PURETHEORYOFLAWbJHANS KELSEN.......... _.........._... _--..MAXl\;NIGHTTtl"LA.'''''''" E",,,,,,,,g, LTl>,C,.... Now)",.,-,I,BJ>J n, 0-31 (p'''''!'''')151\);''''7.' I'd"", lion. IBRI_197,.[R,;" Rh"J,h", E'pahlPu"'hy H." 1("1,,,. ; 'r,n,1>,'" fmm """,,'Ond[n",',..1 ,...J 'nl"glogicalpurity of juri'prlldcnunooni"'IYgal l'lP""'"",}'Mo,'.r0,,", A. Soci,I No"'"S_ Monl. A> 1l< Oid"IQ I,,,A. 0P.... 01 MOl1!li1I. lltlotivity of Mor>1 VIllUIll. LAWANDSCIENCE' . !.ther illullnl;on" Am.n in a robe and !rmadail uyorome wDTdJ '0a m>.n....ndingbeforehim; lflally!.hisUtenWhoppm;ngmeanl: a judicial dccWonwas ""wdAmen:hant writn aI 01. aCOIlttnt to .n- moerchant...1>0, inlUm i!.h ltt,tr; thi>....,....m.-,hoyt rnDdudotd a lqall,. biDdiQ,g 0DCIuxt. .sc-.bod,CU.lfOtht d...th nll M....."'NCSOJ' AcT;In Th. ltpl meaning ot anact, at'nu,...-nal foct. isnot immtdi_...1,. prrttptibl.. byW wn.... .w;/t as, for ;o ne. 1Mcolor.""nl-. >'ially th,t ahuman being ought '0I>t. The klu....". t1u, it andLhe .Iu. ough. '0a.eno< identical, bu. thcydilfn onlJ"br u 'M one it and othtT ough' It and ought are .....diWcrcn' InOdi. Oneandmmlnd of Ihe ..fl\c,.I,nOt ,b.! of the gang>'cr, hal ,h. meln-ing of.validnon'll, binding Up""the add.aocdindiyiduaLOnly1M omoldc., nO( theolher. is nOTl'll'p""i,ingaco.lheoII">cioJ', ""t iulhoriztd by ...... law. "'ben:u Lbe pupler'. act isnot baKd on such an luthor;.unl nonn. TIu: lo:giolati,'cOCI,whichlUbjlinlyIwthe ot ....'ltl. aloo I\.u 1MobjtcliW'mcaning----thal is. of a mid nonn---b.'l iJ ft& ita -.di.ioo 01validi.yineMlmSt Wtckcti>'mnl Iw ... joialhoe pooitina:01 aItp.l nottlI if nOllimi,ed '0 a .pedfic 'pace or aill .patial and temporal .phere of "alidity;, unlimited. The .phereof validity of a normi. an element of its eontent; and ,hi. content.a. "'...hall _,canto",meex,entbl' prede,erminedby.n""her,higher norm.'A. for the,emporal .phere ofvalidity of pmi,i"enonn, it i.nec....ry 10 diS\inguWt betWUn,he,ime belore and aher ,he en,,,,olentof,henorm. fngenenl, nom.. rderonlytofuturebeIt.1vior, but ,heymay aborefer '0thep.st. Forexample. alegalnormwhich .ttach.. a",nc,ion toacertainbehavior may 1"""lCribe tlt.1t anindividualought tobepuni.hede,'enfor bclt.1vior,ha, had occurredbeforethe legal nonnwas enac,edwhe",by ,hebehaviori. qualified as a delict.' In this """" we "'y Ih>!,he normi. ret"""'tive. Bu'. legal norm may rder to the past no' only with=peet '0the d.lic, bUIabo wi,hre.peet totf>. t --! -I. a' " ,

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.:;a,-'"'l!',_j.a.n-" '8' tV':;;;; ItII .r.. ,l" .....w ANI> NATOU.,alway> human b.d) Po,ili""dndNegative Regula/;on"Commdnding, Aut/ior;zing. Perm;lIingTheb, or doe. not, behave ..hei. commanded, authorized, or per.mitted by anOrtO.In thebroadest ..,0.." anyhuman behavinr de"'nninedbyan"'mative order a. conditinn nr consequeoce, .d."expreaoes theidea,ha, ,hi, behavior conform,with an objec,h'ely valid norm: that the behavior oUgh' to bethewayit i,; or ,hat it doe, no, conformwi,htheobjectivelyvalidoorm: that thebehavioroUgh' not '0be ,h.wayit i" Th.n ,h.,'alue u an"ought" i, placedinjux,aposi,ionto ,ht ttali,y as the"i,"-,'alueand reali,ybelonging to'wo differtn, .phe,,,,, j""a,,h. "ough'" and the "k"If thesta'.ment tha, abehavior- conform1 ordoe, not conformwith an objectiv.l)'validnonni< de,ignOled as ....Iu. judgmtm,"thenthi, valu. judgmUlt mu"bedi"ingui,hedlrom,h. normtha, com,i,u,e, ,h. valu., Th. , ..Iue judgmentcan be ,rue orun,rue. becauoe i. refe... '0 a norm of a valid orde., For example. thejudgment ,hat .ccording '0 Chr;"ian mo",lity it i, "good"to lov.on.', friend, andtohale one', enemi.. ;. umru'benu..a normofthevalidCnri"ianmo...lilycommand, tolovt not onJ)' one',friends but also one', enemi.., The judgment ,ha, it is logal '0 in.flic. upon athitl the 01 death i, unITu. if 'he valid lawinqu..tioncomm.nd. '0puni,hathiefbydeprivationof l=damhu< no, by depriva,ion of life, A nonn, how.ver, cannot be eith.r10 >I"TUn"""Til""individual (that i., a value). then'hi' valliejudgmenti...obj.... thenepLi""n1ut. Tho! purpooemaybeobp""Itt ItIbjeain. An objt.ivepulJl'05" i' OM tho. ow,hl tobe.nlued, thot m....n..apurpoocthot hal beenIllpulaledby ..nonn regarded... objecliyely n1id-apurpooe. inoc.her words.pl"QCribt:d for nature ingenenl Itt for .....n ;n particular by,upern.tu...l or.upnhu.....n .uthority. AJUbiecliwpurpooe ..One eo",!:>li.h"" by ",an hi",..II... putpo!l :octI"'re con""...ndcdor forbidden. diff...... ' tyl"'" nuy beIre ideollypeI. "'" Ivtngc lypeI. ThelIOCi.o.l order nuy comnundI ttrt.\;"humInbehavior withOut It ....chinl!"InyCOcWOTd. TI>c princ:;ple. to react upon... e......inhum,nbehaviorwithor puni"""..",;.. Ill. principle ofI.,ribu.,lioD. a.......-d and pwtil.hmn>t .....y becUled .,anctions," b.......wI, only pm,"'_;. '"alkd..fI...J.IJ.aoocialordoor to'm'ndaanaia bdlm... by j_altaehiDc atotheoppooIlCbehayior.!oI" c:umpl... dqlri.,.t.ion ofbe>lt.h, heedom, ""-'-,ite bellaviorcommanded: The bchaviorwhich is "commanded" ;.not the behavior which "ough,".o be attuted. That a bcl..vioris".OflumUlde1point 01 vicw, reward orpUll.ishment arc onlcredIII make the d..iu ror reward and th. fur01punWuncnl the moti_ for a_wlyd"';roblc behavior. Butactuallythil bo:h.aviOTmaybeb,"",,&h. about by 0-ishmulI) cugb. 10be cucutal 1Ddet:d. anonkr _y auxhau-ward10a bduovi".. onlyifi. had 001bttnDlOlino:odby1Mdfaift f".....