the karen commitment

LEAGUE FOR PASTORAL PEOPLES

The Karen Commitment Proceedings of a Conference of Indigenous Livestock Breeding Communities on Animal Genetic Resources

EAST AFRICA

The Karen Commitment

Proceedings of a Conference of

Indigenous Livestock Breeding Communities

on Animal Genetic Resources

Karen, Kenya, 27–30 October 2003

2

Published by

German NGO Forum on Environment & DevelopmentAm Michaelshof 8–1053177 Bonn, GermanyPhone: +49-(0)228-359704Fax: +49-(0)228-92399356E-mail: [email protected]: www.forumue.de

Editors

Ilse Köhler-Rollefson

Jacob Wanyama

Workshop documentation

Kamwati Wango

Copyediting and layout

Paul Mundy, Bergisch Gladbach, www.mamud.com

Cover photos

Top: herders in Mongolia

Middle: Ankole cattle, Uganda

Bottom: Raika woman with sheep, India

All photos courtesy of workshop participants

ImprintImprintImprintImprintImprint

This document was produced and printed with the sup-port of the Sector Project: Global Food Security of theGerman Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ) andthe German NGO Forum on Environment and Develop-ment.

Printed by Knotenpunkt

Bonn, Germany, 2003

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ContentsContentsContentsContentsContents

Contents

Foreword ...................................................................................... 5

Acknowledgements ....................................................................... 7

The Karen Commitment on pastoralist/indigenous

livestock keepers’ rights ................................................................ 8

Workshop insights and recommendations ..................................... 9

Part 1 Setting the scene ..................................................... 11

Opening ..................................................................................... 12

Indigenous livestock breeding communities and farm animal

genetic resources in the context of global development trends .... 14

Indigenous knowledge about animal breeding ............................ 17

Part 2 The role of livestock and breeding:Community presentations .................................................... 20

Kawahla, Eastern Sudan ............................................................. 20

Somali, Kenya and Somalia ........................................................ 21

Karamojong cluster, Kenya, Ethiopia, Uganda and Sudan............ 21

Karamojong, Uganda ................................................................. 24

Maasai, Kenya and Tanzania ....................................................... 29

Boran, Southern Ethiopia and Marsabit district, Kenya ................. 32

Bahima, Uganda ........................................................................ 34

Orog Nuur, Mongolia ................................................................. 41

Raika, Western India ................................................................... 43

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Livestock breeders, Tamil Nadu, southern India ........................... 45

Fulani, Burkina Faso ................................................................... 51

Akamba, Kenya .......................................................................... 54

Mbororo, Cameroon ................................................................... 55

Part 3 Views of government, scientists,experts and NGOs ............................................................... 57

Status of indigenous livestock breeds in Kenya ............................ 57

Regulatory and legal options for the protection of the rights

of traditional livestock keepers and breeders ............................... 61

Promotion of livestock genetic resource diversity in Kenya ........... 67

Indigenous livestock breeds and intellectual property rights ......... 68

Global status of research in indigenous livestock breeds ............. 80

An international farm animal genetic resources treaty?

Lessons from negotiating the seed treaty..................................... 82

Part 4 Working groups....................................................... 85

Participants ................................................................................. 93

ContentsContentsContentsContentsContents

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ForewordJacob Wanyama

ITDG–East Africa

Ilse Köhler-RollefsonLeague for Pastoral Peoples

PPPPPastoralists and other indigenous liveastoralists and other indigenous liveastoralists and other indigenous liveastoralists and other indigenous liveastoralists and other indigenous live-----stock breeding communitiesstock breeding communitiesstock breeding communitiesstock breeding communitiesstock breeding communities have developed a large number of farm ani-

mal breeds with unique genetic adapta-tions. In times of widespread, indiscrimi-nate crossbreeding or substitution with ex-otic breeds, these marginalized peoplehave acted as custodians of pure breedsthat represent the result of many genera-tions of traditional knowledge and activegenetic manipulation for certain culturallydefined criteria. It is now acknowledgedthat these breeds are often endowed withvery desirable genetic traits, such as dis-ease resistance, fertility and general fitness,which are not present in the genetic make-up of high-performance animals.

In general, these breeds are not pro-tected by any intellectual property regime.This renders them vulnerable to biopiracy,since scientific and commercial interest intheir genetic components is set to intensify.Breeding for disease resistance and geneticdisease control is regarded as a promis-ing new avenue in livestock production inview of the fact that many disease-causingorganisms – worms, bacteria, viruses, andprotozoa – are becoming increasingly re-sistant to drugs and vaccines.

Indigenous livestock breeders, as hold-ers of the rights over these biological re-sources, thus represent prime stakehold-ers in the emerging debate about legal andregulatory frameworks for the sustainableuse of farm animal genetic resources, in-cluding a ‘breed treaty’, as pendant to theInternational Treaty on Plant Genetic Re-sources.

The Convention on Biological Diversity,in its Article 8j, also calls for recognition ofthe vast amount of in-situ conservationcarried out by traditional communities. Thiscall is reflected in Part III of the Interna-tional Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources,on ‘farmers’ rights’. The concept of Farm-ers’ Rights is based on the past, presentand future contributions of farmers in con-serving crop genetic diversity. This provi-sion entitles farmers to the right to save,use, exchange and sell farm-saved seed,to participate in decision-making, and inthe fair and equitable sharing of benefitsarising from the use of plant genetic re-sources.

In the envisioned animal treaty, theequivalent to Farmers’ Rights would be‘Livestock Keepers’ Rights’. This term wasproposed and discussed during the NGO/CSO Forum for Food Sovereignty held par-allel to the World Food Summit in June2002.

What should such Livestock Keepers’Rights entail? This is a question that mustbe debated and answered above all by theprime stakeholders themselves – by themany pastoralist and indigenous livestock-keeping communities. This was one of themain reasons for ITDG-EA and LPP to co-operate in organizing an internationalworkshop to bring together as many rep-resentatives as possible from these com-munities and to facilitate discussion be-tween themselves and with selected re-source persons. The workshop had the fol-lowing goals:

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• To raise awareness among indigenouslivestock-breeding communities aboutinternational developments and the glo-bal agenda with respect to livestock.

• To document the links of indigenouscommunities with particular livestockbreeds.

• To showcase the importance of culturaldiversity and diverse agricultural pro-duction systems for farm animal geneticdiversity.

• To discover commonalities and differ-ences, and maybe a common identity,between the various livestock-depend-ent groups.

• To develop strategies for influencing theinternational discussions on animal ge-netic resources from the grassroots per-spective.

• To articulate the linkage between thesustainable use of livestock breeds andaccess to grazing and pastures.

Thanks to the participation of a largenumber of representatives from indigenouslivestock-breeding communities, the work-shop was successful in showcasing the sig-nificance of traditional knowledge and so-cial systems for upholding farm animalgenetic diversity. The papers by the resourcepersons also emphasized the need to safe-guard the rights of these communities aslaid down in the Convention on BiologicalDiversity.

This workshop was an important steptoward the overall objective of official rec-ognition of the enormous contribution ofindigenous livestock-breeding communitiesto future food security. We would like toexpress our sincere thanks and enormousappreciations to both donors and partici-pants for their contributions and dedica-tion to the cause.

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AcknowledgementsAcknowledgementsAcknowledgementsAcknowledgementsAcknowledgements

The workshop reported in this document was organized by the Intermediate TechnologyDevelopment Group–East Africa and the League for Pastoral Peoples.

Acknowledgements

Technical Centre for Agricultural andRural Cooperation (ACP-EU)

German Agency for Technical Cooperation(GTZ), Managing Agrobiodiversity in Ru-ral Areas Project

EvangelischerEntwicklungsdienst

Church Development Service Misereor

The organizers wish to thank the workshop participants and all those involved in preparingand implementing the workshop. Special thanks to Patrick Mulvaney, Elzbieta Martyniukand J Ekpere for their decisive inputs. Thanks also to FAO for supporting Ms Martyniuk’sparticipation, and to Susanne Gura (IFOAM), Helen Ochieng (GTZ-Kenya) and EvelynMathias (LPP) for their enthusiatic support during the planning stages of the workshop.

The workshop was supported by the following:

League for Pastoral PeoplesPragelatostrasse 20, 64372 Ober-Ramstadt,GermanyTel/fax: +49 6154 53642Email: [email protected]

LEAGUE FORPASTORAL PEOPLES

EAST AFRICA

ITDG–East AfricaPO Box 39493, 00623 Nairobi, KenyaTel: +254 2 2713540, 2715299, 2719313,2719413Fax: +254 2 2710083Email: [email protected]

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WWWWWe call on governments and rel-e call on governments and rel-e call on governments and rel-e call on governments and rel-e call on governments and rel-evant international bodiesevant international bodiesevant international bodiesevant international bodiesevant international bodies tocommit themselves to the formal

recognition of the historical and currentcontribution of pastoralists and pastoral-ism to food and livelihood security, envi-ronmental services and domestic animaldiversity.

We also demand that they recognize thecontributions of pastoralists and other live-stock keepers, over millennia, to the con-servation and sustainable use of animalgenetic resources for food and agriculture(AnGRFA) including associated species andthe genes they contain.

Furthermore, we insist that there is in-ternational legally-binding recognition ofinalienable Livestock Keepers’ Rights andthe rights of their communities to:

• Continue to use their knowledge Continue to use their knowledge Continue to use their knowledge Continue to use their knowledge Continue to use their knowledge con-cerning the conservation and sustain-able use of AnGRFA, without fears of itsappropriation.

• PPPPParticipate democratically in makingarticipate democratically in makingarticipate democratically in makingarticipate democratically in makingarticipate democratically in makingdecisions decisions decisions decisions decisions on matters related to the con-servation and sustainable use ofAnGRFA.

• Access, save, use, exchange, sell theirAccess, save, use, exchange, sell theirAccess, save, use, exchange, sell theirAccess, save, use, exchange, sell theirAccess, save, use, exchange, sell theirAnGRFAnGRFAnGRFAnGRFAnGRFAAAAA, unrestricted by intellectualproperty rights (IPRs) and (modificationthrough) genetic engineering technolo-gies that we believe will disrupt the in-

tegrity of these genetic resources.• Have their breeds recognized Have their breeds recognized Have their breeds recognized Have their breeds recognized Have their breeds recognized as prod-

ucts of their communities and indig-enous knowledge, and therefore remainin the public domain.

• Benefit equitably Benefit equitably Benefit equitably Benefit equitably Benefit equitably from the use ofAnGRFA in their own communities andby others.

We call on the Food and AgricultureOrganization of the UN (FAO) to start ne-gotiating such a legally binding agreement,without delay, ensuring that it will be inharmony with the Convention on Biologi-cal Diversity.

We further call on FAO to develop a glogloglogloglo-----bal plan for the conservation and sustain-bal plan for the conservation and sustain-bal plan for the conservation and sustain-bal plan for the conservation and sustain-bal plan for the conservation and sustain-able use of AnGRFable use of AnGRFable use of AnGRFable use of AnGRFable use of AnGRFA A A A A by pastoralists, otherlivestock keeping communities and relevantpublic institutions.

Finally, we insist that AnGRFA be exexexexex-----cluded from intellectual property rightscluded from intellectual property rightscluded from intellectual property rightscluded from intellectual property rightscluded from intellectual property rightsclaims and that there should be a morato-rium on the release of genetically modi-fied livestock until biosafety is proven, inaccordance with the precautionary princi-ple. We call on relevant institutions con-cerned with food, agriculture, trade, intel-lectual property and animal research toprovide assurances and such legal protec-tion as are necessary to sustain the freeflow and integrity of AnGRFA, vital to glo-bal food security and the environment.

The Karen Commitmenton pastoralist/indigenouslivestock keepers’ rights

KKKKKaren Commitmentaren Commitmentaren Commitmentaren Commitmentaren Commitment

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PPPPPastoralism makes astoralism makes astoralism makes astoralism makes astoralism makes an importantcontribution to

• Sustainable use of arid lands and otherchallenging environments

• Food security• Creation of rural income opportunities

and employment.

Furthermore, pastoralists fulfil a crucial,and so far overlooked, role for the futureof humanity by conserving animal geneticdiversity which is endangered by the ex-pansion of industrial livestock production.Since pastoralists value and love animalsbeyond narrow economic considerationsand have a deep knowledge about animalbreeding and environmental management,they represent custodians of indigenousbreeds with important genetic traits of valuefor all of humanity. This role needs to bewidely recognized among governments,policymakers, and international bodies.

However, the continuity of pastoralismis threatened by governments’ neglect orinadequate policies as well as the low sta-tus of this way of life, leading many youngpeople to abandon this lifestyle, resultingin rural–urban migration.

The participants of the workshop whichinclude representatives of pastoral commu-nities from 12 countries from Africa, Asiaand Europe recommend that:

Governments and regional bodiesGovernments and regional bodiesGovernments and regional bodiesGovernments and regional bodiesGovernments and regional bodies:

• Strengthen the quality of FAO’s State-of-the-World Report by involvement ofpastoralists and NGOs in the documen-tation and including an indigenousknowledge dimension.

• Incorporate traditional knowledge intothe education system, especially at theprimary level.

• Develop regional frameworks to con-tribute to the Africa (and Asian) posi-tion at international negotiations.

Scientists and research institutes:Scientists and research institutes:Scientists and research institutes:Scientists and research institutes:Scientists and research institutes:

• Modify scientific techniques to improvetheir understanding by local communi-ties, respect indigenous knowledge andregard communities as equal partnersin research.

• Cease research conducted without priorinformed consent of the community con-cerned.

PPPPPastoralists and civil society:astoralists and civil society:astoralists and civil society:astoralists and civil society:astoralists and civil society:

• Translate results of this workshop andissue of Livestock Keepers’ Rights intolocal languages and disseminate themto communities.

• Set up pastoral forums or umbrella or-ganizations in each country and pro-mote networking between them.

Workshop insightsand recommendations

Insights and recommendationsInsights and recommendationsInsights and recommendationsInsights and recommendationsInsights and recommendations

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• Continue efforts to establish environ-mental, grazing, and conflict-resolutioncommittees at local levels.

• Coordinate lobbying with respect todecision makers, opinion leaders andmedia.

Donors:Donors:Donors:Donors:Donors:

• Consider their funding priorities with re-spect to scientific research not involvinglocal communities.

• Support pastoralist networks and insti-tutions to create a global common iden-tity.

• Support a financing mechanism for pas-toralist representation in national, re-gional and international meetings withrelevance to the conservation of animalgenetic resources for food and agricul-ture (Convention on Biological Diversity/Conference of the Parties, Food andAgriculture Organization, World Intel-lectual Property Organization, WorldTrade Organization, etc.).

• Support research on indigenous knowl-edge about animal breeding tostrengthen the case for pastoralists.

Insights and recommendationsInsights and recommendationsInsights and recommendationsInsights and recommendationsInsights and recommendations

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Setting the sceneSetting the sceneSetting the sceneSetting the sceneSetting the scene

IIIIITDG is committed TDG is committed TDG is committed TDG is committed TDG is committed to working in part-nership with like-minded organizationsin pursuit of its principles and in the de-

velopment and use of practices that ben-efit the poor. All of ITDG’s work is gearedtowards a singular vision – a world free ofpoverty in which technology is used equi-tably for the benefit of all.

This workshop is a timely event on avery important issue, the recognition of andprotection of the rights of livestock keep-ers, which hitherto have been ignored. TheConference of the Parties to the Conven-tion on Biodiversity (COP V) calls upon allhumanity to realize that ‘…we need eachother, to protect the world’s rich and won-derful life forms’. Livestock breeding is an

important sector in the economy and in thelivelihoods of a huge number of peopleand as such has to be mainstreamed toharness its potential on poverty reduction.Some of the most pressing inadequaciesin the sector relate to poor infrastructure,neglect of arid lands management, policydevelopment, and environmental degra-dation.

Recent developments carry the risk ofbiodiversity loss and the appropriation ofanimal genetics by a few parties. The par-ticipants should critically examine these is-sues and develop a comprehensive strat-egy to deal with them. Special apprecia-tion is due to the EED (EvangelischerEntwicklungsdienst) of Germany, CTA,GTZ, FAO, and Misereor of Germany, forgenerously supporting the workshop.

Part 1 Setting the scene

Elijah AgeviITDG–East Africa

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The population of the various livestockspecies in Kenya constitutes over 9 millionzebu cattle, 3.2 grade dairy cattle, 8 mil-lion sheep, 10 million goats, 800,000 cam-els, 330,000 pigs, 400,000 rabbits andover 27 million poultry.

Agriculture is the base for Kenya’seconomy, contributing directly an estimated25% of the gross domestic product. Anadditional 30% is derived indirectly,through linkages with manufacturing andother economic activities.

The livestock sector accounts for ap-proximately 30% of the farm-gate value ofour agricultural produce. The livestock sec-tor also contributes 10% of our nationalexport earnings and employs over 50% ofthe agricultural labour force. I need nottherefore underscore the significance of thissector to our pastoral communities as thesector impinges directly on their livelihood.

I am informed that this workshop tar-gets representatives of indigenous livestockbreeding communities and non-govern-mental organizations (NGOs) working withthese groups. These communities continueto play a most significant role in the man-agement and conservation of animal ge-netic resources. Any efforts geared at im-proving their performance are thereforedeeply appreciated.

The indigenous livestock breeds areknown to possess many desirable genetictraits such as disease resistance, fertility and

IIIIIt gives me great pleasuret gives me great pleasuret gives me great pleasuret gives me great pleasuret gives me great pleasure to be invitedhere today to officiate at this interna-tional meeting of indigenous livestock

breeding communities from the region.May I also take this opportunity to welcomeall visitors to Kenya and wish you a pleas-ant stay here.

I am delighted that facilitators of thisworkshop, namely, the Intermediate Tech-nology Development Group (ITDG) – EastAfrica and the League for Pastoral Peopleshave selected Kenya as the venue for thiscrucial meeting. May I take this early op-portunity to thank you for your continuedsupport for livestock farmers in the mar-ginalized areas of this country.

Kenya’s policy objective for the livestocksector seeks to increase productivity in or-der to attain self-sufficiency in milk, meat,livestock production and fisheries. Addition-ally, it is our objective to generate a sur-plus for the export market. Kenya has adiverse population of animals that are tra-ditionally our resource of food and income,and provide various sociocultural functions.The farm animal genetic resources com-prise of indigenous, exotic and crossbredtypes. The Ministry of Livestock and Fisher-ies Development continues to encouragethe development of emerging livestock.

These are livestock species that haveuntil recently failed to receive adequateattention, most notably, the crocodile, os-trich, guinea fowl, quail, donkey andsnakes for venom and skins.

OpeningHon. Joseph K Munyao MPMinister for Livestock and Fisheries Development, Kenya(read by Mr Kiptarus)

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general fitness, which are nonexistent inthe genetic make-up of high-performanceanimals.

In Kenya over 50% of livestock inhabitthe arid and semi-arid lands, which haveharsh climatic conditions. The government,in liaison with relevant stakeholders, in-tends to implement programmes designedto address problems relating to the con-servation, management and utilization ofindigenous livestock species and breeds.

I note that despite a growing globalawareness of the importance of animalgenetic resources, little attention has beenpaid to the role of communities in manag-ing these resources. It is in this regard thatI commend the organizers of this workshopfor bringing all the stakeholders in animal

genetic resources together to provide rec-ommendations which encompass:

• Official recognition of the enormouscontribution of indigenous livestockbreeding communities for future foodsecurity.

• Acknowledgement of the significance oftheir traditional knowledge for uphold-ing animal genetic diversity.

• Safeguarding their property rights aswell as privileges according to the Con-vention on Biological Diversity in theinterest of global justice.

I am certain that by sharing experiencesof the different participants at the work-shop, you will have fruitful deliberationsand that you will be able to meet the speci-fied goals.

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IIIIIndigenous livestock breeding commu-ndigenous livestock breeding commu-ndigenous livestock breeding commu-ndigenous livestock breeding commu-ndigenous livestock breeding commu-nitiesnitiesnitiesnitiesnities are communities which have a tra-dition of livestock breeding and for

whom their animals have social and cul-tural meaning. This is reflected in:

• An identity based on the community’sassociation with animals.

• Often a myth of origin linking commu-nity to a particular breed or species.

• Animals represent social currency (aregiven as dowry or bride wealth).

• Often animals are shared within thecommunity, while exchange with outsid-ers is restricted.

• Animals have a ritual function.

Types of indigenous livestockbreeding communities

PPPPPastoralistsastoralistsastoralistsastoralistsastoralists Pastoralists depend on live-stock as the main source of their livelihood.They generally do not own land, but relyon common property resources. Pastoral-ism is a predominant livelihood strategy inareas unsuitable for crop cultivation(deserts, steppes, high altitude zones, tun-dra).

ExamplesExamplesExamplesExamplesExamples Raika, Maasai, Mongolianpeople, Bedouin, Saami.

PPPPPeople with traditional lifestyleseople with traditional lifestyleseople with traditional lifestyleseople with traditional lifestyleseople with traditional lifestyles Theseare people who lead lifestyles such as shift-ing cultivation, for whom livestock is sig-nificant source of livelihood.

ExamplesExamplesExamplesExamplesExamples Adivasi in India (chicken andgoat breeders), Mithan keepers in north-east India, buffalo-keeping groups inSoutheast Asia.

Indigenous livestock breeding commu-nities act as custodians to many uniquebreeds (farm animal genetic resources),because they have retained traditional life-styles, adhere to their cultural values, andoften have not been integrated into thewider or market economy.

Global trends in livestockproduction and research

The Livestock RevolutionThe Livestock RevolutionThe Livestock RevolutionThe Livestock RevolutionThe Livestock Revolution The demand forlivestock products in developing countriesis predicted to double by 2020. Intensiveand industrial livestock production systemsare expanding. This will reduce prices forlivestock products and push smallholderlivestock keepers and pastoralists out of themarket.

TTTTTechnological advancesechnological advancesechnological advancesechnological advancesechnological advances After artificialinsemination and embryo transfer, scien-tists now look to genome analysis and ge-netic engineering in order to create geneti-cally modified animals with novel traits.

Genome analysis enables scientists tocorrelate parts (‘sequences’) of the genomewith specific genetic traits.

Scientists envision that by means of ge-netic engineering, animals can be created

Indigenous livestock breeding communitiesand farm animal genetic resources in thecontext of global development trendsIlse Köhler-Rollefson, League for Pastoral Peoples

Isabella Masinde, ITDG-East Africa

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that combine high productivity with diseaseresistance. An example is the transfer ofworm resistance from Red Maasai sheepinto Merino.

Is this realistic?

No: No: No: No: No: ‘There are many technical difficulties,and genetically modified animals havedefects.’

YYYYYes:es:es:es:es: ‘Techniques are well advanced, butcompanies fear backlash of public opin-ion.’

In the 21st century, ‘sequenced ge-nomes, transgenic livestock and clonedanimals will possibly become the norm’(Rothschild, 2002).

With respect to the Fayoumi chicken:‘We can pinpoint traits at the DNA leveland use genetic engineering methods totransfer the traits to other chickens withoutall the bad baggage.’

Indigenous breeds

Renewed interest in indigenous livestockbreeds is due to:

• Rapid extinction of domestic animal di-versity/breeds.

• Indigenous breeds have traits whichhave disappeared from high perform-ance breeds.

• Breeding for disease resistance – a newtrend.

A large number of breeds can be foundin remote areas: ‘When the number ofbreeds is expressed per million people, itbecomes clear that peripheral and remotecountries and provinces have dispropor-tionately large numbers of breeds’ (Halland Ruan, p. 820 in Conservation Biology7(4), 1993).

Intellectual property rights

Genetically engineered animals may bepatentable in some countries. The patent

also extends to all offspring of patentedanimals.

Indigenous breeds which have devel-oped over centuries and as a result of in-digenous knowledge about animal breed-ing are not protected against biopiracy.

Convention on BiologicalDiversity

Article 8j of the Convention on Biodiversitycalls for recognition of the vast amount ofin-situ conservation carried out by tradi-tional communities.

The International Treaty on Plant Ge-netic Resources for Food and Agriculture(ITPGRFA) established the concept of‘Farmers' Rights’, which is based on thepast, present and future contributions offarmers in conserving crop genetic diver-sity.

Farmers Rights entitle farmers to:

• Protection of traditional knowledge rel-evant to plant genetic resources.

• Save, use, exchange and sell farm-saved seed.

• Participate in decision-making and inthe fair and equitable sharing of ben-efits arising from the use of plant ge-netic resources.

Key questions

• Should (and can) indigenous livestockbreeders protect their breeds againstbiopiracy?

• What conditions must obtain so thatpastoralists can continue to managetheir breeds sustainably?

• Do we need an equivalent to Farmers‘Rights – ‘Livestock Breeders Rights’?What should they entail?

• Is genomics research going to benefitpastoralists and indigenous livestockbreeders? Should it be supported withpublic money?

• Should we develop an alternative visionfor livestock development?

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Industrialized animal production

PPPPPositive impactsositive impactsositive impactsositive impactsositive impacts Cheap supply of animalproducts (meat, eggs, milk).

Negative impactsNegative impactsNegative impactsNegative impactsNegative impacts Loss of rural employ-ment opportunities, dependence on grainimports, pollution, lack of animal welfare,loss of genetic diversity.

Alternative vision

Endogenous livestock development, build-ing on:

• Local genetic resources.• Local institutions and knowledge.• Local feed supplies.

Comments and discussion

FAO has published a report on diversity inbreeds and on conservation, which clearlydocuments alarming trends in the statusof the world’s FAnGR.

The new Kenyan government is com-mitted to educating the people on the im-portance of biodiversity and to collect, ana-lyse, categorize and document indigenousknowledge. It is also committed to redress-ing the problems facing indigenous breed-ing communities and realizes the need tostem the loss of local breeds.

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Indigenous knowledge about animal breedingIlse Köhler-Rollefson

League for Pastoral Peoples

Social breeding mechanismsSocial breeding mechanismsSocial breeding mechanismsSocial breeding mechanismsSocial breeding mechanisms Sociallyembedded customs influencing the gene-pool include:• Taboos on selling female animals to

anybody outside the community.• Fixed rules for passing on animals from

one generation to the next.• Sharing mechanisms.

SocioSocioSocioSocioSocio-religious practices-religious practices-religious practices-religious practices-religious practices These include:

• Devoting male animals to the memoryof an ancestor (for example, the ‘Suraj-ka-sant’ and Brahmini bull in India).

• Devoting animals to gods.

Breeding decisionsBreeding decisionsBreeding decisionsBreeding decisionsBreeding decisions Breeding decisionsinclude the objective and goal:

• Breeding objectives Breeding objectives Breeding objectives Breeding objectives Breeding objectives are traits that arenecessary for a breed to fulfil its role inthe overall production system. They areusually multifaceted.

• Breeding goalsBreeding goalsBreeding goalsBreeding goalsBreeding goals include the personalpreferences of the owner, which do notnecessarily relate to the functionality ofthe animal.

Selection criteriaSelection criteriaSelection criteriaSelection criteriaSelection criteria These include factorssuch as the ability to put on fat, good ma-ternal behaviour, walking ability, droughtresistance, love of the owner, and man-ageability.

Breeding managementBreeding managementBreeding managementBreeding managementBreeding management Managementmethods include castration, culling, thetesting of offspring, maintenance of a ‘com-munity bull, and crossbreeding.

MMMMMore than 7000 ore than 7000 ore than 7000 ore than 7000 ore than 7000 farm animalbreeds are registered in FAO’sglobal database. The vast major-

ity of these breeds have been developedby rural communities, without any helpfrom animal scientists. How did the com-munities do it? Or was it only the environ-ment?

Indigenous knowledge

Indigenous knowledge about animalbreeding and breeds refers to the knowl-edge that traditionally animal breedingcommunities apply to manipulate the ge-netic composition of their livestock hold-ings. It includes knowledge and experienceabout genetic attributes of livestock andinheritance, as well as conscious strategiesand social mechanisms that influence thegene pool. This form of indigenous knowl-edge includes:

• Cultural identity• Social mechanisms• Breeding decisions• Breeding management• Cognitive processes.

Sense of stewardship and identitySense of stewardship and identitySense of stewardship and identitySense of stewardship and identitySense of stewardship and identity Sometraditional cultures, especially pastoralists,have an identity based on their relation-ship with a particular species. They have afeeling of responsibility for the welfare oftheir animals. Examples include the Raikain India (camels and cattle), and the Fu-lani and Maasai in Africa (cattle).

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Cognitive processesCognitive processesCognitive processesCognitive processesCognitive processes These include theidentification of individual animals and thekeeping of pedigrees.

Documenting indigenousknowledge

Documenting indigenous knowledge oflivestock breeding and breeds has severalbenefits:

• It acts as a source of information aboutexisting breeds that have escaped at-tention of scientists.

• It records the intellectual contribution oflivestock-breeding communities.

• It is a source of empowerment and pridefor those communities.

A documentation method must:

• Be efficient, reliable and practical.• Serve as foundation for a community-

based management of animal geneticresources project.

• Safeguard the breed against possiblebiopiracy.

The LIFE framework

The LIFE (Local Livestock For Empowermentof Rural People) approach is a way to docu-ment this indigenous knowledge.

• It understands breeds as products of so-cial networks.

• It is not a fixed method, but a concep-tual framework.

• It uses participatory methods and is flex-ible rather than being based on prede-termined questionnaires.

The LIFE approach covers five aspects:

1 Social and cultural context

• Is this breed associated with a particu-lar community? What is the nature ofthe underlying social network?

• Are there any breeding institutions, suchas communally kept male animals? Are

animals bought from outside or born inthe herd?

• Cultural significance: is there a myth oforigin?

• Social meaning: Are animals given asdowry, as bride wealth, or as gifts dur-ing life-cycle events?

2 Ecological and productioncontext

• What is the breeding area?

3 Livelihood significance (typesof products)

• What purposes do animals fulfil in peo-ples’ lives ?

4 Management of the gene pool

• Social mechanisms: are there taboos onselling female animals? Are animalsdevoted to gods?

• Breeding goals: what are the selectioncriteria for male animals? For females?

• Other strategies: what other strategiesare used: castration, offspring testing,avoidance of inbreeding?

• Do the livestock breeders keep (men-tal) records of their animals’ pedigrees?

5 Population

• Size: how many animals are there?• Trends: are the numbers constant, ris-

ing or falling?


• The erosion of taboos, such as that onselling of camels in the Borana com-munity, is threatening the conservationof genetic diversity.

