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TheOriginandtheNaturalHistoryoftheCoconutPalm

SarahRick

Image 1: http://nla.gov.au/nla.pic-an10465542

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TableofContentsIntroductionCocosnucifera Background Flowers Fruit Soils/Habitat Uses Dissemination/DispersalFanning(Tabuaeran)PalmyraUnderstanding the Origins and the Various Theories

Historical Records/Literature Pollen Records Polynesian Folklore Theories of Floatation

Relating back to Palmyra and Fanning Islands Conclusion and Final Remarks Bibliography

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Introduction

Coconutpalm(Cocosnucifera)canbefoundthroughoutthetropicsandinmany

islandsinthePacificasitisthetropicsmostcommonplant.Itshistoryiscomplexand

hasplayedamajorroleinbothhumanandecologicalsurvival.Theoriginsandits

disseminationhaveundergonemuchdebateandtherearemanytheoriesastohow

coconutsarrivedtothePacificbutwhatbecomesclearisthecapacityforcoconutsto

surviveandcolonizenewareas.Itstartsfromthebeginningofthenutwhoseresiliency

hasthestrengthtowithstandsomeoftheworld’sworstcasescenariosandthepalms

abilitytoadapttomanydifferentenvironments.Humanshavealsoplayedamajorrole

incocosdispersalbecauseofitsabilitytoprovidemanydifferentresourceslikefood

andwater.Ithasoftenbeenreferredtoasthe“treeoflife”orthe“treeofheaven”(Chan

andElevitch2006).InthispaperIwillexaminethenaturalhistoryofthecoconutand

thevarioustheoriesastohowitarrivedinthePacific.Thisinformationisimportant

whenlookingatecosystemslikePalmyraandFanningIslandwhoarefacingecological

impactsduetotheincreaseincoconutpalms.Littleinformationisknownaboutthe

presenceofcoconutstothetwoislandsbuttherearemanyexamplesthroughoutthe

Pacificinwhichcoconutshavebeenintroduced.Iwillseektorelatethesesituations

withFanningandPalmyrainordertounderstandwhatmayhaveoccurred.

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Coconut Palm (Cocos Nucifera)

Background

Cocos nucifera, also known as coconut palm, comes from the family Arecaceae

(palm) which consists of 4000 species of large monocotyledonous plants. The plant has many

has many uses and has been a common resource for food crops and ornamental aesthetics

(Rieger 2006). Coconut palms are pan tropical, meaning they can be found in most tropical

and sub tropical regions (Chan and Elevitch 2006) (Maloney 1993). Most palms have a

single segmented flexible trunk (Turnbull 2004) with an average height of 65-72 feet (Chan

and Elevitch 2006) but can reach up to 100 ft, while cultivated plants generally extend to

about 20-50ft (Rieger 2006). During the first 40 years palms can grow about 12-20 inches a

year (Chan and Elevitch 2006). The trunk is anchored by many roots which prefer loose

sandy soils, yet are very resilient to strong winds of cyclonic strength (Turnbull 2004). Palms

have one of the largest leaves, fronds, which are pinnately compound that sprout spirally

from the apex of the trunk. There can be up to 30 leaves on one tree, each frond averages at

about 20 ft long , leaves produce about 200 leaflet per year, The average lifespan of one

frond is up to 3 years. Typically one frond is lost and formed every month (Rieger 2006)

developing about 12-14 fronds per year (McCormack 2007). Coconut palms do not begin to

produce fruit until they reach about five years old and can continue to produce for about 50

years (Turnbull 2004). Each mature palm can produce in the region of 50-80 annually (Chan

and Elevitch 2006).

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Flowers

Coconut palms have different male and female flowers but they originate from the

same inflorescence, the compound spadix arises from the leaf axil and produces each of the

flowers. Typically flowers are inconspicuous and range from yellow, gray and off-white

(Rieger 2006). Male flowers are small, numerous (200-300 per tree) and release pollen and

fall before the females are receptive. Because of this it is thought that coconuts are dependent

on cross pollination by wind and insects (McCormack 2007). Flowering is continuous due to

the leaf axil producing one inflorescence and new leaves are produced about every month.