-..anI. F.,.a moral 0Idn may honOf only u..om whod.... good dHds for wir -.. san, noIlor hQnor'IJlk.e.Sinaind>t I ''1',('1 p:I.>OJdd. "'I pnpU!'1ppo.. J.:I'I'O:l'""! 'lQ1.>J (J"ltl.J'>O,ouqS""",[")AjU'''''''H'!"'pop""AI....!'.u;>'00 '!jO,[dpopd ,,,, P'q>U"",.,,,8!,, JO "p'o[UOW "'" O! u;>A> ""oJ""'''' po. 'p'L"'" .1[0,.\0'" ,,,,01"",,, u'J",J ,,,,,,,r""m.. ,,,, 01' "., ,,,, 0>," 'OUO{l,n"" '''0,/ P'''''''' '0,/'"'noA '''OJ0,/'" "",/1'''01n""JI .>0.'1"Im.o> ,no, ,MI,no"0, A'"1 '''II:Aw,u, ,no....." 1'''. "'",,,S!'U,noAII"'" no}., '1'1'" '"'!,.", 1".'" "."no}. .1!.....! 0,/"'00 "I'''''10" oano" 0' ..'"1 ,ng:,,'00' ,oJ "'001.1'''. , .., U. 'OJ'l.>uY. '1'1"' ...'" 'I ,.", '''"1/no.\" :poooSJoJpoooS '11"'.>Oj !1,;>-,u;>m.,"'.L 1'10 ''/'JO 'Idp"!m ",,!In,!!,',",'lJ111[""1P"p!p,,, "'''oq',uoIP"'" "'I'"JOp.lOluom",[ood01 ''''''1["" "1'1"'lJ1U!) '00"""'"SUIQ!J:>t>,dJO!,-,oI"!"""" lllO.Ij '''''".!lIP"IPUp'la1'''''!l'u"S/no"m"'P'DIOPOS'U'I.L',V('I'SU!""",U 'I",n., " IOu "'" ""O>'!l"JP JO ,d"uo, ''I' ...." '!'1' U! p:ooO'JO".,,>q Jl'''' JO"!IOW'II' 01p.l.lb, ,nolJ11'"'tlu,wqt!und"'l' 10 tOO!'!I''''''''Il" "IIartIU.lUnlC",...u that alfcct hi. ialmmialC in_acmrdiDg toaYi worldwithin a transcend.ntal .phere.Diff...", fromthe tran.\Cendental ",nction. ate,h"", that notonly take place in ,hi. world and within society. but are e ~ " " u t e dby ,h.members ofthe IOdety andmaythereforebe de>cribedas"socially immanem"sanetion.. Thosemaycon.i"mer.lyin,heapproval ordi",pprovaJ expre...,) bythef.lIowmembersor in.pecific actJ dirrcted against othen, that i., in act. to be perfonnedbyCCItain individuals de.ignated by the lOCial order ina pro-erdu.. regulatedbythis order. Th.nonecan .peakof sociallyorganized ..nction.. The old"'t ..""tionof thi ,hemember of anothergroup of thiskind ina natural wayor bym.gic. 1t i. tobeex,,",utedbythemember1of ,helaner again.t themember1 of ,h. former group.Murd.r wi,bin a group originallyWi< probably ..nctioned only byth. r.v.ngetakenbythpirit of themurd.red onthe murderer.But inJOlar a. the .piri, of the d.ad has power only within hi. o"'ngrUp, a murder committed by a m.mber of anmher group canbere....na:.d only by acts of the victim', relati,. Only,be nonfulfillm.nt of the obligationfor revenge i. ,ubject to the transcendental..nctionof r"".ngefromthelOul of,hemurdered. It .houldbenotedthat bloodrev.nge, thisold.., sociallyorganized ..nelion,originallywork.donlyintherel.,ionbetweengroup. It d...'elopedtoa"lUerionfonctioningwithinoneand the .. m. grouponlywhenthe social cQlflmuoity cornpril05 ''1' ']'" "0 "1'0 >'1;>.100;>'PJo8:IJ[onp,,!pu! POl""llo "11''\[!JOU!PJO '''''!S ""OI.d:o>:, "'.mOO JO ',," ""[1'''11..."["1. POOJJO"""'1 >1>1'''' 01 o. ,up'O "! .w", 0 Sl!WUlOO.poepm"" JO:I!"" ""'011P'o8:IJIOu,JOJ'J'ql p"....'ql(0 .ll:Iw'ISlund ''11 "l "'I'!'" "11''''''''11'41 q,nwOS UOll'O'!'l1,Jll>J "no 'W!",. p:on,wwoo'nj 0'1'" ,po''11 ,;U"J.JO>["'1"4d j"lll:1mAoldw,''11';'1II!""!q.. """" I""Pl"P'" 1"1"110 ''11 uod" p:osod'W!'! '",m,:" I! ''1'''1'''--'''''1"' "WOU"""' JO c:. limitedon...; and on... must di"inguiJl\ bt.wc""a pefmillM an,l. prohib-ited ux of 101U. JI i. pe,mitted "' TO,clion againlt a _iaUy unb0_mvior.... sanction.ha, is, u anl..,hori'eryindividualwho con,ide"hisrightsviol"Mby .no,h.,.;.attthorizMtou""fo",ea .. nc'ion; aslong a. theindividual again.!l' "'homforpin.. ,..,.. ligolioa."Hcn-"'\/tt, not ...ery bd\a.ior 10 pennillal--in ohelen.. 01. nOl!>eing fec.>u..,hi. normativemeaningi. theobjective meaning of th.... acu, do they have the chanc,er of law-llipulating, normp. ".";0UWAN" >lAT1JU,ion u legal nrders 2ndon,evenAmericanCOurt. refusodtoaclnowledge""toofthe revolu.;onary Rucand....""misleadingin,hi,reopctt; in order to bein'eJpre.ed as a ltplaceit is not onlyu'luiredtha< tk.... beo:m.b1iohedbracertain butWo that tk anhI...., a cnu.in....bjK1in meanilll_ n.c tnftni"lckpmds011 c.hc ddnitionof law. prauppaordIf>llClh.er wi.h.hebaoic norm. If tk law .. 110I bu. only ...anoo-dcr .-bI.iWd aoxotdi"l to tk baoic DOnn (and if.c.hc basicl>OrIIl. is fonnubtftl ...:....., oughl to behl."" ... tbeh;"lOrially Iirs! constitution preoaibeo). thm Yllmm.ond, butau,hori!cl!>e creationofnorm. orpoIi'i.,]ypenni' ... definitebehavior) aredepend.1ll nom". ,.. lidonly inCOflntf a .odal order,It i. '0 be noted that, if individual,mbjected to a ,oda.! ord... ..,.,ually IJc,haveinconformity wi'h 'he nOrlltS of that order, they do10 only because ,hi, behavior with their indina'iun Or anegoi'tic.ol int.....t, whichwa. elicitedbythesocial order and i.possibly-but no, nw,,,,,,rily--oppost 01monls cannot Ixlimitedtothenona: your ioclinat tnday many ate cO""inccdthat war h.. mnral ,alu.. be.caule i, mak..JXl"'ible,he prac,ice of vir'u.. and,herealiza,ionof ideal. that archigher ,h.nthe "alue of peace?Or i, the mnrality ofpacifi"" uncont""cd?lloc. thephilosophyof liberali",,_,ha, compe,ition, cOIl'.", guarantee the best .tat1l' of .odety-conlurn, with,he ideal fpe.ce? Thi. ide.l doc. no' reprelen'thehighelt \'aille in an moral .yo'.m. and no vaille at all inIIOnte, Butif on. conld detec, anelem""t common'0.11mor.l ,yotem.",,-lid11(I far. ,h"e wouldnot be 'ufficiettt rcatontoregarda, no,"moral" or not"ju"''' audth.