• The influence of modern values on tra-ditional communities is threatening ani-mal breeding practices. In India, the lowstatus of the castrator’s job has led to alarge number of uncastrated bulls. Thisis limiting the ability of breeders to se-

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lect sires and to trace the pedigree oftheir animals.

• The sale of female animals to peopleoutside the community is now prevalentamong the Maasai and can be used asa channel for biopiracy (Lengisugi).

• The sale of female animals is a dan-gerous development as their presenceis central to the survival of the herd. Thishas always been a way of ensuring ge-netic continuity, and females wouldnever be sold even in the harshest oftimes.

• Communities generally sell only thepoor pedigree animals (especially fe-males). The finer specimens are closelyguarded for the improvement of theherd. Within some communities a per-son receiving a gift of a heifer must giveback the first female offspring to hisbenefactor to allow him retain thebloodline.

• The trade in animals such as camels tothe Arab world is an emerging avenueby which genes may be appropriated.It is of paramount importance to tracethe origin and spread of breeds.

• Molecular genetic research has madeit possible to trace the origin of a cer-tain breed (Köhler-Rollefson).

• So important is the female that discern-ing breeders are known to travel up toa hundred kilometres in search of fe-males with a particular trait.

• Pastoralists have a strong cognitive abil-ity and a keen eye for traits in their ani-mals, so that they can easily identify aspecific animal in a big herd, and real-ize when it is lost. This gives them anedge in selecting the best pedigree andpreserving it.

• Proper documentation of breeds is ofno benefit to the communities until thepeople on the ground are aware of theirrights. Until then there is no guaranteethat such documentation will play a rolein the preservation of the community’srights to the breeds (Mpoke).

• Communities are not totally ignorant ornaive, but there is a problem of infor-mation flows. National governments arenot allocating resources for informationdissemination and as such are unwill-ing to hold in trust the rights of the com-munities. Documentation puts informa-tion about genetic assets into the publicdomain. This makes it hard for peopleto lay exclusive claim over the resources,since they are then regarded as ‘priorart’ (Ekpere).

• Moving and sharing desirable sires isnot a problem per se, but documenta-tion and dissemination of this informa-tion may make its progeny attractive tobiopirates and corporations who wouldwant to appropriate genetic resources(Mulvaney).

• KIPI supports the documentation ofbreeds but not down to the genomelevel. A blanket moratorium on patentsis best way forward on ensuring free flow(Otswong’o).

• There is a need to take steps for stem-ming the erosion of indigenous knowl-edge and the need to conserve ratherthan change indigenous knowledge. Butaccess to new technologies is alsoneeded (Njoro).

• It is necessary to adopt new approachesfor conserving local knowledge. As theissue of patents becomes more critical,these new approaches will be neededeven more (Vivekanandan).

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Community presentationsCommunity presentationsCommunity presentationsCommunity presentationsCommunity presentations

BBBBBefore the workshop, efore the workshop, efore the workshop, efore the workshop, efore the workshop, community participants were requested to preparepresentations about the role of indig-

enous livestock breeds for their livelihoods.They were asked to follow specific guide-lines (below). This Part summarizes theirpresentations.

• Give a short overview short overview short overview short overview short overview about your com-munity, its size, and geographical loca-tion.

• What types of animals types of animals types of animals types of animals types of animals does your com-munity breed? Rank them in the orderof prestige and status.

• For what purposes purposes purposes purposes purposes are the animalsused?

• What is the social significance social significance social significance social significance social significance of theseanimals for your community? Are theygiven as dowry, bride wealth, at the timeof birth, used for funeral feasts?

• Are animals used for certain ritualsritualsritualsritualsrituals?• What is special special special special special about the animals

owned by your community? How dothey differ from those of other commu-nities?

• Describe what qualities are importantqualities are importantqualities are importantqualities are importantqualities are importantin your animals and how male breed-ing animals are selected.

• Do you distinguish different breeds distinguish different breeds distinguish different breeds distinguish different breeds distinguish different breeds ortypes of animals within the species?

• Are there any myths or stories myths or stories myths or stories myths or stories myths or stories aboutthe origin of your animals and the rela-tionship between your community andthese animals?

• Is any crossbreeding crossbreeding crossbreeding crossbreeding crossbreeding going on betweenyour local animals and other breeds?

• What is the attitude of younger peopleyounger peopleyounger peopleyounger peopleyounger peoplein your community about a life basedon livestock keeping?

KawahlaEastern Sudan

Adam Elhag MusaPastoral Union, Sudan

IIIIIn some parts of Sudann some parts of Sudann some parts of Sudann some parts of Sudann some parts of Sudan, one cannot talkat a public gathering unless one owns acamel as status in the community de-

pends on the number of camels one has.Camels from the community are sold tomarkets in Egypt and Libya where they arevalued for their strong, large bodies. Cam-els bred by the community also have a col-our that is pleasant and well adapted tothe Kawahla people’s environment.

In the selection of sires for breeding, thefollowing issues are considered:

• Milk production of the mother• Size• Colour• Known progeny of the bull.

Among the Kawahla people, the conti-nuity of livestock breeding is threatened bythe exodus of the younger people to otherlivelihood strategies. This is leaving a rap-idly shrinking older generation to sustainthe animal breeding way of life.

Part 2 The role of livestock andbreeding: Community presentations

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KaramojongclusterKenya, Ethiopia, Ugandaand Sudan

Ebenyo GodwinCEC Chairman Oropoi

TTTTThe Khe Khe Khe Khe Karamoja cluster aramoja cluster aramoja cluster aramoja cluster aramoja cluster comprises 13tribes speaking in a language knownas Ngakaramojong. They include:

• The Nyangatom and Merille of Ethio-pia

• The Topotha and Didinga of southernSudan

• The Pokot and Turkana of Kenya• The Jie, Pian, Matheniko, Tepeth,

Dodoth, Nyaakwae, Bakora, and Pokotof Uganda.

Animal types

The communities within the cluster breedanimals for the following purposes:

CattleCattleCattleCattleCattle

• Provision of milk and beef• Payment of dowry• Hides for shelter and bedding• Blood as food• Traditional sandals• Bedding• Manure• Skins for clothing (calves).

CamelsCamelsCamelsCamelsCamels

• Meat and milk for food• Payment of dowry• Hides for shelter• Traditional sandals• Bedding.

SomaliKenya and Somalia

TTTTThe most valuable he most valuable he most valuable he most valuable he most valuable and prestigious animal is the camel. To the Somali, keep-ing animals is the main livelihood

support strategy. Animals are used for milkproduction, cash income generation, ag-ricultural activities and transportation. Butbeyond this, the animals have social sig-nificance and functions. They are used inthe payment of fines (diya), for instance100 camels are fined for killing a commu-nity member. They are also used in otherceremonies and social transactions, suchas dowry payment.

In the selection of breeding animals, thecommunity places emphasis on the maleanimal. Unsuitable males are castratedwhile young to exclude them from breed-ing. Within the community, there is a strongtradition of borrowing animals from otherherds for breeding to improve the herd interms of milk yield and meat quality.

The harsh terrain and difficulties asso-ciated with herding are discouraging youngpeople from participating in the pastoralway of life. In addition, there is a threatfrom relief food, which is in some localitiesis creating a disincentive for pastoralismas people settle around relief centres andbecome dependent on the free food. Cer-tain policies inhibit trade and therebyhinder development of the livestockeconomy. Land tenure is another problemas all the land is held in trust by the gov-ernment, which inhibits the developmentof robust rangeland management strate-gies.

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Sheep and goatsSheep and goatsSheep and goatsSheep and goatsSheep and goats

• Direct source of income for the family• Provision of milk, blood and meat• Payment of dowry• Sheep’s fat for medicine• Skins for clothing.

DonkeysDonkeysDonkeysDonkeysDonkeys

• Cheapest means of transport• Bride price• Milk for medicines to treat tuberculosis

and general chest infections

Social significance

The social significance of the livestockamong the Karamojong cluster includes butis not limited to the following:

• For sacrifices as per the community’scultural beliefs

• As a source of life, without which lifehas no meaning

• Recognition as a member of the com-munity

• As a measure of wealth• Use in bull dances• Social sharing of livestock breeds by

exchanging males and females to en-hance social links

• Source of dowry, bride wealth, at timeof birth and other life cycle ceremoniessuch as funeral feasts.

The Karamojong cluster uses livestockfor other rituals such as:

• Rainmaking ceremonies• Cleansing of families, communities or

livestock• Protection against curses or disease

outbreaks• Treating sick persons• Naming ceremonies• Initiation ceremonies.

Unique characteristics

The animals have the following uniquecharacteristics:

• Drought resistance and hardiness• Disease resistance• Meat is generally tender and tastier than

that of other communities’ animals• They do not require a lot of forage• They can survive for many days without

water• They are small in size, strong and can

graze in rough terrain.

Breeding

These characteristic have been developedby selective breeding for animals that:

• Can trek long distances in search ofpasture and water

• Have low feed requirements (small size)• Can graze in all types of terrain• Are aggressive and can fight off attacks

by predators• Are disease-tolerant, especially against

tick-borne diseases• Do not experience difficulties in calving.

To achieve this, the community selectsmale animals (sires) according to the fol-lowing criteria:

• From a well-known lineage• Performance of the parent animals• Ability of the lineage to resist disease• A lineage with offspring that remains

healthy from birth to maturity.

The Karamojong cluster does not haveany myths or stories about the origin oftheir livestock. However, they believe thatGod gave them cattle, sheep, goats anddonkeys at the time of creation. The cam-els were brought to Turkana from the Ren-dille community through the assistance ofa great seer, Mr Lokerio, who was believedto work magic. Since then three-quartersof Turkana own camels. Some of the cattlecome from the Arab communities of Egypt,with whom they used to barter animals forivory.

At the moment, there is no known cross-breeding going on between the local live-

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stock and foreign breeds. But in the late1980s and early 1990s, small and local-ized crossbreeding programmes existed atKaikor and Nakwamoru centres. At theKaikor livestock training centre, youths weretrained in livestock management. Here, thesmall East African goat was crossed withmale Galla goats. At the Nakwamoru cen-tre, Turkana sheep were crossed withDorper male sheep from Kitale. Sometraces of Dorpers can be seen in this cen-tre.

At Oropoi parish, Fr Bernard Ruhnauhad a small crossbreeding programme forcamels. Local camels were crossed withSomali and Rendille male camels and vice-versa. Traces of these can be seen atOropoi.

For younger Turkana people, whetherthey live in urban centres or rural areas, itis considered mandatory to acquire andkeep livestock. The reason is that most ofthese youths were born at the kraals andonly migrated to the urban centres.

A very small group of this communitywho were born and brought up in townsand have not been exposed to the ruralareas have a slightly negative attitude to-wards livestock keeping. This is due to theirattending formal education and subse-quent securing of jobs in towns.


• What are the status and effects of cattlerustling in the area? This occurs betweencommunities in Uganda, Kenya andSudan, but there are efforts underwayto build peace in the region. Neverthe-less, rustling has reduced cattle owner-ship in the area owing to fear of raid-ers.

• Donkeys, which were also obtainedfrom the Arab communities, are usedfor transport, meat, and as a source ofmedicine for some diseases.

• In terms of prestige, the animals areranked as follows: (1) cattle, (2) cam-els, (3) sheep and goats, and (4) don-keys.

• Efforts to address rustling and livestock-related conflict need to also look at is-sues of poverty, small arms, unemploy-ment and governance in the neighbour-ing countries.

• Turkana animals are not small – theyonly seem so in comparison with exotics.

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KaramojongUganda

Thomas M LoquangHappy Cow Project, Karamoja Initiativefor Sustainable Peace

KKKKKISP is an initiativeISP is an initiativeISP is an initiativeISP is an initiativeISP is an initiative of the council ofelders from the Karamoja region,Uganda, with the main objective of

attaining a sustainable peace within Kara-moja and the neighbouring similar pasto-ral groups in Uganda, Kenya, Ethiopia andSudan. KISP also advocates for the devel-opment of the technical capacity amongthe Karamojong in disciplines thatstrengthen agropastoral livelihoods.

KISP was founded in early 1996 andincorporated in September 2000. KISPemphasizes the use of dialogue and con-sultation with the Karamojong peoplethrough traditional cultural institutions thathave existed over the years and have cu-mulated knowledge and experience in solv-ing conflict.

The ‘Happy Cow Project’ aims at pro-moting peace and development in Kara-moja by enhancing animal productionmethods. The project believes that if thecows in Karamoja are happy, then the peo-ple will also be happy.

Introduction

Karamoja covers an area of 27,900 km2

in northeast Uganda and has a popula-tion of about 900 000 people (Nationaland Housing Population Census, 2002).The districts of Nakapiripirit, Moroto andKotido make up the Karamoja region. Thearea generally has low, unreliable rainfall,except for higher and more reliableamounts in its northern, southern and west-ern highland fringes. The rainfall patternis unimodal with a clearly defined dry sea-son (October–March) and wet season (April–September). The dominant farming sys-

tem of the region is pastoralism, which is,however, undergoing transition to agro-pastoralism. Traditionally, the homesteadswere generally established in the drierzones, while the wetter highland areas wereused for grazing livestock, most importantlyduring the dry season. However the pat-tern has changed as many settlements havenucleated in the highland areas, notablyfor crop production as well. The basic unitin which the Karamojong lives is a village,made up of several households. Severalvillages form a parish, which is one of theunits in a sub-county.

Despite the presence of vast natural re-sources in Karamoja (livestock, land, min-erals, wildlife, etc.) the Karimojong remainamong the poorest people in Uganda –they cannot even feed themselves. The lit-eracy rate is only about 10%. The regionhas little or dilapidated infrastructure, andis grossly underdeveloped compared to therest of the country.

The common currency and ‘savings ac-count’ for the pastoral Karimojong is cat-tle (though the average Karimojong rec-ognize the importance of money as an eas-ily carried and convertible currency). Thepeople of Karamoja are collectively calledNgiKaramojong. There are some 20 mainsub groups in the region (Table 1).

The Karamojong way of life

The Karamojong have a common way oflife, traditions and culture. This commu-nity is a composite of many smaller com-munities identified not only by their com-mon language, but also by the resourcesthey share, namely their livestock(ngibaren). They regard livestock as com-munity property to be taken care of by thecommunity members (though each indi-vidual owns his or her own animals). Thisis because livestock and their products areshared in one way or another within thecommunity; e.g., the milk when it is offeredto a neighbour in need; the meat when ananimal is slaughtered for elders in a givenritual or ceremony (which are not few in

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number); the bride price paid in marriage,etc. The Karamojong also share settlementsor villages (ngirerya), kraals (ngawuiyoi),taboos, customs (ngitalio), shrines(ngakiriketa), watering points, dams(ngakare, namatatain), pastures, farmland(ngamanat), and marriage ceremonies(ekiitan). The elders (ngikasikou), soothsay-ers (ngimuruok) and foretellers(ngikadwuarak) not only act as mediatorsor arbitrators on daily issues but also com-municate with God on behalf of the com-munity. Herdsboys (ngikeyokok) and war-riors (ngikarachuna) defend the entire com-munity and its resources.

All the subgroups except the NgiTobur/Ngilabwuor and NgiTeuso (the Ik) sharethe same language and value animals intheir daily lives. The latter groups, togetherwith the Pokot, speak different languages,though most can also understand the Ka-ramojong language.

Types of livestock and its uses

The Karamojong breed cattle, sheep,goats, donkeys and camels (camels arekept only by the Pokot in SW Karamoja).Livestock are one of the people’s most im-portant resources. They are used right frombirth, throughout life, and at the time ofdeath. At birth, a sheep is slaughtered toobtain a shawl to carry the baby. The ani-mals are also meant for blessing the babyand the meat as part of the diet for therecuperating mother after labour.

Other uses of livestock include:

• FFFFFoodoodoodoodood Meat, milk, ghee, blood.• Savings accountSavings accountSavings accountSavings accountSavings account Currency that is well

known to most Karamojong and easilyconvertible to other forms of resources.The more animals one has the richerhe /she is.

• Bride prideBride prideBride prideBride prideBride pride For marriage and relatedissues – e.g., payment for impregnat-ing a girl.

• SacrificeSacrificeSacrificeSacrificeSacrifice Slaughtered for various cer-emonies e.g., cleansing ceremonies, ini-tiation, funerals, etc. See details below

under the different types of livestock.• CompensationCompensationCompensationCompensationCompensation e.g. a community

member injured or killed by a fellowmember; 60–100 cattle are charged forcompensation of a slain clansman.

• Settling serious disputesSettling serious disputesSettling serious disputesSettling serious disputesSettling serious disputes e.g., rape,adultery, etc.

• Disease treatmentDisease treatmentDisease treatmentDisease treatmentDisease treatment Slaughtering live-stock on the instructions of a witch doc-tor.

• DressDressDressDressDress Skirts for girls and women,aprons for married women, belts, san-dals, blankets.

SubgroupNgiMeningNgiNyangiaNgiDodothoNgiTeuso1

NgiJieNgiTobur/ NgilabwuorNgiNyakwaeNgiBokoraNgiMogothNgiPeeiNgiTomeNgimunoNgiMosthingoNgiKosowuaNgiKaleesoNgiTepeth3

NgiMathenikoNgiTepeth4

NgiMogothNgiMunoNgiPianNgiPianNgiKadama5

NgiPokot

District/CountyKotido: Dodoth

JieLabwuor2

Moroto: Bokora

Matheniko

Nakapiripirit: PianChekwii / Kadam

Pokot1 Predominantly gatherers2 Predominantly crop producers3 Live on the Napak mountain4 Live on Moroto mountain5 Live on Kadam mountainSome subgroups live in more than one county;

eg NgiTepeth, NgiPian and NgiMogoth.

TTTTTable 1.able 1.able 1.able 1.able 1. Distribution of NgikarimojongDistribution of NgikarimojongDistribution of NgikarimojongDistribution of NgikarimojongDistribution of Ngikarimojongsubgroupssubgroupssubgroupssubgroupssubgroups

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• Bedding and matsBedding and matsBedding and matsBedding and matsBedding and mats Skin for sleeping,sitting on during ceremonies, at meals,or while drinking traditional brew.

• ManureManureManureManureManure For cultivation, especially to-bacco and maize.

• TTTTTractionractionractionractionraction For cultivation, transport,haulage.

• OthersOthersOthersOthersOthers Fasteners (string, rope fromhides), sheaths for knives and spears,containers for tobacco made from cat-tle horns, and flywhisks made from tails.

Cattle

Cattle are the most important type of ani-mal kept by the Karamojong community.The uses of cattle include:

• FFFFFoodoodoodoodood, milk, blood, ghee, meat• Marriage Marriage Marriage Marriage Marriage and related needs.• WWWWWealth store ealth store ealth store ealth store ealth store or ‘bank account’ that can

be converted to cash, exchanged forother items, used to pay a debt, or ascompensation for an injury or death ofa fellow clansman.

• Ceremonies and ritualsCeremonies and ritualsCeremonies and ritualsCeremonies and ritualsCeremonies and rituals These include:• Initiation (asapan).• Feast for elders (akitochol).• A ceremony for twins (lorotin, seebelow).• A feast for elders and soothsayerssponsored by the combatants for bless-ings prior to a cattle-rustling expedition,particularly a large and important one(akimwaimwakin).• A bull slaughtered for elders after asuccessful cattle raid (lookwa).• A ceremony for gathering cattle to-gether prior to transhumance(akiwudakin).• A few bulls slaughtered as a feast forelders (akipeyokin).• A feast for elders made by an indi-vidual in his own home (akipeyokintamanawi) and not at shrine, for theelders to mediate with God to solve aparticular problem faced by the personoffering the animal.• A bull slaughtered at the demand ofa foreteller to foretell (akiereor) the situ-ation of the land.• A bull slaughtered to avert a pre-

dicted bad event (akiretakin eronet).• A bull slaughtered if the bride’s oldersister is not married (lodepar).• A bull slaughtered at the behest of awitch doctor to cure a particular ailment(adyak).

• Skins Skins Skins Skins Skins are used for bedding, sandals,belts, ropes, bell straps, etc.

• StatusStatusStatusStatusStatus Someone who has many cattleis respected.

Calves

Calves are rarely slaughtered for theirproducts. However skins are taken fromcalves that die from disease. The skins areused to make items such as skirts forwomen, leather sheets or blankets, sittingmats, bags for carrying grain, flour orhoney, strings, ropes, and straps to tie bellsaround the necks of favourite animals.

Goats

Goats are used in similar ways to cattle:for food (milk, blood, meat, ghee), brideprice, sacrifices for ceremonies (e.g. initia-tion of young men), and in times of sick-ness. Goat skins are used as mats, apronsfor women, and bags for carrying grain,flour or honey. Goats can be sold for cashor exchanged with other types of livestock,e.g. 10 goats for 1 head of cattle.

For some ceremonies, e.g., for a feastfor elders or one particular elder, sheepand cattle are preferred over goats.

Sheep

Sheep have the same uses as cattle andgoats: they provide food, meat, milk andblood. However sheep are used predomi-nantly in cleansing ceremonies, most par-ticularly when something strange happensin the community.

• When some mistake is made in execu-tion of a given ritual, a sheep is slaugh-tered to amend the situation – for ex-ample if the milk teeth of a baby startgrowing from the left jaw.

27


• When a woman forgets her ancestralstick somewhere and spends the nightwithout it.

• When the tongue meat of a sacrificialanimal chokes an elder.

• When a combatant has kill an enemyor wild dog, to cleanse him.

Sheep skins are used for girls’ skirts, sit-ting mats, shawls for carrying babies, orthread for other leather goods.

Sheep are slaughtered in sacrifices, e.g.at funerals, initiation of young men, or theakitocol ceremony (elders’ feast). To ap-proach an elder for a need, a ram is themain choice.

Sheep are also used to pay bride price,to exchange with other livestock, or to sellfor cash.

Donkeys

Donkeys are predominantly used for trans-port e.g. to move kraal gear, to carry eld-erly people, children or the sick betweenthe kraal and village using a rack (athaja),and to transport crops. They are also usedfor ploughing. They provide food, meat,and milk, though not frequently. Donkeymilk is specifically used for feeding babyorphans, as the community thinks the milkhas similar viscosity nutritional value tobreast milk. The only time donkeys are usedfor sacrifice is to treat tetanus (natelo). Theskin is used for bell straps.

Camels

The Pokot keep camels due to contact withtheir kin across the border in Kenya whokeep camels. A few camels have beensighted in Matheniko too. Camels providesimilar products to those provided by cat-tle..... However the camels in Matheniko arenot used for sacrifices. Some Karamojongthink camel meat is a delicacy. Most Kara-mojong have shied away from keepingcamels because they think camels bringdrought.

Social significance of animals

As animals are regarded as a source oflife, the more animals one owns the better.Cattle can be converted to acquire the ne-cessities for a good life. A person with a lotof animals is rich, and his family is large;he has many children and dependants.Such a person may have several wives andhouseholds.

Every male Karamojong strives to ownas many animals as possible so that hisfamily is assured a good, happy, long life.

Karamojong men usually base their ownname on the colour of their favourite bulls.Such names have the prefix Apa… (theowner of...). ApaLongor means ‘the manwith a brownish bull’; ApaLongatunymeans ‘the man with the bull coloured likea lion’; ApaLoris means ‘the man with thebull coloured like a leopard’, etc. The man’sinferiors and colleagues use such namesto refer to him. The favourite bull enjoysprivileges from the owner like beingadorned with a bell, getting prompt veteri-nary attention, clean water, etc.

A male Karamojong with a lot of cattleacquires an elephant tusk bangle that hewears on his left wrist as a sign of wealthand recognition by others. A man withoutanimals is considered poor, and is not ableto found a family. He would rarely addressa gathering or comment on issues to dowith livestock.

Ritual uses of animals

• DowryDowryDowryDowryDowry The Karamojong do not offerdowry for marriages.

• BridewealthBridewealthBridewealthBridewealthBridewealth Animals are exchangedfor the bride during marriages, whichis anything between 30 and 200 ani-mals, depending on the strength of thebridegroom’s family and competition forthe bride. If the bride’s older sister isnot married, the bridegroom offers anextra bull for slaughter at the bride’shome for a lodepar ceremony to ap-pease the spirits.

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• BirthsBirthsBirthsBirthsBirths A (usually white) sheep isslaughtered and the skin used as strapfor carrying the baby. The meat is givento the baby’s mother. If a woman givesbirth to twins, two sheep are killed andanother animal (usually a bull) is killedat the crossroads to enable the twins tofollow different paths in their later life.This ceremony is called lorotin.

• FFFFFuneralsuneralsuneralsuneralsunerals An animal is killed at theburial. Another ram is killed at the timethe mourners’ hair is shaved and to en-able the family to open the food storesdonated by neighbours.

Livestock characteristics

The Karamojong see animals as ‘life’, asthey obtain their entire social, economicand religion benefits from them. Their ani-mals are accustomed to the environmentas they have survived the harsh climate andrough terrain over the years. The Karamo-jong know each animal individually. Othercommunities probably consider animalsonly in the economic context (for example,they keep animals to sell them so they canacquire other items). They seldom knoweach animal’s individual characteristics.

The Karamojong appreciate animals ofreasonable size and body weight, withgood milk yield, high calf production, cer-tain colours, and disease resistance.

Selection of males

The following characteristics are consideredwhen selecting males for breeding.

• Physical featuresPhysical featuresPhysical featuresPhysical featuresPhysical features Large, good shape.• ActiveActiveActiveActiveActive Able to serve many cows.• PPPPPedigreeedigreeedigreeedigreeedigree The qualities of the parent in

terms of resistance to diseases, milkyields, survival of calves and body size.

Breeds

The Karamojong recognize different breedswithin their herds, although they do not givethem specific names.

CattleCattleCattleCattleCattle The Karamojong cattle are of thesame type. Some Karamojong groups calltheir animals ngalok’i’, though most de-scribe them as ‘Karamojong cattle’. Thecattle are all zebu, with upward-pointinghumps, large body size and weight, bluntsnouts, resistance to heat, some toleranceto cold, well-developed dewlap very promi-nent in bulls. Their colours include white/cream, grey, roan, dark/dirty brown. Blackcolour is a recent development from inter-breeding. The Karamojong herds have un-dergone a lot of interbreeding with cattlefrom neighbouring pastoral groups suchas the Teso in the west, Sabiny in the southand Pokot in the east. Teso cattle aresmaller, have pointed snouts, etc. – not de-sirable to the Karamojong.

The Karamojong try to maintain theirbreeds by some controlled breeding. Un-desirable males are castrated, sold off oreven used to pay a debt. It is not uncom-mon for one herder to borrow a desirablebull from his neighbour for breeding pur-poses for a few weeks.

GoatsGoatsGoatsGoatsGoats The Karamojong do not have spe-cial names for their goats. The animalshave large body size and are reasonablytall. Colours include white, cream, grey,pink-brown and black. The females havehigh milk yields and are prolific, often de-livering twins.

SheepSheepSheepSheepSheep There are no special names fortypes of sheep. Karamojong sheep are fat-tailed (a quality that is much appreciated),,have a reasonable body weight, and areprolific breeders. The body is white, whilethe head (or only the mouth and eyes) areblack (East African Black Head or Persian).In contrast breeds from Teso are long andthin-legged, with poorly developed tails,low weight and frequently hornless.

DonkeysDonkeysDonkeysDonkeysDonkeys There seems to be only one typeof donkey in Karamoja.

CamelsCamelsCamelsCamelsCamels The camels kept by the Pokot andMatheniko in Karamoja originate from thePokot and Turkana in Kenya.

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Origin stories

The Karamojong are said to have obtainedcattle from Arabs by bartering them forelephant tusks. The Karamojong were hunt-ers and gathers before acquiring livestock.Groups known as Teuso in northern Kara-moja still value gathering.

Crossbreeding

There is crossbreeding between local ani-mals and other breeds. This occurs throughthe continual mixing of animals throughinteraction between the Karamojong andtheir neighbours. This interaction includescattle rustling, transhumance into theneighbouring districts for pasture and wa-ter in the dry season, trade, intermarriage,friendship, and return of stolen animals.The Karamojong do not enclose their ani-mals in paddocks; communal grazingleaves room for interbreeding.

Young people

While the youths love animals and activelyparticipate in acquiring them, they are get-ting reluctant to herd them. There is a grow-ing tendency to leave active herding to theyounger members of the community (boys)while warriors devote themselves to leisure,especially during peaceful times.

Acknowledgements

I would like to express my heartfelt grati-tude to Elders Philip Ichumar and AgustinoLongok of Namalu for the resourceful andencouraging discussions I had with themand to Lily Nakiru for providing me withthe facilities to process this paper.

References

Novelli, Bruno. 1988. Aspects ofKarimojong ethnosociology. MuseumComboniam 44, Kampala. ComboniMissionaries, Verona.

Novelli, B. 2000. Karimojong traditionalreligion: A contribution. Camboni Mis-sionaries, Kampala, Uganda.

MaasaiKenya and Tanzania

Vincent Yiapanon behalf of Maa livestock keepers inSamburu, Kajiado and Tanzania

TTTTThe Maa communityhe Maa communityhe Maa communityhe Maa communityhe Maa community keeps cattle,sheep and goats, donkeys, and cam-els (ranked in descending order of

prestige). The community keeps livestockfor a number of reasons, primarily as asource of livelihood but also for prestige,bartering, medicinal uses, clothing andattire, bedding and socioeconomic secu-rity.

Social and ritual functions

In terms of social and ritual functions, ani-mals are used for the following purposes:

• Blood to help a mother recover after de-livery of a newborn

• Paying bride price• Gifts to children as they go through the

rites of passage (for instance a newlymarried woman must be given eighthead of cattle and a bull on the morn-ing after reaching her marital home).

Livestock are slaughtered during cer-emonies, for convalescents and also forcleansing for various crimes. For instancefor murder the fine ranges from 49 to 449head of cattle, depending on the commu-nity and circumstances. Animals are alsoused to carry luggage, invalids and oldpeople.

Livestock play a central role in certainprominent rituals, such as:

• When an elder has conjugal relationswith his wife before their infant child hasstarted walking (or if he sleeps with herwhen she is pregnant and she aborts),the neighbouring womenfolk forcefullyslaughter a cow or ox. The large intes-

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tines of the ox are tied around the of-fending husband’s neck and then arepierced by women so that the contentsspill out over his body.

• He-goats are slaughtered in the cer-emony of Olkiteng’ 100 mbenek.

• Oxen are slaughtered and the hide ismade into a long string during the boy-hood ceremony of Enkipaaita. The stringwill be safely kept by the ox-donor boy’smother, whose son is named OloboruEnkeene. This hide string will be securelykept until that ceremony, eight yearslater when the age group goes for arite called Enkang’e nkeene.