(Rieger 2006).

Fruit

Coconuts can grow about 15” long and 12” wide. The skin or exocarp is generally

gold, green, and yellow and turns brown when it has reached maturity. The product, coir, is a

fibrous dry material, which is derived from the mesocarp once it has become fully mature.

The hardshell encapsulating the seed is called the endocarp. Each seed consists of a large

brown seed coat which is filled with endosperm in a solid (meat) and liquid (milk) form

(Rieger 2006). Seeds can only be spread by water and humans. Because of its hard shell

coconuts can survive up to 120 days at sea and be capable of germination once reaching land,

as long as there are no cracks or breaks in which the endosperm is leaked. This movement is

limited to coasts and movement inland is dependent on human dispersal (Chan and Elevitch).

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Soil/Habitat

Cocos nucifera can adapt easily to different soils, including inland soils, as long as

there is sufficient drainage with a pH of 5.0-8.0. In general, plants thrive best in sub-tropical

climates that are below 1000 ft and prefer areas at sea level with an annual rainfall of 60-100

inches per year (Chan and Elevitch 2006). Ideal mean temperatures range from 70-80°F, the

higher the humidity the better. Trees are very resilient to harsh and severe storms, they can

withstand high winds and brief flooding (Rieger 2006) if waterlogging does not happen

within the first 3 feet of the soil (Chan and Elevitch 2006). According to Foale (2005) the

absence of particular nutrients can constrain the success of coconuts. After severe

storms and flooding chlorine has been known to leach from the soils in some inland

areas which can hinder the growth of the coconut palm. Very little is known about

the importance of chlorine compared to the other essential nutrients that coconuts

depend on (Foale 2005).

Uses

Coconut palms have many different products and food uses. Palms are mostly used

for copra, which is the white meat (the solid endosperm) that is connected to the shell. Copra

is mostly sold dried and shredded and is common in most confections and cakes. Copra also

can be used to extract oil which is widely used in margarine and some cooked goods. In

addition, the liquid endosperm has two uses, coconut “milk” and water, which is extracted

from immature coconuts. Coconut water is well known as a source for fresh and sterile water

when in hot tropical environments. “Jaggery” is a sugar like product that is derived from the

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sap of the inflorescence, it is rich in vitamin C, and is used as a substitute for sugar in many

locations. When the sap is fermented it can be made into “arrack”, and alcoholic spirit, and

also vinegar (Rieger 2006). Coconut Palm is believed to have evolved from the Indonesian

archipelago and was most likely dispersed to the Pacific due to the capacity for the nut to

travel by ocean currents over long periods of time and possibly transported by human

migrants (Turnbull 2004).

The coconut palm was known in the Society Islands as Haari or Niu and according

Maohi people there were at least sixteen different varieties. In Polynesian societies coconuts

were a staple food, were a key source of vitamins in their diet and were mostly eaten when

the kernel was still immature. Coconut water was also highly valuable as it provided a source

for fresh water. Oils were extracted for both consumption and holistic reasons. The oils were

known to have particular healing attributes and were used as a medium for breaking down

medicinal herbs and roots. Coconut leaves were also used to craft baskets, fans, hats, and

ornamental headdresses. Wood was used in both the home building and was carved into

various weapons in the form of pikes and lances known as tao, niu, and maehae. Coconut

husks were fashioned into mats and to caulk planking in canoes (Turnbull 2004).