-rdorenot .. "law"aCOppooi......monl ........,. it it _"'Iess10dClWld dwoo,,'nTI".monttl andcannot becmpll..izct! cttough'" nndeT.tand tha' no' only on. mor.1 order ....i.... but many diff"",n' and.von conflicting on..; that a po.itiv. logal order may on ,h. "'holoconform with the mo",1 ,i.... of a certain group ofpopulation(e.peciallythelUling ono}. yet may conflict withmoral vi.w.ofan",h..group: andth.., abov" all, ,hojudgrnctt' of wh.. i.monlly goodOT ""ii, morally ju"iliahl"OT unju.tiliablo, iubjtettocOll,;nuouo al i. tho I.w. and that. legal ord.. (orofiunormll}tha, at ,hotimo of iuvalidilymay haveconformedwilhlh" I"'''uht.. of th. moral or,u,T th.npreval.n'. may .. iIl bejudgedto beimmoral loday. Thelh..i., "'Idoly acccptcdby .radilIonal.don.. 01 law but T"jcetcd by the Pu,.., Theory of Law. thaIthelawbyinnatutemUll IN' mo",l aod,ha' animmoral """ialoroor i. nOl leg.1ordor. 1""'''1']>0'''anabsolutemornl order.th.,ill, on. valid at all ,imo. and plac... Other",i.. i, would nOt bepossibleto evaluatea """;alordorbya6xO!d ".odardoftight .nd wrong, indopend..., of.nd pia...Th. tll ..i. lh" lawI. mo",1 by n"uro-in ,h" ..n.. ,hat only amo",1"",,;al ord.r i, T.jO:Cledby ,h.Pure Thoory ofLawnot onlybo:cC'f .....iom.Onl, thty artdisqualil'iodat immonl andthtrrf...... ao nonlaw,wlom....., donot coalonn withtttUin",,",ub'tt. with wttichOM" ....... mncin ortkrcoal.t 1dQnIl>). No jurist an rnttiprion-an.d iu, _h .he objecl,o be delo:ribed by ,heociena:oftaw. TI>enorm con.. itut""bythe(pracrib-ing,""""u'i",, '8"i".. a penon whodoe>no< "",nl.S"prnmileandd.......... mcausality. that applywh.nde.lIttibing an.,rmat;v. humanI>< canedim.pulal;tm. Byanall"'ing thinkingit can I>.,1law (th. ICDt.""..by which of law de.\Criboin ..nniondcriptive ehaTOeter. Ontheothet hand, fromthe fac. that the tule of Jaw dcocrihe. some,hingdoes no, follow th.t what i. de>cctuoc notonly actual fact., bu' alsonorm., tbat i. ,hpecific m.anins' offacts. mayhe dcocribed. Specifically,,herule of law i. not animpetative; it i., rather. a judgment,".temCtl' abou' anobject ofcgn;tion. Not does ,h. rul. of la", imply any approval of the d.-""ribed legal norm. The juri..who de> th. law scien,ificallydocs n'>, id.ntifyhimself with the legal authnrity enacting thenTm. TI,e rul. oflawremains objcctivedncription; i, doe>notbeenme p''''''ription. Th. rule does no mnte than 'tate, like ,he lawof nature, the link between two.lem.ntl. a lune,ional connection.Althoughtbeobject of thescienceof lawi. 1cribn tltegen....l nonn. of thelegal orderandthe,elatio",hip"constitu,tdbyth"", nonn,. Theindividual legal norm"createdby judicial d""i'iun or administrati ... acu, are d"""ibed by the ocleoc probobly did """ ....plain ....'un.l phen.iLI. lori,?"Thei..wasnt>t a co",..I, it was anormativeimerpretation of nature, and>.incothonormof retribution, according 10 whichthi, im.rprota-tion tak..pi""", i. a .pocificallylOCial principle regula'ingthomutual khavior of m"". thi. kind of imorpTOtationt>1 not"TO mayk characterized a. oocionorm.th'. intrmed io tb. thinking of primiti.,. man. To himn.lUre "part of".LAWANDSCI"-'ICEhis society .. a nor,nat;ve order whose clementi at. wnn'..! withooe another acwrding '0 'he p.in(ipk of imputation. Tlte duali'mof notu'e a, a '., order i, nnkoo"'"'0 him. ThaI outh a duali,m .xim in the thillkingof civilizedmani,the result of anintellec,ual development during whkhhum3Jlandother being...., an' hert conarntd tothat ol ...nmoI nality. ohm m- nJua an: ..".."..;,..ted by pooi.i...,""""';lhndtt. tht objta oJ. tbeoe I! ru,li,y. Such ooci.olockneel a: cthia (the:otiencc01morol.)andjUTisprudl:ncc (thetcienccof law). Ifwedef,ign.o'c lhem a. non'>aliveI(:imct.l, thiJ does nOl mun du, ,heyprncril>enorm, for hun"behaviorandthe,..,bycommand, au-thori,., orpooitivclypermita 'rui"conduct. but that ,hey dl:.oo;rlb0'4' jO11.... u:>S 'Il' I.'", Alu.w!m ""0 ''''("m,! '.unin Jill "'I1"""']"UO"" W.IOUIO"P!_'il'''! ''1' JOuopru&., ''1' I. Iroo,ouP''''''!P '1 'I"UO!'1"1' lmO' JlW)'!l)"dJO l'c, ''II ','"4'0U .....p"'"jJO ,'o,!'" '4' "'.J II". 'V "''''''IlU.lI'lOJd '!'I' ,,,undIOU p>'u'M...,"".'>oH ""'In) ''II U!JI>o!w;>Id[1l"qnOp''1' '''Pun Aloo 'lll""'ldd. " 'JII)'" )0'''"1"Jm"}'4' JO uo!u!!"',d " ":;>JIll"I ''1' U! IOU ',..d "11U! "!I "u,!mxJJOO puc ','U'j';x:!x, u,P!'oumq'0' ,noliojou."'"I0""11"1'41''''.1JO 'I'u10,d,:>Uo;> '4' po-.UllOU1.8;>1 JO ,dOJuOJ "1'uJ;>''''JIIVl-Of "I' .t01'!"!"""v,v4J '!'P!4'"'".01JO ,;>o'!'"puc111011 J1IL'''U'",'m, JIlL''''"1101''' "4'O"V ''1."Vj '4' lImq"""pM"I)O 'I"' '4'',vldo, 01U"'V" 00'w,OU P;>,vIO!,' "l' P1lvAU! 'vPJollJJ01UJ 0" ,v4 "'"IJO 'JU,!", '4'-lu,,,b>.