• During the rite of Olketeng’ Lool baa, ablemished ox is slaughtered. Enkiyieu(Kidari) is shared in the ritual betweenthe two elders of the same age-group,after which two elders call each otherEnkiyieu ai. These two elders exchangeheifers and shall never disagree forwhatever reason.

• During the Eunoto ceremony when war-rior-hood is terminated.

• Also when the rains fail for long, anunblemished sheep is slaughtered tomake a burnt offering to God to cometo the community’s rescue with rains.

• During initiation of children, in somefamilies women slaughter a sheep at thedoor of the initiate’s hamlet or hut.

Among the Maa community, livestockand their products play a huge role in so-cial relations. One can hardly speak ofones ‘own livestock’, since these are ac-cessible to all community members. Forinstance, one is obliged to contribute live-stock for slaughter at one or another cer-emony or ritual. When an animal is slaugh-tered, the meat is allotted according to apredetermined pattern for consumption byboys, girls, women, fire-stick elders, ageset, intruders, the slaughtering group, theneighbours, etc. Even milk is for everyone’sconsumption – all for free. Food and ac-commodation are supposed to be offeredfree of charge to visitors. Each clan haspredetermined clan brand marks and ear-marks which they use to identify their cat-tle. This helps mitigate inter-clan conflicts

Breeding and selection

The Maa are well aware of the differentanimal breeds, among cattle notably theAnkole, Sukuma, Kamba, Kerio Valley,Sahiwal, and different European breeds.The Maa community has a special type ofthe African zebu, and discerning breederscannot only recognize animals belongingto this strain but also trace out the animals’lineage. Maa breeders have over time bredstrains of livestock with attributes which thecommunity values specifically:

• Maasai zebu cattle are resistant todrought and tropical livestock diseasesin general.

• Maasai zebu livestock can stand walk-ing long distances to watering points –in some cases 20 km.

• In drought, the livestock can survive for15 days or more without drinking wa-ter.

• Maasai livestock are aesthetically col-oured, without a single coloration pre-dominating.

• The quality of milk is sweeter and has amuch higher butterfat content than thatof exotic breeds. While the quantity islower, the quality far exceeds that ofmost exotic breeds.

• Red Maasai sheep are resistant to longspells of drought and to tick-borne dis-eases. They require little attention. TheMaasai have learnt how to treat ani-mals themselves with herbal medicine.

The Maa believe that cattle mirror thebehaviour of their owner. Indeed, they holdthat one can learn more about a man bylooking at his livestock than by looking atthe man himself, i.e. whether he is givento humility, cruelty, empathy, etc.

In the selection of breeding animals,certain qualities are sought after. The Maa-sai have a saying: Meetai Olaisinani IeMuleeni (one is never poor simply becausethe livestock he owns are small).

A good bull must be in good physicalhealth, have a good size, come from a

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good lineage (in terms of milking, survival,drought resistance, and fast growth), bedocile and have a good colour.

Myths and stories

According to Maa mythology, the first manprayed for livestock at night, and Godgranted his wish by making animals comeinto his compound. God asked the man totake as many as would come in. Out ofcuriosity, the man tried to count the numberof livestock coming into his kraal and wasso amazed by the numbers that he shriekedin sheer wonderment. There and then, theflow of livestock ceased. It is not knownhow many more livestock he stopped from‘flowing’ from nowhere into his kraal byshrieking. That is why Maasai herds arelimited in size. The Maasai have an ad-age, Midol Kimanya, which means one isnever really conscious of his state and hispossessions. (Only others know of the stateof one’s wealth, never oneself.)

The Maasai and cattle are inseparable.They say, tenenyamalu inkishu nenyamaluiltung’ana (if livestock are in trouble, so isman) and tenenyamalu Oltung’aninenyamalu inkishu (if man is distressed, soare livestock). In essence, the Maasai andlivestock fates are intertwined and both arebestowed with a common fate; in distressand in time of abundance, both rise andfall together.

Crossbreeding

There is a good deal of crossbreeding be-tween indigenous Maa breeds and exoticcattle varieties such as the Sahiwal,Simmental, Friesian, Jersey, Guernsey,Kamba, Sukuma and Luo. Nevertheless,there appears to obtain a state of geneticatavism that always throws the breed backto where it came from after a few genera-tions. This crossbreeding is not widespread,as the Maasai’s critical consideration inbreeding is drought resistance, which is al-ready well inculcated in indigenous breeds.

The red Maasai sheep has also beencrossed with the Dorper, and as a resultthe sheep are bigger and produce moremeat and fat.

Young people

Young people in the community have anambivalent attitude towards livestock keep-ing. Some find livestock keeping a veryhard life, especially those who have goneto school. Those who never ventured to intowestern education in general have noqualms about maintaining the livestockbreeding way of life

Other problems

Other problems faced by contemporaryMaa breeders include:

• Water shortages• Long spells of drought• Uncontrolled livestock diseases• Insufficient veterinary services• Counterfeit veterinary products• Reduction of rangeland for pastoralists• Poor marketing channels for livestock• Uncontrolled Tsetse fly menace• Emerging new livestock diseases.

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BoranSouthern Ethiopia andMarsabit district, Kenya

Philip Boru HalakePastoralist, Marsabit, Kenya

TTTTThere are four major communitieshere are four major communitieshere are four major communitieshere are four major communitieshere are four major communities inthis region: Rendille, Gabra, Boranand Burji. All these communities are

pastoralists except the Burji, who are agro-pastoralists.

These communities reside in the north-ern tip of Kenya’s Eastern Province, cover-ing the region that lies between Lake Tur-kana to the west, and Moyale to the east.To the north, the region extends to south-ern Ethiopia, as far as Yavelo and Nageka.The total population in Marsabit district isestimated at 130,000 persons.

Animal breeds

• CamelsCamelsCamelsCamelsCamels Gabra and Rendille breeds• GoatsGoatsGoatsGoatsGoats Black Headed Persian, Galla,

and Small East African varieties• DonkeysDonkeysDonkeysDonkeysDonkeys Breeds of Turkana origin.• DogsDogsDogsDogsDogs Shanzi dogs.

Livestock uses

• CamelsCamelsCamelsCamelsCamels Valued as pack animals andfor tehir meat and milk; they are alsoused to pay dowry. The butter fromcamel milk is also highly valued.

• GoatsGoatsGoatsGoatsGoats Can be easily sold for cash asthey reproduce fast; also valued for theirmilk, meat and hides.

• SheepSheepSheepSheepSheep Valued for their fat and meat;also used for religious ceremonies.

• DonkeysDonkeysDonkeysDonkeysDonkeys Mainly used as pack ani-mals; also sold for cash and barteredfor other commodities.

• DogsDogsDogsDogsDogs Kept for security purposes.

Social significance

To be recognized as a Gabra or Rendille,one must be the legitimate owner of acamel; each household must have a camel.To the Boran, however, camel keeping is anewly acquired practice. In Ethiopia, bushencroachment on pasturelands has re-duced pasture for the cattle, and raised theimportance of camels as they are hardierand more resistant to drought. They arealso used for ploughing. Sheep are usedby all communities in the region for vari-ous rituals such as Sorio and at the sight-ing of the new moon.

Male goats are slaughtered by age setsat prayers for rain, blessings, and duringcircumcisions.

A true Borana must have been given afew cattle by his father, eg Some Handura.

Donkeys and dogs have no social sig-nificance.

Rituals

Camels are slaughtered when a prominentold person dies in the society. No majorceremony can be conducted without cam-els.

Goats and sheep are slaughtered at thecircumcision of age sets, prayers for peace,at the sighting of the new moon and forSorios .

Cattle have a variety of ritual uses:

• The naming of a child• Gadamoja ceremonies• Payment of dowry• Slaughtered at Gumi Gaayo confer-

ences• Weather prediction (by looking at the

intestines of slaughtered cattle)• Butter is used to make ointments and

for anointing.

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Special attributes of animals

Camels are good pack animals. They arevery hardy, especially the Rendile variety.The Somali camel is less hardy.

Gabra Galla goats are very hardy andgood for milk and meat production. Theyare able to go for five days without wateras opposed to the weaker Somali Galla.The Small East Africa goat is valued for itsfaster breeding rate. The Black Head Per-sian goat is valued for its fat accumula-tions in the tail.

Cattle varieties such as the Boran aredrought- and tick-resistant. They also havea high body conversion rate as opposedto the East African zebu.

Donkeys are very hardy. As pack ani-mals they are able to tread where camelsare unable to.

Dogs kept by the communities are alsovery hardy and can go for days withoutfood.

Selection of breeding animals

The following qualities are sought in theselection of breeding animals.

• High growth rate• High milk yield• Adaptability to harsh conditions• Big body size and good body structure• In camels, the ability to carry a lot of

baggage.

In the selection of the male, the followingadditional qualities are also sought;

• High survival rate of offspring• Good body structure and large mature

size in the offspring• Hardiness• High milk yield in female offspring.

The communities distinguish differenttypes of animals, based on characteristics

such as milk yield, body structure, colour,hardiness, strength, etc. There is also agood degree of crossbreeding betweenlocal and ‘foreign’ breeds of animals.

Young people

While livestock is the lifeline of these com-munities, and they cannot live withoutthem, there is a problem of young peoplemoving away to towns, threatening this wayof life.

The communities also have varied opin-ions on policy matters, such as land de-marcation and herd sizes, which have greatimplications for the viability of pastoralism.Within the community, the young peopleare shying away from pastoralism, leav-ing the old and those who have retired, tocarry on.

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BahimaUganda

Helen N NakimbugweNational Animal Genetic ResourcesCentre and Data Bank, Uganda

Charles MuchunguziMbarara University of Science and Tech-nology, Mbarara, Uganda

IIIIIndiscriminate crossbreeding ndiscriminate crossbreeding ndiscriminate crossbreeding ndiscriminate crossbreeding ndiscriminate crossbreeding of cattle inUganda calls for an urgent need to con-serve our local genetics, among which

is the Ankole longhorned cattle breed. Insitu conservation of this breed can only besuccessful in collaboration with the heredi-tary keepers of this breed viz. the Bahimapastoralists. It is therefore imperative thattheir rights as inherent breeders of thepresent day Ankole cattle are protected.

The Ankole cattle belong to the Sangagroup of cattle that is indigenous to thecentral and eastern regions of Africa, andin Uganda to the western and southwest-ern parts of the country. It is classified asan intermediate Bos indicus / Bos taurusbreed type, with a small cervicothorocichump. It has a relatively large body frameand characteristically long and large hornsthat curve outwards and upwards and fi-nally inwards. About 2% of the membersof this breed type are thought to be polled(Sacker et.al., 1966; Kiwuwa, 1995).

The Bahima are ethnic pastoralist cat-tle keepers within the Banyankore tribe.They are found in the southwestern part ofUganda, in part of the cattle corridor thattraverses Uganda from the northeast to thesouthwest. This corridor was used by pas-toralists (the Bahima and Karamajongtribes) in their search for both water andpasture. The increasing pressure on landhas, however, highly restricted pastoralmovements within the corridor, and is forc-ing the Bahima to a sedentary lifestyle.

Bahima’s relationship with cattle

Ankole cattle play a central role in the livesof the Bahima. Anthropologists have de-scribed the relationship between man andcattle in cattle-herding societies as the ‘cat-tle complex’ (an extensive ritual usage ofcattle with an emotional attachment to oridentification with cattle). One can speakof a cattle complex as being ‘strongly’ or‘weakly’ developed on the basis of whetherthere is an intensive and extensive use ofcattle in the promotion and satisfaction ofthe biological and social life of a people(Klima, 1970). Based on this description,the Bahima can be described as having astrong cattle complex.

Museveni (1997), the current Presidentof the Republic of Uganda and areknowned Ankole cattle breeder, describesthe relationship of his tribesmen with cat-tle as follows:

‘They are like members of our families andwe treat them intimately. For instance, wehave a brush called enkuyo, which we useto clean and massage the cow, a processwe call okuragaza. This is done for most ofthe milking cows, but also for favouritesamongst them. It is a form of communicat-ing with them and they enjoy it very much.A cow will follow you everywhere if youmassage it with that brush. I have a greatpersonal feeling for my cows, especially theones whose ancestors have been in ourfamily for a very long time. They are likecousins and sisters to me. I think if I ac-quired other cows they would not mean asmuch to me. I do not have the same feelingfor the exotic breeds from Europe, but per-haps over time they will become likeadopted children and we shall like them.’

Herd management

To ease management of herds and as aform of herd recording, animals are givenindividual names, which precisely describethem. These descriptions are based onphenotypic characteristics (coat colour and

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patterns, sex, shape of the horns, specialmarks or distinguishing features), behav-iour, and others characteristics, includingancestry, association with a special eventand mode of acquisition (e.g. a gift).

This precise description (Infield, 2003)enables a single animal in the herd to bepicked out with ease. A name’s prefix indi-cates whether an animal is a heifer, a cowor a bull. For heifers, names start with Ka,for bulls whether young or old with an R,and for cows any other letter, except forthe brown-white coloured cow calledRuhuzumu (Table 1).

Cognition of coat colour among theBahima is very fine. For example, namesof coat colour patterns (e.g., spots orpatches) are given according to size, con-centration, prominence, distribution andlocality. Infield (2003) notes that being ableto distinguish between the light brown(siina) and the dark brown (mbindi), makesit possible for breeders to select the rightcows and bulls to produce animals of thefavoured dark reddish brown colour(bihogo).

This fine description of an individualanimal makes it possible for the Bahimato trace back the genealogical relationshipsof their cattle as far back as ten genera-tions.

Breeding qualities

Great care is taken in selecting the bull ofthe herd (engundu). Museveni (1997)points out that eating of male calves is ineffect a method of breeding control as onlythe best males are preserved for breedingpurposes. There is hardly any selectionpressure on female animals. Table 2 out-lines the qualities which are generally con-sidered in selecting of a breeder bull.

Social-economic significance

The strong cattle complex of the Bahima isreflected in the various components of theirsocial economic life.

Uses

NutritionNutritionNutritionNutritionNutrition Cattle products play a very im-portant role in the nutrition of the Bahima.Museveni (1997) recalls the eating habitsof the Bahima during his childhood:

‘Before my family became Christian, we didnot eat any non-cattle products. The mainstaple of our diet was various types of milk– fresh milk, soured milk, and, once in awhile, a kind of thick cream called eshabwewhich we would eat with steamed bananas.We also ate cattle blood – we would bleedthe cattle and bake the blood into a typeof cake. In my culture at that time, eatingnon-cattle food was considered shameful.Sometimes you could eat solid food, but youwould have to wait until it was out of yourdigestive system before you were allowedto drink milk again. Mixing the two wassupposed to be very bad for the cows! Wewould also eat veal once in a while, espe-cially if the cows produced male calves.Adult cows would only be killed for a bigceremony, never for regular food.’

Although the eating habits of theBahima are changing, remnants of suchhabits are still very strong within the com-munity.

WWWWWealth and prestigeealth and prestigeealth and prestigeealth and prestigeealth and prestige A man who at histime of death has less than 100 animals isnot accorded due respect at his burial. Forevery 100 animals one has, an iron bell(omurebe) is tied around one of the favour-ite animals in the herd. More bells in theherd mean more animals and thereforemore wealth and prestige.

Social securitySocial securitySocial securitySocial securitySocial security To avert risk, especiallyduring epidemics, owners give animals tofriends and relatives, or lend them the ani-mals to raise. If the owner’s herd facesproblems, the friends and relatives helphim rebuild his herd.

LLLLLoansoansoansoansoans Cattle are used as loans. Thelender can often later demand another cowin return.

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TTTTTable 1. Examples of descriptive names of the Ankole cattleable 1. Examples of descriptive names of the Ankole cattleable 1. Examples of descriptive names of the Ankole cattleable 1. Examples of descriptive names of the Ankole cattleable 1. Examples of descriptive names of the Ankole cattle

Phenotypic description

Feature Description Heifer(name beginswith Ka)

Bull (young oradult, beginswith R)

Cow (beginswith otherletter)

Dark reddish brown (favour-ite colour)Light brown with black andbrown stripes (associatedwith taboos in some clanse.g. Abasingo)WhiteVery black (least favourite)White patch/spot onforeheadWhite patch over mouthSingle white patch on udderSmall spots distributedallover the bodyBig humpLong umblical flapWide head like of a buffaloLarge white horns frombase to tipsHorns curve in tightlyLoose horns falling down-wardsSmall, slightly protrudinghornsPolled – no hornsHorns broken at the tipsBranded on side of face

Kahogo

Kagoobe

KasaKoziKaasha

KashomeroKahuugaKayenje

KabangoKarombaKabogoKashunga

KakomeKashara

Kakurura

KakunguKachwekaKaranga

Ruhogo

Rugoobe

RusaRwoziRwaasha

RushomeroRuhuugaRuyenje

RubangoRurombaRubogoRushunga

RukomeRushara

Rukurura

RukunguRuchwekaRuranga

Bihogo

Ngoobe

KisaKyoziKyaasha

KishomeroMpuugaMayenje

IbangoKirombaMbogoBishunga

KikomeNshara

Bukurura

NkunguKichwekaKiranga

Colour

Colourpatterns

Form

Shape ofhorns

Marks –natural orman made

Feature MeaningExample of name

Kahogo (dark red brown heifer), ka (from/of/born to),Ibango (cow with big hump) (ie, Dark red brown heiferborn to cow with a big hump

Kahogo ka IbangoAncestry

Kahogo (dark red brown heifer), ka (from/of),Nuwenkunda (name of a person) ie, Dark red brownheifer from Nuwenkunda. This heifer might have beengiven to the owner by Nuwenkunda as a present, on aloan, etc.)

Kahogo ka NuwenkundaMode ofacquisition

Gaaju (light brown), ga (of), kyarwenkuba (heavyrainfall/ thunderstorm) (ie, Light brown cow born oracquired during times of heavy rainfall or thunder-storm)

Gaaju ga kyarwenkubaEvent

Kashemeza Rushemeza IshemezaCharacter or behaviourAnimal with many desired traits, e.g. goodtemperament, graceful gait, good fertility etc.–almost perfect

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TTTTTable 2. Selection criteria of breeding bullsable 2. Selection criteria of breeding bullsable 2. Selection criteria of breeding bullsable 2. Selection criteria of breeding bullsable 2. Selection criteria of breeding bulls

FeatureHorns

Colour

BodyNeckDewlapChestHump

Coat colourRumpHooves

LegsTesticles

Penile sheathRudimentary teatsof the bullTemperamentMilk productionMilk quality

Desirable characteristicsLarge, long, heavy, well balanced, wetglow on them, white all the way to thetips, graceful curving (outwards andupwards and finally inwards –Orukondo)Varies but the favourite one is darkreddish brown – bihogoBig and tallBigBigWide, straight, firmSmall

Not dry, smooth, shinyWide and beefyBig

Long and bigBig and equal in size

BigBig

GoodHighHigh butterfat

RemarksHowever perfect a cow may be in otherregards, if it does not have good horns itcannot be considered beautiful. Black cowsare avoided because it is almost impossiblefor them to have glowing white hornsIdeal is a single, unbroken colour

Belief is that the bigger the hump the morefeed is wasted by being stored there

Belief that animals with big hooves give highmilk producing offspringAble to move long distancesBull with one testicle highly valued becauseof belief it will have many female offspring

Believed to produce offspring with high milkproduction

On basis of pedigreeOn basis of pedigree

Building materialsBuilding materialsBuilding materialsBuilding materialsBuilding materials Cow dung and hidesare used in building of huts.

FFFFFeasts and recreationeasts and recreationeasts and recreationeasts and recreationeasts and recreation Animals, especiallybulls, are slaughtered during feasts or cel-ebrations. It is believed that when the headof the family dies he must die with his bigbull in the kraal. So during the funeral feastthe bull is slaughtered and feasted on bythe mourners.

Songs, recitals and dances depictinglove for Ankole cattle are a must. The mostpopular song is the Akahogo (Kahogo isthe favourite dark reddish brown animal).Singers sit in a linear form facing in onedirection with arms raised upwards andslowly moving them forward in a move-ment which depicts the preferred shape ofhorns of the Ankole animal (Orukondo).

Poetry recitations always depict the valueand significance of the cow to the Bahima.In a rhyme tone one recites the lineage ofthe cow that brought wealth to his familyor a cow that was got from a true or closefriend. The art of wrestling is also an imi-tation of bull fighting.

Medicine and detergentMedicine and detergentMedicine and detergentMedicine and detergentMedicine and detergent Various concoc-tions of cattle products are used as medi-cine for man. For example cow urine mixedwith milk (kashumba) is used as a laxative.Morning urine (amaganga) from cattle isused as a detergent to clean milk pots, inconcortion with herbs as a mouth wash,for skin infections, etc.

Clothing and beddingClothing and beddingClothing and beddingClothing and beddingClothing and bedding Use of hides asclothing has completely died out. Their useas beddings, however, is not uncommon.

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Settling disputesSettling disputesSettling disputesSettling disputesSettling disputes Cattle is used as a formof compensation to the offended party(empongano).

GiftsGiftsGiftsGiftsGifts Most gifts given out to friends andrelatives, or at special occasions like birthof a child and marriage, revolve aroundcattle. For example Omugamba – a spe-cial marriage present – which is given tothe bride by her parents must include awooden bucket for fetching water from thewell to the cattle trough, a large calabashfor storing fermented milk which is churnedto produce ghee, milk pots equivalent tothe number of cows paid as bride price,and a ceramic pot with a special type ofgrass (obwitizo) whose smoke when burntgives a good aroma to the milk pot.

Bride priceBride priceBride priceBride priceBride price Bride price is paid in form ofin-calf heifers or cows which have had atleast one calving. This is to ensure that theanimals received are fertile. Bulls are notaccepted.

Rituals and religionRituals and religionRituals and religionRituals and religionRituals and religion Examples of ritualsassociated with cattle include a spiritualceremony comparable to baptizing babies.A baby boy sits on a cow with a bow, ar-row and a rope (okuta aha mugongo). It isbelieved that this imparts warrior qualitiesin the boy.

Communication with ancestors to giveblessings to the family herd is very impor-tant. Milk from the cow of a family’s de-ceased father is put in the household shrinebuilt next to the main house. The followingis recited: ‘See the milk of the cow, father.You should give your cows a chance to pro-duce, multiply and become many.’

Myths

There are numerous myths related to cat-tle. One is the story of the creation of LakeNyabihoko. There once lived a man calledMutomo who had many herds of cattle.An epidemic struck and killed all his cattleexcept one of his heifers called Kayenje.Mutomo walked it to distant places so thatit could conceive. Kayenje, whose name

later became Mayenje, had many off-spring, which restored Mutomo’s wealth.One day Mayenje called Mutomo and toldhim that if she were to die, she should beburied and not eaten. But Mayenje diedwhen Mutomo was away visiting his friend,Mwamba. Mutomo’s family never heededMayenje’s instructions, and started to eather. Suddenly the whole of Mutomo’s landturned into Lake Nyabihoko and his fam-ily and all his property drowned.

Customarily it is not considered right toslaughter and eat an animal which hasgiven many offspring. Such animals are leftto die of old age and are just buried.

Future of the Bahima

The rising pressure on land due to grow-ing populations, coupled with governmentpolicies which advocate sedentarizationand conservation of wildlife in traditionalpastoral areas, are a great threat to no-madic pastoral production systems. Thegeneral apathy of the youths towards thisform of lifestyle aggravates the situation.Infield (2003) notes that it is sad but per-haps inevitable, that young Banyankore/Bahima today are less interested in thebeauty of their famed longhorned cowsthan their parents are. Many cattle keep-ers are worried that the loss of their pasto-ral culture will eventually lead to the lossof the longhorned Ankole itself.

The cow in Runyankore is called ente.The interpretation of the word is synony-mous with a Runyankore word Entahabi (‘ittakes me to difficult places/situations’). Thisrefers to the demands the cow puts on itsowner. Today’s chips-and-chicken genera-tion that has been exposed to city life inpursue of formal education cannot acceptto be subjected to the demands of lookingafter the Ankole cow.

Internationally, the Bahima are not ac-corded much attention as pastoralists incomparison to their contemporaries theKaramajong. This is reflected in the lack ofcomprehensive pastoral development pro-

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grammes in the part of the cattle corridorin which they live in.

Breeding rights

The Bahima by ancestry identify themselveswith the Ankole cattle and have contrib-uted a lot in developing this breed. But howshould their rights be protected? Whoshould protect them? Section 35(1) of theAnimal Breeding Act (2001) states that

’Any person who sells for breeding, anybreed or genetic material under a descrip-tion other than its patent name, commitsan offence.

Section 35(2) defines patent name asthe name given to a specific variety of breedor genetic material by its originator or dis-coverer. In the case of the Bahima, can theybe considered as the originator of thebreed? If a scientist discovers a unique genein the Ankole, can he/she claim rights tothis gene alone? What legal options wouldbest protect the rights of indigenous live-stock keepers and breeders? Is it throughan intellectual property rights regime or asui generis system? Although Uganda hasmoved further than its neighbours in re-gard to genetic material rightsin by havingan Animal Breeding Act in place, there arestill a lot of unanswered questions and is-sues to be addressed.

Collaboration with institutions

In the face of neo-liberal policies like pri-vatization, the Ugandan government inconjuction with other stakeholders deemedit necessary to entrust an institution (the Na-tional Animal Genetic Resources Centreand Data Bank, or NAGRC&DB) with pro-tecting and guarding the national interestin animal breeding. This is more so espe-cially as regards the conservation and uti-lization of local genetics which in the shortterm are not profitable and so are not at-tractive to the private sector.

Through its Ankole Open NucleusBreeding programme, which is to involve

Bahima pastoralists, NAGRC&DB is spear-heading efforts to conserve the Ankole cat-tle which are under threat from massivecrossbreeding with exotic breeds. The pro-gramme involves the multiplication of su-perior animals at a central farm, theNshaara Ranch. These animals will thenbe distributed to farmers. The farmers’ bestanimals are to be brought back to the cen-tral farm for further breeding. The best bullswill then be recruited for semen produc-tion in the bull stud. Ex-situ conservationof Ankole cattle in form of semen storageis already going on at the Centre.

Conclusion

As with many other indigenous livestockbreeders, there is an urgent need to safe-guard the rights of the Bahima peoplewhose essence in life revolves around theAnkole. Their contribution to the develop-ment of the Ankole cattle is undisputed,and they are major stakeholders in theconservation of this breed. However, mar-ket forces are forcing the Bahima to lookbeyond the beauty of their cattle, prompt-ing them to allow into their herds moreproductive exotic genes in terms of meatand milk. Unfortunately, this on-going in-discriminate crossbreeding with exoticbreeds poses a major threat to the reveredlonghorned cattle. Through NAGRC&DB,the government of Uganda is making ef-forts to cater for all interests related to theconservation, utilization and profitability ofthe Ankole cattle.

References

Acts Supplement (2001) The Animal Breed-ing Act. The Uganda Gazette 94:No.36.

Ainomugisha, A (2001) ‘Traditional formsand use of snuff among Bahima inNyabushozi Uganda’. BA Thesis,Mbarara University of Science and Tech-nology.

Infield, M, Rubagyema, P, Muchunguzi, C(2003) The names of Ankole cows.Fountain Publishers, Kampala, Uganda.

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Kisamba Mugerwa. W. (1992) Rangelandtenure and resource management: Anoverview of pastoralism in Uganda,Makerere Institute of Social Research.

Klima (1970) The Barabaig: East Africancattle herders. Holt, Rinehart andWinston, USA.

Kiwuwa GH (1995). ‘Dairy cattle breedingactivities in Sub-saharan Africa: An in-terpretive review’. Paper presented atthe first workshop of the National Cat-tle Breeding Policy Committee,Makerere University.

Muchunguzi, C (2002) ‘The challenges ofintegrating indigenous people in pro-tected area management: A case studyof Bahima pastoralists and Lake MburoNational Park in Nyabushozi, Uganda’,MA Thesis, Mbarara University of Sci-ence and Technology.

Muhereza, EF (2001) ‘Ranches restructur-ing and changing gender relations inpastoral households in the former An-kole Ranching Scheme, Uganda’. Work-ing Paper 70/2001, Center for Basic Re-search Kampala.

Museveni, YK (1997) Sowing the mustardseed. Macmillan.

Sacker, GD, Trail, JCM (1966) ‘A note onmilk production of the Ankole cattle inUganda’. Trop. Agric. Trin. 43: 247–50.


• Land tenure within the community iscommunal, but more and more is be-ing surveyed and individual title deedsgranted. Within this process, some com-munity members have been given smallplots because they have under-reportedthe size of their herds.

• Those animals not eaten by the com-munity are kept for food for visitors fromcommunities with no objection to eatigthem.

• President Museveni’s love for cattle hasaided the cause of the pastoral com-munities, but they still face problems as-sociated with sedentarization.

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Orog NuurMongolia

Mendbaatar Osorjin andDashdamba Damdin

MMMMMongoliaongoliaongoliaongoliaongolia’s 1’s 1’s 1’s 1’s 1 565565565565565 000 km000 km000 km000 km000 km22222 arehome to 2.6 million people and26 million livestock. From an early

point in history Mongolian herders havebeen mobile and herding five kinds of ani-mals (horses, cattle, camels, sheep andgoats), according to natural conditions(pasture growth, drinking water and cli-mate).

The Orog Nuur herders’ community is lo-cated in Bogd soum, Bayankhongoraimag. This region is desert and mountainsteppe. The community has 35 members.The community’s objectives are to protectnature and improve their habitat, improvetheir livestock quality, livelihoods and worktogether, and to improve their skills andknowledge about nature protection.

The community’s main problems in-clude:

• Lack of information, cooperation andcoordination, local institutions

• Lack of opportunities for processing andvalue addition

• Lack of access to services, credit, andmarkets

Community members work together toprepare for the winter, hay making andfodder gathering, the selective use and pro-tection of pasture land, and the repair ofwells and protection of the water suppliesand springs .

There have been five recent historicalperiods in livestock development:

• Pre-1921 revolution• Revolutionary period and the develop-

ment of animal breeding until the Sec-ond World War (1921–40)

• Collectivization movement (1941–59)• Collective and state farm period (1960–

90)• Present and future status of animal

breeding after privatization.

