating in a precollege science and

health enrichment program. This inquiry was considered important because (a) there are

sparse studies on African-American middle school students and (b) there is a need to

identify variables that can be associated with career aspirations of middle school students.

75

76

A clearer understanding of career aspirations and the factors which are perceived to

influence career aspirations may be helpful in designing programs with career

interventions. Although career aspirations is well-defined as a construct, the link

between career aspirations and how this link translates into higher socioeconomic status,

greater and fulfilling rewards and subsequent job satisfaction is not well known. The

purpose was achieved by reviewing the literature on career aspirations of middle school

youths, developing a survey to measure those variables identified in the literature as

contributing to career aspirations, and piloting the survey with African American middle

school youth, administering the survey, conducting a focus group session, conducting

document analysis and analyzing the data from these procedures.

Research Questions

RQ 1: Is there a significant relationship between role models and the career

aspirations of African-American youth?

During the testing of variables that would have a significant relationship with

career aspirations of students, there was no significant relationship between having a role

model and career aspirations.

Through informal conversations that have taken place with program participants,

many students consider role models to exist in the media such as sports figures,

entertainers, rappers, actresses or actors. A large number of students watch many hours

of television which accounts for the high interest in athletes, fashion designers, models,

singers and entertainers as selected role models. Through the use of curriculum

materials, which highlights the contributions of Africans and African Americans to

77

science, mathematics, health, engineering and technology, the Academy has attempted to

shine the spotlight on males and females in academia and STEM careers, who can serve

as role models.

While students feel that having a meaningful relationship with adults in the form

of role models is important, many middle school students may not use these adults in

addressing information concerning career aspirations. African-American students faced

with stereotypes may use role models with successful coping strategies to deal with

frustrations (Assibey-Mensah, 1997; Hackett & Byars, 1996). Role models have been

shown to provide a roadmap for youth who are searching for meaning and direction in

their lives, and through a relationship with a role model, new life perspectives and be

inspired (Brown, 2006). The current research showed a lack of significance between role

models and career aspirations. One explanation may be that while the presence of a role

model may not be a strong predictor in the career aspirations of middle school students,

the lack of a role model may serve as a barrier to career attainment. The nonsignificant

relationship was surprising since the role model subscale had a mean of 4.15 and a SD =

.74. The contention is that for many African-American students, having a role model or

someone to look up to is critical for the development of African-American youth,

whether virtual, familial or non-familial.

RQ2: Is there a significant relationship between self-efficacy and the career

aspirations of African-American youth?

78

During the testing of variables that would have a significant relationship with

career aspirations of students, there was no significant relationship between self-efficacy

and career aspirations.

The goal for inclusion of self-efficacy questions on the CIS was to determine if

self-efficacy beliefs, the belief in one’s ability to perform various tasks, were functioning

in career aspirations. Self-efficacy beliefs have an influence on actions and feelings and

they function in the choices that are made and in decision making processes. Research

strongly suggest that efficacy beliefs exert a strong, direct influenced on career decision

making and career choice and self-efficacy significantly affects the development of core

vocational choice predictors such as interests, values, and goals (Bandura, 1986; Betz &

Hackett, 1986; Hackett & Lent, 1992).

While students felt that self-efficacy was influential as a social construct,

surprisingly, they did not perceive self-efficacy as being influential in career aspirations

(M 4.15, SD .5 3). When compared with other career influence variables, self-efficacy

recorded the third highest mean score in terms of influence. These students have a strong

sense of self-efficacy and believe they have the capabilities to achieve established goals.

Students may believe that task goals are positively related to expectancy beliefs and self

regulation. Students currently may not be able to translate currently these beliefs into the

career development process. The self-efficacy model has been shown to predict certain

career decision making attributes (Bandura, 1977, 1982, 1986). The results of this study

do not confirm previous research which found that self-efficacy contributes to

adolescents’ ability to find meaningful careers and to value goal attainment (Smith &

79

Fouad, 1999). Similar to this study, Luzzo and Ward (1995) questioned self-efficacy

value in predicting certain career development behaviors.

RQ3: Is there a significant relationship between career exploration and the

career aspirations of African-American youth?

There was no significant relationship between career exploration and career

aspirations of African-American youth.