>.JU! "PA!I"lo. '! 'O"'"4"'l4)U'''II 'Ill'" ',limoJ"oJ U! IOU '!.to!Av4Jq'UlOS I!'''1l utl ''I' ']11'" .UUOJ""" '"11' '''[lO''O'!'''''U' '114,"'ou '! '! l! U',,"n""3':>I' .thinking, inwhich the principleofcau..li,y i. no a._li,yhaonoI. rau 'M a>DtrIII K,wunthenca:ssity prnaili"l inDa'U'"and tbc freedom ctiIl.ill( ill -ir and .. .,.."Iial foo' tbc .-...0.11", ",lationlbel....... mm.. ThaI man, as panollUlUff, is......heemnmtha, his bduorior. IooUdUP""' as aIla.unol beehlvior interpreted ... merit, lin. or tklic,. To \>e tru. it iI e"'tomaryto oaythat themerit. lin, and delic, a", impu'edto the min ...pon.ibl.foe Ihi. \>ehavior. But the ..al mtaninll'of thi.l.. tem.nt is that Ih.....nought 10\>erewardedforhl1 meri, (more prce'"I.,.: that the.'LAWAND rn"""ancefor hi>.in(more ,hat ti" .inof ,hi. manought toh,,'. its penance): that theoiminal ought '0bepun-'''",d(mOTe p,;..ly: that hi. crime ought to get ,hepnui,hme",it d..",). Il j.nol behavior defined a. merit, ,in,or crimeth..i. imputedto the man_mch animpntatonwouldi>< mptT8u",,',.inee human behavior c.anllo' be "p"rated fromthe bchavinghuman!>ting.Ifthe qu."ionofimputaMUj. ",i..er01 a society andLAWANI> SClUICItas amoral or l, thefaCt tba, bei. not.ubjecled '0thelawof cowali,y)ma....resf"'lll'ibiii,y(and tha, m.am: imput:nion) poooibl. i>iu openconflict with thefac.. of >ocninboth o>et hisbe--IoaTior is c:o.-IIy d..n='IlCd. lhal IDaDI, dnenniMd b1' law 0(.... Nor. by. law to wllitt bw 01 n:ll...... (or n-by....., attOIdin& to whichIIWI. cbooocI WI bd\a.icw fromwhichM ""pet"tho rrca,tsI...nan"'l!"_ideoof thenormthot one ougb' to ope>t Ihe truth can """form'., withthis1... 01"".....-dt:OClin "'OIiulorbdlaviorllCCOfdinl tothe!>Mm. It normthat wouldprncri""that man""ghtnot to dieorould br.l .odolog)', but certainparallelphenomena in n.tuTe. Lik""'i>ca phl'.iologi". whoim."ig;a'..chemical orphy,leol propi6cpooiti, lcpl -'''J.dill"eani"J. a", tUm intuoomidcr.uion. Thi. opoci6c mtaDinc.o,w..n cottain economic or political laCll Ind 'he ilwcr.a,ing"CII on the OU' hand Ind I:>o'w..n th.", ac"Ind,h.humanI:>ohovior 'ho' the, i"'.ndtobring lbout on'he ...h.... I"'he la"n cue. the au",ieonnK'ion""i... onlyil'hl< I:>ohaviori.actually moti""'tdby men', id....bou, the i"..",ion of ,h.Ia....notingactS, motiva'ionwhichbyno......... is .i....l.. the cuebea"'"obedience co,Itelawi. &eppo6ilioaof bui< '- in ..hid, 'here mwt be adogmatictheologythat Cannot beroplaced byreligiolUpoyo Ieienee inthe10lal 'f.lemof ,heleienee. i' a subordinate qu.. tion, Whal i. important i. nOt:to giveupthi' Ieien.oM meaningof ,h.. worn). In ,hi, ",n,. thePure Theory has an outopoken antiideological u.ndellcy. ThePmc Theory thi, tendencybypresenting pool,;,". law ,.., {tom any admix'uwith any"ideal"or "right" law. The Pu,e Theory d..i,es to pr...nt ,he law a. it i no' a. it ought to be; it seekslo Imow Ihe ,..,.1 and posoible. not ,he"ideal:' ,he "tight"law. 1n ,hi, """c, the Puro Theory is a radicalrealistic'h.."yof law, th.t i., a theoryoflegal po,idvi,m. ThePure Theory ,du",.pr"""," it may ne>t an ideology-freecognitiOrt of 11lIproduct; likewi...,heEore.. ,h.ttry '0 de"tCIJ' the ox"ting e>ron-"lAWANDSClVlC&""and wishtD replaceit by.unth"", thnught tnbebetter, mayunthavemuchme 11" .uchacognitinn01,helaw. A tTue",ience nrlaw, however, doeri.....ion01libnty; inGISt01 a the !ali.. away of _ ... npTovid.. for no .""hconseque"c. 11ilcvilkm .Jutthelegal onl.viot andan .'....1n not SO behave.nological conu"dictionexis... Both .,atements r.an "and !ideby.ide, both canbe 'rue",the same,ime. Theexi"""ce or validityof a nonn commanding a ile. 'heothe e""nti.l lac,. are e"hau"ively described by a conditional"alnn""tthat ..yo; "JIacerrainbehaviot i. present. lhena certainsanctionought tobe ex""utrd:' Inthis'ta'emenl. the delictappeana. 3 condi,ion. oot a' a negation01 the law; and ,hi. show.that the delict i> not afact ...nding oUIOide, much1...inoppo>i.lion '0, the law. but a fac, in.ide Ihehw and determinrd by it_itshOW1 that the law, ,""cordingtoiunature. relen.pecificallytothi. fact. Likeeverything ebe. SO the delict (inGerman: Unreting a ",nc,ion. However, a legalobligation i.nothing dot but thepo;eWndcaseof lulfillmon, of an obligalion. Th. indi,idnalwhn lulfill. lh. obligationlmpo>Oell (oJ inthe actnalobeying of lh. legal norm. (tha, i" inthe lulfillmenl nf th. leg.lobligalions ..ipulatO[ JO P!UllOO" '"'II 011 '11U1'00'"'1 ,,!mdo'Ao'11.w 1)'0'1 ....p.zo ["-'OWo 1'1uo!'ollnqo 'W... ''1''U>lum "! '""0'1 ',ou ,nq 'lowjoll>[ V'J>A>l"'l'"UO"""!ldwIl"-'oWou '"'Ipuo J'pro[l!&>[ 0 01 l!'AI,np", ""J>.! un!,,oll!lqoIl!&>[ 0 JO ld"uo.> ''1.1. 'op 0' "ISon lOll'" op 01 ,,[1l00"1''''"''0 '1'1'[_" '''pro lUOW ",!.".]PJ'J'"'1'" op01l'Illno uow '"'1' fiolO1n., ''1'Plno."'l'1dOllOllqd[...OW','0"')1 JO 'If>'1' j1l-l'u>:>''1' '! 'PI'1'" "jd!)u),dP,oo!,u.m''fl '.u01'!P"'lDO' 'lD'''lI'P"'ll").,,d4"q.... ..,p.lo[O.lOWpu.'IU'J'lI!PlUq '''!''''10U.,.,P IlH"'OW ''"[01'''!AO'pq""''I'" ''1' '!"".1"0Ioll:>[ ''1' ,('1 ,.."'