Breeding and selection

The herders use both crossbreeding (horse–donkey, cattle–yak) and pure breedingmethods. Selection criteria for males in-clude the following:

LLLLLocal Mongolian bullsocal Mongolian bullsocal Mongolian bullsocal Mongolian bullsocal Mongolian bulls

• HairHairHairHairHair Dark brown and very dark insome body parts

• TTTTTailailailailail Long and thick• SkinSkinSkinSkinSkin Thick• Short body body body body body and wide muzzlemuzzlemuzzlemuzzlemuzzle• HornsHornsHornsHornsHorns Thick, strong and short• NeckNeckNeckNeckNeck Strong, wide and with very well

developed muscles• BreastBreastBreastBreastBreast Wide, deeply positioned• CrestCrestCrestCrestCrest Structured, straight and long• HeadHeadHeadHeadHead Straight and high• ThighThighThighThighThigh Thick shaped• AbdomenAbdomenAbdomenAbdomenAbdomen Strong and well-muscled• TTTTTesticlesesticlesesticlesesticlesesticles Well positioned.

StallionsStallionsStallionsStallionsStallions

• SkinSkinSkinSkinSkin Dark black, dark brown is mostsuitable

• TTTTTailailailailail Wide and hair long and thick• Top of the head head head head head wide and wide nostrilsnostrilsnostrilsnostrilsnostrils• EarsEarsEarsEarsEars Long, eyelashes thickened• EyesEyesEyesEyesEyes Open, bright and dark• NeckNeckNeckNeckNeck Thick, sternum lifted• ChestChestChestChestChest Well muscled and strong• WithersWithersWithersWithersWithers High positioned and strong

muscled• RibsRibsRibsRibsRibs Round shaped• RumpRumpRumpRumpRump Well muscled and a bit bulg-

ing, not flat• Wide hipshipshipshipships, long penispenispenispenispenis.

CamelsCamelsCamelsCamelsCamels

• HairHairHairHairHair Deep reddish or dark brown hair• Good, muscular bodybodybodybodybody• Long thick body hairbody hairbody hairbody hairbody hair, strongly developed

kneeskneeskneeskneesknees

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The body shape and general outlookplay important role too. The main charac-teristics are:

• BreastBreastBreastBreastBreast Wider than the general bodyshape

• HeadHeadHeadHeadHead Strong and carried high• TTTTTeetheetheetheetheeth Strong and well presented• NeckNeckNeckNeckNeck Strong and wide, strong mus-

cles on front side of neck• EyesEyesEyesEyesEyes Big, round shaped and with a soft

outlook• TTTTTracksracksracksracksracks Should be equal and have clear

and clean outline• HoovesHoovesHoovesHoovesHooves Strong, thick structured and

have a dark colour• FFFFFront legsront legsront legsront legsront legs Strong and wide, shaped

straight with well developed muscles• TTTTTesticlesesticlesesticlesesticlesesticles Well developed and posi-

tioned• Base of humphumphumphumphump should be wide, humps

should be far apart, and proportionatelynot too high, strong abdominal mus-cles.

Goat bucksGoat bucksGoat bucksGoat bucksGoat bucks

Adult males must be at least 1.5 years oldbefore they are used for breeding. Oldanimals, or new animals without a breed-ing history, should not be selected. Themain reason is because such animals areslow to gain weight and grow, so theyweaken the herd structure. Young malesto be selected for future breeding must re-ceive the full amount of the mother’s milk,so the mothers are not milked. Male goatscannot be used in breeding in one herdfor more than 3 years.

SheepSheepSheepSheepSheep

The wool structure of selected sheep mustbe fine, evenly distributed and curled. Mon-golian sheep have fat tails. The tail has tobe wide, big and long (almost reaching thehollow behind the knee joint). The animalmust be healthy and strong so it has goodchances of survival.

Environmental changes

• Degrading pasture• Sand movement• Falling lake levels• Rivers drying up• Change in local weather patterns.

Strengths and weaknesses oflivestock

• Breeding methods• Low inputs• Ecologically pure products• Livestock raw materials• Selective use of pasture• Dependence on nature and vulnerable

to disaster• Limited possibility to increase livestock

productivity• Pasture degradation.

Government and other support

The government recently took the initiativein livestock breeding, organizing breedingprogrammes, making investments, pass-ing resolutions and laws, and so on. In April1993, the parliament passed a law on the‘Protection of the health of Mongolian live-stock and its gene-bank’. This sets downkey points for the regulation and organi-zation of animal breeding in Mongolia. Ac-cording to this law, existing highly produc-tive nucleus herds are to be kept undergovernment control, and nucleus herds ofindigenous livestock are to be restored.

National government programmes aimto protect livestock health and improve thequality of livestock and breeding services.The government implements many projectsfor improving livestock quality and liveli-hoods.

Our project uses a participatory, peo-ple-centred, process-oriented approach toempower local communities to build sus-tainable livelihoods, and to develop stake-holder consensus on sustainable, collabo-rative management of natural resources.

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RaikaWestern India

Hanwant Singh RathoreLokhit Pashu-Palak Sansthan, India

TTTTThe Raika/Rebarihe Raika/Rebarihe Raika/Rebarihe Raika/Rebarihe Raika/Rebari are the largest pas-toral group in western India (about1.5 million people in Rajasthan). They

breed camels, sheep, goats and cattle. Theyare largely landless, relying on short- andlong-term migration to seek pasture fortheir animals. They live mostly in Rajasthanand Gujarat, but also migrate into otherstates (Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,Punjab).

Our research is mostly with Godwarsubgroup in Pali and Sirohi district, Rajas-than.

Livestock

CamelsCamelsCamelsCamelsCamels The Raika originally looked af-ter the camel breeding herds of the Maha-rajahs. They believe they were created byLord Shiva to take care of the first camel.

The Raika in Sirohi district have devel-oped the ‘Nari’,cattle which had not beendocumented by scientists. Nari cattle de-fend their calves against leopards andknow practically no diseases.

SheepSheepSheepSheepSheep The Raika are breeders of the Botisheep (scientific name: Marwari breed)which can endure droughts and alwayskeep walking (even on three legs).

GoatsGoatsGoatsGoatsGoats The Sirohi goat (locally calledMajetti) is also associated with the Raikacommunity. It was recognized as more pro-ductive than exotic goats from Switzerlandin the Indo-Swiss goat project.

Social and ritual meaning

The Raika give animals as dowry (dhamini).Traditionally, female animals were neversold, only exchanged at the time of mar-

riages or during crises. Male breeding ani-mals are often shared. During marriageceremonies, the bridegroom has to sit ona camel.

Crossbreeding

Nari cattle are kept pure. It is felt that cross-breeding (with other local breeds) will af-fect their drought resistance.

There is a lot of crossbreeding of sheepbetween local breeds, but it is recognizedthat higher productivity is at the expenseof drought resistance and makes the herdmore vulnerable.

Young people

Many young men are attracted by the city,but they have problems finding employ-ment. They sometimes come back and starta herd. There are also some very dedicatedbreeders among the young people.

Activities of LPPS

LPPS’s activities include:

• Standing up against corruption.• Public interest litigation against the For-

est Department (the camel is becominga threatened species).

• Linking issue of wildlife conservation toconservation of indigenous livestock.

Problems

Because they have no land, the Raika aremost dependent on forests for grazing. Butforesters see the Raika’s sheep, goats andcamels as destructive – although it is thetwo-legged animal that causes most dam-age. According to the management plan,the Forestry Department wants to prohibitgrazing during the rainy season, when theRaika have no other place to go.

External benefits of pastoralism

Local non-pastoralists benefit from theRaika in various ways:

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Alsipura Statement

Issued by the Indian Pastoralists andHerders Association on 23 March2002

Members of pastoral communitiesfrom all over India, includingChangpa, Raika/ Rebari, Gujjar,Toda, Dhangar, Malaimadu cattlebreeders, Kurma sheep breeders,Vembur sheep breeders, AndhraPradesh Sheep and Goat Rearers’ As-sociation as well as national and in-ternational NGOs seeking to protectthe interests of pastoralists and otherlivestock rearers, met at the Trainingcentre of Lokhit Pashu Palak Sansthanin Alsipura (near Sadri, District Pali,Rajasthan, India) on 22–23 March,2002 to discuss their mutual prob-lems and exchange experiencesabout their situations.

Pastoralists play an important rolein the ecology of India. Their produc-tion of organic manure contributes tothe maintenance of soil fertility. Theirgrazing controls invasive exotic spe-cies. Contrary to their reputation,pastoralists have many traditionalpractices for conserving vegetation,for instance by rotational grazing.

Pastoralists play an important roleon the conservation of indigenouslivestock breeds (such as one humpedcamel, Toda buffalo, Nari andMalaimadu cattle, Deccani sheep),while Adivasis conserve valuablepoultry genetic resources (Aseelchicken). These breeds harbour awide variety of adaptive traits, beingable to cope with harsh climates andlandscapes and resisting diseases thataffect crossbred animals. It is impera-tive to conserve them.

• Camels are important means of trans-portation for many of the most margin-alized social groups, and an ecologi-cally friendly source of draught power.

• The agricultural productivity of the areaoutside sanctuary depends on dungfrom pastoralists’ herds.

• Nari cows and bulls are sought after bysmall farmers.

Making life difficult or impossible for pas-toralists will have negative effects beyondthe boundaries of the pastoralist society,and will have a negative impact on otherrural people, on domestic biodiversity, andon national economies.

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strength and sturdiness. This breed is suit-able for marshy rice fields of the CauveryDelta region. It has a medium sized bul-lock with compact body and short legs. Theudder is not well developed. The animalyields up to 3 litres of milk per milking witha lactation period of 6–10 months. The ani-mal requires minimal maintenance and itthrives on paddy straw. It is a hardy,drought- and disease-resistant animal.

UsesUsesUsesUsesUses Umbalacherry bullocks are used forwetland ploughing and transport of mate-rial through bullock carts. The animals areallowed to graze on paddy stubbles in har-vested fields. During the off-season (whenthere is no crop in the field) the animalsare herded in open pasture and pennedat night to gather manure for the fields.Typically, a herdsman will look after a herdof 400–500 animals on terms mutuallyagreed between the animal owner and theherdsman. The owner also pays a chargeof about 1 rupee to the landowner for useof his pastures and pens.

FFFFFactors affecting cattle populationactors affecting cattle populationactors affecting cattle populationactors affecting cattle populationactors affecting cattle population Accessto drinking water and grazing lands aremajor problems. For example, in theThalaignayiru block of Nagapattinam dis-trict, cattle ponds that were created forwatering animals are uncared for or havebeen encroached on.

Grazing land land is being encroachedby local farmers. Mechanization of tilling,the cost of maintaining bullocks and highwages threaten the existence of the breed.

Kangeyam cattle

Kangeyam cattle are a well-known draughtbreed from Tamil Nadu. The breed was de-veloped by crossing local cattle with AmrithMahal and Hilari breeds from Mysore. Thiswas a systematic breeding effort during the1900s by an individual family, the Pattagarof Palayamkottai (Nallathambi SarkaraiMandradiar) near Kangeyam village. Later,the breed became popular with farmersbelonging to the Gounder community inKangeyam, Dharapuram, Vellakoil,

Livestock breedersTamil Nadu, southernIndia

P. VivekananadanSEVA, India

TTTTThis paper describes his paper describes his paper describes his paper describes his paper describes four local breedsof cattle, two sheep breeds and a buf-falo breed in Tamil Nadi.

Umbalacherry cattle

Umbalacherry cattle are spread through-out Nagapattinam, Thiruvarur andThanjavur districts of Tamil Nadu. Thisbreed has four district biotypes: Attukkarimadu, Ganapathiyan madu, Venna maduand Sorriyankattu madu. These names re-flect the person or families’ maintaining thepurity of these breeds over 3–4 genera-tions. The estimated population is 20,000.

Origin mythsOrigin mythsOrigin mythsOrigin mythsOrigin myths Once upon a time a yogiwas in deep meditation. A farmer of thatvillage had a cattle, and he had coolies tolook after the cattle. One day when thecattle were brought to the shed for the nightone, cow was missing. This cow usuallycame to the shed an hour late. The cooliewas concerned about what the cow did inthis hour and the next day he followed it tofind out. The cow went straight to the yogiin meditation and fed the yogi with its milk.The coolie who saw this was frightened.On noticing this, the yogi caught hold ofthe cow’s forehead and blessed the cowsaying. ‘Since you have fed me with yourmilk and taken care of my hunger, fromtoday your breed will spread fromUmbalacherry. The world will speak of yourname and fame.’ That is why the cattle ofUmbalacheny have a white mark on theforehead, the place where the yogi blessedthe cow.

CharacteristicsCharacteristicsCharacteristicsCharacteristicsCharacteristics This breed has white fore-head, curved horns, short tail, white hoovesand large stomach. It is noted for its

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Kangeyam Thirupur, Palani, Karur,Perunthurai and Aravakurichi areas ofTamil Nadu. Many of these farmers havenow switched to sheep and goats.

Only about 60 breeding bulls true totype are left now, compared with 2000 bullsduring the 1950s. These bulls are main-tained in Nathakadayur village byPattayakar families. The total Kangeyamcattle population is estimated to be470 000.

Special qualitiesSpecial qualitiesSpecial qualitiesSpecial qualitiesSpecial qualities Kangeyam bullockswere used earlier for drawing water fromopen wells for irrigating garden crops. Theyare now used for ploughing and cartingfarm produce. Since the cows are low milkyielders, they are invariably crossed withJersey to improve milk yields. A pureKangeyam cow yields less than 2 litres ofmilk per day. It is usually culled after 12lactations. This breed is allowed to grazein korangadu pasture land.

Korangadu is a silvipasture system thatcovers thousands of acres and has existedfor centuries. It is a typical grass+legumepasture of mixed annuals and trees. It hasthe following species:

• Velamaram tree (Acacia leucophloea)• Kolukottai grass (Cenchrus ciliaris)• Vennampul (Trachys muricata)• Ottanpul (Seltaria vericulata)• Kurutupul (Cholris barbata)• Cholapul (Chrysopogon montanus)• Naripayathankodi (Phaseolus trilobus)• Seppunerinji (Indigofera enneaphylla)• Savarikodi (Merremia tridentate)• Poonapudukukodi (Crotalaria globosa)• Dadara (Borreria hispida)• Hariali (Cynodon dactylon)

The entire korangadu pasture land isfenced with thorny shrub mullukiluvai(Commiphora berryi). The land is ploughedonly every 3 years. The seeds of annualsare not sown each year, but only once whenthe land is newly converted into korangadu.Four acres of korangadu is enough tomaintain two adult cows and four calves

or 20 sheep. Animals kept on this land willnot have infertility problems. Thekorangadu pasture land provides grazingfrom November to January due to growthof grass during the northeast monsoonshowers. When there is no grass in the pas-ture land during March to June, the cattlefeed on the pods of Acacia leucophloea.

Social significanceSocial significanceSocial significanceSocial significanceSocial significance The cattle are giftedas Achi koduthal during the wedding of sis-ters’ daughters. During the time of PooPongal festivals, milk and curd are takenin new pots, and during Pattipongal festi-val, cattle, goat, grains, sugarcane and newpots are exchanged among relatives.

RitualsRitualsRitualsRitualsRituals Local people worship the cows atthe time of giving birth of young ones.Cattle shandy (Mattuthavany) is held an-nually once in Kannapuram village. It co-incides with the ‘temple car festival’(Therthiruvila) of Mariamman Temple onChithrapournami day – the full moon dayof the Tamil month of Chithirai (April–May).

SelectionSelectionSelectionSelectionSelection Selection of bulls is based onthe pedigree and phenotype of animals.When they are born, calves are red in col-our, but they later change to grey. The hornsare long and curve outwards and back-wards. One pair of bullocks can pull a cartloaded with about 2 tons of agriculturalproduce.

In males selected for breeding, the tailshould reach below the hock of the hindlegs, the horns should be long, and thetesticles located close together.

Male calves from cows in their 5th and6th lactations are preferred for breeding.Only calves with good growth rate are al-lowed to become bulls; others are cas-trated. Castration will be performed in theTamil month of Karthikai (November–De-cember) when the korangadu pasture landis green with grasses and pods of Acacialeucophloea.

CrossbreedingCrossbreedingCrossbreedingCrossbreedingCrossbreeding For higher milk yields,farmers have their cows inseminated with

47


Jersey/ Holstein Friesian semen. Due to in-creasing use of tractors and farm mecha-nization, draught bullocks are rarely used.

YYYYYoung peopleoung peopleoung peopleoung peopleoung people The younger generation isnot interested in maintaining traditionalbreeds of cattle. Some are using their pas-ture to rear sheep and crossbred milchanimals.

Role of governmentRole of governmentRole of governmentRole of governmentRole of government The announcementof a land ceiling has discouraged farmersfrom keeping large areas of grazing land,crucial for sustaining the cattle breed. Acalf-rearing scheme for providing youngcalves at subsidized rates has also beenwithdrawn.

Toda buffaloes

The Toda buffalo breed is associated withthe Toda tribal community in the Nilgiri Hillsof Tamil Nadu. There are 1200 Toda fami-lies living in the Nilgiris, and they keepabout 1500 Toda buffaloes. This breedsurvives the cold climate with temperaturesof 0–20°C at an altitude over 1500 mabove sea level.

Toda buffaloes are medium-sized ani-mals with short legs and long horns. Thehorns are usually set wide apart and arecurved inwards to form a semicircle. Fe-males yield 2–3 litres of milk per day.

Social significanceSocial significanceSocial significanceSocial significanceSocial significance Buffaloes are given asa gift to brides. Buffaloes are treated asfamily wealth and are passed on to sonsand daughters. At funerals, buffaloes weresacrificed as a gift to the dead person. It isbelieved that the soul of the buffaloes wouldaccompany the dead person to the nextworld.

RitualsRitualsRitualsRitualsRituals Buffalo ghee (clarified butter) isused as oil for lighting temple lamps. Atthe first new moon after childbirth, duringthe child’s naming ceremony, and duringthe salt-giving ceremony to children, thepresence of buffaloes is auspicious. Buffa-loes are essential for the spiritual world andthe social life of the Toda people.

SelectionSelectionSelectionSelectionSelection Male animals for breedingshould have stout and short legs, thick hair,a wide forehead, long curved horns, longtail, and display wild behaviour.

Origin mythsOrigin mythsOrigin mythsOrigin mythsOrigin myths The goddess Tickirse cre-ated Toda buffaloes with a stick. Whenpeople were praying, buffaloes emergedout of ponds. According to the legend, onlybuffaloes with a certain horn form weredomesticated, while other types were leftin the forest.

CrossbreedingCrossbreedingCrossbreedingCrossbreedingCrossbreeding Crossbreeding with thesemen of Murrah is practised, although theToda are not convinced that the crossbredanimals can perform adequately in theNilgiri climate with its low temperatures andhigh rainfall.

YYYYYoung peopleoung peopleoung peopleoung peopleoung people Young people show littleinterest in buffalo rearing due to their pref-erence for modern lifestyles, shrinking pas-ture land, and lack of income from buffalorearing.

Role of governmentRole of governmentRole of governmentRole of governmentRole of government The Forest Depart-ment has promoted plantations of euca-lyptus trees, which have encroached onabout 25 000 ha of pasture land. Wildanimals prey upon buffaloes, and heavymortality has been recorded due to con-servation project for wild animals in theNilgiris (Mudumalai wildlife sanctuary andMukurthi National Park). The governmenthas opened milk-procurement centres in afew locations. The mortality of young calvesand non-availability of breeding bulls causedifficulties for the Todas.

Malaimadu cattle

The Malaimadu or Hill cattle breed isreared by the Konar, Thevar, Naickers andMoopar communities in Madurai,Virudhunagar, Theni, Dindigul and Karurdistricts of Tamil Nadu. Around 1200 fami-lies maintain about 30 000 cattle in atropical zone where the temperaturesranges from 25 to 40°C and annual rain-fall amounts to 800 mm.

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TTTTTable 1.able 1.able 1.able 1.able 1. Malaimadu body colour andMalaimadu body colour andMalaimadu body colour andMalaimadu body colour andMalaimadu body colour andvegetation typevegetation typevegetation typevegetation typevegetation type

Type of terrain Body colour of animaland vegetationNagarai river forest Reddish brown

(Sembarai)Uduppu Parai forest Grey (Mayilai)Pullipathi forest Red/brown spots

(Sembor)Kovilmalai forest Light black spots

(Kadukkai por)

TTTTTable 2.able 2.able 2.able 2.able 2. Rotational grazing forRotational grazing forRotational grazing forRotational grazing forRotational grazing forMalaimadu cattleMalaimadu cattleMalaimadu cattleMalaimadu cattleMalaimadu cattle

January–March PlainsApril–June HillsJuly–September PlainsOctober–December Hills

by cutting or shaping the ears with a ‘moon’or semicircle.

Cattle owners are respected becausetheir animals supply manure. The manuresustains soil fertility for 3 years. Dung isalso used in bone-setting.

SelectionSelectionSelectionSelectionSelection Male calves for breeding arepreferably obtained from the third lacta-tion. The bull’s mother should be a highmilk yielder. Other desirable traits include:

• HornsHornsHornsHornsHorns Straight or tilted forward.• Skin colourSkin colourSkin colourSkin colourSkin colour Vellai (bright white),

mayilai (milk white), sembor (red dotson white background or white dots onbrown or red) or karumbor (black dotson white or white dots on black).

• TTTTTailailailailail Short and thin and end above thehock.

• DewlapDewlapDewlapDewlapDewlap Small in the neck region.• ChestChestChestChestChest Wide and the body frame long.• FFFFFace and earsace and earsace and earsace and earsace and ears Short, with projected

eyes to add the attraction of the face.• TTTTTesticlesesticlesesticlesesticlesesticles Small.• SkinSkinSkinSkinSkin Pliable, soft and thin.

In addition, the bull must be ferociousin nature and taller than all other animalsin the herd. It must have leadership ca-pacity, able to lead the herd while grazingin the forest, and to save the herd from theattack of wild animals. The parents, espe-cially the mother, should have bright skincolour, such as vellai, mayilai, karumbor,sembor and even karumayilai (grey).

CrossbreedingCrossbreedingCrossbreedingCrossbreedingCrossbreeding Malaimadu bulls aremated with local Jersey and Holstein Frie-sian crossbreeds. The offspring will be lessprone to mastitis and able to withstand hottemperature and rains. The fat content ofmilk will also be improved.

Kachakatty Black sheep

Katchakatty Black is a sheep breed con-served by pastoral communities, includingKonar, Mooppar, Pallar and Panyan, inVadipatti block, Madurai District, TamilNadu. It is a completely black sheep known

PPPPPopulationopulationopulationopulationopulation About 30 years ago, the cat-tle population was said to be more than300 000. This reduction is due to variousfactors, including the non-issue of grazingpermit by forest officials, and a lack of la-bour and tractorization which have de-creased the demand for draught animals.

Use and characteristicsUse and characteristicsUse and characteristicsUse and characteristicsUse and characteristics Animals of theMalaimadu breed are small, sturdy andresistant to many diseases. The bullocks areuseful for ploughing in the wetlands. Themain reason for keeping these cattle is topen them so they manure the fields. Dur-ing the northeast monsoon in October–December, the cattle are sent to the forestfor grazing. In the off-season, after har-vesting of the paddy crop, the cattle are letinto the fallow lands for penning and graz-ing.

Malaimadu draught bullocks are knownfor their strength, stamina and loyalty totheir owner. The animals are said to attackenemies or thieves ferociously.

Cows and calves are given as dowry tobrides. The dowry animals are identified

49


for sheep fighting and amenable for pen-ning to provide manure for local farmers.This breed has been maintained by 13families. The sheep population is 538 ani-mals. About 25 years ago, the populationwas about 3000, but it has now fallen dras-tically due to problems with forest grazingand occurrence of disease.

These villages are situated around theVaguthumalai Hills in Vadipatti Block,Madurai District. The sheep are taken tothe hills to graze. The families also raise afew goats along with their sheep flock.

The communities maintain the sheepflocks to support their livelihood. They earnincome by the selling female and malelambs, and by penning the animals andproviding manure to the fields.

The rams are known for sheep fighting.This is a sport practised during temple fes-tivals. For sheep fighting, Katchakatty ramsare preferred. Three-month-old rams aresold for approximately Rs 2000. From pen-ning, the income is Rs 0.50 per sheep perday. To manure a 1-acre field, 100 sheepmust be penned for 5 days. A jute-bag filledwith manure produced by one sheep dur-ing a month sells at Rs 6 per bag.

Social significanceSocial significanceSocial significanceSocial significanceSocial significance Farmers give sheep asdowry. People from Thevar community areproud of giving black sheep as dowry. Thesociety respects owners of black sheep be-cause the animals are good for penningin the fields. Black sheep are also consid-ered auspicious.

Black sheep with horns are preferred byMuslims for slaughter for the Ramzan feast.Black males are preferred for dedicationto folk gods or as ‘temple sheep’ (koil kidain Tamil).

CharacteristicsCharacteristicsCharacteristicsCharacteristicsCharacteristics The skin is completelyblack. The ears are small and appear un-derdeveloped or a vestiges (¾–1” inlength). Females have horns in 10–15% ofcases. The forehead should have a shal-low cavity-like depression.

SelectionSelectionSelectionSelectionSelection Breeding rams are selectedfrom the offspring of females in their thirdlactation. The rams should have short, stoutlegs, elongated horns, a wide head andelongated body. For a herd of 35 sheep,farmers maintain one ram.

OriginOriginOriginOriginOrigin About 4 generations ago, differ-ent types of sheep were kept in Kachakattyvillage. Farmers at that time preferred blacksheep as they are amenable for penning.The sheep have the habit of staying put fora longer time after sunrise. Other breedswill be get restless after sunrise and haveto be taken for grazing. However theKachakatty black sheep will sit for 2–3hours longer at this time in the morning.This characteristic increases the dung quan-tity during penning. After noticing this,herders selected for black colour. In Tamil,karuppu means black, so the breed isnamed ‘Kachakatty Karuppu’.

CrossbreedingCrossbreedingCrossbreedingCrossbreedingCrossbreeding To ensure the purity of thebreed, crossbreeding is discouraged.Breeding occurs with the sheep of migra-tory pastoral communities who regularlyvisit during certain periods of the year.

YYYYYoung peopleoung peopleoung peopleoung peopleoung people Uneducated youths orschool dropouts in the same communitiesare interested in continuing their traditionallifestyle as sheep herders. However, theyfeel that officials insist on the herders’ ob-taining permission to graze animals inVaguthumalai Forest.

Role of governmentRole of governmentRole of governmentRole of governmentRole of government The Department ofAnimal Husbandry has organized animalhealth camps (under pressure from SEVAand herders). Tamil Nadu Veterinary Uni-versity is showing interest in ex-situ conser-vation of this breed.

Pulikulam cattle

Pulikulam cattle live mainly in theSivagangai, Virudhunagar and Ramnaddistricts of Tamil Nadu. The cattle are main-tained by local communities belonging toThevar and Konar.

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Origin mythOrigin mythOrigin mythOrigin mythOrigin myth The existence of the breedcan be traced back 500 years. The presentvillage of Pulikulam was once full of jun-gle. One day, a tiger came to a pond toquench its thirst. It was trapped by busheson the banks of pond, so people namedthe pond the ‘Tiger Pond’ The cattle foundin that village became synonymous withPulikulam breed. The cattle are also knownas Palingu Madu, Nattumadu orManimadu.

CharacteristicsCharacteristicsCharacteristicsCharacteristicsCharacteristics Pulikulam cattle havemoderately long face and fine muzzle. Theforehead is fairly broad, and the horns nar-row and 2–2.5 feet long. The animal hasa short, stout neck. The hump is short inthe female and well-developed in the male.The body is compact and well-ribbed. Thetail is long and has a tuft of black hair. Thelegs are strong, short and set well apart.The colour is usually grey and white.

UsesUsesUsesUsesUses These cattle are usually used forpenning in farmland. A herd usually con-tains 300–400 cattle. The bullocks are usedfor ploughing. The herders earn incomeby selling 6-month-old male calves at overRs 2000 each. The Pulikulam breed isknown for bull riding (jallikattu).

PPPPProblemsroblemsroblemsroblemsroblems The drinking water ponds inManankathan and Pulikulam villages needto be desilted to provide drinking water forthe cattle. During the months of Iyppasi andKarthigai (October–November) there is nospace for penning the cattle in theKoomapatti area due to planting of paddyin the plains. Forest officials have preventedcattle from entering the forests since it wasdeclared a sanctuary area. Those caughtgrazing there are threatened or fined heav-ily.

Forest officials are restricting access topasturelands without considering the herd-ers’ need for pasture. Pathways that pro-vide access to drinking water and grazingthat cross the lower lands and the adjoin-ing Western Ghats are also problematic.Sites such as the eastern part of Thaniparai

up to Mavutru, which were pastureland,have been blocked by the Forest Depart-ment. Ponds in the foothills (NagammaDorani, Papparathan oorani, Sevittukilavankoil oorani, Tharmamkathavar ootru,Thaniparai otru, Karukkupathai oorani,Thottichi oorani) are also out of boundsfor cattle. Forest guards impose fines if theycatch animals watering at ponds in the for-est.

Vembur sheep

We have identified 22 villages aroundVembur, Pudhur block in Thoothukudi Dis-trict where this breed is found. The esti-mated population of Vembur sheep is2000.

FFFFFactors affecting populationactors affecting populationactors affecting populationactors affecting populationactors affecting population During thedry months there is acute water scarcity,while the rainy season brings torrentialrains that make the herds vulnerable todiseases such as foot-and-mouth and rind-erpest. The mortality rate rises as high as12% in the wet months. The sheep requiredry shelter during the nights in the wet sea-son.


• The afforestation policy has greatly con-tributed to lack of interest among theyouth in animal breeding.

• There has been a decline in the numberof indigenous livestock breeds due tochanging breeding practices, policychanges, education, climate, globaliza-tion, etc.

51


FulaniBurkina Faso

Hedy BühlmannWorld Herders Council, Switzerland

TTTTThe Fhe Fhe Fhe Fhe Fulaniulaniulaniulaniulani have an estimated population of between 6 and 14 million.Many centuries ago, the vast number

of Fulani tribes migrated from northern Af-rica and the Middle East into Central andWest Africa. There are various suggestionsof the origin of the Fulani, such as beingdescendants of a prehistoric pastoral peo-ple of the Sahara before 1800 BC, whoare thought to have initially migrated firstto northern and eastern Senegal, and thenspread out eastwards along the Nigeraround 1000 AD, looking for pasture fortheir large herds. The Fulani could be ofmixed Caucasian and Negroid or Tukulorand Berber origin. The cultural concept ofpulaaku is maintained till today.

