The Origins of DramaThe highly abridged version!!!!!

Ancient Greek Drama

Drama festivals began in Athens Greece about 5th century B.C.

Athens▪ City-state▪ Democracy▪ Educated citizens▪ Slave labour = leisure society

Ancient Greek Drama

4 festivals honouring Dionysus--god of wine and vines

4th festival was a 6 day festival of drama: 1st two days—choral dance 3rd day—five comedies (satirical and

obscene 4th-6th days—three tragedies in

competition. Each tragedy involved a trilogy and a satyr play.

1st winner—Thespis 534 B.C.

Ancient Greek Drama

Each set of three tragedies was followed by the performance of a satyr play, a short spoof of a myth related to the theme of at least on of the tragedies.

The ordinary human characters in these plays wore tragic masks and costumes, but the chorus of half-human satyrs wore pug-nosed, pointy-eared, bearded masks, furry shorts, and normal sized erect phalluses (probably made of leather).

Ancient Greek Drama

Satyrs danced a special kind of dance called the sikinnis, in which they pranced like horses.

The illustration is take from the Pronomos Vase, which shows the entire cast of a satyr-play.

Ancient Greek Drama

The Pronomos Vase

Ancient Greek Drama

The Theatre of Dionysus in Athens

Ancient Greek—Pompeii Theatre

Ancient Greek Drama

Greek playwrights wrote, performed in, directed, and choreographed their plays

The Chorus developed the action At first one actor performed all the roles and

wore masks to indicate character changes Chorus 12-15 young men about the neter

military service▪ Dancing and singing part of Athenian education▪ Effort of acting in three tragedies and a satyr play =

the competing in the Olympics

Aeschylus

Three important playwrights Aeschylus

Oresteia—the only surviving trilogy▪ It is the story of Agamemnon’s murder by his wife,

Clytemnestra▪ Clytemnestra’s murder by her children, Orestes and

Electra▪ Eumenides (Furies) decide on the fate of Orestes▪ All characters are idealized▪ The gods set things right.▪ Introduced a second actor—allowed 2 actor to talk to

chorus or each other and allowed for more plot variation

Plot of Oresteia

During the ten-year absence of Agamemnon, Clytemnestra nursed her anger over the slaughter of her daughter. She took as a lover Aegisthus, son of Thyestes, and the two ruled the city and plotted vengeance on Agamemnon. When the king returned triumphant from Troy, bringing Cassandra with him as a concubine, Clytemnestra waited until he was unarmed in the bath, entangle him in a robe, and struck him down with an axe. After killing Cassandra as well, she gloated over the bodies, symbolically characterizing herself as the matriarchal earth goddess made fertile by the bloods of sacrifices.

Plot of Oresteia Many years later, Orestes (who had been sent away by

Clytemnestra to a foreign kingdom when he was a child), returned in disguise with his companion Pylades to find Electra continually mourning beside the tomb of her father.

After a poignant recognition scene, Orestes told her of the command to avenge the death of his father by the god Apollo. Together, they formed a plan to catch Clytemnestra and Aegisthus off guard and slay them.

With the help fo Electra, Orestes stabbed Aegisthus before the eyes of his mother and then caught and killed Clytemnestra.

However, as soon as he appeared with the two corpses to justify the killings, Orestes is driven off by the Furies—blood sucking underworld goddesses who hunt down and destroy those who shed kindred blood, especially matricides.

Orestes pursued by the Furies

Sophocles Introduced a third actor Closer to ordinary life More of a psychological study Oedipus Rex—Oedipus unknowingly kills

his father and marries his mother Oedipus at Colonus—Oedipus and his

daughter, Antigone, live in the country after Oedipus blinds himself

Antigone—Antigone struggles with uncle to have her brother’s body properly buried.

Oedipus Rex

Euripides Where Aeschyulus and Sophocles emphasized the plot by adding an

actor each, Euripides added intrigue—an element complicated by the omnipresent, know-it-all chorus.

He also created the love-drama. New Comedy took over the more effective parts of Euripides’ technique. During his lifetime, Euripides’ innovations met with hostility. To him,

traditional legends portrayed the more standards of the gods unsuitably—as lower than those of virtuous men.