.., .L::d$"VC>UVUn'THE STATIC ..... OF ....wpose obligatiom, andthat the .pecific functionof Lb. law_in conuadistinction.cd ,hat the obligation to beh.c:oulho";xed only to do some,hing. How_evet. one maybe obligatw to make usc of one'l authoriza,ion; anac'iontowhichanittdividU.tionto cxoc"" ,hi. act if thenoneJlocn,;oni. ,he conditionofanod,.. eMrei""acta. a""oe1ion; the....,.. theex"",ut..ionof,h.. eot'ei,-. act ..onlyaUlhOT,>edorpositivelypennitted. Legaloblig..iotl i. nOloor no, immedia'ely. ,hebehaviorth", ought tobe." Only,he eoere;'-. 0the civil execution has.o he dirw:Jisthepropcny of .heindividual agail", whomthe coercive ac, i.dirccttd; and(b) that thel'rope. Inthe formercase theindividual i, liablewitbhi, pnlOfl andhi, proper'Y: in,helatterc:uet,,oindividuahha"etobecon,ideretllorliability_theonewho has the authorityto di.pooc overthe prop which constitute the prop of agronp, towhich 'hedelioque", belong,,, for e""mpleinCo"ofblood re"enge, which rnay be e"ecuted og.i"".nmembers of themurderer', family; or inthe ca..01 the $anc,ion. of internationallaw(repris:tlso"dwar), whichoredir..,edagain.. ,hemember>of a "ate wh_ m-ganhal committed. violationofinUrn.lionallaw.".'tHJ: srAnc 0' ......wCoIIeed da....g tlIy 01. the .....'e)10 the ..yiorof.he obliptodindividual, Iud> heoblip.ion'0do ,nm....,.iCrvice--onc is $l,i,fionandhisproperty. OnlybyabUTactionwaStheconcept of alegalordrrgr-adu.lJyd.rivedfrom,heexi'elawis unhistorical .ndetroneoo.. "" If ,h.a..umptionof the ."i"enceof n",ural righttionof otherindividu.l. 10 '01.... '. 'hox dilpooi'iolU,10 'hat ,h.righl to ,hing il.110 righg.inn lletlOll. Iof,h.otlle..to the,hing. by which,hcir lation '0the one (the "own-or") is "lahti,hed. Nevertl,.I .... th. ,,,,di';on.l definition ofpTOptrty a. "xclu.ivedominion01a(>p1e. if a dcbcof it oblipledto rmdtt a thing.o tht crtditor. let w...y. if _bodyisobligatedby a con'ne 0( ...Itto Inns(... lht _"t>ttSh'p of aope.d6c pie of mM... blt OO".tal =ate ". Inthi. alit.igh, of tht crtditor is dirraoI.t.ledr"lC'TUtTIlt' ddinitiort0(lbclawinaath;..ru"" ....-""apro-tltdint......... rnq....ul, prnnlltdbytnditionol Kim oflaw,rtf.... tothot rip.as1M .tft...of alegalobliption. This defini.lion dtatly di>piays 'ht dualism.hal'3Citri"ic for lndi.i"""lKitnu of law; I"" rigttl. ,h is, lhelawina .ubjj.i,c rdlnrigh.; inonlanguavonedlT0". by ala i. the aKu.;on 01 aoonfulfillment of theobli.gation haano.pecific leg.l effect; the aCt is logally irrelevant,except for not beinglogallyprohibited. Therolore, "claim"aslogally elfeclive acl exi... only when a oo-calledlawIna ,objecliveoen" exi,",....hich me"", thot an individual ho. lhe just chancLerized legal power.Neither this so-called lawill a'ubjective ..noe not the legalobligation i. from. andindependent 01. ,heI..... in anobjecliye "'"... Thefonn.,., likelheleg.l obligalion, ileg.1norm: the logal normwhich conEen a.pedfic leg.l power upona"."Tll2rt prmdmt ....IiCftlII: orcooc ion fromtlM:autharitid.1) TNPoIilic.J llitAUThe soalkd "polilialreprncnl a spttW (:11"10'1. n...y.. u....UJ... the POW'" 10 inftuence the forma.ionofm' oI'M f.. oJ. anotherindi.id....r.b-lip -ani the ,....... The atclllioo> oft.h.is lrplPOW'" _,.bu. no.u eoubIiJbed.TM political rip.. includetht= iI>Gl1lchroenul rights"..libertiet ltipulatiolability) 01. property.of , .... penon. 01. opcuIt (opecio.lIyof nor private rigbt> In tbe ,echnical len.."They an: prohibition. InlOlar a. tbey forbid the ,iolalion by.tatut... o"'tutoryordenof the guar.ttttecdrights. th.. is, tolimi, or reICindtJ,em; but th..., "prohibition," do not in ,he ma'n(on,I"inimposingthe Tcpl obHgationuponthelegi,latlY. organ'0refrainfromen.(ting.uch,,"utts, theyalcd il. normiUO'lf, we an ..y: Ihe oo'1,,, (.,,,,od Id'i 'I'!) '4110 ''IS!. '4' 0''1',.!""qlcll'l .I,," ln0'l".1t [l:>Eu> '! ,oq """,,,lo"o!,nl!"uro"n ".0" J'>''''lIOU'!'p.>'.10!,' '! "O!lIl'!l'''O' ''1'.1'1pa>l""--'u"," .1U>q!1.Iooo, ""'4""'" '! ID '",., ",.,"", '"4' .Itl' JO ,.pi!." '! ''IS], (",u,m'''Pu''J POll"'""" ''1' 0''1' :ill.O"I""p],,!p"! "1' JO1";>d>J ''1' '" S,,!-1'"'1>J"po,,,,d">lU!'!"! 0' ","""1"lJ>1 ''1' '"'I""0"1""p'A'p"!'!'1' .1'1p.>1"1I" 'l(l A1UO Jl PO" :,"',,'"(""o!''''!''''o,"nU" JO '!''''l "\lUO p.>w>J, '! "uoo1""p!A!pU! "u J!"pro,.. :C'11O"1-"0!'!"1' 1"!'!I'''!" -'" "0 ",!"c,,'1"!Wp. 0" Aq J'>'"IO!A,! mnp-;>;>') JO .'!I"nb, I'""1"""'''S.11I0001101[1'UOO ''1' JI ""O!""'" ='ll)0 "o,,""'"x' "1101'P"'I ''''I' :unp.>;>l''1' '"'lOll," ,"',."I""O!""!""OO"" ,," Aq p.>'''1I" "1' 'ou'! '! '1m '.,nu1.""p01'''''O;>'''' JO,s""od>tl'"! ii,,!,od!,,!uodillO.q"! '"'I' 'I,m Suruuop>d0I0'J p.>l!.q!'101d.11I"lJ>1:>.to ,u-.&.o ='11u''1.1. '''4ii!] I",,!l!!odJO10'''9]010 ""I '"'pn,tl",m'l,!"nd'UI""" ill''1' uodn"!11"! AO'" U"O'1"1""" "'I"U01111'I""lY.>Un'! 'IO'''l' '41 "''''' u, 'lu4''!'1L'p.>ullllJ,mnoo 10'p.>I"jj[nillD.ld 'l"'AOJddu'A",! .1''1' ""n,o"''11I" 'l1IUUO!,nl!''''O' ''1' 'OJ 'lq!",OO= 'pOW >I. (,,... ''I'JO l""''1''1' JO tl,.. ''1' "S)':Cluno, 01','"'10'1"') U!'1':>)0 lJ>0 10u.>OJ> .,"'10J ''1',uq, '" '14S!' "",,!,d 0 '!'1']'1'" '>i">i ("'IU'[:I''ll "1 1l(l!!. 'Al'''!"'