Career exploration encompasses a diverse group of activities to enhance

knowledge of the self and the external environment to foster career development. Career

exploration is important in the career and decision making process and has been used in

the program to demonstrate vocational opportunities in the STEM and health areas. The

program participants are rising seventh and eighth graders who are at a career

developmental stage where they are too young to begin specializing and not old enough

to cormect what they are learning in school to the world of work. These students are at

the awareness stage in career exploration and the direct link between career exploration

and career aspirations may not be apparent. In a study by Perrone, Webb, and Jackson

(2007), these authors found an indirect relationship between parental career-related

encouragement and support and parental attachment relationships to career exploration.

The students need information about personal interests and abilities, career, vocational

and educational opportunities. Factor analysis results showed that career exploration

loaded on the first factor, which was labeled efficacy, along with educational aspiration,

self-efficacy and role model. Factor 1, efficacy, accounted for 26.97% of the variance in

career aspirations. This demonstrates that career exploration, not significant in predicting

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career aspirations as defined by annual mean salary, is an important variable in career

aspirations.

RQ4: Is there a significant relationship between educational aspirations and the

career aspirations of African-American youth?

There was no significant relationship between academic enrichment and career

aspirations of African-American youth.

Academic enrichment through after school programs, Saturday academies and

summer camps of the Academy are believed to meet the needs of African-American

youth. There is evidence that enrichment programs can reverse the failing trend for

African-American males in the society at large (Ascher, 1991). While the Academy

focuses heavily on academic enrichment, it also serves to build self-esteem, self-identity

through cultural awareness, provide a safe and nurturing environment for learning and an

opportunity to succeed in the educational system as well as society.

Academic enrichment had a significant correlation with self-efficacy (R = .270,

P<.01) and having a role model (R = .220, P<.01), when the independent variables were

correlated. Correlation of academic enrichment with annual mean salary (R = -.057)

produced a negative value but maintained a significant correlation with self-efficacy

(R = .270, P<.01). The negative correlation between academic enrichment and career

aspirations may suggest the following; as academic enrichment increases, self

confidence increases and there is less reliance on any specific career aspirations because

now the student feels confident with attempting any career desired.

81

RQ5: Is there a significant relationship between academic enrichment and the

career aspirations of African-American youth?

There was no significant relationship between having a mentoring relationship

and career aspirations.

There are many diverse roles of mentoring. These include the process of one

person sharing, giving a bit of the essence of self, to another so that person might grow

closer to their capabilities. A mentor is one who guides the mentee who is seeking

advice, takes time to develop the career and personal aspects of a student, shares

expectations, and makes a difference in another’s personal and professional growth and

development. The results of this study showed no significant relationship with career

aspirations and access to a mentor. When correlated with annual mean salary, mentoring

had a negative correlation (R = -.08 1). Mentoring also loaded with Parent and Family on

Factor 3, family core, with a value of .745. One interpretation of the negative correlation

between mentoring and annual mean salary is students may not have developed a

mentoring relationship to the point that career opportunities and salaries have been a

focus of discussion. Students seem to confine the mentoring relationship to help with

academics through tutoring.

The majority of the mentoring relationships of students in the precollege

programs for middle school students are informal in nature. One main problem that has

plagued the Academy is how to maximize the effect of the mentoring relationship.

Students, with parental consent, who request a mentor are assigned one from a cohort of

undergraduate and graduate program volunteers and the relationship operates within the

82

confines of the program. The mentoring relationship begins with a tutoring session to

provide academic support. The relationship continues as long as the student remains in

the program and the mentor continues to matriculate at an institution in the local

university center. While some facets of the mentoring relationship are strengthened,

others require more time for development. Seldom is there opportunity to work toward

establishment of goals and explore career options. The mentoring relationships

established in the Academy have similar tenets of the mentoring programs researched by

Randolph and Johnson (2008). These authors found that school-based mentoring

programs were effective in providing students with needed extra support in school, which

primarily consisted of providing academic success and establishing positive social

behaviors.

RQ6: Is there a significant relationship between mentorship and the career

aspirations of African-American youth?

There was a significant relationship between educational aspiration and career

aspirations.