Dissemination/Dispersal

Coconut palm dispersal is difficult to identify because of the species natural ability to

circulate over large distances. The coconut can easily float in open sea for months and still

have the ability to germinate once reaching dry land. It has been speculated that they may

have originated in the western Pacific or eastern Indian oceans. In the equatorial Pacific,

coconuts were the only source of water and food and therefore may have been the sole reason

for colonization to the area. Coconut palms provide a variety of different resources such as

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food, fuel, water, and shelter. Until 1962, when soybean oil was introduced, coconut oil was

the first and most widely used vegetable oil. During the sixteenth century, prior to European

colonization, there were no records of coconut palms ever inhabiting the Caribbean, the east

coast of the Americas, or western Africa. Presently, coconuts are dispersed pan-tropically

reaching as far as extra-tropical areas like the Bahamas and Southern Florida. (Rieger 2006)

Fanning (Tabuaeran)

Fanning Island, also known as Tabuaeran (named by the Kiribati people meaning

“heavenly footprint because of its shape) rests about 228 nautical miles north of the equator,

is approximately 200 miles southeast of Palmyra. The island is roughly 8,500 acres with an

enclosed lagoon area of about 426 square miles. The island is about two to three feet above

sea level and is densely covered in native brushes and coconut palm. There are three

entrances to the island through its 31 miles of rim which is very narrow and allow for only

small boats to enter, while one entrance at English Harbor has a width of 300 yards. The

fringing reef outlining the island is abundant in corals and marine life. There are many

species of sea and migratory birds that visit the island including a parakeet and a warbler.

Land crabs inhabit burrows that scatter the islands beaches. The temperature is generally

warm and uniform with an average temperatures ranging from 73-92F. Annual rainfall is

roughly 80-100” but is variable depending on the year (Resture 2008).

The main plant species to the island include Scaevola, Pisonia, Pandanus and some

other introduced ornamental and fruit trees. Other low lying shrubs carpet the islands

undergrowth and the soil supports a wide array of other useful plants like bananas, breadfruit,

figs, and taro. Some soil has been imported from Honolulu for gardens (Resture 2008).

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Image from www.janeresture.com

Some material, like stone ruins and a fishhook, recovered by Kenneth P. Emory

suggest that at one point the island was inhabited. Emory believes that the island was most

likely populated by people from Tonga during the 15th century. Capitan Edmund Fanning

visited the island in 1798 on an American ship Betsy and was nearly shipwrecked. In 1814

Capitan Mather proclaimed it an American Island. Around 1955 Capitan Henry English and

150 natives from Manihiki (Humphries) Island arrived on Fanning to begin coconut palm oil

production. The island was placed under the protection of a British Captain W.H. Morshead.

The island produced anywhere from 15,000 to 44,000 gallons of oil per shipment while in

business according to shipping records in Honolulu. Between 1877 and 1879 similar records

reported a guano boom in which many vessels were contracted to the island. By 1887 guano

was being replaced by copra as the main export from the island. In 1888 Captain William

Wiseman formally annexed the island to Great Britain and by 1902 a cable relay station was

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established (Resture 2008). Fanning gained its independence in 1979 and became part of the

Kiribati Islands. It is now currently populated by about 1,600 Kiribatese (Atoll Institute

2006).

Palmyra

Palmyra is located in the northernmost corner of the Line Islands chain located in the

South Pacific at approximately 1,052 miles South/Southwest of Hawaii. The size of the

island is approximately 680 acres while its submereged reefs and marine lagoons extend to

about 15,512 acres around the atoll. Due to its relations to the equator the climate is humid

and tropical and averages about 175 inches of rain each year. There have been no records or

reports of settlement on the atoll; however it has been recorded to have been visited by

Polynesians and explorers. According to the Nature Conservancy out of the Line Islands

Archipelago and the entire tropical Pacific, Palmyra is the only “wet” atoll to be unpopulated

and undeveloped. The area has plenty of excellent sites for environmental and ecological

research. Core samples have been taken from dead and living coral heads in the surrounding

area that show 1,100 years of temperature records.