.., AO""'-dSV'lLV..., H, gena:oI rq>nl of a ,hat yiolata c/Qvior i, mabkd by lhc Iqrol ordn to belut"" inlhio .....,. hu a cal*'it, confetTed up'" him byanln.II ,hi, capaci', is dcsign.. al ......,..".iDtion.R!his wd does l\OIimplyapptm\l1. t:""""paciryof commi"ing delicl i, acapaci,y conferredbylopl ordn only..""", eemio lndivid".h '0 commi, delklShy 'b.ir behavior. whkh '"acondi'ion oftoerd,.;oct th" functions'sa ""nction--cl the act whkhis direcdinanarrower......, wbell it doQi",p1yinh.. .....,tndititlall oheohelegalordertobringabout legal conse-quences by his heba"ior, thaI is, consequences .,hicln ".>h,. behavior. Til_legal consequmenhoweYt!', no, >helIJ1C,iomwhich CO/'''''Iuenccof beMv;orarcdircacd aa:oin"theindividu.1""h..inginthi, w.y(Le., 'gain"thedelinquent or hi. ,cl.,ivet). The capacity10bring lbou$OInt:tion by one', ""haYiorcapacity to commi, I delict andIIdiainguilbed fromthe capacityto .ct. Thelegal '0whichlhe corta']>tcapKi,ytoact ufenare, a.ccordi"l to,radi.ioaallcience 011.0.., esKnti..llly obligatiooJ .nd rightl o ....tedby1"&,,,1 opKi.y to act II pri ....rily the cap.cityto oondualepl .... nRO'ioN (CacM/Uliltiieil); bu, capaci'ytoaa"i.,,,, jJ ,he capadty. confcrr"", "pOll individuals bj' til< order, tocroale,onthebali, of gen......l Itg.1norm., Jpaci., iu. true lopl pown.1 "'.' is underwood '" m....Dthe OIpaci.y of bringingabout lcpl eoDKqumcn bronc'. and if ODe rcprdo as acorucqucncc 01 aIcpl ,nruxtionlhc lcpl obIip.icn-andthat""""'" aniDdj,iduall>(lt1l>--( "npuoo01 MOl {"tuopOU.\l!104'O! ,[O"P!AlpU, lOU'UOl}JunJ '14'U! '"m. '41 .I.:Itp!'U"A puV'A'lunWllJOO]OUO!,...1.I>1'" U!'111M'IOJ lUE'uoowl tI"Ao(d 'MO( \"""!'OU'"U! ,{qpa!lOtp"o "10"Aq p>popuro Aq 'w'ou["-,,,u,ll JOu0]10"" ''I' '"'IIpuo :"PlO [olio[,tpAqP"'lID4,no ..mOl.,:>ddo 10 "'lIOU 'Al11 "'lM 10)AI""l.:>woo,.",olio 1m' MO( 0 lluuq'mp>1[l.ld "lIU"lU!wpoID("P!P.n!0 u, 04.... t:>IUro''11 Jl W ',UOII"",,,,', ["S>[ ,m", "opuo, 0'1'"']"OplA1PU! "1' II J.:IMOO[o'il>[ruo!l'unJ ''''1' H- U""'I''''l A'!-'"11wP]"11"""" '4' "olq[!uollrP"-'.L ''''1''0 ""." 01 ID "uo"l"P IE!J1Pn[ '1"'" 0' '''lOm'I'''u,Ol,("npJA'PU! "1m'", JO All,,",,'"""", "ll uJ"JJllOI:>dwoo., '10 'lonpl'lP"! "" JO (tlqJl!. 1""'11100 .0 UU'I''II JOJS""]""!"'P""pU! ",{.Il!, PU! ',UOp""'U.'1 ]d.>( "np'''OJ 01 A"JEd., ''I.L'.1.:11"0 loll,[ ''I' Aq P>ll'IuOO ""'0010&>[JO "'p.,x:.til II,,,UO' 'I"'IMp:m.lJJuoJ '1UOIPunJ ''I' 50 '"JtoP>U'lOO! 10" '1JO ld"uro''11JOuOllm,m,] '!'I.L.. .. ID "UO!'''!p'!,n(" P'll"" lOu llUJI JO "'''''' [""UtpOl ''11U! 'l'IlI!, 'I'!10 1411!J 10 ",,,.,x:. '" 'jo:>dd. "!U' .,,"[ .\H'I"OJ,>MOO[olio, 'q.L.. Jo..uO!lJlp'lmr.. 10 flu:>:IdSV "unsXlU.,.TIt!: ....TIC ....PI:CTOP "'Wc) The Concept oj "OT8"4n""Organ" of a community i. an individual who ""donn. a functionLbat canIln" '''''",I> not indude the capacity to commit adelict,"Ifwethu. eJtCludethecommittingofadel;'t fromtbeorganfunctions attributable toa 1"83.1community, then anybeh"'i,,rd.tcnnined by.he1"83.1orderconstitutingthelegal commuuitymay he regarded .. a function 01 the community if it dOC' no< con.i"in committing a delict: Thi, behavior maycomi"not onl}' in cation and application of legal nonn., including thepartid,...._ t. diKl.",t'" ' ... >ndi_01 "'" '""""""qU>llfted., "0 lepl.",n_.ion"why (I) wh..nlhe 1"1"1p-roculu", h... '0 beini.iatMby a opeci6c act din:.;,ed ,,,,,,.nt i ...... speak in one c>d.i JUodl ... IU, nc..-is jO':I'q". '4' "I01.10 """PIdol puo"411,.0' 1""PlAlpulu. JO A,!Jod., '41A,podoJ]oBoI .. ""."ll!"p .uo,'1'"O,.......ur.lVdv:J"tvo:., ",',:uclllo" JO ,,uJUOJ ''11 JO JJ"","", "1' JO lluIPUO"-"P"" ""Aq,,], P"" 'A'I""wmoo 108>]0' "o,,'u"J 0S"I""'Illll" "I "'"1"'0' 4"1'1'"'1'1' JO 'J""",,, '4' JO SUIPUO"'''pu" UO AIUO" "'01 JOlI{J!>1tUloo0JOJ -uo11...>:l4SVOU.V,U ."'"punisMd, tbmlhe punislulblc a1Ut '0 apply to dclicll whic;h a,.., CoolIi,u'cd by. finc or dvil execution. For these ..netion. COfl"" in a dcprivat;onof UlcthiJ>&. the Iw to beTmdn by huown "llpoti.. be,,"viorcan viola", thIlIO p...O! PO 01 'Acq ltnID.""PJA'P"! "'l/lo"!'":UO!I:>a"...., :>Illo>,nn oq", 0"'111:>1110 JO"",E>J:>". "q!!-'-puc IUO!ldn'i0II"!""1'1.110 '! "''1'0''0'0 SO!ld!!'!oU0fI"'CI"UI loll>j V'lu-..:l "''110'''' S"tlY'U>q '0ll",,U,.""" .'0 1I"I""!"-..:I'l1O!l""'''UI,oll>l 0 lO Inq..UO,'OlIl..,m,,,JO1I0xll IOUPI""'" ""'1' 'InO!,!"YI." "O!I"'1!"'10 '1'I'll 'p;IJ!''''l"I"' ''1' 118no.t'l'p;lI'. >;I,!JO"'''. :>IlIl!I'< 1,...II""O! p>q!;l)UP ".1l""J:>Ill}!'ljUO ,u;llJJd I! PJOM JO-,g!dlUl ""!1n""""u1'l1 '(lodp"IJd JIll1'1p;If!:;IQJQ XI 'A!lnll:>l>JCbJ'Ill p". p;lI.....!A 10p;lUYlnJXI """ JA!I...UJDJd">O!Id!lqo :>Ill I"", 01'1""""P!'"!J'lIl l"ll!JlMlln.:>Ill JOI I>OP 14>11J!P 'MIll OJ!u!p.>O)..". ""l 'UO!l"'!-'O"Pn. "" II'IJft'I ap110PJ'lIUOp>d '''''!P'''IlUlrd>1 ap """.. 1UJD.>d f!UO!l..........xb.o l>OJ!U ""'!'l:01po.u;>JI'ftDI.... 1""P!A!PO!:>Ill 01""''''lUI'. tit""!'"'