Educational aspiration was the only independent variable from the CIS to produce

a significant correlation with career aspirations as defined by mean annual salary. It

accounted for 11.9% of the variance in the dependent variable. In the fourth step of the

regression model, educational aspiration and mother’s level of education accounted for

55% of the variance in career aspirations. Educational aspiration, along with career

exploration, self-efficacy, and role model, loaded on Factor 1, self-efficacy, with a value

.666. Educational aspirations had the highest mean score (4.37, SD = .44). One

83

observation may be that educational aspirations are related to strong self-efficacy, high

self esteem and high educational aspirations in the home. The findings suggest that it is

educational aspiration that is associated with annual mean salary. Murdock, Anderman,

and Hodge (2000) found that African-American adolescents had higher expectations of

attending college than those students who perceived economic limitations to education.

Students who are aware of scholarship availability for higher education would not

perceive economic limitations to education. As expected, higher levels of postsecondary

schooling is significantly related to greater levels of occupational status and attainment

(Finn & Rock, 1997; Sewell, Hauser, & Wolf, 1980). These findings are consistent with

research that has noted that individuals who have high career aspirations also have high

educational aspirations and may be less dependent on mentors, role models, and family.

Parental expectations and support appear to be a key variable influencing the educational

aspirations of African-American students (Hossler & Maple 1993). Mau (1995) also

found that parental expectations were influential in middle school students’ educational

aspirations. Parents with high levels of education expect their children to have aspirations

for higher education. The relationship between parental level of education and

educational aspirations was confirmed in this study. There may be the perception among

African-American families regarding the importance of education and how these

perceptions have an impact of the students’ views of future vocational opportunities.

RQ7: How significant were other external factors in the career aspirations of

African-American youth?

84

Focus Group

The focus group methodology was used to gather further insight into additional

internal and external variables that may impact career choice. Ten students were selected

to participate in the focus group. One theme that continued to emerge through the focus

group session was the importance and influence of family, a family member or a member

from the community on career aspirations. Various family members, brother, aunt,

grandmother, dad, sister and mom, had the most influence on their career aspirations.

These family members often served as mentors and role models for the students and were

strong sources of encouragement for academic success. Students, although participants

in a science, math and health enrichment program, had varied career aspirations, that

ranged from fashion design to pediatric neurosurgeon.

Students who were interested in careers in medicine, health, mathematics and

science talked about college as a career trajectory after high school. These students were

future oriented with college as the first step and the understanding of the need for further

studies. Students who were interested in entertainment, art, and design had occupational

goals that were related to skill development. These students associated these careers with

their personal skills and abilities.

Career exploration experiences for the students in the focus group were varied.

All of the students appear to have family, school and community support in the

exploration of careers. Some shadowed health care professionals in hospitals, attended a

fashion show, visit an art exhibit, viewing TV shows, and reading a book. These

experiences were also seen as external motivators for career aspirations. Internal

85

influences on career aspirations included altruism, personal interest and abilities, prior

experience and the desire to give back and provide a service to the community. None of

the responses were pragmatic such as motivation for money, security, and rewards. The

lack of pragmatic motivation for money, security and rewards provides some insight into

the lack of association of independent variables with annual mean salary as an outcome

of career aspirations.

Conclusions

The selection of a career is an important benchmark in the lives of adolescents.

Many variables have been identified as playing a role in the career aspirations. The

outcomes in this study revealed that educational aspirations significantly influenced

career aspirations. Mentoring, academic enrichment, role model, self-efficacy, career

exploration and parents/family did not significantly influence career aspirations. These

findings have implications for the Academy. The results from this study indicate that the

Academy had its largest impact on the students’ educational aspirations. The other

independent variables were ineffective in predicting career aspirations. The information

obtained from these results provides some evaluative data in terms of reassessing the

program’s components. Additional questions will need to be proposed: Is the type of

mentoring relationship effective with this age group? Should academic enrichment

become the overarching goal? Is the program having an effect on self-efficacy? Is career

awareness during career exploration sufficient for this age group, or should other areas be

the object of investigation? Are there student success-building factors that would better

serve middle school students? In this study, these tested independent variables and their

86

perceived abilities were not reflected in significantly higher career aspiration as defined

by mean annual salary. These findings suggest that, as a consequence of the Academy,

students had greater educational aspirations that will ultimately lead to a higher mean

salary.

Although, mother’s and father’s level of education showed significance in the

stepwise regression model, they did not significantly influence career aspirations when

considered jointly, however educational aspirations, and mother and father’s level of

education were most influential in career aspirations. In terms of the theoretical

framework, only one independent variable, educational aspirations, had an influence on

career aspirations. Moderator variables, socioeconomic status and gender did not impact

the relationship between the independent variables and career aspirations as defined by

annual mean salary.