Although Euripides portrayed women sensitively, he had a reputation as a woman hater.

The comic poet Aristophanes criticized Euripides for the following: Put beggars in rags on stage Determined to make tragedy less lofty Decadent, poetic innovator Misogynist Subverter of received morality Unorthodox religious views.

Roman Drama Roman plays

Spectacles of blood and gore Imitation of Greeks

Seneca—major roman playwright of tragedies Rewrote Oedipus Rex▪ 5-act tragedy▪ Violence▪ Revenge

Plautus and Terrence Major Roman playwrights of comedies Ancestor of sit-coms

Medieval Theatre Medieval History After the fall of Rome the 600’s A.D., came a

period known to us as the “dark ages.” Much political turmoil—no reliable political

structure The Church was the only stable “government” The church exerted increasing influence. In

the 4th Century, the Bishop of Rome, claiming to be the successor to St. Peter, established supremacy in church matters and in secular concerns.

Medieval Theater Feudalism—the manor was the chief non-church

political entity. The manor (large estate), headed by a

nobleman, had absolute authority over the sefs, (peasants) who worked the land.

Lords of manors were vassals, or subjects, of a king. The king’s knights protected the lords and their land.

Serfs (servants)owed allegiance to their lord. There are many church edicts against mimi,

histriones, ioculatores—terms for secular performers.

Medieval Theater Little is know about the theatre between 600-

1000 A.D. There are refereneces to actors (histriones), juggles,

rope dances in nomadic tribes, remnants of Roman mimes, popular pagan festivals and rites.

Teutonic minstrels or troubadours (scops [pronounced shope]) became the primary preserver of tribal histories, but the Teutonic tribes converted Christianity after the 7th or 8th century, and the scops were denounced, branded as bad as mimes.

There was little written drama; none that survives, and almost no other surviving references to it.

Medieval Theater Hrosvitha of Gandersheim,, a nun, wrote religious

plays based on Terence’s plays, but they were probably “closet dramas.”

Christian ceremonies are where the theatre seems to have been reborn.

Between 925 and 975, drama becomes re-introdued into the church services. Theatre was “reborn” within the very institution that helped to shut it down.

Perhaps the church had little choice—it couldn’t stop the pagan rites—too popular—so many aspects of pagan rites found their way into Christian ceremonies.

Medieval Theater Earliest extant drama from the middle

ages: 925 A.D. “Quem Quaeritis”▪ A four-line dramatization of the resurrection, with

direction for its performance. Comes from an Easter trope (interpolation into existing text, originally lengthened musical passages with words eventually added).

▪ Sung by a choir at first.▪ “Whom seek ye in the tomb, O Christians?▪ Jesus of Nazereth, the crucified, O heavenly beings,▪ He is not here, he is risen as he foretold;▪ Go and announce that he is risen from the tomb.”

Medieval Theater

The Three Marys (Mary, the mother of Jesus; Mary, the sister of Martha and Lazarus of Bethany; and Mary Magdalene) come to the tomb of Jesus, and the angel asks them who they are looking for.

By 975, it had become a little drama within the service, probably played by altar boys.

Medieval Theater The practiced blossomed—many playlets developed dealing with biblical

themes—mostly Easter, Christmas, the 12th Night (Feast of the Epiphany).

Usually serious, but at the Feast of Fools and the Feast of the Boy Bishops, much dancing and foolishness and parodies of church practices.

At first, the church had control of the drama outside of the church, but then it gradually became more controlled by secular groups.

The Guilds (tradesmen or Confraternities) took over in some cities, and it was common for certain Guilds to retain control over certain plays/stories, all of which were based in some way on the Bible or religious teachings. For instance, the Bakers’ Guild would control the play about the Last Supper, and

the Shipwrights’ guild would get plays about Noah’s Ark, etc.

Municipalities took over in some cities, but the church still needed to approve the scripts, even when its role diminished.

Medieval Theater—Liturgical Drama

Before 1200, most were still being done inside the church as part of the liturgy. Most were probably still in Latin, the language of the Church.

Medieval Theater—Liturgical Drama Staging:

Mansions—small scenic structures for indicating location (for instance, a throne might equal the palace of Pilate).