Today, many of them are semi-nomadiccowherds who travel with their flocks, al-ways searching for better grazing land andwater. Over the years, some of them havemoved from being exclusively shepherds,to being scholarly, influential leaders in theircommunities.

The Liptako Fulani of BurkinaFaso

Normally the Fulani identify themselves withtheir local lineages that also have a terri-torial connotation. The Liptako Fulani area branch of Fulani living in the Macina dis-trict of central Mali and northern BurkinaFaso. Their herds are a very important as-set to the Liptako.

Milk from cattle and goats provides themain portion of their diet. Butter is madeand also sold at the markets. Meat is eatenonly at important festivals or ceremonies.

Breeds

Fulani are rearing cows, ovine, goats. Theyuse donkeys donkeys donkeys donkeys donkeys and camels camels camels camels camels as animals oftransport. Horses Horses Horses Horses Horses have a social and sym-bolic value and traditional chiefs are theirowners.

In the north of Burkina are found bothlong-horned and short-horned zebu catzebu catzebu catzebu catzebu cat-----tletletletletle, and also Azawak cattle from Niger.Mostly red, the Azawak is lightly built withmedium-length horns and is considered therace with the highest milk yields in theSahelian region. Sometimes they are cross-breed with lyre-horned White Fulani cattlefrom Nigeria (Gudali) or with local zebu.The White Fulani has good milk and beefyields. Local crossbreeding depends onpreferences of the cattle owners. In BurkinaFaso crossbreeding between local and ex-otic races from Europe is rare.

Two types of sheep sheep sheep sheep sheep are also raised: onewith hair and one with wool. The woolsheep are important for trade, and indi-cate the economic status of their owners.

Many Fulani keep goats goats goats goats goats for many rea-sons. Embouche caprine require less wa-ter and care. They are easily conveyed andsold in the market. Goats mature and re-produce quickly, and produce high-qual-ity protein from low-quality feed.

Significance of animals

The Fulani group is so large and scatteredacross West Africa that their attitudes andsense of identity vary considerably fromplace to place. But one thing is commonto all of them: they treat their cattle like anextended family rather than just an eco-nomic asset, and perceive the cow as themother of humankind.

In Fulani society animals have a veryimportant symbolic dimension and arelinked to the cosmos. They believe that onecan read information on future events such

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as danger, economic wealth or harshweather ahead from certain signs (hair, col-our) on the animals.

Fulani herders think that their reason forexistence is to help the animal fulfil its func-tion. This function is to provide mankindwith material and psychical benefits suchas confidence, friendship, beauty/harmony,prestige, audacity and knowledge. Thesebenefits predominate and stimulate mate-rial products as milk, dung, energy, off-spring and meat.

The Fulani are good breeders and theyhave a strong breeding tradition, whichgives emphasis on good colour and onforms of the horns. The animal ownerskeep much of their breeding knowledgesecret. For example they have more thana hundred different colours to indicatenames of cattle, and each colour has asymbolic signification.

The Fulani maintain a balanced, func-tional stock composition, consisting of beefanimals, milkers, breeders, carriers, la-bourers, cash generators, and stock beau-tifiers. Most Fulani livestock in the sameecological region are genotypic ally iden-tical.

“Universal positive cow”: Abreeding innovation bytraditional herders

In northern Burkina Faso, traditional herd-ers – members of the Association for thePromotion of Livestock in the Sahel and theSavannah (APESS) – have created the con-cept of the “universal positive cow” forbreeding.

A universal positive cow, or vache posi-tive planétaire, VPP in French, is an ani-mal with certain ideal qualities. Herdersdesire large numbers of such animals.

These ideal qualities are based on tra-ditional and modern knowledge. They in-clude morphology, behaviour, and the ob-

server’s own feelings and impressionsabout the animal:

• Size of the veinsSize of the veinsSize of the veinsSize of the veinsSize of the veins Indicate abundanceof blood, so the potential to produce alot of milk.

• TTTTTeats and their positioningeats and their positioningeats and their positioningeats and their positioningeats and their positioning Show thesize and yield of the “factory” that fil-ters milk from the blood.

• Stomach sizeStomach sizeStomach sizeStomach sizeStomach size Indicates the size of the“storehouse” where food is stored,sorted, and processed.

• SkinSkinSkinSkinSkin A fine, supple, clean skin showsthe general finesse of the body as wellas its longevity.

• DocilityDocilityDocilityDocilityDocility A sign of confidence and lackof fear.

• AestheticsAestheticsAestheticsAestheticsAesthetics Harmony in the structureand colour show the animal’s tendencyto harmonize things.

• BonesBonesBonesBonesBones Solid bones are another signof blood abundance, because they arewhere the blood is constantly renewedfrom the marrow.

• LLLLLegsegsegsegsegs Flat legs indicate an aptitude formilk production. Round legs show anaptitude for slaughter.

• PPPPPelviselviselviselviselvis A wide pelvis extends the stom-ach and the uterus – an indication oflarge offspring.

• TTTTTailailailailail Together with its skin, shows thequality and longevity of the animal.

• GaitGaitGaitGaitGait The forward gait is a sign ofprogress.

• MarkingsMarkingsMarkingsMarkingsMarkings The solar marks (tuft on theforehead and the back) show the ani-mal’s future.

• TTTTTesticlesesticlesesticlesesticlesesticles Big, long testicles, the left onelower than the right, indicate a poten-tial to sire many females.

• ChestChestChestChestChest A wide breast reflects strengthand power.

• FFFFFeeteeteeteeteet Straight feet, and wide and blackhooves reveal great stability for traction.

• NeckNeckNeckNeckNeck A large, curved neck meansstrength.

The symbolic measures receive moreconsideration than the animal’s materialperformance.

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Traditional experts who act as trainersand advisers to APESS read these signs.Their involvement enables APESS to utilizetraditional knowledge in stockbreeding.

Myths

For Fulani cowherds in the Sahel, the worldwas created from a drop of milk.

In the beginning, there was Guéno, theAlmighty. Wrapped in infinite knowledge,he lived in a timeless space. He was every-where and nowhere. One day he createda stick, hollowed it out and filled it with afluid that later became milk. A drop es-caped the stick and started turning arounditself in the void. Guéno saw how thick thedrop of milk had become and created fireand air and the three movements: up anddown and around.

Then he made a “Sirgal”, a stick withfour arms at its top. The fire now had towarm the curdled milk, the air had to re-ceive the heated milk and Sirgal had toperform its movements: up, down, aroundand around, up, down, ... and the starsand the earth came into being.

The rest of the curdled milk becamewater and from this water finally emergeda cow, a sheep and a goat. The animalshad been entrusted to the snake Tyanaba.

Then Guéno created people and as-signed a certain function to every group.Suddenly he realized that he had not en-trusted the domestic animals to anybody.Upon that he created the Fulani cowherds.Since that day their lives are closely linkedwith the cattle.

References

Association for the Promotion of Livestockin the Sahel and the Savannah (APESS),www.apess.org/english.html

Conseil Mondiale des Eleveurs. 2000. Milksouth-north. CME Dossier 2. ConseilMondiale des Eleveurs, Lucerne, Swit-zerland.

Herders Magazine. 1999. ConseilMondiale des Eleveurs, Lucerne, Swit-zerland.

Ismail Iro. Undated. Fulani Herding Sys-tem. www.gamji.com/fulani4.htm

54


AkambaKenya

Rebecca MusyokaKenya Small Farmers Union

TTTTThe Akamba peoplehe Akamba peoplehe Akamba peoplehe Akamba peoplehe Akamba people live in the districts of Machakos, Mwingi, Kitui andMakueni in Kenya’s Eastern Province.

They depend mainly on livestock since cropfarming is risky because of harsh climaticconditions in the area.

Main types of livestock

• CattleCattleCattleCattleCattle Zebus, Orma Boran, Sahiwaland crosses.

• GoatsGoatsGoatsGoatsGoats East African goats, Galla andcrosses.

• SheepSheepSheepSheepSheep Red Maasai and Black Persian.• ChickensChickensChickensChickensChickens• DonkeysDonkeysDonkeysDonkeysDonkeys

Uses

• CattleCattleCattleCattleCattle Used for ploughing, transport,food, milk, dowry, hides and skins,manure and cash.

• Sheep and goatsSheep and goatsSheep and goatsSheep and goatsSheep and goats Used for milk, cash,food, feasts, festivals and dowry.

• ChickenChickenChickenChickenChicken Used for food, cash and gifts.• DonkeysDonkeysDonkeysDonkeysDonkeys Used for transport and

ploughing.

Special characteristics

Zebu cattle are resistant to tick-borne dis-eases. Orma Boran cattle yield a lot of milk,grow fast, have a high mature weight, andtolerate trypanosomiasis. They can with-stand harsh conditions, prolonged heat,poor pastures and scarce water.

Selection

The Akamba select against black colourbecause this attracts pests and tsetse flies.They select male breeding animals for size,strength, new blood (i.e. animals from

other herds), white and brown colour, anda lineage that frequently gives birth to twins.They select female breeding animals fortheir twinning ability, milk, colour size andconformation. The distinguish types andbreeds through the animals’ colour, shape,conformity, growth rate, ears and horns.

Crossbreeding

The follwoing crossbreeding is practised:

• Between Zebu, Sahiwal, Oroma Boranand exotic breeds.

• East African goat and Galla, and soonthe Toggenberg.

• Red Maasai and Black Headed Persiansheep.

Myths

• You cannot mix milk from a mother anddaughter in the same container.

• If your sheep gives birth to twins, youhave to give one to your nephew.

• You cannot sell an animal with physicaldeformities.

Attitudes to livestock

The Akamba value livestock as their mainsource of income. The animals also pro-vide status and a pastime.

Government policies

The government has neglected dry areasin its breeding support programmes. Thefocus of the government is on production,and there is no biodiversity conservationpolicy. There is a shortage of grazing land.

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MbororoCameroon

Ali Aii ShatuMboscuda, Cameroon

TTTTThe Mbororo are originally he Mbororo are originally he Mbororo are originally he Mbororo are originally he Mbororo are originally a nomadicand pastoralist people. They are eth-nically diversified into three major

subgroups (the Jafun, Aku and Wodaable),who are found in Cameroon. The majorityof the Jafun and many Aku are semi-sed-entary, but still principally grazers. They en-tered Cameroon through Adamawa fromnorthern Nigeria in the early 20th century,and some settled in Sabga in North WestProvince of Cameroon by early 1905.

The Mbororo are a significant minorityin Cameroon. They are found in Adamawa,East, North West, North and West prov-inces, and in almost all divisions in theseprovinces. In the Centre Province they arein Mbam and Inoubou divisions. In the Lit-toral Province they are in Mongo Division.In the South West Province they are foundin Akwaya and Maga in Lebialem.

With a population of 1 920 000 peo-ple they compose almost 12% ofCameroon’s inhabitants. In the North WestProvince their population is estimated atabove 250 000 people. The Mbororo rearcattle, and to a lesser extent horses, sheep,chickens and goats.

Social significance

Their animals are a form of prestige to theMbororo. They are also needed for thecommunity’s livelihood and survival. Theyare the source of milk, meat and familyincome, and are used for social aspects.Cattle are of great social importance in theMbororo community whose whole livesrevolve around cattle. These animals areused for dowry, bride wealth, child nam-ing at birth, religious feasts, gifts, enter-tainment of guests, and during traditionalceremonies.

The Mbororo see their animals as clean,pure and upright, with dignity, and conferingstatus on the owners (compared to live-stock such as pigs raised by other commu-nities). The animals are regarded as mem-bers of the family and are treated as such,even though they also provide economicsustenance. Other communities, on theother hand perceive their animals merelyas a source of family income and protein.

Selection and breeding

Criteria for selecting male breeding ani-mals include:

• Progeny with good milk and beef pro-duction

• Body conformation• Colour• Type of breed• Calm and gentle behaviour• Health status.

Cattle breeds kept by the Mbororo com-munity include:

• Red FRed FRed FRed FRed Fulaniulaniulaniulaniulani (Mbororoji) Red in colour,long horns and very beautiful.

• White FWhite FWhite FWhite FWhite Fulaniulaniulaniulaniulani (Akaji) Smaller in size,white in colour, most often with a blacknose. This breed is very resistant andadaptable to poor grazing areas.

• GudliGudliGudliGudliGudli Multicolored (reddish, black,white, spotted, etc., large in size andproduces a lot of milk.

Origin myths

The sea god summoned the leader of theMbororo and taught him a song. After theleader sang the song, cattle started com-ing out of the sea towards him. The godinstructed him to lead the cattle withoutlooking back. Along the way, the man wasterrified by the large herd behind him. Hedefied the god’s instruction and lookedbehind just as a very big bull was comingout of the sea. At this, the bull mooed andretreated to the sea. Thus cattle are part ofthe Mbororo person’s life, and much time

56


is devoted to cattle. Prestige and honourlies in the number of cattle one has in one’sherd. The nomadic nature of the Mbororois caused by their allegiance to cattle.

Crossbreeding

Crossbreeding is done between localbreeds and exotic breeds. The local breedsare bred with exotic breeds from Europeand America such as Holstein Friesians,Jersey, Brahma and Boran.

Young people

Most youths in the Mbororo communitytend to divest from cattle and invest in otherbusinesses, though they reinvest profitsfrom such enterprises in cattle rearing.


Pastoralists share many similarities:• They have a strong attachment to their

livestock.• They have similar uses for their animals,

and keep them for similar reasons.• They have similar criteria for selection

for breeding.• They suffer similar threats.

The initial recognition of the groupshould assist livestock keepers and safe-guard them from risks.

Interest among young people in live-stock is dwindling because of urbanizationand modernization.

Government policy neglects pastoralists.They should assess impacts of donors –counterproductive objectives.

Nevertheless, it should be possible tosustain the pastoralist lifestyle. Pastoralistsare a group that deserves recognition, sincethey have a place in the future. Middle-aged people have experienced both life-styles and should be able to sustain thepastoralist lifestyle.

57

Views of government, scientists, experts and NGOsViews of government, scientists, experts and NGOsViews of government, scientists, experts and NGOsViews of government, scientists, experts and NGOsViews of government, scientists, experts and NGOs

TTTTTable 1able 1able 1able 1able 1 Estimated livestock populationEstimated livestock populationEstimated livestock populationEstimated livestock populationEstimated livestock populationin Kin Kin Kin Kin Kenyaenyaenyaenyaenya

Livestock type Number (‘000)Zebu cattle 9000Sheep 7000Goats (local) 10000Pigs 332Rabbits 404Indigenous chickens 19072Camels 819Donkeys 478Source: Ministry of Livestock & Fisheries Devel-opment, Animal Production Division AnnualReport, 2001

KKKKKenya has diversified enya has diversified enya has diversified enya has diversified enya has diversified topographicconditions with altitudes up to MtKenya’s 5199 m. Climatic conditions

range from arid and semi-arid to the hu-mid highlands. Kenya has an estimatedmillions of zebu cattle, hair sheep andgoats, and significant numbers of otherlivestock (Table 1). The different types oflivestock have evolved over time and be-come adapted to the ecological conditionsof their habitat. Smallholder farmers andpastoralists prefer to keep several livestockspecies, and they depend on them for theirlivelihoods.

Emerging livestock are species that un-til recently have not been utilized by thecommunities. They include crocodiles, os-triches, guinea fowls, quails, termites andgrasshoppers. These species are used asfood, so there is a need to study their ecol-ogy to understand the requirements fortheir successful domestication.

Livestock breeds

CattleCattleCattleCattleCattle In Kenya the indigenous zebu cat-tle belong to the Small East Africa Short-horn zebu cattle. They are characterized

by a well developed hump in the cervico-thoracic position. These zebu populationsand strains include the Kikuyu zebu,Coastal zebu, Maasai zebu of the Maasaitribe, Winam or Kavirondo zebu in the LakeVictoria Basin in Nyanza and Western prov-inces, the Nandi zebu, Samburu zebu, Tur-kana and Teso zebu.

The Boran cattle have been derived from

Part 3 Views of government,scientists, experts and NGOs

Status of indigenous livestock breedsin KenyaCleopas Okore

Livestock Production Department,Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries Development, Kenya

58


the large zebu and are found in the drierparts of Eastern and North Eastern prov-inces. The Sahiwal is not indigenous toKenya and was imported from India andPakistan in the 1930s and 40s. The Sahiwalwas used to upgrade the indigenous zebucattle.

The indigenous zebu cattle play a veryimportant role in the lives of Kenyans, es-pecially of the pastoralists who depend en-tirely on these animals for their livelihood.These animals are multipurpose and areused traditionally to provide food anddraught power and to serve numerous so-cial functions.

SheepSheepSheepSheepSheep The two different types of hairsheep found in Kenya are the fat-rumpedSomali sheep, which resembles the blackhead Persian sheep, and the red Maasaiwhich is fat-tailed and dark brown. Thesebreeds of sheep are found in virtually everypart of the country. Their products are ac-ceptable to all communities in the country.The sheep are kept for meat but also serveother social functions such as paying dowry.

GoatsGoatsGoatsGoatsGoats There are two main types of in-digenous goats in Kenya: the Small EastAfrican and the Galla. The Small East Afri-can goat is predominant and is distributedthroughout the country. The Galla goat isdominant in the Eastern and North East-ern provinces. The goats’ population isgenerally higher than that of sheep in allareas of the country. This may be due tothe fact that goat meat is more popularthan mutton. Indigenous goat breeds arekept primarily for meat, but they also playother roles, e.g., in social functions suchas payment of dowry, and as a readysource of cash. Their droppings are goodsource of manure.

PigsPigsPigsPigsPigs Wild pigs are indigenous to Kenya.The non-indigenous pigs are the LargeWhite, Landrace and the Large Black. Pigproduction in Kenya is limited in some prov-inces like Coast and North Eastern prov-inces due to religious beliefs.

PPPPPoultryoultryoultryoultryoultry The main poultry species arechickens. Indigenous chickens are the mostabundant and form over 70% of the totalpoultry population. They supply the bulkof the national requirement for eggs andpoultry meat. The indigenous chickens arenamed after the area they occupy. Otherindigenous poultry that are emerging in-clude guinea fowls and quails.

CamelsCamelsCamelsCamelsCamels The Somali camel is found in thedrier parts of Eastern and North Easternprovinces. Camels are kept for meat andmilk. They also play an important role asa means of transport in the traditional ru-ral sector. Very little information is avail-able on camel productivity.

RabbitsRabbitsRabbitsRabbitsRabbits The common rabbit breeds usedin commercial production are CaliforniaWhite, Flemish Giant, New Zealand White,and crosses. Farmers keep very few indig-enous rabbits. The rabbits are kept mainlyby institutions such as youth clubs, self-helpgroups, women groups and schools. Theyare normally kept for meat or sale.

DonkeysDonkeysDonkeysDonkeysDonkeys Donkeys are used mainly totransport goods.

Distribution of livestock

Knowing the distribution of livestock spe-cies by province enables the allocation ofresources for characterization and conser-vation. Rift Valley Province has the highestnumber of zebu cattle (34% of the total),followed by Nyanza and Eastern provinces.Nairobi with less than 0.1%, and Centralprovince with 1%, have the lowest numberof zebu because their herds have beenupgraded to dairy breeds to produce milkfor the urban markets. Loss of the zebugenotype is high in the two provinces, soconservation measures should be under-taken urgently. Rift Valley, Eastern andNorth Eastern provinces have a largenumber of zebu cattle because a largeportion of these provinces is arid and semi-arid, and it is only zebu which are adaptedto the harsh conditions – limited water,

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Source: Ministry of Livestock & Fisheries Development, Animal Production Division Annual Report, 2001

ProvinceRift ValleyWesternNyanzaCentralEasternCoastNorth EasternNairobi

TTTTTable 2able 2able 2able 2able 2 Estimated indigenous livestock population by province (000)Estimated indigenous livestock population by province (000)Estimated indigenous livestock population by province (000)Estimated indigenous livestock population by province (000)Estimated indigenous livestock population by province (000)Zebu cattle

2730756

133291

1385961927

6

Sheep3893

189625239956451475

2

Goats5557

150824224

2156998759

20

Chickens470025344533149237152006

–95

Camels168

000

9058

5030

Donkeys231

03424

1292631

0

scarce feed, and endemic diseases. Therelatively high proportion of zebu cattle inNyanza and Western provinces is partly dueto the semi-arid conditions on the shoresof Lake Victoria, the hot and humid condi-tions, and the prevalence of tick-borne dis-eases, to which the zebu show varying de-grees of resistance. These conditions aresevere for exotic dairy cattle breeds.

Sheep and goats are predominant inRift Valley and Eastern provinces. Pigs arewidely kept in Central and Nairobi prov-inces. Similarly, the rabbit population ishigh in Central Province. Pigs and rabbitsare not kept in North Eastern because ofthe Islamic culture. Nyanza province, with28% of the total indigenous chicken popu-lation, has the largest number of chickens.North Eastern has the highest number ofcamels. Rift Valley and Eastern provinceskeep a large number of donkeys.

Threat to livestock species

In the densely populated provinces of Cen-tral, Western and Nyanza, population pres-sure on land has led to limited forage, andlivestock keeping has been abandoned insome areas. There is stiff competition withmore productive breeds introduced fromother countries. Prolonged drought anddisease outbreaks decimate livestock. In-security and cattle rustling have resulted inthe loss of livestock. Reproductive diseasessuch as brucellosis adversely affect produc-tivity.

Production systems

Livestock in Kenya are kept in a broadrange of production systems that vary fromsmallholder mixed-farming systems inhigh- and medium-potential areas, to com-munal pastoral systems in semi-arid andarid areas. Products from livestock vary withthe production system. Smallholder farm-ers and communal pastoralists keep a di-versity of livestock to minimize risks in casethere is a disease outbreak or severedrought.

Characterization of livestockgenetic resources

The livestock population is of local originand has not been characterized as belong-ing to specific breeds. Local breeds arenamed after the area they occupy, andthere have been interbreeding resulting inthe dilution of breed characteristics.

Attempts have been made to charac-terize indigenous cattle breeds in their pro-duction environment (Mosi et al., 1996;Okeyo et al, 1996). There is no on-farmand on-station breed evaluation and im-provement programme for the Small EastAfrican zebu cattle. However there are suchprogrammes for the Sahiwal and Boran,and their respective breed societies haveformulated breeds standards for registra-tion of animals with the Kenya Stud Book.

With regard to sheep breeds, there is a

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TTTTTable 3able 3able 3able 3able 3 Livestock production systems and productsLivestock production systems and productsLivestock production systems and productsLivestock production systems and productsLivestock production systems and products

Livestock species Production system ProductsZebu Smallholder mixed farming Milk, meat, hides and skins, traction,

manureBeef ranching Milk, meat, hides and skins, manureCommunal pastoralism Meat, hides and skins, manure

Sheep and goats Smallholder mixed farming Meat, hides and skins, manureCommunal pastoralism Meat, hides and skins, manure

Pigs and rabbits Smallholder mixed farming Meat, manureChickens Smallholder mixed farming Eggs, meat, manure

(semi-confined and confined)Donkeys Smallholder mixed farming Traction, transport

Communal pastoralism TransportCamels Dairy ranching Milk,meat

Communal pastoralism Milk, meat, transport

TTTTTable 4able 4able 4able 4able 4 Characterization status ofCharacterization status ofCharacterization status ofCharacterization status ofCharacterization status ofindigenous livestockindigenous livestockindigenous livestockindigenous livestockindigenous livestock

Livestock species Characterization status

Zebu cattle Phenotyping andgenotyping

Sheep and goats PhenotypingPigs and rabbits PhenotypingChickens PhenotypingDonkeys –Camels Phenotyping

breed evaluation and improvement pro-gramme for the Red Maasai. No effort hasbeen made to characterize other localbreeds.

Small East African goats are kept in di-verse production systems. Indetie et al.,(1999) has characterized Small East Afri-can goats in Kajiado and Baringo districts.There has been no characterization of in-digenous pigs, chicken, camels or donkeys.

Phenotyping and genotyping

From the ongoing work it is evident thatphenotypic data has been collected on theindigenous zebu cattle. ILRI has initiatedresearch work to genotype the indigenouszebu cattle (Table 4). However, genotypingof other livestock species has not been at-tempted.

Conclusion

Since farmers utilize a diversity of livestockspecies in their production systems it is im-portant that comprehensive charac-terization is undertaken to generate phe-notypic and genotypic data. Informationshould be obtained on the cultural valuesassociated with certain phenotypic charac-teristics. If resources are available, char-acterization of livestock species used in spe-

cific production systems should be carriedout simultaneously so that productivebreeds can be identified. It is on this basisthat rational decisions with be made withregard to conservation, development andutilization of the different livestock species.As it is evident that organizations are in-terested in characterization of livestock spe-cies, coordination of this work by a nationalbody is imperative.

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Regulatory and legal options for theprotection of the rights of traditional

livestock keepers and breedersJA EkpereUniversity of Ibadan, Nigeria

TTTTTraditional livestock keepers raditional livestock keepers raditional livestock keepers raditional livestock keepers raditional livestock keepers andbreeders in Africa have a rich traditional knowledge base and have de-

veloped a multiple-use approach to ani-mal husbandry, including a working knowl-edge of genetics and genetic resources.Many livestock keepers and breeders keepdetailed mental and oral livestock records.This is because an animal’s ancestry is of-ten and typically encoded in its name, andthe names are never changed, even whenthe animal is sold or exchanged. Thesenames often reflect natural ancestry, andpedigrees can be traced back several gen-erations.

Societies that keep and breed livestockhave usually developed a number of dis-tinct breeds to suit their unique environ-ment and livestock product needs. In thissense livestock breeds are a communityassets whose importance and relevancetranscend economic value. Livestock hassocial and cultural value and in some casesit is held in high spiritual significance. Itcould be sacred and its purity maintainedthrough a careful selection and breedingprocess. Like their counterparts in cropagriculture, these societies are the custo-dians of local animal genetic resources.

Africa’s local livestock breeds and theirassociated genetic resources and tradi-tional knowledge represent an importantasset for economic development. However,not enough consideration is accorded to itand the need to deal with the acceleratingloss of animal biodiversity. There is evi-dence that 618 known breeds of domesti-

cated animals globally are already extinct(Hall and Ruane 1993) and in Subsaha-ran Africa, 47 of the 145 known breeds ofcattle are at risk of extinction, and 22 arealready extinct (Rege 1999) .

The protection, preservation and con-servation of farm animal genetic resourcesis thus of the essence. There is need to stemthe rapid erosion of the narrow geneticbase of these resources, on which the worlddepends. The reality of international agree-ments in trade and commerce, the conser-vation of biological resources and intellec-tual property rights require appropriateregulations and legal instruments.

This paper discusses some regulatoryand legal options for the protection of therights of traditional livestock keepers andbreeders. It is assumed that the concept ofFarmer’s Rights in crops agriculture asenunciated in the FAO International Treatyon Plant Genetic Resources in Food andAgriculture applies in equivalence to indig-enous livestock keepers and breeders.

The context

This paper focuses on ‘local breeds’ and/or ‘indigenous breeds’ which connotebreeds as products of a specific commu-nity, society or culture. They are the resultsof centuries of selection and use by ethnicand social groups living in a confined habi-tat. In this process, cultural needs and pref-erences, traditional knowledge and envi-ronmental factors determine and influencethe traits and characteristics of the local

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breeds. The element of ownership is there-fore self-evident.

Traditional livestock keepers, breedersand pastoralists usually keep a mix ofbreeds through natural selection, breed-ing and management in order to enhancethe ability of their indigenous animals tocope with different challenges – long dis-tance treks, fodder and water shortages,pest and disease resistance, climatic andenvironmental stress, etc. Local breeds areof great importance in traditional socie-ties. They are a source of a wide variety ofproducts and provide several nonmonetarybenefits, such as:

• Food, fibre, fertilizer and fuel.• Cash income• Transportation and draught power• Savings• Security against crop failure and other

hazards• Rural employment and poverty allevia-

tion – support for social and cultural net-works

• Enhanced community survival strategy• Community assets and common prop-

erty.

The problem

The development of an endogenous live-stock initiative with due cognizance to tra-ditional knowledge of local livestock keep-ers/breeders and genetic resources hasbecome more important since the adop-tion of the FAO International Treaty on PlantGenetic Resources for Food and Agricul-ture. So also has been the desire to evolvean intellectual property regime similar to‘Farmers' Rights’. This is because while in-dustrial livestock breeders, research insti-tutes and companies guard their ‘inven-tions’ of new breeds through trade secretsand other intellectual property regimes,local livestock keepers and breeders areexpected to share their knowledge withoutrestriction or reward. The benefits accru-ing from access to local animal geneticresources by international livestock re-search institutes and private sector organi-

zations are hardly shared with local com-munities in a systematic manner. Ratherresearch is undertaken and access soughtwith the principal object to save, preserveand rescue breeds as carriers of desirablegenetic materials with economic potentialand future value. International multina-tional corporations and research institu-tions are frantically prospecting for livestockbreeds (poultry, pigs and cattle) with desir-able genetic characteristics.

The problem is how to stimulate thenecessary awareness and create the ca-pacity for advocacy on access and benefitsharing issues with particular attention tothe rights of local livestock keepers andbreeders over their farm animal geneticresources. What strategies can be adoptedand implemented to give volume, rel-evance and influence to the voice of locallivestock keepers and pastoralists in thecrafting of an appropriate regulatoryframework and legal system that ensuresownership and control of animal geneticresources by the community or the livestockkeeper, access and benefit sharing? Theerosion of farm genetic resources and di-versity is relatively more severe in livestockcompared with plant genetic resources. Thegene pool is smaller, and only a few wildand local breeds remain in the public do-main. The call for urgent action has there-fore become very important.

Why protect?

The protection of farm animal genetic re-sources emphasize both in-situ and ex-situconservation. However, it is more mean-ingful and sustainable to protect and main-tain relevant breeds as a functional part ofthe local production system. Local commu-nities and livestock keepers should be ena-bled to exercise ownership and continueto develop and improve their breedsthrough:

• Supportive and relevant policies andthat ensure access to health facilities,pasture, water and market outlet.

• Appropriate land use planning.

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• Documentation and retention of the tra-ditional knowledge that livestock keepershave accumulated about their breeds, theirmanagement and other relevant aspects.

More specifically, the protection of ani-mal genetic resources has become neces-sary in order to:

• Comply with the basic tenets of the Con-vention on Biological Diversity, whichconfers sovereign rights over genetic re-sources on States and Communities.