!""J lOll .... UO!uam.q "'IIplOlOJ>tlqB!l ptII JlIO!ld!rqo:>Ill ptII '1""!'fA!P"!.Iq_ "P""Ill!qp;IUUOp>dI'and.notbn indi"iduaJwho i. au,'-ized to apply lbis : and aloobn...,"""one iDdi"idual who is au,horillrdtoemileorapplyanom> and an individual who ,. obIip\.ed or by ,hi, """,,.Suchlegal ttLa,1on' oiloen'hedif(ettllCeintha' 'heone "a.ellliort betweoen eq""b and che otltn a relallonbetween a IUpeT_lor and an inferior (between m ... and .uhje1 order, namely to du'norm. authori,ingtheirfunCtion.. It i, tobenotedth..bypre.",mingindividuals '""inferior" tothenorm. ofthelegal order,and .h. norms", "superior" to the individuah. we employ a figureof speech whichm.rely .xpr...... ,h..the norms of th. legal ordercomnullld, au,horiZSilh'elypermit thebehovior of indiovidu.h_that ,henorm. ofthel.gal order h,,'ethebeh.>viorofindividual. '" ,hei. conlOnt>. If thefigure01 .pchistakenliterally. arelationbet"'eenth. lJ I"s,r jH'Ind.. 0'I P""'!P'! ""!"'O ''I' W0'l'" lonp!A!pu! p;>,cll!rqo ''1' puo,n. 0' .,."lOdI"s,( ''1' 'I'P"P'lAU! tOnp!A'PU! ''I'UO"01>1 ''1' "''1'0 ''1' "" PA>l 'w.. ''1' " uOII,ulp.lOOJ pu. PU"'l'lIO'q' uoUOI'O")p.1OqUSP"OtlO""U!P-IOJ>d,,. o=.\t'>II >J""'ll!P ''1'"0 "".'''01'"1''"'1"s,1 ,,",,!,dpuo "lNnd """""'1 >J"'''ll!P ''1', ...J '" ,nil ..uo,q, rOUOl"plU,,(q"" ....,d.. '0 p>,.uS!t>p ""P"I"1"8>1 I"J)d'(, ''II '! II 'uO[",u" ''II ,oJ'''O!I'PUO'"p.oo IVbI'II'ill P>,"uJl!"P ''''"j0"" """"""1"01'01'" ''l' '!'!'1l.. (U!I'P,ql) p>1J!p 'J """'u,, 'Il' 1I"11'" .IO)A"4>'AUI,"np'A[p"! '4' """>>:>"!P>:>"" ''1' lIl1!"pID [[Uour"lIp!A!PlI! uo unOJ 0 "q lIu!n,,! 01'JOp>xudo 'UO!''''' r"8>r" "'I0' ""'00r"s,1 ''1'.,UllOlllU!'"-="u, 'A"4>op-sl"lIPIA!PlI! 0"" JOJO!"oq>U!UJJ"'p-,,,or ''fl u"">q '411"JO,dOluo, ''1'-'"1''' ''1' 10uopollHqo'41'I'!'" 1""!"IOP!'! 'uO''1' 1011111!J ""U', '11' "1"0'" J>'I1OUJ '-"'U""WlI!mJ>J ul 10'9 ''1' pJ"."OI',''''l>t "1' "noJ.", Oil '!.u.mou'4dIU"""I""' ,(1108>1'IU>J'JI!P 0.", 11>'''''>qIIOP"I" ...'11'!X' ''''!llJP' \08>, Ou ,..,'!II' U!'rx!",d 'J,.,.>l0H x.u" "!puruo".lI!lqo 11>,"',-""I 110""1" .....u,,!'"p] rcll>1., jO UO,,!U9'1' '41U! ,,,8>p'woo....Y>'-0.endS>''u.n, a,,-'-",'na.UTIttwunconcept of "mbj":lofalegal obligation" frmth.t of".ubj..:t of alegal power." Totheextent that intraditional legal Ihefun'elaw. the con""pl of "legal ,ubj""t"-in Germ.n Rcchl.."lJjekt (literally: ,ubjec' 01 Law}-is eJosdy.... _. "''' "PI fordl"",ed to it. Con ""pr"""dfigumti,'.ly in theconcrpt of "person," "P.,...,n" i> merdytb.penonification of this totality.If e.pecially thefac"Ole an.lyzed which arep,....,tedintradi-tion.1theory a' "rightnd obligatio,," of. juristic penon." .nd ifthe word"right"i. usedin i" .pecific, 'echnk.l ..meI the word(m....ningalegal p,,,..'e.orcompetencetobeexercisedbybring.ing.naction.gaiost ",mebody), then wefind that the.. righ".nd obligation.like th"", 01 a phy.ical per",n. ha"ehum.nbehavior.,,heir conten'. andareinthi> ..",e-,,,,d onlyinthi...n..-righ"andohligationsof hum.n beings. Only byhumanheh.vior Can' right be exercised or anobligationhefulfilledor "iol.ted, Thrrrlorei, cannot bethe relation '0 ahumanheing which i! the element ,hat diff....ntiate. the physic.1 orn.tural penon (TOm the or .ni!ici.l pOT"'''. Therefore.too, ,he....calledph)"ical per"'n annot_incontradistinuiontoth. juri!tic penon_be defined a. """ething a qualifiedhum.n being. qualified. that i. by holding rights .nd obligation.Such a delinition i. to be rejected jUst .. the definitiotl of the conc.p' of rIgh,., "aleg.lly protec,edim.....'." Ju"a. ,herigh' i.not a (Iegall)' protandrigb" (that is, theunity01'be nom.. thor coneen>u. here)which. i. p,..,,,,mM., ...plll'sic.] -tionoflog.dly 'denn' !.oct. In-tratedbyananalJ'' concern ill Klmewaythein_teres"01 theindividualowho formthecorp"""ti()n, and>tinarenot...-a. traditional theorya"umeo-theirobligation. andrights.arethtotiutupreted ... obligatiOn> andright> of the corporation.and hence the lauer i. concei"ed aoc "".havior i, attribu,ed toIh"colpor;l'ion. i,caIlrd th.. "organ" 0( corpo""ion. Th"problemofcorporation 11 anacting pt1".toni, di"ulSet i..arommunity consti,ul,ing tile bt-haviorof "number DI: ind,viduall (includingone,h", does notestablish orpmfunaioning according to !be principle of divliionoflabot) ""'ybcpcnonificd. dncribcdall anac:tingpn1OII: and,htrcforc a"y''usembn'"of ...ma communi" ...., be lootedupon .... its -orpn.- But oinu intommO'ea ili.",of theprofit> and the curre,ponding obligationto pay a membership Ire,howe,..,., aredescribed ..rightsandobligation, ofthemembers,not ofthe corporation. For thequo"ionof ,henature uI the cor- ','L"."ponotioa .. a jurUlic....IJtboK obI'p,i",,* andrigbto uerdro"".which arcinlCl"prnm 10 lit Iboot of nin..bicbtMnatlon.l 1lW'1 ont..-_ opnkin.1mnI 01rndi,ionaI ,..-minolofn'--obliga... or .unt"Ott in..hich ons ..... rigblS of ,he WOponlion,!he....'U'f dfI_iIIn bodI,hf rna.frial md J>f""D>1 flmlmu oIlhfbdYYior thai COWIilUtn : tion' "Labli,hedbythe national legal order_nd, =o,ding to the national legalot-thenthe co'pontioni. nOt capable01 committing adelict. But oin(enothing ...nds inthe wayofattributingtothecorporation thefulfillment of theobligationwhichtheorgani,authoti,cd by the""tOle to fulfill, thecorporation may be reg",ded a. the SUbject of anobligationwhichit canfulfill but nO!viOI",e; inthi' limitedsen,e, then, can tbecorporation bedescribed a. havingthecapacity ofbeingohlig:"edwithout havingthe capacity of committing a delkt. It may be objco,iom stipnl"t"" by ,he naLion.llegal ord.... Itj.