These finding are limited in the ability to generalize but there are still implications

for students who are in the career development stages. Additional limitations of the study

involve the correlation design of the study. The design prevents the assumption of a

causal relationship between the predictor variables and annual mean salary, the criterion

variable. These variables do no directly influence career choice. The results may be

limited by sampling procedure. The students were all participants in an academic

outreach program in science, health and mathematics. The results may be different for

students in other types of programs. The sample was restricted in terms of race and

ethnicity. All of the participants were African Americans.

87

Recommendations

Further work is needed to reveal an understanding of variables which influence

career aspirations. It is recommended that further studies be conducted by counselors,

precollege administrative staff and guidance professionals to identify other factors and

confirm that the factors used in this study are influential in career aspirations of

adolescents. Siblings, which have not been examined and may exert influence on the

career decision process.

Precollege program administrators should repeat the study on students in the high

school program and who are more certain about a career in the health science area.

Qualitative studies that focus on how various individuals support career development

might provide insight into the role of perceived influences. Future research should

examine various aspects of role models and mentors, the nature of the relationship and

stages of the relationship. School counselors and educational leaders need to provide

further opportunities for self-exploration and access to information about the world of

work to foster career expectations that are realistic and likely to lead to satisfaction.

Educational leaders should encourage the formation of informal mentoring

programs. These types of programs facilitate role modeling and organization

commitment of teachers and other staff members. Career exploration should be tied to

objectives shared with the students. Career exploration activities should be linked to the

world of work. Students should be able to make the connection with career exploration

activities and how the activities are related to career aspirations.

88

It is important for career counselors to develop interventions that build minority

students self confidence, self-efficacy and self understanding. A clear understanding of

one’s self is the first step in career exploration.

School counselors should assist students in understanding the positive and

negative influences that may have an effect on their career aspirations. School counselors

can then begin to construct a career developmental guidance program that positively

impacts students’ career aspirations that subsequently lead to informed career choices.

Counselors and teacher began to assist student in selecting realistic careers and

identify ways to help them move from the fantasy stage to tentative and realistic stages as

proposed by Ginzberg, et al. (1951). There should be congruency among the students’

career aspirations, abilities, interests, and educational preparation. The career exploration

process is a developmental process and should span the K-12 curriculum. Counselors

and teachers need to current knowledge about students developmental needs, cultural

values, labor market trends and postsecondary educational options. Collaboration

between counselors and teachers in the development of a curriculum should take place

whereby subject content areas are applied to career options. Precollege administrators

can create class projects that will allow student to research an occupation and apply

course content to that occupation.

Precollege program administration and educational leaders should work with

community-based organizations to identify resources that would help students improve

their career self-efficacy and career-related skills. Parents should be included in the

interventions since they are influential in the career aspirations of adolescents.

89

The subscales of the Career Influence Survey demonstrated satisfactory

psychometric properties and may have important applications in additional research. The

scales factor structure should be further validated with another group, possibly high

school students. The subscales utility in predicting students’ career aspirations should be

further validated by the Precollege program coordinator.

In conclusion it is important to identify factors influencing career aspirations of

middle school youth. Investigation of these predictors will put school counselor,

educators and parents in a better position to provide appropriate and meaningful

interventions for students at the middle school level. The findings of this study illustrate

the importance of identifying the factors or variables that influential in the career

aspirations of middle school youth. The interrelations of these factors are not static, but

dynamic and intervention strategies should consider this complex relationship. The goal

is to develop and implement a program that will facilitate the career development process

for young people.

APPENDIX A

Survey Reviewers’ Correspondence

Career Influence Survey

After Completing Survey Students Stated:

• There were too many questions• Confused about what to do if they didn’t have an answer• Was not kid friendly, difficult to place x’s in the boxes• Unknown vocabulary: efficacy, praise, influential, inclined

My Notes

• Mentor section: Are these questions describing BCSA mentor?Might be informative if there was a section on Friends/Peers;

Example:o Peers have similar goals?o Is it important for peers to be popular?o Do peers encourage positive choices? Negative choices?

School Community

• Ask students about their experiences at school; many friends? Like their teachers?Like being at school?

Cyniqua Goddard

90

91Appendix A (continued)

June 6, 2009

I sampled some students and the results were good! They appeared to answer all

questions and they finished the survey in a timely fashion. I used all 6th males.