Palmyra is the only reliable nesting atoll available within 45,000 square miles of

ocean is particularly special because the eastern and the western Pacific meet which allows

for many species of seabirds (over a million individuals) to utilize the island for nesting and

breeding. Resident species include White masked boobies, White terns, Brown boobies, and

Sooty terns. The costal waters provide excellent habitat for a diverse range of coral (130

species of hard coral) and marine species (about three times the number of corals found in

Hawaii and five times the number found in the Florida keys). Bottle-nosed dolphins, pilot

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whales, black-tip and tiger sharks, giant clams, manta rays, hawksbill turtles and the

threatened green sea turtle all find refuge or use the atolls resources. In 2000 The Nature

Conservancy bought the privately owned atoll and approximately 16,000 acres of coral reef

in the surrounding area was designated protected area (NC 2008).

www.calacademy.org

According to Anne Badgely, regional Director of the United States Fish and Wildlife

Service, this is ideal for colonies of red footed boobies (Palmyra supports the second largest

colony in the world after the Galapagos) and sooty terns (ranging 750,000 individuals) who

rely on the Pisonia and nearby coral habitat for feeding. Therefore it is vital that the entire

ecosystem is in tact and protected (Nature Conservancy 2008).

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The Nature Conservancy (2008) reports that Edmond Fanning came across the island

in 1798 but did not land and in 1802 American Captain Sawle and his ship, Palmyra, are ship

banked during a storm. About a half a decade later an American brig, Josephine, carrying Dr.

G.P. Judd claims the islets in possession of the United States under the American Guano

Company. However, four years later, in 1862, King Kamehameha IV restakes the title of

Palymra under the Kingdom of Hawaii. The United States annexed Hawaii (1989) during

President McKinley’s leadership under the Joint Resolution of Congress, Palmyra is

specifically included, only to be bought by Judge Henry E. Cooper of Honolulu in 1911. Ten

years later the island is bought by the Fullard-Leo family. During World War II the US navy

occupied the island from 1940-1946 as a naval air facility and in a Supreme Court decision

the ownership is returned to the Fullard-Leo family. In 1959 Hawaii became the 50th state

while Palmyra remains privately owned territory. Two years later an executive order issued

by President Kennedy vests Palmyra civil administration in the U.S. Secretary of the Interior.

In 2000 the Fullard-Leo family sold the atoll to the Nature Conservancy whose mission is to

“ensure the preservation of Palmyra Atoll for future generations” (Nature Conservancy).

Five years later, in 2005 the Nature Conservancy launches their new research station

on the atoll to be able to study invasive species, climate change, vanishing coral reefs, and

other large-scale ecological threats. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service supervise the atoll

therefore becoming a National Wildlife Refuge. The research station is utilized by many

different inaugural members like U.S. Geological Survey, American Museum of Natural

History, Stanford University, The Nature Conservancy, Scripps Institution of Oceanography,

University of California at Irvine, University of California at Santa Barbara, University of

Hawaii, California Academy of Sciences and Victoria University of Wellington, New

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Zealand. The consortium will work in cooperation with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,

which manages the atoll as a National Wildlife Refuge (NC 2008).

Understanding the Origins and the Various Theories

Historical Records/Literature

According to Western records Cocos nucifera was first reported in 545 AD by an

Egyptian, Cosmos, who saw them in Sri Lanka and India. Marco Polo had also seen them in

1280 in Indonesia. Vasco de Gamma traveled the route around the tip of Africa to India in

1498 and only reported seeing “coquos” when he visited Malindi in Kenya. Christopher

Columbus incorrectly identified coconut palms while visiting the Caribbean in the 1490s.

McCormack (2005) states that in 1549 Diego Corenco evidently introduced the first coconut

palm into Puerto Rico. Recent studies of early Spanish records indicate that coconut palm

naturally traveled to the America by ancient voyagers or by floating across the ocean by

strong currents (McCormack 2005).

Pollen Records

Maloney

Only up until recently has cocos pollen been identified. Some of the earliest evidence

comes from Pagan Island in which a fossil seedling was found in Quaternary tuff in layered

lava that may date back from the last interglacial. Other reports in archeological data, from

coir cord, suggest presence of coconuts predating 800 AD in Huahine, Society Islands. There

has also been records of pollen in 2m deep peat that dates at 1060-1150 BP on one of the

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Line Islands. These reports suggest that coconuts were present in the Pacific before man

arrived. Yet some records of pollen are low and have been argued to only be present due to

wind or ocean currents. Maloney (1993) explains that the only dramatic increase in coconut

pollen occurred 500-600 years ago when Polynesians may have already been present. If we

look at pollen records from the Pacific it only makes the question of the origin of coconuts

more complex. It is necessary to understand the difference between wild cocos and cultivated

cocos as well as information about the distance that pollen can travel under natural

conditions. Data concludes that the coconut palm may have originated in India, or at least the

cultivated cocos, and through natural dispersal it reached the Pacific and Panama (Maloney

1993).