• Prevent the erosion of animal geneticresources and unauthorized exploitationthe traditional knowledge associatedwith genetic resources.

• Protect traditional knowledge from dis-tortion and misuse.

• Protect social, cultural and spiritual iden-tity and thereby preserve the dignity andmoral rights of local livestock keepersand pastoralists.

• Not destroy the capacity of the custodi-ans of animal genetic resources.

• Stimulate creativity and innovativenessin the development of new breeds.

It is gratifying to note some ongoing ini-tiatives on the conservation of farm ani-mal genetic resources, though they are notadequately focused on protection, issuesof ownership, access and benefit sharing.

FAO has played a lead role in this proc-ess. The International Livestock ResearchInstitute (ILRI) in Nairobi has been relevant.These efforts have emphasized community-based management approaches with aview to achieving:

• Sustainable use of livestock breeds,empowering local communities to inte-grate poverty alleviation and rural wel-fare issues into livestock keeping andpastoral livelihoods.

• Enhance the capacity of livestock keep-ers and pastoralists in community-basednatural resource management throughtraditional knowledge and cultural val-ues.

• Community participation integratinginstitutional support, stakeholder in-volvement and critical success factors.

• Policy framework and mechanisms thatsupport economic and socioculturalvaluation of local breeds.

• Documentation and capacity building.

Raising the profile of indigenouslivestock breeders

There is currently increasing recognitionand acceptance that:

• Local livestock keepers and breedersplay a very important role in protect-ing, conserving and safeguarding locallivestock diversity through their animalhusbandry practices, associated tradi-tional knowledge and technologies.

• Local breeds possess a vast array ofgenetic resources which local livestockkeepers and breeders have developedthrough generations of expert selection.

• There is the threat of drastic erosion ofgenetic resources/biodiversity as well asthe traditional knowledge, culture andspirituality associated with livestock hus-bandry.

• The advent of bioprospecting for geneticmaterials by multinational corporationsand individuals has become a sourceof concern.

• Local breeds provide transportation anddraught power in most communities.Local breeds are a source of cash in-come, savings and wealth.

In order to encourage and empowerlocal livestock keepers and pastoralists tosustain their unique genetic livestock re-sources in the current ecologically fragileglobal environment, it is necessary to raisetheir profile to a new level of societalawareness. The problem has to be studiedand better understood.

A coalition of like-minded NGOs, na-tional/regional livestock scientists and in-ternational livestock research institutions(like this meeting) needs to acquire thenecessary legitimacy to galvanize a com-

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mon position and strategy to express thewishes and aspirations of livestock keep-ers and pastoralists at all levels of society.Notwithstanding the arguments of mod-ernization and change and the need toadjust to such change, it is essential to en-sure that if pastoralist culture, tradition andpractice of livestock husbandry and own-ership have to be modified, such a transi-tion should be orderly, and evolve with lim-ited trauma and stress. Europe still has itsgypsies; Africa should eulogize its Maasai.

As part of this process, it is relevant toaddress such issues as:

• The misconception of local breeds asinferior.

• The economic argument that technical(technology shift), genetic, economicand modernization trends generatechange, and that the livestock keepers/breeders and animal genetic resourcesprocess should be accommodated in alinear perspective, should be revisited.

• Policy and World Trade Organizationarguments of cheaper meat and meatproducts from improved herds shouldbe addressed.

• Drastic shifts in production technologywith apparent negative impact and de-mise of local livestock industry shouldbe reviewed.

• The argument that the gene may bevaluable for the development of futurebreeds, but the animal may not be eco-nomically viable because its productiv-ity is low, calls attention to issues of‘valuation’ parameters.

An operational strategy that puts theseand other issues on the national, regionaland international agenda will no doubtraise the stakes and profile of indigenouslivestock keepers and breeders to a newlevel of awareness.

Legal options

Africa is lucky at this point in time in thediscussion of legal options that ascribeownership rights, control and protection of

animal genetic resources. This is becauseseveral acceptable options now exist. Butthe problem of a ‘best fit’ option still pre-vails. In the most classical usage, the legaloptions that exist may be classified into in-tellectual property rights (IPR) regime, andsui generis system.

However, either system has optionalsubsets which makes a thorough analysisof either option necessary before a ‘bestfit’ decision is taken. There is substantialevidence that existing IPR systems do notadequately protect local genetic resources(animal and plant) and associated tradi-tional knowledge. This is because:

• IPRs protect mainly the economic inter-est of the patent holder.

• IPRs emphasize private ownership, whileanimal genetic resources embedded ina specific breed may be communallyowned, even though cases of family andindividual ownership may exist.

• IPRs are time-bound, while animal ge-netic resources have been preservedthough careful selection over genera-tions, and the concept of ownership anduse is held in perpetuity.

• The development of animal genetic re-sources by livestock keepers and breed-ers is incremental and informal, anddoes not seem to fit the definition of ‘in-vention’ postulated by the IPR system.

• The right of livestock keepers and breed-ers to exchange have access to and useanimal genetic materials may be im-paired by IPRs.

It has been argued that the rights of lo-cal communities (here, livestock keepersand breeders) can best be protectedthrough a sui generis option, and I alsorecommend this. Such a system shouldemphasize as minimum prerequisites:

• Disclosure of the country of origin ofgenetic resources.

• Access and benefit sharing arrange-ments.

• Prior informed consent, etc.

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There is currently a wide array of suigeneris regulations and legal instrumentsfrom which to craft an appropriate inter-national treaty similar to the FAO Interna-tional Treaty on Plant Genetic Resourcesfor Food and Agriculture. However, such asui generis instrument should possess thelegal sanctity of binding legislation and en-sure enforceability, compatibility and com-pliance with other international treaties andconventions, particularly the Convention onBiological Diversity and the Treaty on PlantGenetic Resources.

The role of Africa

Africa is already playing a lead role at vari-ous global fora, and in the presentation ofa common African position on issues ofglobal importance. Africa is well repre-sented at FAO and was an active partici-pant in the discussions and decisions lead-ing to the adoption of the Treaty on PlantGenetic Resources. Africa’s contribution tothe decisions that informed the ratificationof the Convention on Biodiversity, the com-ing into force of the Biosafety Protocol andseveral issues at the Conference of Partiesis well documented. Africa’s positive rolein policy formulation and implementationmonitoring at the World Trade Organiza-tion and the World Intellectual Property Or-ganization has never been in doubt.

Africa’s voice has always been loud andclear and supportive of issues and deci-sions that are in the best interest of Africa.What is required is a firm mandate thatthe voice of local livestock keepers andbreeders be heard and more forcefully andconvincingly articulated and presented byAfrica’s representatives and negotiators atthese fora. This requires the crafting of acommon position at national and regionallevels which expresses the common aspi-ration of livestock keepers and breeders inAfrica for presentation at the internationallevel.

This meeting can be reconstituted intoan African Expert Group to draft such acommon position and develop model sui

generis legislation that will provide a basisfor regional dialogue and adoption by Af-rica’s regional organizations such as theAfrican Union. The Africa case should em-phasize the rights of traditional livestockkeepers and breeders over their geneticresources, as enunciated in the Conven-tion on Biological Diversity and as alreadyimplemented for crop agriculture throughthe Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources.

The expectation following all precedingdiscussions and expert meetings should bethe development and adoption of an In-ternational Treaty on Animal Genetic Re-sources. The Sadri Declaration (www.lifeinitiative.net/Sadridecl.htm) provides adesirable, adequate, necessary and suffi-cient basis for the formulation of a suigeneris rights and protection regime.

Summary and conclusion

The protection of the rights of tradition live-stock keepers and breeders has become atopical issue since the adoption of the Treatyon Plant Genetic Resources. This treatyseems to protect farmer’s rights over theirgenetic resources. Unfortunately coveragewas not extended to local livestock keep-ers and breeders. The problems of geneticerosion and unauthorized exploitation offarmers genetic resources in crop agricul-ture are even more severe under livestockproduction system where the genetic poolis narrower and loss of diversity is occur-ring at a faster rate. In Africa, livestock pro-duction is still predominantly undertakenby local livestock keepers, pastoralists andbreeders. They are the preponderant hold-ers and custodians of the livestock geneticdiversity that can be found in Africa. Un-fortunately, unlike the case of agriculture,their rights are not protected.

This paper discusses some of the vari-ous issues associated with regulation andlegal options for the protection of livestockholders’ rights. It is envisaged that a suigeneris system of protection will be devel-oped for discussion and adoption throughthe African Union and other similar re-

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gional organizations to enable the formu-lation of an African common position onthe protection of the rights of local live-stock keepers and breeders in Africa. Thecommon position should provide the man-date and basis for Africa’s negotiators andrepresentatives at various international forato argue for the development and adop-tion of an International Treaty on AnimalGenetic Resources with safeguards for therights of local livestock keepers and breed-ers over their genetic resources.

References

Hall, SJG and Ruane, J. 1993. Livestockbreeds and their conservation: A glo-bal review. Conservation Biology 7(4),pp. 815–25.

Rege, JEO. 1999. The state of the Africancattle genetic resources: Classificationframework and identification of threat-ened and extinct breeds. Animal GeneticResources Information Bulletin 25: 1–26.


Q Were animal genetic resources specifi-cally considered during the drafting ofthe African Model Law?

A The African Model Law should have in-cluded animal genetic resources, but thetopic was regarded as too complex,therefore it was agreed to drop them.

Q Is the Convention on Biological Diver-sity (CBD) not an obstacle to safeguard-ing animal genetic resources, since itputs the responsibility on national gov-ernments, whereas many breeds occuracross several countries?

A If the CBD were properly implementedit should provide a framework for ani-mal breeds. When the CBD was drafted,people were not aware of some situa-tions facing pastoralists. None of thislegislation is sacrosanct. Until we im-plement it we will not know where the

problems lie. It will cast for itself the bestof options.

Q If the Maasai want to push for a suigeneris law, how should they go aboutit?

A The paper emphasizes that everythingshould be done through the OAU andrecommendations be channelled to thecountry government and the minister topropose the recommendations at theOAU meeting. The OAU then pushes itto FAO and other bodies.

Q What does sui generis law mean? Noteverybody knows this (Nakimbugwe).

A Sui generis basically means legislationdrafted to suit your own interests, to ad-dress your needs and to protect whatyou want. The key criterion is that therules do not infringe on anyone. Theyshould meet the desires of the country,livestock keepers, etc. (specific interests).They do not need to be acceptable toanyone else apart from the people theyare designed for (own primary interests).They fall under the national legislation.

Q Have any standards for the documen-tation of animal breeds and indigenousknowledge been established?

A In India, draft guidelines for documen-tation have been developed. Ilse Köh-ler-Rollefson is happy to make theseavailable to anybody interested.Governments are not following up theadoption and implementation of themodel law at national levels. Nobodyknows about the model law, and thegovernments do not lobby for it at theregional level (Njoro).

A It is not sure whether any African coun-try has a sui generis law in place. Maybethere are a few lines or paragraphs inprotection acts. There is a need for le-gal instrument and it is the responsibil-ity of the government to put these lawsin place. Africa lacks such committedgovernments, for instance military gov-ernments are interested in survival only.

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KKKKKenya is a tropical countryenya is a tropical countryenya is a tropical countryenya is a tropical countryenya is a tropical country with a diversified climate. Seventy percent ofthe area is arid. Livestock are an im-

portant contributor to livelihoods and theeconomy, accounting for 10% of the coun-try’s gross domestic product.

Policy context

• Sourcing genetic mate from outside toimprove our breeds.

• This approach is so successful in high-potential areas that pure local animalsare hard to find there.

• Diversity can be found in arid areasbecause they have not fully weaned andcrossbred their animals.

Promotion of livestock geneticresource diversity in Kenya

Jacob WanyamaITDG–East Africa

• Is this right, though? These people arestill poor, suffering from hunger. Do wemaintain diversity at the expense of live-lihoods?

Action

• Understand pastoralists.• Shift focus of programmes from high-

potential areas to arid areas.• Cultural shows – exhibit best breeds of

indigenous animals.• Local organizations should pick on these

breeds and propagate them.

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Indigenous livestock breedsand intellectual property rightsFredrick Omukubi Otswong’oKenya Industrial Property Institute

WWWWWith the emergence ith the emergence ith the emergence ith the emergence ith the emergence of modernbiotechnologies, genetic re-sources have assumed increas-

ing economic, scientific and commercialvalue to a wide range of stakeholders. Tra-ditional knowledge associated with thoseresources has, in consequence, attractedwidespread attention from an enlargedaudience. Other tradition-based creations,such as expressions of folklore, have at thesame time taken on new economic andcultural significance within a globalized in-formation society.

Conservation, management, sustain-able utilizations and benefit sharing in re-spect of genetic resources and associatedtraditional knowledge are addressed withina range of different policy areas, includingfood and agriculture, biological diversityand the environment, biotechnology inno-vation and regulation, human rights, cul-tural policies, and trade and economic de-velopment. Within all these areas intellec-tual property issues have arisen and areassuming increasing importance.

The first century of this millennium willprobably be remembered as the new agein the life sciences. Modern biotechnologyapplications have created a new era inagricultural productivity, especially in ge-netic engineering, where both access andmanipulation of genetic data is prohibitedby proprietary ownership. Intellectual prop-erty rights (IPRs) issues are at the centre ofthis revolution, especially given the substan-tial investments that are needed to gener-

ate and use this technology. Intellectualproperty issues related to traditional knowl-edge, access to genetic resources and ben-efit-sharing, and expression of folklore arealso taking root in international fora.

Intellectual property rights

BackgroundBackgroundBackgroundBackgroundBackground ‘Intellectual property rights’are exclusive rights accorded to the crea-tor or inventor by government for his ef-fort. Such rights are temporary and aregranted in exchange for disclosure. Uponexpiry, the invention or creation is in thepublic domain for use by anybody. Theserights are exempted for research or othernon-commercial ventures. Any new ideacoming out of the human mind is regardedas an ‘intellectual asset’. When the idea isregistered or expressed under various in-tellectual property (IP) regimes the sameconverts to an ‘intellectual property asset’.IPRs can be protected under the followingregimes.

CopyrightCopyrightCopyrightCopyrightCopyright Copyrights are used for ex-pressed artistic and literary works (e.g.,music, books). Copyrights can be used toprotect the artistic manifestations for theholders of traditional knowledge, especiallyartists who belong to indigenous and na-tive communities, against unauthorized re-production and exploitation of those mani-festations, which could include works suchas the following:

• Literary works Tales, legends andmyths, traditions, poems.

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• Theatrical works Plays, dances.• Pictorial works Paintings, drawings.• Textile works fabrics, garments, textile

compositions, tapestries, carpets.• Musical works songs, typical musical

compositions.• Three-dimensional works Pottery and

ceramics, sculptures, wood and stonecarvings, artifacts of various kinds.

Related rightsRelated rightsRelated rightsRelated rightsRelated rights to copyright protect perform-ers, among others. This route could be usedfor the protection of the performances ofsingers and dancers and presentations ofstage plays, puppet shows and other com-parable performances.

Industrial property rightsIndustrial property rightsIndustrial property rightsIndustrial property rightsIndustrial property rights These includethe following.

• PPPPPatents for inventionsatents for inventionsatents for inventionsatents for inventionsatents for inventions These protecttechnical solutions that are industriallyapplicable and universally novel and in-volve an inventive step. With regard togenetic resources and traditional knowl-edge, patents may be taken out for in-stance for products isolated, synthesizedor developed from genetic structures,microorganisms and plant or animalorganisms existing in nature. Patent pro-tection may also be obtained for proc-esses associated with the use and ex-ploitation of those resources, and alsoprocesses known to the native commu-nities that meet the same conditions. Allthe results of biotechnology results of biotechnology results of biotechnology results of biotechnology results of biotechnology applied togenetic and biological resources, andalso undisclosed techniques for obtain-ing practical results, could in principlebe protected with patents.

• Industrial designsIndustrial designsIndustrial designsIndustrial designsIndustrial designs Designs and shapesof utilitarian craft products, such as fur-niture, receptacles, garments and arti-cles of ceramics, leather, wood andother materials, are protected underindustrial designs.

••••• Utility modelsUtility modelsUtility modelsUtility modelsUtility models Small patents.• TTTTTrademarks/service marksrademarks/service marksrademarks/service marksrademarks/service marksrademarks/service marks All goods

manufactured and services offered bymanufacturers, craftsmen, profession-als and traders in native and indigenous

communities, or by the bodies that rep-resent them, or in which they aregrouped (cooperatives, etc.) may be dif-ferentiated from each other with trade-marks and service marks. The trade-mark is an essential element in the com-mercial promotion of goods and serv-ices both within and beyond the bor-ders of the country of origin.

• Integrated layout designsIntegrated layout designsIntegrated layout designsIntegrated layout designsIntegrated layout designs For electriccircuits.

• TTTTTrade secretsrade secretsrade secretsrade secretsrade secrets The protection of undis-closed information is achieved by therepression of unfair competition. Theprovisions against unfair competitionmay also be used to protect undisclosedtraditional knowledge, e.g., traditionalsecrets kept by native and indigenouscommunities that may be of technologi-cal and economic value.

• Geographical indicationsGeographical indicationsGeographical indicationsGeographical indicationsGeographical indications These, es-pecially appellation of origin, may beused to enhance the commercial valueof natural, traditional and craft prod-ucts of all kinds insofar as their particu-lar characteristics may be attributed totheir geographical origin. A number ofproducts that come from various regionsare the result of traditional processesand knowledge implemented by one ormore communities in a given area.

Plant Breeders’ RightsPlant Breeders’ RightsPlant Breeders’ RightsPlant Breeders’ RightsPlant Breeders’ Rights These are used fornew plant variety protection.

All these types of rights are governedby various international treaties and con-ventions which countries must ratify.

• World Trade Organization Agreementon Trade-Related Aspects of IntellectualProperty Rights (TRIPS)

• Paris Convention• Berne Convention• Convention on Biodiversity• International Treaty on Plant Genetic Re-

sources for Food and Agriculture• Madrid System• Cartagena Protocol on biodiversity• Budapest Treaty.

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TRIPS Agreement

Under Article 27 of the TRIPS Agreement,inventions in all fields of technology arepatentable. There may be no discrimina-tion among nationals of member states.Members may provide for protection of newplant or animal varieties either by patentsor by an effective sui generis system. Pat-ents on new microorganism and non-es-sentially biological and microbiologicalprocesses are a must. Although the defini-tion of microorganism is not given underTRIPs, it is interpreted to mean small or-ganisms or parts of organisms that cannotbe seen by the naked eye, including bio-technological products and processes.

A sui generis system for new plant vari-eties is interpreted to refer to the Plant Va-riety Protection system under the Union forProtection of New Varieties of Plants(UPOV). Kenya has acceded to the suigeneris system compliant to UPOV 78. Inthis system, farm-saved seeds are includedindirectly. However, there are plans toamend the law to comply with UPOV 1991,which is stricter to the indigenous farmersand which does not give the farmers rights,but rather privileges.

An invention must fulfil three criteria forpatentability: novelty, inventive step, andindustrial application. It may not be con-trary to public order, human and animalhealth and safety, and environmental con-servation. Patent rights can be licensed toa third party or can be acquired by the gov-ernment through compulsory licensing.

Patents

A patent is a certificate or a documentgranted to the inventor to give him or hertemporary exclusive rights (usually 20 yearsfrom the date of filing) over an invention.He or she can use the rights to bar othersfrom selling, marketing or using this intel-lectual property asset to sell or market with-out his or her authority.

Whereas invention is limited to patents,innovation is broader and includes anyprotection under regimes such as utilitymodels and technovation certificates, in-dustrial design registration, trademarksand any other non-patentable creations orimprovements that may deserve specifiedIPRs. In Kenya, modern biotechnologicalapplications (process and products), espe-cially genetic engineering, are regarded asinventions and are protectable under pat-ents so long as they meet other require-ments of patentability such as public ordermorality, health, safety and principles ofhumanity and environmental conservation.They must also meet substantive criteria forpatentability:

• NoveltyNoveltyNoveltyNoveltyNovelty An invention may not be an-ticipated by prior art (i.e., both writtenand non-written) disclosures so long asthe disclosure was done more than 12months from the filing or priority date.The invention must be new.

• Inventive stepInventive stepInventive stepInventive stepInventive step An invention is re-garded to involve an inventive step if itwould not have been obvious to a per-son skilled in the art on the filing date.

• Industrial applicationIndustrial applicationIndustrial applicationIndustrial applicationIndustrial application An invention isconsidered to be industrially applicableif, according to its nature, it can be madeor used in any kind of industry, includ-ing agriculture, livestock, engineering,medicine, fishery, etc.

Excluded from patentability

Although new plant varieties protectableunder the Kenyan Seed and Plant VarietiesAct, Cap. 326 are not covered under pat-ents in Kenya, their parts or products ofbiotechnological processes are are are are are patentable.Novel microorganisms (including algaeand bacteria) are patentable in Kenya solong as their samples are deposited withrecognized international depository insti-tution.

‘Non-inventions’ include:

• DiscoveriesDiscoveriesDiscoveriesDiscoveriesDiscoveries, scientific theories andmathematical methods.

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• SchemesSchemesSchemesSchemesSchemes, rules or methods for doingbusiness, performing purely mental actsor playing games.

• Methods for treatment Methods for treatment Methods for treatment Methods for treatment Methods for treatment of the humanor animal body by therapy or surgery.

• Diagnostic methods Diagnostic methods Diagnostic methods Diagnostic methods Diagnostic methods practised in rela-tion to the treatment methods, exceptproducts for use in any such methods.

• Mere presentation of informationpresentation of informationpresentation of informationpresentation of informationpresentation of information• Public health-related methods Public health-related methods Public health-related methods Public health-related methods Public health-related methods or uses

for therapeutic purposes of a knownproduct.

Utility Model Certificate

‘Utility models’ mean any form, configu-ration or deposition of elements of someappliance, utensil, tool, electrical and elec-tronic circuitry, instruments, handicraft,herbal concoction, mechanism or otherobject or any part of the same, allowing abetter or different functioning, use or manu-facture of the subject matter which givessome technical effect not available in Kenyabefore. It includes microorganisms or otherself-replicable material, herbal as well asnutritional formulations which gives neweffect.

Industrial Design Certificate

‘Industrial design’ means any compositionof lines or colours or any three-dimensionalform, whether or not associated with linesor colours provided that such compositionsor forms give a special appearance to aproduct of industry or handicraft and serveas a pattern for a product or industry handi-craft.

Fees

To enable KIPI deal with an application forgrant and or registration of industrial prop-erty rights, the applicant has to pay certainfees – essentially the filing, search, exami-nations, renewals, maintenance andamendments assignment fee. The sched-ule of fees is to be found in the implement-ing regulations of the Kenya IndustrialProperty Act and the Trade Marks Act.

Intellectual property rights andindigenous livestock breeders

Intellectual property rights regimes are notin favour of indigenous livestock breeders

There is a dire need to recognize theintellectual property rights of pastoralistsand other traditional domestic animal rais-ers in the light of the growing interest inmaking use of the genetic traits of indig-enous livestock breeds.

Intellectual property rights such as pat-ents and copyright have traditionally beenoffered to inventors and creators as re-wards for innovation, and as incentives forthem to share information with the publicto promote more innovation by others.Patents are the main mechanism mostcountries use to allocate rights over inven-tions. They give their owners monopolycontrol over their inventions for a fixed termof (20) years. During that time, owners mayrestrict or control the commercial use andsale of the invention. Society as a wholebenefits by gaining access (for a price) tonew and useful products, and by acquir-ing new knowledge that can be used as abasis for additional research and the crea-tion of new inventions. Patent protectionhas historically been strongest in the in-dustrialized countries and much weaker (ornonexistent) in developing countries.

A patent is issued to invention that isnew, not quite obvious to people in thesame field and which has some industrialutility. Indigenous knowledge cannot meetIndigenous knowledge cannot meetIndigenous knowledge cannot meetIndigenous knowledge cannot meetIndigenous knowledge cannot meetthese requirements simply because thethese requirements simply because thethese requirements simply because thethese requirements simply because thethese requirements simply because theknowledge is already in the public doknowledge is already in the public doknowledge is already in the public doknowledge is already in the public doknowledge is already in the public do-----main.main.main.main.main.

In recent years, many patent offices havebegun issuing patents not only for inven-tions, but also for discoveries of informa-tion already existing in the natural world,such as the genetic sequences of living or-ganisms. They have further extended pat-ent rights to plants, animals and microor-ganisms containing genes that have beenmodified in the laboratory.

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The Agreement on Trade Related As-pects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS)– one of the new trade agreements ad-ministered by the World Trade Organiza-tion (WTO) – incorporates these trends, sothat all WTO members may be required tooffer patent protection or similar alterna-tives for a broad range of discoveries andinventions involving genetic resources. Thistrend towards privatization and modifica-tion of biological and genetic informationhas led countries in both the North andSouth to increasingly view such informa-tion as a proprietary asset having mon-etary value, instead of as part of human-kind’s common heritage. That view has, inturn, led countries to agree that they shouldbe able to regulate the access to, and shar-ing of benefits for their genetic resources.

The current intellectual property regimesmay not protect indigenous livestock rais-ers interests effectively.

The need for ‘access and benefit-shar-ing’ (ABS) agreements can thus be seen inlarge part as a response to trends in na-tional and international IPR systems. Nev-ertheless, IPR systems, as they currentlyexist, will be of little use to – and couldeven hinder – the development of ABSagreements in at least three ways: lack ofprotection, lack of reward, and lack of IPRsystems.

LLLLLack of protectionack of protectionack of protectionack of protectionack of protection IPRs such as patentsprotect and reward some types of innova-tion, but not others. Individuals or firmsmay obtain patents for specific innovationsmade at a particular moment in time. Buttraditional innovations are often developedover a long time and involve mental con-tributions of many individuals. Much indig-enous livestock breeders and local knowl-edge of medicinal plants and food cropsstems from this type of collective innova-collective innova-collective innova-collective innova-collective innova-tiontiontiontiontion, making it difficult to point to a par-ticular person or even community who canbe identified as the ‘inventor’. Traditionalpatent law considers such knowledge to bepart of the public domain. Consequently,present patent systems cannot protect it.

This leads to a natural imbalance of powerunder IPR systems between those who wantaccess to genetic resources and those whoprovide it. Biotechnology and pharmaceu-tical companies who market ‘new’ medi-cines or genetically modified animals, cropsand microorganisms based on genetic re-sources obtained from indigenous and lo-cal communities can receive worldwidepatent protection for their products. Theknowledge, innovations and practices thatmade the ‘discovery’ of those resourcespossible, however, is not patentable.

LLLLLack of rewardack of rewardack of rewardack of rewardack of reward The present IPR systemsdo not reward indigenous and local com-munities for their traditional knowledge andthey do not provide incentives for them topreserve their biodiversity. Governmentsand local communities may have investeda great deal of capital and labour in con-serving an area where, for instance, a plantmicroorganism is discovered that providesthe basis for a promising new drug. Theymay have foregone other uses of their land,such as logging or mining, that could yieldthem immediate financial returns. Or, theymay have forgone lucrative opportunitiesby adhering to lifestyles that preserve theirtraditional knowledge, innovations andpractices. Patents are intended, in part, toprovide incentives to people who investtheir time, effort and money in the processof innovation. They are effective in reward-ing the efforts of companies who developproducts from naturally occurring geneticresources. However, because they do notrecognize traditional knowledge or prac-tices as innovation, they do nothing to pro-vide incentives to owners and stewards oflands where the greatest wealth of geneticresources resides to conserve their knowl-edge or biodiversity.

LLLLLack of well-ack of well-ack of well-ack of well-ack of well-developed intellectual propdeveloped intellectual propdeveloped intellectual propdeveloped intellectual propdeveloped intellectual prop-----erty systemserty systemserty systemserty systemserty systems Developing countries whichdo not have well-developed, enforceableintellectual property systems may have dif-ficulty in satisfactorily negotiating with firmsfor benefit-sharing of new products andtechnologies based upon their genetic re-sources. These firms my have invested a

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great deal of capital in particular technol-ogy. Consequently, they may be reluctantto share it with developing country part-ners who do not provide the same level ofintellectual property protection that they re-ceive in their home countries.

This observation implies that develop-ing countries that wish to obtain new tech-nologies through ABS agreements may firstneed to adopt and implement enforceableintellectual property systems. The TRIPsagreement requires its developing countrymembers to put in place in such systemsby the year 2000. The challenge facing EastAfrican countries is to create intellectualproperty systems that are strong enoughto give firms confidence that their technolo-gies will be protected, while adequatelytailoring the systems to their national cir-cumstances and the needs of their indig-enous and local communities. EnforcingIPRs to prevent infringement and counter-feiting activities is the biggest challengefacing us today. Yet, many other countriesare developing apparently effective na-tional measures on genetic resources forABS legislation without reference to IPRs.

Recommendations

• IPRs will likely remain the most power-ful vehicle for allocating wealth createdfrom the exploitation of genetic re-sources. Developing countries and theirindigenous and local communities maybest maximize their ability to share inthat wealth if their contributions to in-novation are recognized under IPR sys-tems.

• This will require cooperative and imagi-native collaboration among many di-verse constituencies, including the Con-vention on Biological Diversity, the TRIPScouncil, FAO and other internationalinstitutions, legislators and IPR offices indeveloped and developing countries,and indigenous and local communitiesand their national governments.

• At the international level, countries couldcollectively define guidelines for ABSagreements to discourage weak rulesthat might lead to a ‘race to the bot-tom’, stressing immediate, short-termfinancial gains over long-term, equita-bly shared benefits.

• Establishing national and internationalregistries of traditional knowledge couldprotect the intellectual property interestsof indigenous peoples by helping to fur-ther the recognition of their knowledgeby patent offices.

• Patent offices could require that appli-cants disclose the country of origin fromwhich any biological materials or tradi-tional knowledge were obtained:

• State what part traditional knowledgeplayed in identifying the properties andlocation of materials used in develop-ing the invention.• Affirm that, to the best of their knowl-edge, they complied with all applicablelaws of the source country.• Supply evidence that the knowledgewas obtained with the prior informedconsent of the providers.• Require notification to designated au-thorities or communities identified in theapplication as sources of the genetic re-source.