For 6th grade, the word “occupation” is not widely used; also, some students were not

sure of their parents Educational Background. (Again this was 6th grade)

Sorry, I am home for the summer. Above are the results from the survey. Please send

me a mailing address, and if I am by the school before August, I will mail them. Have a

great summer vacation!

Mrs. Harriet Gordon

Career Influence Survey Feedback

I found this survey to be appropriate and beneficial to those of the middle school

age group. It appears easy to understand and contain appropriate vocabulary. I like how

it asks questions about the careers of their parents as well as the feedback that they

receive from their parents. Both of these make a big impact on children of that age. The

survey also flows well and covers important areas. One thing that I noticed is that

question #21 is repeating itself. I think another area that may add to the survey is a

section where students can write any additional comments or ideas that may help them

reach their goals in the future. This can help provided a better understanding of the areas

in which the students need more support. This survey definitely touches all areas as far

92Appendix A (continued)

as who may influence them in their years to come, and I believe that it will encourage the

students to think about their future goals concerning their education and careers.

Kristen Charles

May 27, 2009

Ms. Scott,

I have reviewed your survey and I made comments in red. Please let me know if you

have any questions. This is an interesting survey; I am interested to find out the results.

Jennifer E. Johnson

APPENDIX B

Morehouse School of Medicine

The purpose of this letter is to tell you about a survey we are conducting and to ask yourpermission for your child to participate by completing a survey about those factors thatare influential in career choice.

The survey will help us to determine whether our program has been beneficial in assistingyour child in career decisions. Information collected from the students will be added toreports to funding agencies. This will allow us to provide supportive data to fundingrequests and to reform our program to meet the needs of the students. No identjfyinginformation will be collected at the time of the survey and therefore no ident~j54nginformation will be stored in the database.

KNOWLEDGE • WISDOM • EXCELLENCE • SERVICE720 Westview Drive, S.W. Atlanta, GA 30310-1495 Telephone (404)752-1843 Fax (404) 752-1008

Parental Consent Form

Office ofCommunity Relations & Special Projects

Dear Parent/Guardian:

May 13, 2009

93

94

Appendix B (continued)

What do the surveys ask?

The student survey assesses to what degree does several factors, such as participation incareer exploration activities influence their career choice.

What does participation involve?

Student SurveyStudents will complete the survey during the second week of the summer camp. Thesurvey will take approximately 60 minutes to complete. Your child’s name will not bewritten on his/her survey. Importantly, all responses made by your child are treated asstrictly confidential.

Focus GroupApproximately 12 students will be selected to participate in a focus group session. In thefocus group we want to explore the degree to which various factors, not listed in surveyinfluence career aspirations. We want to understand what factors are important in the careeraspirations and career choice of students.

INFORMED PARENTAL CONSENT FORM

Description: This study will examine those factors that adolescents feel are influential in careeraspirations. Your child will complete a survey by responding to their level of agreement to eachstatement on the survey. After completing the survey, several students will be randomly selectedto participate in a focus group interview to further discuss career aspirations. Your child’sinterview will be recorded for use in standard research procedures (e.g. analysis of responses,presentation at professional conferences, funding source reports, etc.). Your child’s identity willnot be revealed to anyone but the principal investigator(s) and her designated research associates.

Confidentiality: Children’s answers will not be associated with their name. Rather, each childwill be given an identification number for the survey and on the interviewer’s sheet.

Freedom to Withdraw or Refuse Participation: I understand that my child has the right to stopthe survey at any time, or to refuse to answer any of the interviewer’s questions without prejudicefrom the investigator.

Grievance Procedure: If I have any concerns or am dissatisfied with any aspect of this study Imay report my grievances anonymously if desired to the Human Subjects Institutional ReviewBoard, do John Smith, Sponsored Research Administration, Morehouse School of Medicine,(404) 752-1973.

Questions? Please feel free to ask the investigator any questions before signing the consent formor at any time during or after the study.

95

Appendix B (continued)

Principal Investigator: Jacqueline Scott, Admissions and Student Affair, Morehouse School ofMedicine, 720 Westview Drive, SW, Atlanta, GA 30310-1495, (404) 752-1590. Please return theinformed consent to this address.