In more complex plays, there were many mansions.

Machinery was also used to fly Christ up to heaven, have angels come down, etc.

Costumes were probably ordinary church vestiments.

By 1200, soime of these plays were begin performed outdoors.

Medieval Theater—Liturgical Drama By 1350, plays were in the

vernacular, rather than Latin. Laymen were the actors (male

members of the community, unpaid—though there were some women on stage in France), no longer clerics and priests.

The stories began to range even further than when they were part of the liturgical services.

The church seemed to support these dramas.

Medieval Theater—Secular Drama By 1350, plays were in the

vernacular, rather than Latin. Laymen were the actors (male

members of the community, unpaid—though there were some women on stage in France), no longer clerics and priests.

Stories began to range even further than when they were part of the liturgical services.

The Church seemed to support these dramas.

Medieval Theater—Secular Drama With diminishing church control,

secularization lead to some changes.

Mastercopy of the script was call the Register sometimes the producing company/guild

could monopolize or censor it or band it The Keeper of the Register was an

important position and had much control.

The Master of Secrets was in charge of machines (secrets)—the special effects.

Medieval Theater—Secular Drama The special effects were often very intricate 17 people needed to operate the “Hell” machinery in

Belgium in 1501. Flying was a major technique and used commonly—

angels, resurrection Almost all scenes had Heaven on the right, Hell on

the left, and Earth on the middle. Platforms covered with cotton (the “glories”) held the

angels. Trap door—appearances and disappearances (Lot’s

wife turning into salt, etc.) Fire—the hellmouth—a fire breathing monster

representing hell.

Medieval Theatre—Staging

Two major kinds of stages: Fixed and Moveable

Technical tricks would be more extensive on fixed stages.

Mansion and platea were borrowed from liturgical drama

Simultaneous staging was a distinctive characteristic of medieval theatre.

Medieval Theatre—StagingFixed Staging—on the Continent

(except Spain and parts of Italy) Mansions set up in available spaces

(courtyards, town squares, etc.) Moveable Staging—pageant

wagons—like parade floats—moved through the streets

The term “pageant” is used to refer to the stage, the play itself, and the spectacle.

Medieval Theatre—Staging

The Medieval Drama—the plays The plays seem naïve if we don’t understand the

period. People had little sense of history—reflecting the

limited knowledge Anachronisms were very common Comic elements appeared in plays that were

otherwise very serious, and had, as their purpose, to teach Bible stories and principles to the people.

The medieval mind looked at the temporal world (Earth) as transitory: Heaven and Hell were the eternal realities.

The Medieval Drama—the Religious Plays Performed in cycles Three kinds:

Mystery Plays—about Christ or from the Old Testament—usually done in cycles. (Second Shepherds’).

Miracle Plays—lives of saints, historical and legendary figures

Morality Plays—didactic allegories, often of common man’s struggle for salvation (Everyman—only his good deeds accompany him in death.)

The Medieval Drama—the Religious Plays Characteristics in common:

Aimed to teach or reinforce Church doctrine

Melodramatic: good rewarded, evil punished

God and his plan were the driving forces, not the characters.

To us, these play seem to be episodic, confusing sequences of time, and an odd mixture of comic and serious—unnerving.

The Medieval Drama—the Secular Plays Latin comedies and tragedies were studied in schools and universities.

Farce—very popular, particularly in France where it is well-developed. Pierre Patelin—15th centure—clever knaves outwitting each other.

Moralities—secularized allegories based on classical gods and heroes, often with some political content.

Mummings and Disguisings—given at wealthy homes on holidays.—pantomimes, danced and narrated stories.

Interludes and Masques—between courses at a banquet, masques were allegorical compliments to the guests—with intricate dances and spectacle.

Town Staged Pageants—the plays were often put on in celebrations in honour of dignitaries.

Performed by professional actors attached to noble houses.

The Decline of Medieval Theatre

Increased interest in classical learning—affected staging and playwriting.

Social structure was changing—destroyed feudalism and “corporate” nature of communities.

Dissention within the church led to prohibition of religious plays in Europe.

Queen Elizabeth, the Council of Trent, 1545-1563—religious plays outlawed.