Industrial property applications in KIndustrial property applications in KIndustrial property applications in KIndustrial property applications in KIndustrial property applications in Kenyaenyaenyaenyaenya

Industrial property Applications Granted Rejected PendingPatents 830 210 54 586Trademarks 65,876 48,905 2,471 14,500Industrial designs 432 367 25 40Utility models 56 41 - 15Technovations - - - -Total 68,024 49,513 2,550 15,141Source: KPI Registry, 2003

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Challenges

Intellectual property rights controlling ac-cess and transfer of livestock genetic re-sources, indigenous knowledge and infor-mation will be an increasingly importantissue for actors in developing countries in-volved in the use and development of ge-netic resources. IPRs are important becausethey:

• Provide incentives for private researchand development.

• Offer incentives to inventors and crea-tors through royalties and increasedfunding for their effort and research.

• Encourage access to inventions pro-duced elsewhere, thereby spinning offindustrial growth.

However, IPRs can also impose a costburden.

Concerns have been voiced over pri-vate-sector monopolies of technologies,germplasm and seeds. A controversial is-sue is how to compensate indigenous live-stock communities and small-scale farm-ers in developing countries for their workin developing and maintaining plant ge-netic diversity. Considering that a localabsence of IPR systems might deter invest-ments in research and development, thereare no easy answers to this problem. It is,however, clear that more awareness,knowledge and strategic planning isneeded in most developing countries.

For actors in developing countries, thereare many questions:

• How can East African countries rich inlivestock genetic resources best man-age, transfer of genetic resources,knowledge and information, makingoptimal use of IPR regulations?

• How can the various sectors these coun-tries be strengthened in the process ofsafeguarding national interests and se-curing access to livestock genetic re-sources, knowledge and innovations?

• How can they optimize benefits from

trade with valuable genetic resourcesand be part of value adding processes?

• How can public R&D institutions (e.g.,universities and national agricultural re-search institutions) involved in propri-etary science strengthen internal intel-lectual property policies, guidelines andpractices?

• How could countries in the South opti-mize their IPR systems to suit their agro-economy in the context of TRIPs, espe-cially the problems of patenting ofgenes, animals and crops and the pro-tection of traditional varieties?

• How can we best make use of agree-ments governing third party use of pro-prietary biology/technology productsand methods?

• How should countries in the South im-plement and benefit from informationsharing mechanisms under theCartagena Biosafety Protocol?

There are no immediate answers tothese questions, except that individual gov-ernments must act now and put somethingon the table for the poor indigenous live-stock breeders.

The role of WIPO

As the specialized UN agency responsiblefor the promotion of intellectual propertyworldwide, the World Intellectual PropertyOrganization (WIPO) based in Geneva,was requested by its member states in 1999to undertake exploratory groundwork andfacilitate discussions for a better under-standing of the often interrelated intellec-tual property issues regarding genetic re-sources, traditional knowledge and folk-lore.

The following are intellectual propertyissues that need discussion:

Access to genetic resources and benefitAccess to genetic resources and benefitAccess to genetic resources and benefitAccess to genetic resources and benefitAccess to genetic resources and benefit-----sharingsharingsharingsharingsharing This issue arises in four main con-texts, and relies upon a shared understand-ing of certain terms such as ‘genetic re-sources’. The four main contexts concernthe role of intellectual property rights in:

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WIPO member states agree to fast-track work ontraditional knowledge1

Member states of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) decided todayto push forward with work relating to the intellectual property aspects of traditionalknowledge, folklore and genetic resources. The General Assembly, meeting from Sep-tember 22 to October 1, 2003, decided on an extended mandate for the WIPOIntergovernmental Committee on Intellectual Property and Genetic Resources, Tradi-tional Knowledge and Folklore (IGC). The mandate requires the IGC to accelerate itswork, and to focus in particular on the international dimension of intellectual property(IP) and genetic resources, traditional knowledge (TK) and folklore. The new mandateexcludes no outcome for the IGC’s work, including the possible development of aninternational instrument or instruments in this field.

The IGC first met in April 2001 with a mandate to discuss a range of pressingissues in the field of intellectual property (IP). Since then, the IGC has concentrated onhow IP systems can work more effectively to protect TK and traditional cultural expres-sions (TCEs - also termed ‘expressions of folklore’), and to deal with IP aspects ofgenetic resources. It has tackled these issues at several, interlocking levels:

• debating broad policy and legal questions, including how IP rights can operate topromote the interests of holders and custodians of TK and TCEs, ranging overconventional IP rights, extension and adaptation of IP rights, and specific orsui generis legal systems that have been created in a number of countries;

• sharing practical experience by surveying, documenting and analysing TK andTCE protection in many countries and several regions, to give practical input intothe policy debate, and

• developing practical tools and mechanisms to support TK holders, custodians ofTCEs, and indigenous and local communities in identifying and promoting theirinterests in relation to the IP system.

Many comments at the current General Assembly highlighted that the IGC’s workto date has already led to a much greater understanding of the concepts and issues ithas addressed, and has clarified how to deal with concerns about inadequate recog-nition and protection of TK and TCEs. The discussions highlighted the expectation of anumber of countries that specific steps should be taken to strengthen protection, in-cluding the development of specific new international instruments; others pointed outthat the significance of the issues, and their complexity, meant that further analysisand clarification was needed before crystallizing formal outcomes; there is also aview that more work needs to be done to explore the full potential of existing IP rightsand systems to protect TK and TCEs. The program and budget approved by the cur-rent session of the General Assembly included a range of complementary activities,including continuing capacity-building, legislative assistance and cooperation with arange of national, regional and international initiatives.

The WIPO Assembly also approved the transmission of a technical study (docu-ment WO/GA/30/7) prepared by WIPO to the secretariat of the Convention on Bio-logical Diversity (CBD). The study concerns patent disclosure requirements that arerelevant to genetic resources and TK that are used in patented inventions. The study is

1 Adapted from a WIPO press release, 29 September 2003

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• Contractual agreements for access toContractual agreements for access toContractual agreements for access toContractual agreements for access toContractual agreements for access togenetic resourcesgenetic resourcesgenetic resourcesgenetic resourcesgenetic resources Access agreementsfor genetic resources (such as ‘materialtransfer agreements’, MTAs) raise ques-tions on the role of intellectual propertyrights in respect of ensuring control overex-situ use of genetic resources, tech-nology transfer and joint research anddevelopment, the exploration of the pos-sibility of joint ownership of IPRs; ensur-ing continued customary use of geneticresources, etc.

• Multilateral systems for facilitated ac-Multilateral systems for facilitated ac-Multilateral systems for facilitated ac-Multilateral systems for facilitated ac-Multilateral systems for facilitated ac-cess to genetic resources and benefitcess to genetic resources and benefitcess to genetic resources and benefitcess to genetic resources and benefitcess to genetic resources and benefitsharingsharingsharingsharingsharing These systems raise numerous

intellectual property issues, includingpossible intellectual property-basedbenefit-sharing mechanisms, acquisitionof intellectual property rights over ge-netic resources placed in the multilat-eral system, etc.

• LLLLLegislative, administrative and policyegislative, administrative and policyegislative, administrative and policyegislative, administrative and policyegislative, administrative and policymeasures to regulate access to geneticmeasures to regulate access to geneticmeasures to regulate access to geneticmeasures to regulate access to geneticmeasures to regulate access to geneticresources and benefitresources and benefitresources and benefitresources and benefitresources and benefit-----sharingsharingsharingsharingsharing Theseinclude the role of intellectual propertyrights regarding prior informed consentprocedures, ensuring the recording ofownership interests in inventions thatarise from access to (or use of) geneticresources, etc.

set to be considered by various working groups under the CBD, as well as the Confer-ence of Parties of the CBD when it next meets early next year.

The IGC has fostered exchange of practical understanding of the approaches avail-able for legal protection of traditional knowledge and cultural expressions. A com-posite study on TK protection as prepared for the IGC has reviewed definitions of TK,policy issues in protecting TK as intellectual property, and options for specific, or suigeneris, protection of TK. A parallel analysis of the protection of TCEs (or expressionsof folklore) was debated at length by the IGC at its last session. Along with an exten-sive series of surveys, case studies and analysis of legislation, these documents pro-vide a strong basis for the new phase of WIPO’s work in this area, and ensure that itis based on a rich understanding of existing approaches and the costs and benefits ofdifferent policy options.

The IGC has also considered defensive approaches to ensuring that TK and ge-netic resource material are not the subject of illegitimate patent claims. This has led tomoves to modify core elements of the patent system, such as the International PatentClassification and the information basis of international search and examination un-der the Patent Cooperation Treaty.

The IGC’s mandate is to discuss IP issues relating to access to genetic resourcesand benefit-sharing, TK, and innovations; and traditional creativity and cultural ex-pressions (expressions of folklore). A detailed overview of the work of the IGC isprovided. In the IGC’s work, the terms ‘traditional cultural expressions’ and ‘expres-sions of folklore’ are used synonymously.

The IGC, established by the WIPO General Assembly in October 2000, is open toall member states of WIPO. Other United Nations member states, intergovernmentalorganizations and accredited non-governmental organizations (NGOs) may partici-pate as observers. Some 175 accredited NGOs can take part in the IGC, including83 NGOs especially accredited by the IGC, many of which represent the specificinterests of indigenous communities and TK holders.

At the IGC’s request, the secretariat is developing specific ways of further enhanc-ing the participation of local and indigenous communities in the IGC’s work.

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• The protection of biotechnological in-The protection of biotechnological in-The protection of biotechnological in-The protection of biotechnological in-The protection of biotechnological in-ventions, including certain related ad-ventions, including certain related ad-ventions, including certain related ad-ventions, including certain related ad-ventions, including certain related ad-ministrative and proceduralministrative and proceduralministrative and proceduralministrative and proceduralministrative and proceduralissuesissuesissuesissuesissues Intellectual property issues inthe field of biotechnology include licens-ing and other issues related to the useof rights in biotechnological inventions,administrative and procedural issuesrelated to examination of patent appli-

IPR and biodiversity in Peru

Below is a community policy statement to protect collective intellectual property rightsof indigenous peoples related to biodiversity in Peru.

There is need come up with draft policy on the protection of the collective knowl-edge of indigenous peoples relating to biological diversity. Peru for example was thefirst country to propose a law establishing a regime to regulate access to, and use of,the collective intellectual property rights of indigenous peoples relating to biologicalresources. The law is intended to serve three broad purposes, to:

• Protect the respect, protection, preservation, wider application and developmentof collective knowledge of indigenous peoples;

• Promote fair and equitable distribution of benefits derived from use of collectiveknowledge;

• Promote the use of this knowledge to the benefit of mankind.The proposed law is based on a number of underlying principles:

• Indigenous peoples’ rights over their traditional knowledge exist without the needfor action on the art of the state;

· Access to the collective knowledge of indigenous peoples for scientific or commer-cial purposes required their prior informed consent (PIC), where such knowledge isnot in the public domain. Where use is for a commercial purpose, it is necessaryfor the parties to enter into a licensing agreement for its use;

• Even where knowledge is in the public domain, indigenous peoples are entitled toshare in the benefits derived from its use;

• Traditional knowledge is the collective property and cultural patrimony of indig-enous people, and as such is inalienable and must be administered by presentgenerations to the benefit of future generations;

• Any community is entitled to grant exclusive licenses for the use of knowledge,without the need for the approval of other custodians. However, a percentage ofall transactions must be paid into an indigenous fund for development purposes;

• There is need to create a balance between the rights of indigenous peoples andthe interests of potential users, in order to establish a functional regime to regulatethe trade in traditional knowledge

A working group including representatives of relevant state bodies and the Perma-nent Commission of Indigenous Peoples of Peru (COPPIP) – a forum bringing to-gether indigenous people’s and campesino communities’ representative organiza-tions – has been established to promote wider participation of indigenous peoples inthe revision of the proposed law.

cation directed at biotechnological in-ventions, etc.

PPPPProtection of traditional knowledgerotection of traditional knowledgerotection of traditional knowledgerotection of traditional knowledgerotection of traditional knowledgeBased on WIPO’s previous work, intellec-tual property issues regarding the protec-tion of traditional knowledge related to ge-netic resources (and traditional knowledge,innovations and creativity in general) canbe grouped into:

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• TTTTTerminological and conceptualerminological and conceptualerminological and conceptualerminological and conceptualerminological and conceptualissuesissuesissuesissuesissues These issues include the selec-tion of appropriate terms to describe thesubject matter for which protection issought, a clear definition or descriptionof what is meant (and not meant) forintellectual property purposes by theselected terms, etc.

• Standards concerning the availabilityStandards concerning the availabilityStandards concerning the availabilityStandards concerning the availabilityStandards concerning the availability,,,,,scope and use of intellectual propertyscope and use of intellectual propertyscope and use of intellectual propertyscope and use of intellectual propertyscope and use of intellectual propertyrights in traditional knowledgerights in traditional knowledgerights in traditional knowledgerights in traditional knowledgerights in traditional knowledge Issuesinclude, in the short term, facilitatingaccess to the intellectual property sys-tem to enable traditional knowledgeholders to acquire and use IPRs whereavailable under current standards. In thelonger term are the possible develop-ment of new standards to protect tradi-tional knowledge not protected by ex-isting intellectual property tools, theelaboration of an international frame-work for traditional knowledge assearchable prior art, where so desiredby the relevant traditional knowledgeholders, etc.

• Criteria for the application of techni-Criteria for the application of techni-Criteria for the application of techni-Criteria for the application of techni-Criteria for the application of techni-cal elements of standardscal elements of standardscal elements of standardscal elements of standardscal elements of standards These arelegal criteria for the definition of ‘priorart’ and administrative and proceduralissues related to the examination ofapplicable patents. Issues in this cat-egory include the integration of tradi-tional knowledge into the procedures ofintellectual property offices for filing ex-amination, publication and granting ofintellectual property titles through thedocumentation and publication and oftraditional knowledge as searchableprior art, where so desired by the rel-evant traditional knowledge holders,etc.

• The enforcement of rights in traditionalThe enforcement of rights in traditionalThe enforcement of rights in traditionalThe enforcement of rights in traditionalThe enforcement of rights in traditionalknowledgeknowledgeknowledgeknowledgeknowledge This involves facilitatingaccess to the intellectual property sys-tem to enable traditional knowledgeholders to use and enforce rights underthe intellectual property system.

PPPPProtection of expressions of folklorerotection of expressions of folklorerotection of expressions of folklorerotection of expressions of folklorerotection of expressions of folklore It isrecommended that WIPO should increaseand intensify its work in the field of folk-lore protection.

Acknowledgements

This paper draws heavily on material pub-lished on the WIPO website, www.wipo.int/tk/en/index.html.

Thanks also to Paul N Okello (ITDG–East Africa) and Ilse Köhler-Rollefson(League for Pastoral Peoples) for additionalinformation.

References

Copyright Act, 2001.FAO. 1999. The global strategy for the

management of farm animal genetic re-sources. Executive brief. FAO, Rome.

Industrial Property Act, 2001.Njoro, J and J Wanyama. 2000. Indig-

enous livestock breeds of Kenya: Whatis the future for them? Paper presentedat the international conference ‘Locallivestock breeds for sustainable rurallivelihoods‘, 1–4 November 2000 inUdaipur and Sadri, India.

Seed and New Plant Varieties Act Cap. 326,Laws of Kenya.

WIPO. 2000. Matters concerning intellec-tual property and genetic resources, tra-ditional knowledge and folklore. WIPOGeneral Assembly, 26th session. WorldIntellectual Property Organization, Ge-neva.

WIPO. 2000. Traditional knowledge andthe need to give it adequate intellectualproperty protection. WIPO Committeeon the Relationship between IntellectualProperty, Genetic Resources and Tradi-tional Knowledge. World IntellectualProperty Organization, Geneva.


Q Does the Kenya Plant Health Inspector-ate Services have a facility for the pro-tection of plant varieties, and if so, isthis compatible with the other nationallegislation. Are there any bills pendingin parliament to deal with the issue?(Ekpere)

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A Kenya has been compliant to the re-quirements of WTO 78 since 1998.These requirements relate to sui generis,but the provisions of WTO 98 are morestrict. The Kenya Plant Health Inspec-torate Service is in the process of devel-oping an African model of sui generis.

Q How does KIPI ensure compliance withpatent right protection for the period (20years) that a patent is in force? Howdoes the government protect the publicfrom quacks and cheats who wouldpatent herbal remedies? (Tafesse)

A Herbal remedies are protected underutility innovations legislation. Traditionalhealers are difficult to monitor but theKenya Medical Research Institute has aherbalist association to which applicantsfor patents to herbal remedies are re-ferred. As none of them ever come backwith the accreditation needed, it is hardfor quacks to patent remedies withoutthe approval of the herbalist associa-tion.

Q In India, the government has establishedan institute for the registration and pro-tection of indigenous and grassrootstechnologies, the National InnovationFoundation, which encourages thedocumentation and dissemination ofgrassroots technologies. More informa-tion on the institute can be found atwww.nifindia.org (Vivekanandan).

Q It is clear that plant and animals can-not be patented as yet. But patentingmay become a reality in the foresee-able future, yet indigenous communi-ty’s knowledge is taken and used byresearchers. What is KIPI is doing toprevent that some of these researcherslater claim to have invented this knowl-edge? Applicants for patents over herbalremedies may be taken for a ride byKEMRI researchers who may later useinformation for an applicant for furtherresearch and ‘innovation’ (Masinde).

A All countries that are signatories to theWIPO treaty are seeking ways for the

incorporation of traditional knowledgein patents. It is hoped that this will de-velop into an international law whichwill be adopted by national govern-ments. But for the short term, Kenyanscan only look for an appropriate suigeneris system.

Q The WIPO treaty is working on a newmodel for the incorporation and pro-tection of traditional knowledge intopatent law, so that they can be patented.This is a very dangerous development.By definition, patents implicitly assumestability, distinctiveness and uniformity.Furthermore, traditional knowledgedoes not necessarily satisfy the require-ments for novelty, industrial applicationand innovation required for patents. Thesolution being sought by WIPO wouldjust add to the confusion by developinga system with very low probability ofworking. Governments should not walkblindly into such treaties as they maylater realize the problems in them dur-ing the operational phase, ‘our handswill be tied’ (Ekpere).

A It is always possible to withdraw from atreaty. Maybe WIPO will withdraw fromthe route to patent-tied system, in fa-vour of the more appropriate sui generissystem.African countries are dependent on ini-tiatives like African Growth and Oppor-tunity Act (AGOA) and the New Part-nership for African Development(NEPAD), which are influenced by theWest. This makes it difficult for them togo the way of sui generis (Otswong’o).

Q Developing countries should cease tofollow blindly the initiatives of the Westand take a leadership role in interna-tional negotiations (Martyniuk).

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Global status of researchin indigenous livestock breedsOlivier HanotteInternational Livestock Research Institute (ILRI)

IIIIILRI’s mandate LRI’s mandate LRI’s mandate LRI’s mandate LRI’s mandate is to do research in animal agriculture to reduce hunger, poverty and environmental degradation.

This translates into the following themes:

1 Current and future roles of livestock inpoverty reduction.

2 Adapting and delivering technology andinformation.

3 Opportunities and threats from globali-zation and the livestock revolution.

4 Better livelihoods through the applica-tion of biotechnology.

5 Improved human and environmentalhealth.

Under Theme 4 (biotechnology), thefollowing projects are operating:

• Improving livestock disease control andproduct safety (Evans [email protected])

• Improving utilization of the genetic di-versity in livestock and feed resources(John Gibson, [email protected])

• Characterization and conservation ofanimal genetic resources (OlivierHanotte, [email protected])

This presentation focuses on the thirdof these projects. Activities under this projectinclude:

• Quantitative estimates of the distribu-tion and variability of global livestockpopulations, including relationshipsamongst populations and identificationof unique livestock gene pools (molecu-

lar characterization).• Development of tools for economic

analysis including valuation of animalgenetic resources.

• Development of databases and decisionsupport tools for in situ conservation,including sustainable use (DAGRIS,http://dagris.ilri.cgiar.org/).

The goal is to provide a molecular ge-netic framework for the conservation, utili-zation and improvement of productivity ofindigenous animal genetic resources.

African cattle

The 180 million cattle include more than150 indigenous breeds with unique geneticresources:

• Adaptation to heat and drought.• Tolerance to diseases.• Utilization of low-quality indigenous for-

age.

Many of these breeds are endangered:

• 22 breeds are extinct (13%)• 47 (32%) are at risk of loss.

Country studies

ILRI and national agricultural research in-stitutions have conducted various studies:

• Genetic diversity of Kenyan zebu cattleand dromedary populations (with theKenya Agricultural Research Institute).

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• Genetic characterization of Mongoliancattle.

• Pedigree and parentage analysis ofAnkole cattle herd (with Makarere Uni-versity).

• Phenotypic and molecular charac-terization of Ethiopian goats (with theEthiopian Agricultural Research Organi-zation).

Autosomal microsatellites

• Initial dispersal of the earliest cattle froma likely single African indigenous do-mestication centre.

• Secondary influx of taurines from theNear East and Europe.

• Two separate phases of Asian Bosindicus introgression, one which prob-ably originates with early East Africansea-borne introductions, and a secondwhich is associated with more recentpastoralist migrations.

• The relatively late introduction of cattlepastoralism to the southern part of thecontinent occurred from East Africarather than following a Western Bantu-associated route.

The history of African pastoralism ex-plains the contemporary genetic composi-tion of African cattle. Domesticated withinthe continent but genetically influenced bythe centres of cattle domestication in theNear East and the Indus Valley, modernAfrican cattle represent a unique geneticresource at a juncture when there is anurgent need to improve livestock produc-tivity for the benefit of present and futurehuman generations.

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An international farm animalgenetic resources treaty?Lessons from negotiating the seed treatyPatrick MulvanyITDG

DDDDDuring the 1896 droughturing the 1896 droughturing the 1896 droughturing the 1896 droughturing the 1896 drought and fam-ine in Gujarat, India, LordNorthcourt, the ‘Governor’ of

Gujarat, recognized the value of theKankrej cow. This cow is used for both milkand draft power. He set up an emergencybreeding herd in Chharodi Farm, fromwhich Gujarati farms were restocked afterthe drought.

What was needed to conserve theKankrej cow?

• Vision Vision Vision Vision Vision – To see beyond the crisis.• PPPPPower ower ower ower ower – To take decisive action.• Money Money Money Money Money – To finance the process.• Commitment to public goods Commitment to public goods Commitment to public goods Commitment to public goods Commitment to public goods – Equi-

table restocking of all Gujarati farmers

Development of the seed crisis

Since the 19th century, the rise of indus-trial farming has led to a rapid loss of va-rieties – identified by Nikolei Vavilov, JackHarlan, Erna Bennett, Lawrence Hills andothers. The Green Revolution acceleratedthese losses. Famine relief spreads inap-propriate seeds. Patents and Plant Breed-ers’ Rights fuel biopiracy. Genetically modi-fied organisms threaten genetic integrity.

Agricultural biodiversity

Agricultural biodiversity has been devel-oped by farmers, pastoralists and fisher-folk over 10 000 years. It provides ourfood, fibre, fodder, fuel and pharmaceuti-cals. It also provides biological support and

ecosystem services, so is part of the basisof life on earth.

But crop varieties disappearing:

• 95% lost from farmers’ fields in the pastcentury

• Animal breeds are dying out – 5% arelost each year

• Fields are becoming sterile, with soilloss, salination, degraded pastures,polluted rivers, ponds, lakes and seas.

Actions to save our seeds

• VVVVVavilov Instituteavilov Instituteavilov Instituteavilov Instituteavilov Institute, St Petersburg, Russia:330,000 accessions

• International gene banks International gene banks International gene banks International gene banks International gene banks (CGIAR):600,000 accessions

• HDRA Heritage Seed LibraryHDRA Heritage Seed LibraryHDRA Heritage Seed LibraryHDRA Heritage Seed LibraryHDRA Heritage Seed Library, UK, UK, UK, UK, UK: 850varieties of ‘illegal’ vegetable seeds

• Mihaela CernaMihaela CernaMihaela CernaMihaela CernaMihaela Cerna, Slovenia: 130 Lettucevarieties

• Dr RichhariaDr RichhariaDr RichhariaDr RichhariaDr Richharia, Raipur, India, rescued22,972 rice accessions…but threatenedby Syngenta

History of seed treaty

• 1970s1970s1970s1970s1970s Official recognition of losses• 19831983198319831983 FAO agrees a voluntary ‘Inter-

national Undertaking’ on plant geneticresources

• 19891989198919891989 Recognition of ‘farmers’ rights’• 19921992199219921992 Convention on Biological Diver-

sity (CBD)• 19951995199519951995 FAO Commission on Genetic

Resources for Food and Agriculture(CGRFA) starts renegotiations

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’Food security is one of the great con-cerns of humanity… [for] eliminatingthe hunger of 800 million poor peo-ple. Food security is only possible ifthere is sufficient support for agricul-tural biodiversity, whose conservationand sustainable use we farmers haveachieved through generations of im-plementing Farmers’ Rights. Now, allthat remains is to recognize them.’

—Via Campesina, 1996

• 19961996199619961996 Leipzig Conference on PlantGenetic Resources for Food and Agri-culture (PGRFA)

• 20002000200020002000 CBD Decision V on agriculturalbiodiversity

• 20012001200120012001 Treaty adopted by FAO (3/11/2001)

Purposes of seed treaty

• Conserve Conserve Conserve Conserve Conserve – ex situ, in situ and on-farm• PPPPPromote sustainable use romote sustainable use romote sustainable use romote sustainable use romote sustainable use and recognize

interdependence• Fair and equitable sharing sharing sharing sharing sharing of benefits• Germplasm, Information, Funds, Tech-

nologies, and Systems (GIFTSGIFTSGIFTSGIFTSGIFTS)• Farmers’ Rights• ‘Free flow’ of seeds unrestricted by mo-

nopoly ownership.

Obstacles

• 19951995199519951995 WTO agreement on Trade Re-lated Aspects of Intellectual PropertyRights (TRIPs)/Plant Breeders Rights(UPOV) and/or patents on plant varie-ties

• 19991999199919991999 Review of TRIPs 27.3(b)African position: ‘ban patents on life’

• 20002000200020002000 Biosafety protocol

Expected outcomes

• International legally-recognized ‘farm-ers’ rights’.

• No IPRs on plant genetic resources forfood and agriculture.

• All plant genetic resources for food andagriculture to be covered by treaty.

Achieved

• ‘Farmers’ rights’ subject to national lawe.g., patents.

• Ambiguous wording.• The treaty’s multilateral system has only

35 crop genera and 29 forages andcovers public collections only (the restare voluntary).

International farm animalgenetic resources treaty?

Worthwhile if it achieves…

• International recognition of LivestockKeepers’ Rights to all the agriculturalbiodiversity required for conservationand sustainable use of farm animalgenetic resources – production and en-vironmental services.

• Coverage of all farm animal geneticresources, associated species and thegenes they contain.

• Ban on patents and privatization of farmanimal genetic resources.

• Increased attention on farm animal ge-netic resource issues and provides aforum for negotiation.

Steps to a farm animal geneticresources treaty

• 20042004200420042004 Intergovernmental TechnicalWorking Group on Animal Genetic Re-sources at FAO: focus on livestock.

• 20042004200420042004 FAO Commission on GeneticResources: resolution on Livestock Keep-ers’ Rights.

• 20052005200520052005 FAO Conference: adoption ofprinciple of Livestock Keepers’ Rights.

• 20062006200620062006 Convention on Biological Diver-sity Conference of the Parties (COP) 8:Recognition of farm animal genetic re-sources and Livestock Keepers’ Rightsas negotiated in FAO.

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’There should be a prohibition on bio-piracy and patents on living organ-isms, including the development ofsterile varieties through genetic engi-neering processes. Seeds are the pat-rimony of all of humanity.’

—Final Declaration of the WorldForum on Food Sovereignty, Ha-vana, Cuba, September 7, 2001


The farm animal genetic resources treatyshould cover all animals, not only farmanimals, as in the future some wild ani-mals may be domesticated.

The treaty should be designed to en-sure free flow of genetic material ratherthan confer ownership to any party.

The exclusion of animals from the seedtreaty was because of the numerous inter-est groups and institutions such an inclu-sion would have required. Furthermore, theattention of the international communitywas at the time focused on plants as theywere perceived to have a critical role infood security, while livestock production wasnot viewed as an important issue of ruraldevelopment and sustainable livelihoods.This perception must be challenged ifmeaningful progress is to be made towardsa farm animal genetic resources treaty. Fur-thermore, the plant interest groups have ahuge lobby within the FAO and CBD andhave used this to embark on the 2nd Glo-bal State of Plant Genetic Resources, whileanimal interest groups don’t yet have thefirst! (Martyniuk).

It is possible to reduce the time framefor the farm animal genetic resources treatyby truncating some of the processes bybeing very aggressive which would result

in a statement being reached at COP VIIas opposed to COP 8

Some key countries, notably the USA,are not very cooperative. For instance, theUSA has been a very reluctant player inthe CBD process and withdrew from theprocess at one juncture. Nevertheless, theUSA still retains a lot of influence withinthe CBD via proxies and through its mem-bership in FAO.

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WWWWWorking groupsorking groupsorking groupsorking groupsorking groups

FFFFFour workshop groups discussedour workshop groups discussedour workshop groups discussedour workshop groups discussedour workshop groups discussed andrefined the four sets of recommenda-tions that emanated from the inter-

national workshop on ‘Farm Animal Ge-netic Resources from the Perspective ofRural Communities’ held in Sadri, India on12th to 16th October 2003 (see next page).

Questions for discussion

1. Do you agree that all governmentsshould give high priority to an interna-tionally-binding agreement on pastoral-ism, farm animal genetic resources andthe recognition of Livestock Keepers’Rights? Such an agreement could:

• Consider the role and needs of pasto-ralists.

• Recognition of Livestock Keepers’ Rights.• Include all farm animal genetic re-

sources and associated agricultural bio-diversity.

2 Do you agree with the set of principlesembodied in the recommendations fromSADRI on Farm Animal Genetic Re-sources?

3 Do you agree with the FOUR sections?4 What could be added or deleted?5 How can you improve the statement?6 What could be added or deleted? How

can you improve the section?

Group 1

A ‘No’ to Question 1 would have negativeimplications, especially in the face of glo-balization.

With a ‘Yes’ we should then use regionalorganizations like SADC, COMESA, IGAD,AU-IBAR to represent our case at interna-tional forums.

Such an agreement could:

• Consider the role and needs of pasto-ralists.• Needs for voluntary sedentary rights.• Recognition of Livestock Keepers’Rights.

• Include animal genetic resources forfood and agriculture and associated ag-ricultural biodiversity.

We should not restrict ourselves to farmanimal genetic resources. Include wildlifeas well.