Informed Consent Statement

I, ____________________, give permission for my child, _______________________ to participatein the research project entitled, “The Influence Of Role Models, Self-efficacy, CareerExploration, Educational Aspirations and Academic Enrichment On Career Aspirations of YouthIn The Benjamin Carson Science Academy.” The study has been explained to me and myquestions answered to my satisfaction. I understand that my child’s right to withdraw fromparticipating or refuse to participate will be respected and that his/her responses and identity willbe kept confidential. I give this consent voluntarily.

Signature Date

APPENDIX C

ANOVA Table

ANOVAb

Sum ofModel Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

1 Regression 1.981E10 9 2.201E9 .575 .814a

Residual 2.720E11 71 3.831E9

Total 2.918E11 80

a. Predictors: (Constant), OtherSubscale9, CESubscale2, PFamSubscale3,AcadEnSubscale7, EdAspSubscale5, RolMdSubscale4, MentSubscale 1, SelfEffSubscale6,PeopleSubscale8

b. Dependent Variable: Annual Mean Salary

96

APPENDIX D

Career Influence Survey

This survey is part of a study to collect data on factors which affect or influence student’scareer choice. There are no right or wrong answers to any of the statements. Your honestresponse to all statements will help in the evaluation of our program. Your responses willbe kept confidential. Thank you for taking the time to complete this survey.

Section 1: Demographic Information

Please provide the following information.

a. Grade Level: (Fall 2009)b. Gender: Male Female_____c. What is your career aspiration? (What would you like to be when you grou

up?

d. What is your father’s occupation?e. What is your father’s highest level of education? (check one)

Less than high school______High school graduate or GED____Graduated from community college_____Graduated from four year college_______Completed graduate school_______Completed professional school_____Other (please specif~’)_______________

f. What is your mother’s occupation?g. What is your mother’s highest level of education? (check one)

Less than high school______High school graduate or GED_____Graduated from community college_____Graduated from four year collegeCompleted graduate school_______Completed professional school_____Other (please specify)_____________

h. Name of school you will be attending (Fall 2009)i. Name of school systemj. Current science grade current math gradek. Number of brother Number of sisters__________

97

98Appendix D (continued)

Section 2: Read each statement and mark your level of agreement or disagreement witheach statement by placing an X in the box under your response.

Use the scale below to respond to each statement:

SA Strongly Agree A Agree U UndecidedD Disagree SD Strongly Disagree

Mentor SD D U A SA1. My_mentor_listens to_my_needs.2. My_mentor helps_me_with_my_academics.3. My_mentor_was_influential_in_my_career choice.4. When I need guidance and input from my mentor, I

receive_it.5. I wish my mentor would ask me more about what I

think.6. My mentor has a career like the career the one I

have chosen.7. I have a mentor who has discussed with me my

career goals.8. I wish my mentor knew me better.

Career Exploration9. The motivational speakers/lectures/presentation and

scientific materials presented are really exciting.10. The career exploration activities helped me to

understand the best career options for me.1 1. To learn more about careers, I have used a computer

or completed some research on-line.12. I understand how to match my selection of classes

to fit my career goals.13. I have attended or participated in a career day or

career_fair.14. I have participated in a program that focused on a

particular_career_field.15. Access to information on African and African

American contributions to various career fields hasbeen_important_in_my_career choice.

16. I understand how my interests, skills, personality,and_values_relate_to_career choice.

17. I took a test that told me about myself, interests,and_personality_andlor how I make decisions.

18. I have visited a professional school, such as acollege of veterinarian that is associated with mycareer goal.

99

Appendix D (continued)

Career Exploration SD D U A SA19. 1 have learned how to explore career options

through field trips, informational sessions, andmotivational_speakers_in_various career fields.

Parent and Family20. My parent(s) encourage me to go to college.21. My family_praises_me when I do well.22. Family_members_help_me with_my_school_work.23. My family does not reward me if I do well in

school.24. I_want to_have_an_occupation_like_my_father.25. My parents know what kind ofjob I will probably

have_at age_30.26. I_want to_have_an_occupation_like_my_mother.27. My family’s income will determine if I can reach