Harries

In a different study, it is concurred that coconut palm originated in Malay-Indonesia

and floated to the Indian and Pacific Oceans where it began to colonize many of the islands.

In Queensland a fossil coconut was reported in 1995 suggesting that coconut palm has

existed for at least two million years, which is enough time for the plant to disperse world

wide, an idea which McCormack (2005) refers to H.C. Harries. Coconut palm pollen was

found in the 1990s in a lake in the Cook Islands. Sediment was recovered from lake Mangaia

that dated 5,300BC as well as lake Atiu that dated 6,600BC. There is evidence of the earliest

Polynesian settlement date back as far as 900 AD, in Raratonga, of the Southern Cook

Islands. Indirect evidence of human inhabitants show activity on Atiu at 600 AD and

Mangaia at 500BC. If these dates are true then it becomes no debate that coconut palm pre-

dates human settlement.

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Niu Vai and Niu Kafa

McCormack (2005), who refers to Harries, states that there are two different types of

coconut palm, Niu Vai and Niu Kafa. Nu Vai is almost spherical with thick flesh and a thin

husk, and sprouts early. It originated in Indonesia and Southeast Asia a crop for food and

water. It is this group and its varieties that were distributed by humans, in particular early

Polynesians. Niu Kafa is more angular, with a thicker husk, thinner flesh and sprouts much

later than Niu Vai. This palm was native to Indonesia, the Pacific and Indian Oceans and was

most likely dispersed by floatation because of its seed characteristics and its high resilience

(McCormack 2005).

Polynesian Folklore

According to Polynesian folklore there is a well known story ‘Ina and Tuna, ‘Ina-

moe-Aitu (‘Ina with the divine lover) which explains the origin of the coconut palm. The

story is taken from a report recorded from Mangaia during the 1870’s. The story goes that

there once was a beautiful girl named ‘Ina who lived in a cave nearby the village Tamarua.

She would bathe in a nearby stream and was often visited by a friendly eel. One day the eel

changed into a handsome young man, Tuna (God of the eels), and when ‘Ina returned to the

stream to bathe she found him there and fell in love. After some time Tuna explained to ‘Ina

that he must leave and that he would not be returning, but before he left he would leave her

with a gift. The next day there was a flood and Tuna came to her and told her to chop of this

head and to bury it in her garden. ‘Ina became upset but did exactly what her lover told her.

Two days passed and two plants sprouted from the ground. Within a couple years they

became tall trees bearing magnificent fruit which supplied her people with fresh water and

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delicious fruit. It is said that if you look closely at the end of a coconut you will find two eyes

and a mouth which represents Tuna’s chopped head to remind us of Tuna’s great love for

‘Ina and his great sacrifice. The coconuts meat was referred to as “te roro o Tuna” which

means the brains of Tuna (McCormack 2005). This report indicates the presence of coconuts

to the islands but what we must keep in mind is the stories timeline. It suggests that coconuts

were not present before Tuna arrived, however, this is folklore.