By the late 16th century, drama of medieval period lost its force.

The Decline of Medieval Theatre Results of the decline:

Professional actors still needed, but not amateurs.

Professional theatre rose, became commercial (no longer a community venture).

No longer religious plays—returned to the classics for new ideas for stories.

From Medieval to Elizabethan Periods (England) The Renaissance/Neoclassical was less binding in

England than the rest of Europe.

Classics gradually went to England, as is reflected in some of the early English Renaissance plays:

Ralph Roister Doister—Nicholas Udall, a headmaster at Eton Academy (1505-1556) Plot—about a boastful coward—indebted to Plautus’s

The Braggart Warrior—foolishness of boastful coward and his courtship of a widow. This play advanced the dramatic construction.

From Medieval to Elizabethan Periods (England)Gammer Gurtons’ Needle—written

at Cambridge University by Mr. “S.” (some believe Thomas Sackville) between 1552 and 1563. Plot—two households

disagree/misunderstand about the loss of a needle.

Fuses subject matter and characters similar to medieval farce with the technique of Roman Comedy.

From Medieval to Elizabethan Periods (England) Inns of Court—residences and

training for lawyers produced plays for self and important guests, like schools.

Gorbuduc—Thomas Sackville and Thomas Norton—1561—The “first English Tragedy”—with a “political” statement to make (about leaving the order of succession of the throne unknown—support for Elizabeth’s reign)—Queen Elizabeth attended.

Forces Shaping English Drama from Medievalism to Elizabethan

Religious and political controversies Henry VIII, Mary Queen

of Scots, Puritans. Queen Elizabeth

granted NO religious dissention.

1588 defeat of Spanish Armada—gradual supremacy of English as major world power.

Forces Shaping English Drama from Medievalism to Elizabethan

Medieval influences Dramas and interludes Before, during, and after Elizabethan

theatre—a sometime bizarre mixture of classics and native drama (of “sophisticated” and “simple” theatre).

Forces Shaping English Drama from Medievalism to Elizabethan

Acting became a legal profession in 1570’s English theatre was under control of the

government. Acting companies had to have a license,

AND the patronage of a noble. Provincial troupes were deprived of legal status,

so theatre was concentrated around London. Merchant class disliked the theatre (most were

part of growing Puritan population), while the aristocracy liked it.

Forces Shaping English Drama from Medievalism to Elizabethan

Until 1608, theatre buildings were illegal in the city limits of London, so theatres were built outside of the city limits.

The first theatre—build by James Burbage, head of the first important troupe, the Earl of Leicester’s men, license in 1574—was called “The Theatre.”

By 1580, two or more companies were playing around London.

The Renaissance

The Renaissance had its beginnings in the 1200’s but really took hold around 1300 in Italy.

Renaissance = Rebirth There were new ideas, based on

classical teachings. By the 16th century, the Renaissance

had permeated most of European thought.

The Renaissance--Influences

Weakening of the Church influence The Papacy was moved to Avignon, France, in

1305. In 1405, Constantinople (present-day Istabul, Turkey) fell to the Turks. Scholares fled West with valuable manuscripts, including some Greek Drama.

1465—the Printing Press is invented. The Bible and some manuscripts were printed (classical plays, ancient architecture, Aristotle’s works, Horace, etc.)

1467-1470, the printing press and printed manuscripts get to Italy, and classical plays become staged at Universities and Courst or Academies (club-like learning organizations).

In Italy, the nobility patronized the arts; playwrights were often under noble patronage

The Renaissance—Contributions to Theatre

Neoclassical ideal in playwriting and criticism

Italianate Staging and Architecture.

Commedia dell’Arte Pantalone – the old man, a fool Dottore – the doctor, a drunk or

glutton Capitano – braggart soldier Inamorati – the young lovers –

the only "normal" characters "zanni" -- foolish servants;

Harlequin (or Arlecchino) was the most popular

Neoclassicism: “New Classicism” Interest in the ancient "rediscovered" classics –

based more on Roman (where Italy now stood) than on Greek

Central concepts of neoclassicism: Verisimilitude: "truth seeming" – what is truth?▪ In drama – could represent only what could be

reasonably expected in real life

Decorum: characters were expected to display traits normally held by members of their class, or to suffer ridicule or punishment if not.▪ Good was to be rewarded, and evil punished – there

was an eternal truth.