Documentation of animalgenetic resources (role oftraditional communities)

• Strengthen and sustain the ongoingdocumentation process e.g. State of theWorld Animal Genetic Resources Report(FAO). Pastoralists should actively beinvolved in this. This process should bespearheaded by governments with the

Part 4 Working groups

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Farm animal genetic resources from the perspective of rural communities

Asia Level Workshop hosted by Lokhit Pashu-Palak Sansthan in Sadri (Pali), Rajasthan,India,12–16 October 2003

Recommendations

The actions recommended by the workshop for promoting the sustainable use of farm animalgenetic resources in Asia related to four separate issues:

Documentation of animal genetic resources (role of traditional communities)• Ongoing documentation of indigenous knowledge on animal genetic resources.• Add indigenous knowledge dimension to Domestic Animal Diversity-Information System.• Modify scientific techniques to level of understanding of traditional community with coop-

eration of extension services.• Establish pilot technology demonstration units with participation of traditional communi-

ties.• Incorporate traditional indigenous knowledge into education systems.• Promotion of knowledge exchange between and within communities.• Organisation of training in the LIFE approach.

Strengthening the role of traditional communities in conserving and managingsustainable animal genetic resources• Promote traditional indigenous knowledge through folk songs and stories (cultural forms)

representation.• Promoting and organization of traditional communities.• Support community initiatives to conserve their animal genetic resources.• Strengthen community awareness on sustainable management of natural resources.• Enhance linkages horizontally and vertically between relevant institutions and communities.• Promote traditional management practices through people participation.• Support traditional community to develop market linkages an channels and credit/saving

schemes.

Support for traditional communities to maintain their role, lobbying for culturaldiversity• Initiate setting up village level resource management committee to defend local common

grazing rights (actors NGOs and governments) and other issues.• Raise awareness in other sectors (forest/agriculture/veterinary medicine) and other rel-

evant departments to discuss access rights to grazing and water.• Respond to pastoralists‘ need for fodder in reforestation programmes.• Promote and support village self help group for credit and marketing.• Research for low cost feed supplements for draught and adverse conditions.• Provide services for families and their livestock.

Treaty and legal requirements for the conservation and protection ofintellectual property rights (IPR)• Ensure that work on IPR goes hand in hand with participation and benefit sharing.• Canvass and consolidate national issues concerning conservation of farm animal genetic

resources in March 2004.• Stimulate formation of national working groups on farm animal genetic resources:

• to study the lead-up process to the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources forFood and Agriculture.• to determine what can be replicated.• to indicate obstacles and challenges.

• Disseminate findings of workshop in international treaty on farm animal genetic resources.• Sensitize stakeholders in the region on the issue.• Ensure the inclusion of grass land genetic resources in both, plant and animal resource

conservation programmes.

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backing up of other stakeholders, e.g.NGOs

2 Add the indigenous knowledge dimen-sion to the Domestic Animal Diversity-Information System (DAD-IS) adminis-tered by FAO.

3 Open up a common database at local,national, regional and international lev-els. DAD-IS may not be able to incor-porate all interests.

4 Form a pastoral forum in each countryto act as a pressure group and repre-sent pastoral interests.

5 Promote networking amongst pastoralforums. Knowledge exchange betweenand within communities.

6 Set up secretariats at local, national,regional, and international levels.

7. Modify scientific techniques to the levelof understanding of traditional commu-nities with cooperation of extension serv-ices.

8 Establish pilot technology demonstrationunits with participation of traditionalcommunities.

9 Incorporate indigenous knowledge intothe education system, especially at theprimary school level.

The group agreed with the Sadri Rec-ommendations, but noted that:

• There is a need for an umbrella pasto-ralist organization for networking at lo-cal national and international levels.This should be done with the goal ofcreating awareness through education,training on rights, empowerment, mar-kets, value addition (school of wisdom).

• In this, the role of pastoralists will be tomaintain the balance of pastoral liveli-hoods in arid and semi-arid lands toensure sustainability. Pastoralists willalso endeavour to conserve indigenousbreeds within their areas to maintaingenetic diversity.

On Question 2, the group agrees to allthe sections but added the following:

• Capacity-building efforts should con-centrate on building on existing knowl-

edge rather than imposing new ideas.• Environmental committees need to be

established among pastoral communi-ties.

• There is a need for capacity enhance-ment.

• There should be structures to maintaingood relationships within and outsidepastoral communities.

• There is a need to strengthen pastoralgrazing committees for selective use andmanagement of pasture and waterpoints.

• There is a need to establish andstrengthen appropriate health servicedelivery systems.

• Efforts to lobby influential persons, poli-ticians, opinion leaders, administrators,religious leaders businesspersons andthe media on for more action on thepriorities of pastoral people should beenhanced.

In their reaction to Group 1’s presenta-tion, the workshop participants agreed thatthe statement form the Sadri Workshopcontained issues and terminologies specificto India. Since all this is building up to aglobal-level action plan, broader, more en-compassing phrasing was proposed.

Group 2

All governments should give high priorityto an internationally binding agreement onpastoralism, farm animal genetic re-sources, and the recognition of LivestockKeepers’ Rights. A policy should be estab-lished that takes into consideration the eco-nomic setting, the social framework, andpolitical environment of pastoralists andwhich enhances and recognizes pastoral-ism as a viable livelihood system. The policyshould make provisions for water, animalhealth, marketing, land tenure, security,and animal feed during droughts

Livestock keepers’ entitlement to theirlands and territories should be recognizedthrough suitable legal instruments that en-

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sure non-alienability of such lands out oflivestock keepers’ ownership without theirinformed consent and only in consultationwith them. The group also called for theequal recognition of the citizen rights oflivestock keepers as a people and of theirculture and livelihood as derived from theirlivestock.

The group recommended the recogni-tion of farm animal genetic resourcesowned by livestock keepers and their con-tribution to the national food security. Thiswould support conservation of local ani-mal breeds with unique gene pool derivedfrom adaptation to arid and semi-aridrangelands, including associated and sup-portive rangeland biodiversity of grass-lands, plant life, as well as wildlife re-sources.

The group was in total agreement withthe four recommendations from the SadriWorkshop, adding the following points:

• Need for participatory planning andmanagement of community-ownednatural resources.

• Need for recognition and promotion ofthe cultural attachment and love heldby livestock keepers for their farm ani-mal’s genetic resources.

In the open session to discuss the pres-entation, participants noted the followingpoints:

• Tanzanite mining in Tanzania has pre-cipitated a mass movement of youngpeople to the mining areas. This isthreatening the survival of traditionalbreeding knowledge which may lead toserious degradation of the genetic re-sources and the ecosystems that sup-port the community.

• The importance of pastoralism is notfully appreciated by development prac-titioners and the rights of these groupsare not respected. For instance when in-vestors come to pastoral lands the in-terest of the indigenous communities are

not respected. The heavy emphasisplaced on the government in pastoraldevelopment is not fruitful, partly be-cause the term ‘government’ is used inits general form without reference tospecific sections whose attention is be-ing called.

• With respect to regional and interna-tional agreements, national govern-ments should develop avenues for con-sent by local communities before com-mitting the nation to a treaty.

• The Plant Genetic Resources Treaty proc-ess took from 1978 to 2001 to com-plete. It is important to develop andengage actors at the micro and inter-mediate levels in order to complement,and speed up macro level develop-ments.

Group 3

The group agrees in principle to the pro-posal in Question 1, but notes that:

• There is a need for an umbrella pasto-ralist organization for networking at lo-cal, national and international levels.This will be done with a goal to createawareness through education, trainingon rights, empowerment, markets, andvalue addition (school of wisdom).

• In this, the role of pastoralists will be tomaintain the balance of pastoral liveli-hoods in arid and semi-arid lands toensure sustainability. Pastoralists willalso endeavour to conserve indigenousbreeds within their areas to maintaingenetic diversity.

On Question 2, the group agrees to allthe sections, but adds the following:

• Environmental committees need to beestablished among pastoral communi-ties.

• There is a need for capacity enhance-ment.

• There should be structures to maintaingood relationships within and outside

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pastoral communities.• There is a need to strengthen pastoral

grazing committees for selective use andmanagement of pasture and waterpoints.

• There is a need to establish andstrengthen appropriate health servicedelivery systems.

• Efforts are needed to lobby influentialpersons, politicians, opinion leaders,administrators, religious leaders,businesspersons and the media on pas-toral issues.

Group 4

The group noted such an agreementshould be geared towards the recognitionof pastoral peoples and indigenous ani-mal breeders and their role in providingsustainable livelihoods and the conserva-tion of animal genetic resources through atreaty in line with FAO and the Conventionon Biological Diversity.

To make progress towards such a treaty,the group noted the need for appropriatepolicy approaches. In particular, the grouprecommended the following approaches:

• Affirm and recognize the historical roleof pastoralists and indigenous commu-nities towards domestic animal diversityand environmental services.

• Recognize the rights of livestock keep-ers in terms of access to resources andtheir right to continue using their knowl-edge in this and to access, save, use,exchange and sell their animal geneticresources unrestricted by IPRs (geneticengineering).

• Ensure that benefits of the use of ani-mal genetic resources are accessible eq-uitably to all.

• Provide characterization, evaluation anddocumentation of animal genetic re-sources, possibly through an appropri-ate national register.

• Provide a legal framework for the im-plementation of a global strategy for

conservation and sustainable use ofanimal genetic resources.

• Inclusion of financing mechanisms forthe necessary processes and institutionsfor a animal genetic resources treaty

• Provide for sustainable use of animalgenetic resources.

• Establishments of linkages to the Con-vention on Biological Diversity throughFAO.

The following steps and opportunitiesshould be exploited in the development ofan animal genetic resources treaty .

• 20042004200420042004 Convention on Biological Diver-sity, Conference of the Parties (COP) VII,9–24 Feb 2004.

• 20042004200420042004 Intergovernmental TechnicalWorking Group on Animal Genetic Re-sources for Food and Agriculture at FAO29 Feb–1 Mar: include pastoralism con-cept in the treaty.

• 20042004200420042004 FAO Commission on GeneticResources for Food and Agriculture(CGRFA), 6 Oct: Push for the inclusionof the principle of Livestock Keepers’Rights.

• 20052005200520052005 FAO, Nov 2005: Adoption ofthe rights of pastoralists.

• 20062006200620062006 Convention on Biological Diver-sity–Conference of the Parties, 8 Mar:Recognition of farm animal genetic re-sources.


• There is a need to act swiftly on theserecommendations as the first step is onlya few months away. In particular, par-ticipants called for the delegation of thetask of taking these recommendationsto the FAO intergovernmental commit-tee for action.

• The FAO can only act on these recom-mendations if the mandate to do so isprovided by the relevant national gov-ernments. The most effective way forgetting action at FAO is by lobbying therespective country representatives to

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raise these issues within FAO.• The low levels of awareness at the grass-

roots level on the legal implicationsrelating to animal genetic resources areof concern. To create effective lobbyingmechanisms, there is need to raiseawareness among grassroots pastoralassociations.

• In discussions over pastoralists’ issues,there is always confusion between purepastoralists and agro-pastoralists. Thishas contributed to the exclusion of purepastoral communities from the policyframework and the neglect of issuessuch as land tenure for nomadic pasto-ralists.

• The recognition of the role of pastoral-ists will in itself raise awareness of theirconcerns and priorities.

• The FAO animal genetics departmenthas a broader approach to farm ani-mal genetic resources. It would be easierand more appropriate to address cul-tural related issues of pastoral commu-nities through conventions on humanrights, rights of indigenous people andavenues such as UNESCO.

• At the international level there are al-ready too many commissions and theinclusion of cultural issues within farmanimal genetic resources would justcomplicate progress. This meetingshould agree to a single action plan andgive it full support to expedite progresstowards a farm animal genetic re-sources treaty. Pastoral associations invarious forms should spearhead the dif-fusion of information on farm animalgenetic resources at the grassroots level.

• There is a need to recognize various live-lihood strategies of animal breeders butat the same time come up with a singlefront for animal genetic resources. Thereis a need to act at the micro, meso, andmacro levels and to engage differentgroups and, in particular, to involve thegeneral public, youths, pastoral asso-ciations, NGOs and community serviceorganizations.

• Pastoralists are a subset of livestockkeepers. Maximum attention should begiven to the wider problem of free flow

of genetic resources without too muchfocus on who owns them, as the focusis not on the ownership but on the freeflow and access for all.

• It was proposed there should be a state-ment to support communities’ owner-ship over their farm animal genetic re-sources. In response it was noted thatsuch a statement can be used to meanimplicit approval of the imposition of IPRover farm animal genetic resources,which could quickly degenerate in fa-vour of private entities.

• However, there was insistence from thefloor that the recognition the role ofcommunities in the development of farmanimal genetic resources can only beachieved via IPR.

• It was noted it is a very fine line: therejection of IPR over farm animal ge-netic resources will leave the questionof ownership wide open, while its ac-ceptance could also eventually lead tothe exclusion of some communities fromaccessing farm animal genetic re-sources, which could be disastrous forfood security.

• A list of plants critical for food securityis excluded from any IPR regime.

• IPR regimes can only grant rights to le-gal persons. This necessitates the selec-tion of a few persons in the communityto own the IPR, which in itself a big risk.

• Owing to the inherent complications onterminology, it was proposed that theterm ‘animal breeders’ be used in thedeclaration to give the widest coveragepossible.

• This proposal was refined and it wasagreed the term ‘pastoralists/indig-enous livestock breeders’ be used.

Way forward

In the development of the way forward af-ter the workshop, the following points werenoted:

• Inadequate policy framework is one ofthe largest barriers to the farm animalgenetic resources treaty. Participantswere therefore in agreement that they

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should, and would start lobbying theirnational governments by all means pos-sible to redress this.

• It was proposed that a secretariat beelected to follow up on the recommen-dations of the workshop. This would bepurported by regional subcommittees.

• It was also proposed that farm animalgenetic resources issues to be includedin various State of the World reports toraise their profile.

• It was resolved that all representativesfrom pastoral communities take the leadin diffusing awareness on farm animalgenetic resources at their respectivecommunities. The post-workshop steer-ing committee was also charged withthe responsibility of being a resourcecentre for these representatives.

• It was resolved that all organizationsrepresented at the workshop will makeall efforts to disseminate the proceed-ings and resolutions of the workshop toa wider audience.

• To gather the resources required foradvocacy and pressure for farm animalgenetic resources, it was resolved allpresent should develop and implementprojects and project proposals to un-dertake the various steps needed for afarm animal genetic resources treaty.

• It was proposed that national workinggroups be formed to create awarenessand participation in the process towardsa farm animal genetic resources treaty.

• It was noted that representatives at theworkshop were from pastoral commu-nities with high visibility and presencewithin their countries. The need to in-volve less numerous and visible com-munities was noted.

• The need for follow-up meetings tomonitor progress was noted.

• The use of district pastoral associations,and equivalent institutions for dissemi-nation at grassroots level was proposed.It was also recommended that theseorganizations form peer networks thatwould help create a snowball effect andgive them a presence at local and na-tional development where they can agi-

tate for animal genetic resources andrelated issues.

• Participants were challenged to definespecific steps needed in capacity build-ing and incorporate this in their actionplans.

• The need to maintain the participationof grassroots communities in forums toaddress animal genetic resources issueswas emphasized to ensure the processis continuously aware of the on-groundsituation.

• It was also noted that a treaty on ani-mal genetic resources is not the only (ornecessarily the best) way to preservefarm animal genetic resources. Actionin areas like land tenure, extension serv-ices and related areas also have an im-portant contribution to make.

• Participants were encouraged to createlinks with institutions like IPGRI andCGIAR, which can greatly aid the causeof farm animal genetic resources. How-ever, it was noted such organizationscould only come on board if a certaincritical mass of interest was present, sothe first challenge is to create this inter-est.

• The Karen Commitment (page 8) hence-forth will be the guide for participantsand their respective organization andcommunities in contributing to the in-ternational, national and local debateson farm animal genetic resources. Thecentral role in this debate will be playedby FAO and the Convention on Biologi-cal Diversity, so it is very important tochannel the views expressed in the work-shop to these organizations.

• The organizers are committed to facili-tating the opinions and contributions ofparticipants to the subsequent debateand developments within FAO, the Con-vention on Biological Diversity and as-sociated processes. Article 8j of the Con-vention on Biological Diversity will onlybe meaningful for animal breedingcommunities if they aggressively makedemands to the Convention that theirconcerns be addressed.

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The Karen Commitment

On the basis of these discussions, the work-shop participants drafted a declarationabout the contributions of pastoralists andother livestock keepers to developing ani-mal genetic resources, and their rights tocontinue to do so. This declaration wasnamed the ‘Karen Commitment’ after thevenue of the workshop in Karen, Kenya.The full declaration is printed on page 8.

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PPPPParticipantsarticipantsarticipantsarticipantsarticipants

Mohamed AbassMohamed AbassMohamed AbassMohamed AbassMohamed AbassKenya Livestock Marketing CouncilPO Box 2676, 00200 Nairobi, Kenya

Jecinta AbenyoJecinta AbenyoJecinta AbenyoJecinta AbenyoJecinta AbenyoITDG–East AfricaTurkana Office, PO Box 242, Lodwar, KenyaTel: +254 54 21451, 21443Fax: +254 54 21451Email: [email protected]

Abdi Dakane AffeyAbdi Dakane AffeyAbdi Dakane AffeyAbdi Dakane AffeyAbdi Dakane AffeyDistrict Pastoral Association–WajirPO Box 401, Wajir, Kenya

Elijah AgeviElijah AgeviElijah AgeviElijah AgeviElijah AgeviITDG–East AfricaPO Box 39493, 00623 Nairobi, KenyaTel: +254 2 2713540, 2715299, 2719313,2719413Fax: +254 2 2710083Email: [email protected]

Hedy BühlmannHedy BühlmannHedy BühlmannHedy BühlmannHedy BühlmannWorld Herders CouncilPO Box 2453, 6002 Lucerne, SwitzerlandEmail: [email protected]

FFFFFrancis N Chabarirancis N Chabarirancis N Chabarirancis N Chabarirancis N ChabariGTZ International ServicesPO Box 41607, 00100 Nairobi, KenyaTel: +254 20 575088, 574751Fax: +254 20 573228

Dashdamba DamdinDashdamba DamdinDashdamba DamdinDashdamba DamdinDashdamba Damdinc/o GTZ, PO Box 46–107, Ulanbaatar 210646,MongoliaTel: +976 11 9918 3752Fax: +976 11 315 993

PPPPProf JA Ekpererof JA Ekpererof JA Ekpererof JA Ekpererof JA EkpereUniversity of IbadanPO Box 21824, Ibadan, NigeriaTel: +234 1 2629199, +234 080 3323 0430Email: [email protected]

Maria EsipisuMaria EsipisuMaria EsipisuMaria EsipisuMaria EsipisuITDG–East AfricaPO Box 39493, 00623 Nairobi, KenyaTel: +254 2 2713540, 2715299, 2719313,2719413Fax: +254 2 2710083Email: [email protected]

Meso GalmagarMeso GalmagarMeso GalmagarMeso GalmagarMeso GalmagarPastoralistc/o ITDG–East Africa, PO Box 202, Marsabit,Kenya

Ebenyo GodwinEbenyo GodwinEbenyo GodwinEbenyo GodwinEbenyo GodwinCEC Chairman OropoiITDG–East Africa, PO Box 17, Lodwar, KenyaTel: +254 54 21451, 21443Fax: +254 54 21451

Philip Boru HalakePhilip Boru HalakePhilip Boru HalakePhilip Boru HalakePhilip Boru HalakePastoralistPO Box 3, Marsabit, Kenya

Olivier HanotteOlivier HanotteOlivier HanotteOlivier HanotteOlivier HanotteInternational Livestock Research Institute,PO Box 30709, Nairobi 00100, KenyaTel: +254 20 630 743Fax: +254 20 631 499Email: [email protected]

TTTTTura Isakoura Isakoura Isakoura Isakoura IsakoKenya Agricultural Research InstitutePO Box 147, Marsabit, KenyaTel: +254 69 2040Fax: +254 69 2220Email: [email protected]

Participants

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Martin KMartin KMartin KMartin KMartin KarimiarimiarimiarimiarimiEmail: [email protected]

Meshack KMeshack KMeshack KMeshack KMeshack KarithiarithiarithiarithiarithiEmail: [email protected]

Ilse KöhlerIlse KöhlerIlse KöhlerIlse KöhlerIlse Köhler-Rollefson-Rollefson-Rollefson-Rollefson-RollefsonLeague for Pastoral PeoplesPragelatostrasse 20, 64372 Ober-Ramstadt,GermanyTel/fax: +49 6154 53642Email: [email protected], [email protected]

Lily LLily LLily LLily LLily LangatangatangatangatangatITDG–East AfricaPO Box 39493, 00623 Nairobi, KenyaTel: +254 2 2713540, 2715299, 2719313,2719413Fax: +254 2 2710083Email: [email protected]

LLLLLucas Lucas Lucas Lucas Lucas LolngojineolngojineolngojineolngojineolngojineITDG–East AfricaBox 325 Maralal, KenyaTel: +254 65 2236, 2227, 2229Email: [email protected]

Sharon LSharon LSharon LSharon LSharon LooremettaooremettaooremettaooremettaooremettaITDG–East AfricaPO Box 39493, 00623 Nairobi, KenyaTel: +254 2 2713540, 2715299, 2719313,2719413Fax: +254 2 2710083Email: [email protected]

Thomas LThomas LThomas LThomas LThomas LoquangoquangoquangoquangoquangHappy Cow Project, Karamoja Initiative forSustainable PeacePO Box 26459, Kampala, UgandaEmail: [email protected]: +256 77 224466Fax: c/o Lily, +256 31 242500

Elzbieta MartyniukElzbieta MartyniukElzbieta MartyniukElzbieta MartyniukElzbieta MartyniukUl. Ciszewskiego 8, O2-786 Warszawa, PolandTel: +48 22 8530934, 6231056Email: [email protected],[email protected]

Isabella MasindeIsabella MasindeIsabella MasindeIsabella MasindeIsabella MasindeITDG–East AfricaPO Box 39493, 00623 Nairobi, KenyaTel: +254 2 2713540, 2715299, 2719313,2719413Fax: +254 2 2710083Email: [email protected]

Mbaabu MathiuMbaabu MathiuMbaabu MathiuMbaabu MathiuMbaabu MathiuUniversity of NairobiPO Box 3659, 00100 Nairobi, Kenya

Thomas MbeyelaThomas MbeyelaThomas MbeyelaThomas MbeyelaThomas MbeyelaNational Artificial Insemination CentrePO Box 557, Usa River, TanzaniaTel: +255 27 2553850Fax: +255 27 2553836Email: [email protected]

Njuguna MbogoNjuguna MbogoNjuguna MbogoNjuguna MbogoNjuguna MbogoMinistry of Livestock & Fisheries DevelopmentPO Box 34, Garissa, KenyaTel: +254 46 2056, 0722 241767

Duncan MboyahDuncan MboyahDuncan MboyahDuncan MboyahDuncan MboyahBiosafety NewsPO Box 41992, Nairobi, KenyaTel: +254 2 253543Fax: +254 2 316795Email: [email protected]

Meghji N MeghjiMeghji N MeghjiMeghji N MeghjiMeghji N MeghjiMeghji N MeghjiMwanza Rural Housing ProgrammePO Box 2745, Mwanza, TanzaniaTel: +255 744 888627Email: [email protected]

TTTTTaffese Mesfinaffese Mesfinaffese Mesfinaffese Mesfinaffese MesfinPENHA, Farm AfricaPO Box 5746, Addis Ababa, EthiopiaTel: +251 1 612424Fax: +251 1 560526, 560527Email: [email protected]

Omar Sadik MohammedOmar Sadik MohammedOmar Sadik MohammedOmar Sadik MohammedOmar Sadik MohammedGarissa District Pastoral AssociationPO Box 12 Dadaab, Garissa, KenyaTel: +254 46 3522, 2060Fax: +254 46 3242Email: [email protected]

Charles MuchunguziCharles MuchunguziCharles MuchunguziCharles MuchunguziCharles MuchunguziMbarara University of Science and TechnologyPO Box 1410, Mbarara, UgandaTel: +256 77 559492Fax: +256 485 20782Email: [email protected]

PPPPPatrick Mulvanyatrick Mulvanyatrick Mulvanyatrick Mulvanyatrick MulvanyIntermediate Technology Development GroupSchumacher Centre for Technology & Develop-ment, Bourton Hall, Bourton-on-Dunsmore,Rugby, CV23 9QZ, United KingdomTel: +44 1926 634400Fax: +44 1926 634401Email: [email protected]

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Kimpei MuneiKimpei MuneiKimpei MuneiKimpei MuneiKimpei MuneiDupoto-e-Maa, PO Box 264, Kajiado, KenyaTel: +254 722 638899Email: [email protected]

Adam Elhag MusaAdam Elhag MusaAdam Elhag MusaAdam Elhag MusaAdam Elhag MusaChair of Pastoral UnionPO Box 3182, Khartoum, SudanTel. +249 11763574Fax +249 11 787709

Rebecca MusyokaRebecca MusyokaRebecca MusyokaRebecca MusyokaRebecca MusyokaKenya Small Farmers Forumc/o Makanya, PELUM Country Desk, PO Box431, Matuu, Kenya

JN MwangiJN MwangiJN MwangiJN MwangiJN MwangiPO Box 25418, Nairobi, Kenya

Helen NakimbugweHelen NakimbugweHelen NakimbugweHelen NakimbugweHelen NakimbugweNational Animal Genetic Resources Centre andData Bank, PO Box 183, Entebbe, UgandaTel: +256 41 320 831Fax: +256 41 349 422Email: [email protected]

Henry NeondoHenry NeondoHenry NeondoHenry NeondoHenry NeondoAll Africa News Agency (AANA)PO Box 2141, 05100 Nairobi, KenyaTel: +254 733 655614Email: [email protected]

James M NjauJames M NjauJames M NjauJames M NjauJames M NjauKenya National Federation of AgriculturalProducersPO Box 62939, Nairobi, Kenya

Joyce NjoroJoyce NjoroJoyce NjoroJoyce NjoroJoyce NjoroCommunity-Based Livestock Initiative Pro-gramme (CLIP)PO Box 1249, 00606 Nairobi, Kenya

Michael OjiamboMichael OjiamboMichael OjiamboMichael OjiamboMichael OjiamboKenya Freedom From HungerPO Box 30762, Nairobi, Kenya

Cleopas OkoreCleopas OkoreCleopas OkoreCleopas OkoreCleopas OkoreMinistry of Livestock and FisheriesPO Box 34188, Nairobi, KenyaEmail: [email protected]

Nathan OleNathan OleNathan OleNathan OleNathan Ole-L-L-L-L-LengisugiengisugiengisugiengisugiengisugiMaasai Resource Centre for Indigenous Knowl-edgePO Box 3084, Arusha, TanzaniaTel: +255 027 8078 / 8002Email: [email protected]

James OmburaJames OmburaJames OmburaJames OmburaJames OmburaVeterinary Research Laboratories, Private Bag,00625 Kangemi, Nairobi, KenyaTel: +254 20 632231Fax: +254 20 631273

Mendbaatar OsorjinMendbaatar OsorjinMendbaatar OsorjinMendbaatar OsorjinMendbaatar OsorjinGTZPO Box 46-107, Ulanbaatar 210646, MongoliaTel: +976 11 99183752Fax: +976 11 315993Email: [email protected]

FFFFFredrick O Otswong’oredrick O Otswong’oredrick O Otswong’oredrick O Otswong’oredrick O Otswong’oKenya Industrial Property InstitutePO Box 51648, Nairobi, Kenya

Hanwant Singh RathoreHanwant Singh RathoreHanwant Singh RathoreHanwant Singh RathoreHanwant Singh RathoreLokhit Pashu-Palak Sansthan (LPPS)PO Box 1, Sadri, District Pali, Rajasthan, IndiaTel/fax: +91 29 3428 5086Email: [email protected]

YYYYYobo Rutinobo Rutinobo Rutinobo Rutinobo RutinCentre for Minority Rights DevelopmentPO Box 14692, Nairobi, Kenya

Adano SalesaAdano SalesaAdano SalesaAdano SalesaAdano SalesaITDG–East Africa Samburu OfficePO Box 325, Maralal, KenyaTel: +254 65 2236, 2227, 2229Email: [email protected]

Ali Aii ShatuAli Aii ShatuAli Aii ShatuAli Aii ShatuAli Aii ShatuMbororo Social and Cultural DevelopmentAssociationPO Box 221, Bamenda, CameroonEmail: [email protected]

P VivekanandanP VivekanandanP VivekanandanP VivekanandanP VivekanandanSeva45, TPM Nagar, Virattipathu, Madurai 625 010,Tamil Nadu, IndiaTel: +254 452 238 0082Fax: +254 452 2300425Email: [email protected]

Philip WPhilip WPhilip WPhilip WPhilip WalubengoalubengoalubengoalubengoalubengoITDG–East AfricaPO Box 39493, 00623 Nairobi, KenyaTel: +254 2 2713540, 2715299, 2719313,2719413Fax: +254 2 2710083Email: [email protected]@itdg.or.ke

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KKKKKamwati Wamwati Wamwati Wamwati Wamwati WangoangoangoangoangoITDG–East AfricaPO Box 39493, 00623 Nairobi, KenyaTel: +254 2 2713540, 2715299, 2719313,2719413Fax: +254 2 2710083Email: [email protected]

Jacob WJacob WJacob WJacob WJacob WanyamaanyamaanyamaanyamaanyamaITDG–East AfricaPO Box 39493, 00623 Nairobi, KenyaTel: +254 2 2713540, 2715299, 2719313,2719413Fax: +254 2 2710083Email: [email protected]

Molu WMolu WMolu WMolu WMolu WatoatoatoatoatoPastoralistPO Box 257, Marsabit, Kenya

Vincent WVincent WVincent WVincent WVincent WechabeechabeechabeechabeechabeMinistry of Livestock & Fisheries DevelopmentBox 314, Kapenguria, KenyaTel +254 5462460, 733 543287, 733 566730

Susan YSusan YSusan YSusan YSusan YiapaniapaniapaniapaniapanITDG–East AfricaPO Box 39493, 00623 Nairobi, KenyaTel: +254 2 2713540, 2715299, 2719313,2719413Fax: +254 2 2710083Email: [email protected]

Vincent V YVincent V YVincent V YVincent V YVincent V YiapaniapaniapaniapaniapanMaa Herbal Practitioners & Conservation ClubPO Box 340, Narok, KenyaTel: +254 722 686718

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