Physical features explain a lot

Foale explains that the characteristics of the coconut palm were very

important in the plants colonization of islands. Coconuts have the unique capability

to germinate on sandy berms, the area between high and low ocean tides, which is

formed by turbulent tides and hold little nutrients or water. Coconuts are able to

grow here because of the amount of endosperm in each complete nut. Each nut has

enough nutrients to provide for growth for a little more than a year. In general, this

gives enough time for the coconut to breach the top sand and enter into the

underlying soil to find fresh water that is continually flushed by the diurnal rise and

fall of the tides. Its ability to colonize in different habitats, as long as the roots are

intermittently exposed to ground water and plant nutrients (from decaying plants)

was crucial when Polynesians were migrating. Because of the preferential selection

of particular types of coconuts this may have altered natural selection and natural

distribution of coconuts to other areas of the world. suggests that coconuts had

already colonized most of the tropical Pacific before the arrival of Polynesian

settlers. He states that because of the absence of oceanic currents in between the

Atlantic and Indian Ocean, there was no passage for the coconuts to travel to the

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east coasts of South and Central America and Africa. However, the presence of

palms to Eastern Africa and India are due to visits during the 16th century by

Portuguese navigators who brought coconuts with them (Foale 2005).

After coconuts established populations on islands it has been a recent

question as to how it spread inland. The expansion inland has been influenced by

human populations increasing on an island which has directly resulted in higher

numbers of coconuts per island. Recently many islands devoid of coconuts are now

colonized by coconuts palms, due to human activities, which demonstrate a

particular change in characteristics that are attributed to former wild coconuts; two

populations of dissimilar origin (when there is introgression between introduced

and a wild palm) that naturally would have taken generations to reach. This

indicates some genetic drifts in islands that were in fact populated by Polynesians

who introduced their own coconuts to the island. Foale (2005) believes that the

Solomon and Fiji Islands were most likely only populated by few numbers of

coconut palms because of the their rocky shores and lack of sandy berms. However,

when Polynesians arrived they planted and introduced new coconuts palms to the

island which then integrated with the wild palms, the introduced species then

became dominant due to natural selection and human preferential selection.

Prior to the 16th century the only “coconut-free zone” was in the Atlantic

Ocean. Returning Portuguese navigators brought seeds from the Indian Ocean

shores to the Cape Verde Islands, near Senegal, and after a few decades seeds had

been dispersed to the tropical Americas., even though coconut populations had

already been established on the Pacific coast of Central America. However, nut

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characteristics from these palms showed inconsistency in key characteristics

necessary in floatation dispersal. This evidence points to prior introduction by

humans before the arrival of Europeans, which leads to introduction by Polynesians

(Foale 2005). The tropical coast of Australia was the last area in the tropics to be

without populations of coconut. In the early 19th century when European navigators

began to chart and map the area there were no reports of any coconuts. Only in 1848

was a small population found during a mapping of the barrier reef on a small

offshore island. Foale (2005) suggests that aboriginals and a native species of rat may

have consumed the fruit upon arrival.

Theories of Floatation

Harries (1978) explains that one study found some coconuts to be able to

germinate after floating for 110 days at sea and then calculated the distance that can

be crossed on a current during that time (0.5m/s) which would approximate 3,000

miles. His data was based on eight coconuts which were floated for period of 27 to

110 days. Each coconut was able to float for the entire period of time and all seeds

being tested spent a longer period of time in the nursery. The mean time the seed took

to germinate, including the additional nursery time, was 170 days, with a range of 110-231

days. Other experiments seeking the origins of coconuts found that if a coconut left Palmyra

atoll it would take about 7 months to float on the Pacific Equatorial Countercurrent to

America. This example, coconut introduction to America, is not possible since the mean

eastward speed on this current is about 0.25 m/s which would take about 400 days to reach

Central America. With this data about current speeds we can begin to estimate that the

origins of coconuts in the Pacific and Indian Oceans, if disseminated by floatation may have

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occurred very early when oceanic currents and continents were much different than they are

today.

According to Harries (1978) only the Caribbean and Atlantic Seas are incompatible

with the theory of natural dissemination. In this case, human assistance would have been

necessary for the seed to reach dry land and in protection from competition, in some sort of

plantation or garden. Present discussions favor human-assisted dissemination but it is highly

believed that the origins of coconuts is due to both theories and that coconuts may have been

dependent on human and natural dispersal at different times. It is then theorized that the first

Cocos may have originated from the newly formed atolls or regions after the division of

Gondwanaland due to the lack of competition because of possible volcanic activity. At this

time America and Africa were most likely right at the limits of natural dispersal but Africa

was limited by large stretches of coast that were either too dry or highly competitive by

animal predators. Even though many islands nearby had already established populations of

Cocos, Australia was much too dry a habitat. Asia appears to be the only continent with a

suitable climate. Harries (1978) states that human interference may have aided in possible

plant or animal competition, he highlights the theory that humans did not bring the

primordial coconut to mainland South-east Asia but that they where there to use it when it

arrived. If this remains true the coconut underwent selection by cultivation not by natural

selection, and that what evolved from this primordial coconut was a different variety that

became reliant on, and extensively dispersed by humans.