Neoclassicism: “New Classicism”

Purity of Genres: ▪ Comedy and tragedy were not to be mixed – NO

element of one should be in the other.

▪ Tragedy was to have:  characters of high station, deal with affairs of state, have elevated language, have an unhappy ending.

▪ Comedy was to have:  lower and middle-class characters, deal with domestic affairs, use less elevated language, have a happy ending.

Neoclassicism: “New Classicism”

The Three Unities: -- for verisimilitude.▪ Neoclassicism focused on:▪ Unity of Time: --required a reasonable time – no more

than 24 hours – or actual time (This was to cause some disagreement: did this mean that the play had to occur in actual time [just as Oedipus Rex takes place in only an hour and a half – the actual length of the play], or could it be extended to a full day [daylight, or a 24-hour day?].

▪ Unity of Place: --no more than one room, place [as Oedipus took place in front of the palace], or a town [or country, etc.]

▪ Unity of Action: --no sub-plots, counter-plots, secondary plots--not as important an influence as the other two unities

Neoclassicism: “New Classicism”

Five act form: --probably derived form Horace and Seneca

Two-fold purpose: --to teach and to please.▪ Moral precepts: a justification for theatre – partly in order

to mollify those who still thought theatre was immoral [such as the Church], theatre took on an very important societal function—to teach as well. Not just an art form. Perhaps Plato would have approved.

By 1600, Renaissance thought had moved to other parts of Europe.

Remained dominant for over 200 years, especially among upper classes.

The University Wits Acting companies needed new

plays. Some of these new plays came from The University Wits – an informal group of scholars applying classical standards to the needs of a vigorous contemporary stage.

Robert Green (1558-1592)

Thomas Kyd (1558-1594)– The Spanish Tragedy – c. 1587.Most popular play of the 1500’s.

John Lyly (c. 1554-1606) – prose comedies

Christopher Marlowe (1564-1593) – Dr. Faustus, Edward II

The University Wits

The University Wits all helped develop: elegant prose romantic comedies complex protagonists humanism and neoclassicism combined blank verse – iambic pentameter, not

rhymed (called a "couplet" if rhymed)

The University Wits Christopher Marlowe

the most critically acclaimed of the four – Cambridge educated.

focus is on the protagonist; episodic story illuminating his complex motivations

development of the "chronicle" play – History Play – (i.e.: Edward II) – rearranging, telescoping, and altering events to create a causal sense...

helped perfect blank verse Iambic pentameter, no rhyme.

"Couplets" were rhymed. Tamburlaine parts I&II, 1587 & 1588 Dr. Faustus c. 1588 Edward II c. 1592 Marlowe died in a fight at 29.

Pre-Shakespearean Acting Troupes

Many before 1570’s, but little known about them. Noblemen probably paid a fixed yearly sum, and they probably did additional public performances for extra money.

By 1570, government decrees made acting more secure, daily performances stimulated building permanent theatres and assembling larger companies.

First important troupe: Earl of Leicester’s Men, licensed in 1574, headed by James Burbage – builder of the first theatre in London.

Lord Chamberlain’s Men – with the Burbage family, Shakespeare’s troupe.

A plague of 1592-3 forced many troupes to dissolve or combine.

In 1603, Lord Chamberlain’s Men became the King’s Men, until 1642.

Actors were paid by the court, yearly fee plus other expenses.

Most troupes worked on a sharing plan – risk and profits shared. Democratic, self-governing,

Some troupes or members of troupes owned theatre buildings—they were know as "householders.“

Troupes were all male, men or young boys playing women’s roles, some specialized in particular types of roles.

Large repertories: a different bill each day.

The Elizabethan Theatre Two kinds:

Outdoor or "public" Indoor or "private“

Both were open to anyone who could pay, but the private theatres cost more, were smaller, and had a more select audience.

Nine Public playhouses were built between 1576 and 1642.The three most important – were all outside the city limits of London: The Globe (1599) The Fortune (1600) The Swan (?)