my career goal.Role Models

28. My role model has a good moral reputation.29. The most important quality in a role model is his/her

popularity. — —

30. My role model has made significant contributions tosociety. — — — —

31. An important quality I look for in a role model istalent and success in their career.

32. An important quality I look for I a role model isgenerosity and selflessness, helps other people. — — — —

33. An important quality I look for in a role model iswell respected. — — — —

34. My role model and I belong to the same race. — — — —

Educational Aspirations — — — —

35. Iplantoapplyto college. — — — —

36. It is important to me to have a career. — — — —

37. It is important to get ahead and be promoted on ajob.

38. My parents have discussed college with me. — — — —

39. I know how much education I will need to reach mycareer goal. — — — —

40. When I graduate from high school, I will go to acommunity college. — — — —

41. I intend to continue in full time education after age16.

42. My family has encouraged me to go to college. — —

43. I plan to attend a technical school after graduatingfrom high school. — —

44. It is not important for me to finish high school inorder to achieve my career goal. —

100

Appendix D (continued)

EducationalAspirations SD’ D U A SA45. 1 work hard in my course work because it is

important to achieve my career goal. —

46. If I_work_I_will_be_able to_succeed_in_life.

47. Becoming employed after high school is animportant

48. After I graduate from high school, I will to a fouryear college.

49. On the whole, I am satisfied with myself.Self-efficacy

50. I feel that I have a number of good qualities.51. I am able to do things as well as most other people. — —

52. I feel I do not have a lot of which to be proud. — —

53. 1 certainly feel useless at times.54. I feel that I’m a person of worth, at least on an equal

plane with others. I feel that I’m a person of worth,at least on an equal plane with others.

55. I wish I could have more respect for myself. —

56. All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure.57. I take a positive attitude toward myself. — —

58. I am not good at problem solving. —

59. I feel good about myself. — —

60. I am good at most subjects in school. — —

61. I can usually work things out when I am presentedwith a challenge.

62. I am confident that I can be victorious withunexpected events. — —

63. 1 believe that I can achieve any goal that I set. — —

64. It is easy for me to set my goals and accomplishthem.

65. I am confident that I can achieve my career goals. — — —

66. My participation in leadership activities such asstudent government and honor has increased myknowledge and academic level. — — — —

Academic Enrichment67. I am involved in academic clubs that build skills in

science, mathematics, robotics and engineering. — — — —

68. I participate in activities such as band andcheerleading. — — —

69. Participation in athletics has helped me to become abetter student.

70. I have received tutoring in one or more academicsubjects. — —

71. I have attended a Saturday Academy. — —

101Appendix D (continued)

Academic Enrichment SD D U A SA72. I have attended an academic camp during the

summer.73. Participating on yearbook, newspaper and

community service committee teaches meresponsibility.

Section 3: Use the following scale to rate the extent to which these persons influenceyour career choice.

VI Very InfluentialI = InfluentialNA Not ApplicableSI Somewhat InfluentialNI = Not Influential

The one who has been most influential in my career choiceis: NJ SI NA I VI

74. My_father75. My_mother76. Older brother_or_sister77. Another family member (aunt, uncle, cousin,

grandparent)78. Family_friend79. Teacher80. Guidance Counselor81. Principal82. Mentor83. Adult professional84. Classmate85. Minister86. Girlfriend or boyfriend

Other factors that may have influenced my career choice:87. Labor market trends88. Occupational outlook report89. Magazine_article90. Television_show91._Internet92. Opportunity to_provide_a_service93. Opportunity to change my socioeconomic level —

94. Highsalary —

95. Recognition and rewards —

Thank You!

APPENDIX E

Focus Group Guide

FOCUS GROUP MAJOR TOPICS

• What is your career choice?

• How did you make the decision to choose this career?

• Who had the most influence on your career choice?

• What had the most influence on your career choice?

• How effective were people, resources and tools in helping you make a careerdecision?

• Were there internal factors that were influential in your career choice?

• Were there external factors that were influential in your career choice?

• How would you improve your career decision-making process?

102

APPENDIX F

Test for Skewness

Factor Analysis on Subscale

KMO and BartletCs Test

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. .603Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity Approx. Chi-Square 112.963

Df 36Sig. .000

103

300000

250000

~a 200000U,

150000

•8

100000•C

50000

0~

APPENDIX G

Casewise Diagnostic to Reveal Outliers

Histogram

Dependent Variable: Annual Mean Salary

Regression Standardized Residual

Meen —2.436.17Std. 0ev. —0.942

N —81

Scatterplot

Dependent Variable: Annual Mean Salary

00 0

0 00 00 0~3~O 0

0 0

_0

0 0

08 0

Regression Studentized Deleted (Press) Residual

104

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