Relating back to Palmyra and Fanning Islands

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The purpose of the project being conducted on Palmyra and Fanning Islands to

understand the ecological consequences of Cocos nucifera expansion and how it directly

affects particular native species of shore birds, like the red footed boobie. Red footed boobies

prefer to nest in Pisonia and are incapable of using cocos as a nesting site. Due to the

invasion of cocos to these islands birds populations have began to decrease dramatically.

Consequently nutrient subsidies have undergone a significant reduction. Due to the lack of

nutrients plant foliage quality, plant survival, and herbivory are all affected. My studies at the

lab had a great deal to do with the processing of samples to produce data on the nutrient

makeup on the islands. It is therefore important to know the natural history of the coconuts so

that we can better understand how these islands are affected by its presence.

Conclusion and Final Remarks

In the process of this literature review I have learned a lot. Even though it is difficult

to come to my own conclusion about the origins of coconut palm I feel I have gained a

complete understanding with why it is difficult to assume its natural history. Coconuts are

very unique and have had a long and often close relationship with humans. However, from

this data I believe that coconuts had colonized these two islands very early on, in particular

Palmyra. This makes it difficult when deciding what needs to be done to conserve species,

especially Pisonia and Red Footed Boobie. It is my hope that this information helps to

understand the ecological relationship of coconuts to Palmyra and Fanning Islands in the

ongoing project being conducted by Stanford undergraduate and graduate students. Thank

you to Hillary Young (Palmyra and Fanning Graduate Student), and Rodolfo Dirzo.

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One way to get involved in conservation efforts in Palmyra is to contact The Nature Conservancy. Their website provides information on how to donate money to fund future project or hands on opportunities to work in the field (NC 2008).

Bibliography

Atoll Institute. 2006. Tabuaeran (Fanning) Atoll: Planned Field Stations, Accessed 2008. http://www.atollinstitute.org/fanning%20field%20stations.htm

Batugal, P, V Ramanatha Rao and J Oliver, editors. 2005. Coconut Genetic Resources. International Plant Genetic Resources Institute – Regional Office for Asia, the Pacific and Oceania (IPGRI-APO), Serdang, Selangor DE, Malaysia. Foale, M. 2005. An Introduciton to the Coconut Palm. Chapter One. Chan, Edward and C.R. Elevitch. 2006. Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry: Cocos nucifera, Traditional Tree. April 2006. Accessed 2008. http://agroforestry.net/tti/Cocos-coconut.pdf Harries, H.C. 1978. The Evolution, dissemination and classification of Cocos nucifera, L. Botanical Review 44, 265-320 Maloney, B.K. 1993. Paleoecology and the Origin of the Coconut. Geo Journal, 31.4, 355-362 McCormack, Gerald. 2005. The Origin of the Coconut Palm. Cook Islands Natural Heritage Trust, Rarotonga: Accessed 2008. http://cookislands.bishopmuseum.org/species.asp?id=5960 Nature Conservancy. 2001. Accessed 2008. www.nature.org Resture, Jane. 2008. Fanning Island. Accessed 2008. http://www.janeresture.com/kiribati_line/fanning.htm Turnbull, Paul. 2004. Coconut Palm (Cocos nucifera). South Seas Companion. February 1. Accessed 2008. http://nla.gov.au/nla.cs-ss-biogs-P000327 Rieger, Mark. 2006. Cocos nucifera. University of Georgia. Accessed 2008. http://www.uga.edu/fruit/coconut.html