General features of public playhouses

Varied in size – largest seated 2-3,000.

Varying shapes: round, rectagonal, octagonal

Had a "pit" or "yard" – where the "groundlings" were – un-roofed space, surrounding the stage on three sides, enclosed by three tiers of roofed galleries. The yard cost less (general admission), the Gallery cost more. There were probably some private galleries.

The stage was raised, 4-6 feet, extending to the center of the yard.

A "Tiring house" at the rear of the raised platform – where the actors would wait and change.

The stage was roofed – called "the heavens"—supported by columns. Flying was common, with cranes and ropes.

Traps in the floor, for fire, smoke, other effects.

Two doors in the tiring house—represented widely different locations (France or England, for instance).

A hut above the Tiring House, for equipment and machinery.

Flag on top of hut – to signal performance day.

Musicians’ gallery, below hut, third level.

Perhaps: Two playing levels, upper and lower; maybe a third. Audience may have sat on 2nd level..

Perhaps: a discovery space (probably between the two doors, portable or permanent, 1 or 3 curtains thrusting out.

The Globe

Indoor / Private Theatres

Less is known about the Elizabethan indoor theatres.

Smaller, roofed.

Troupes did shows in winter when it was too cold to be outside – suggesting that the staging was probably similar.

1576 – Blackfriar’s – a former monastery – was the first one – closed by 1584.

The New Blackfriar’s opened in 1596 by James Burbage. Their company, the King’s Men, used it after 1610 as their winter performance area.

Children’s troupes had been popular for a while until 1610.

By the time of Shakespeare (1595?), actors had achieved a satisfactory level of financial and social stability.

By 1642, there were six private theatres in London.

Private theatre rose in popularity from 1610 to 1642. Public theatres were used only during the five warm months.

Size: about ¼ - ½ of the seating capacity of the public theatres.

Spectators sat in the pit or in galleries or private boxes. The stages were probably similar.

William Shakespeare (1564-1616)What we think we know….

Between 1590 and 1613, he wrote 38 plays (although, for some, the authorship is still in doubt), some written with others (John Fletcher, for instance).

Histories: (English history, like Marlowe’s Chronicle plays) such as Henry IV, V, VI, VIII, Richard II, Richard III

Tragedies: Romeo and Juliet, Othello, Hamlet, King Lear, Macbeth – generally considered to be his greatest works

Comedies: Twelfth Night, As You Like It, Comedy of Errors

Little known about his life:

Actor and shareholder in Lord Chamberlain’s Company (Later the King’s Men) by 1595.

After 1599, a shareholder at the Globe Theatre.

Actor, playwright, and sometimes director.

William Shakespeare (1564-1616) A fluid and flexible production style is needed:

Small props, small set pieces maybe Costumes important – they were usually contemporary, except for

supernatural characters and conventional costumes (for Turks, Spaniards, animals), and with the addition of drapery to suggest periods (Romans wearing toga-like sash).

Shakespeare’s plays seem to be accepted as the most dramatically effective – he attempted all popular forms and subjects.

But his reputation during his lifetime was lower than Jonson or Fletcher of Beaumont. His fame grew in the late 17th century and reached its peak in the 19th. Has leveled now.

Survival of his plays depended on fellow actors (i.e.: Henry Condell and John Heminges) – Original edition of his plays was in 1623, called the First Folio.

His four greatest tragedies: Hamlet, Lear, Macbeth, Othello

Shakespeare and his contemporaries:

General characteristics of the plays: Early point of attack Several lines of action (subplots), independent at first, then

somehow merge together – unity in apparent diversity (King Lear  is a perfect example).

Large number and variety of incidents; mixing of tears and laughter; gentle and violent passions

Time and space used freely – a sense of ongoing life behind the scenes

Large range and number of characters; 30 is common; rich and poor, all individuals.

Varied language: elegant, ribald, witty, prosaic; all to enhance character and action

Subjects from many sources (mythology, history, legend, fiction, plays) but reworked to become his own.

Sources

Resource: Various, Wilson/Goldfarb

North Virginia Community College Introduction to Theatre--On line course http://

novaonline.nvcc.edu/eli/spd130et/LessIndex.htm