&aid,for .""mple, the corporation ... a juri,'ic peTionfailed '0 pay' taxandtherebycommittedapuni>habl.or ,batcorpon-tion lailcdupon himbythe'tatute a' " conditionofasanctiondirtne up injudgingpolitical aim..commiuedby memben or o0is'he,",.ubjec, of,igb..",hlch com,i,,,,.,bepropeny i, liablewithLb. p which the uu,ioll i. to> be direI. onlywilhhi. pt,.. a.. colltt.ively liablefOTthe A nationalleg.l order may dcvi ..e fromthe principle of indi wouldprobablynot beattributedtoorgani,ation-Ianguagcwouldref".. in thicnlllinIIWI. or rip..10 be.....nedby a ahumanbcinJ.Orgall orcorponotion"repr.-..."1M juriJticpenonofw'"",.I.ion. If il i. r.tnm i ifl>io acu an: auributedto U>Olhcriadi.id.w. wdbeill aD ifhisacuare auribulCd10 a .....ponUga. .... A""ilNryt Ctmu/HIurJ sm.uAocord1ng 10 the prcadina anal'.... aDd iu rcsul"auxiliary mtlttP'" 0(juriKit ptnOD, a",a prodUCI. 0( lcpl";,....,. dncrihinc Ibt law, not 01 law ilWlf. This,e-jllt ,roe n=l"""gIInuyII.., '"isconctpr. asany crealtdby ltplWe....,... II",ady aid WI anynonnative to", ,h. P"...,Th"",y i truly mpoic Jeg;ol ,heoTy. But if the I'll,." Throry con thelawas an "organism,"it d"... not mean by 'hi' IIOme.upr ..,mp;r;cal emity(. conception behindwhichmu.lly hide somef'O"tul.,,,,). but cxclmi"dythi"'he law i< an order, and therefore all legal problem.rnD", beset and1I01ved a.o:m:Ier problem. Inthi.way l 'o ....t. Ihi. p>rmmt andbcc:aUIPi. is ....mcd10 be Idf-nime intoor the(:OI>K.i'ut>on-ae:"iD&act tomdowtypertannedbywu.inItUllWlis objettively as a DOI1D-aatia( fan; if.inthe IaUtt alot. !heindividual orthe _bIyof individ.w. wboo (1"Qled thecomtiuuiot>on which the lqaIorder .ew. arelookedupoaasnonn-or;.ia In. LIll.......,. the bouie nonD dftenninn lbe basic faa 01 law an...... and.....yinthis,npectdelniltedas thewct>U.utionina IogialImK of lhe wo1au'!>ori,y: ...imuad. a' a ",..ilm"'" thatvalid ina revolu,ionary ....y. 'ha' is. dlhcr by biQCh of a former CONI;,u-'ion or for a'n-ritory ....., 10000CTly w... noerbc spMK ofnliclit,of a consti,ulion aodof a IUtional lqalortkrbaoed oni,. IICO",idC'Tn>erd, Iht IUlional lqaI ordeT. not imemational 11_.andif .. forl.bc moon of.he validi.,. of l.bc historieolly limconsIl'u,ion, ....... l.bc CUIonlyboo(IIw..............1Ik Cod.......,u..,j oJ nOTm, in .ule. of b .../"Theer>i .. an........ of ,he Theoryof Lawit: "Bypr.."pposlng,heba.ienOrm th. one ought.0 behave u the con...;tu,ionprQCtibcs, .Ita.i.,ougho in J=n1.na with ,ubjtlve mnningof 'M comtitutior>-,iunedil ittmeans: Theologicalethics canonly,tate: "Thecommand01theparen... ha. the cbaracter of an objectively binding nOrmif we pre-.upposeinour ,hinting,henorm: 'Oneought toobey,he command. of God' (who ha, commanded to ohey ,be command. of ,heparen");' nSin"" aposi,ivi,,;" ..irn""01law regards,he creator of 'hehi,l'HI: OVN.... 'C""PiCTOFlAWepistemologicol'Lltemen, ,hat thebuicnonnis ,hecondi,ion underwhich Lhe.uhjectivemeanIngoftheconstitution-jcetive meaning of ,he "'ts performedIn accord.ncewiLhthe con..itution. af< interpreted ...heir objecti"e me.ning, a, validnon"" evenifthemeaning of.heseact>i, 50interpretedhythelegal ocience i\>eIL"Byofferingthi, theoryofthebasicnonn, thePureTheoryufLawdoeo not in.ugum"a newmeLhod of legal cogni,ion, Itmerell' makes conscion, whaLmost legalscientimdo. at ltast un.Th< q_'.'" "Wbo p,,",up_IheU .... too ,_.I.. 'n,be """"'o'io. .. tbe ""jt1.., .....1o( of ,...."'I>, ,hot .. ""i"".-dyn'id '"',__ ..,." '.Ia'f"'"'''''' 10, rom'''ve '"""'on, not, ru""..., '"'bev1U.SID,be Kkaof , ...1' , :>!qn. """I'"UO '" ". ou "'01""'1' putuopo"", W.IOlI10 ",.""llInm..", ".uqn.'1'.,... :""1,SD!lItawSU!'Il>llIOS""" JOl.I,!RaI "'Pu''1' '.]q]nod"! UO!''''...,dJ>IU)JO\jlO ''1' JOU auO "'[' ....'I'!.u JI .....'I"!und "'l 0' lqSno'U1Jn0J JO,1I0 ''11 ....ol"'l .uouadJODOl,d."". ''ll 'Ill'" '''11"p" pall!"'WO' "'"0'1'"'poq'JOA:'I .. ".I..1] :.. pa'l'!und"'l 0' 'OUl'1Sno u"noJ JO:>lit ''1' "'0[>'1 ,UQS..L;>op 'jnJ SUI'l)n.'p-.... '''''110 ''11JOSUll!U]![... 01poolu>pUn "'lux, nuou'110 ''1' D''1' '.uOl'!pt-I'U01 '[l'""'[UO""".w,ou0"', ''ll "ldwox>"U'I;'"'']1 U) so'JI ro :,Spn(''I' 'S-. 'u.ll.to''l'''1 "!0Ij' X011,,"[qn. "'l 0, POOlY"AMIC ASPI:CT OF LAW'"give only a conditionalan,wer to the q.....tionao to ,bereal()Jllorthe voJidi,y01 pooiti.e law. II the na'urallawlheory ....r"': "Thenormth.. one ought toobey thecommand. of n>lure i...llevident," the theory or.... Thi.> a",""ioni.> unull3ble. Nonorm, much1"" th.nany other. can be said to be ..U..,vident. Fromthe point of view ofscience, n.tnre i. a '1",em of causally determined elemenu, Natureh no ",ill .nd th",efore cannot en'ct nOrtll. Norm. can bea.. umed .. intm.nemin n.tnte onlyif the will 01 Godi....umeump,ion, which canno' beacceptedby ..ienceingeneral and by legal ..ience in porticular, because .lCienti6c cogni.,ioncannot have .. its objecl' fact whichi. aosumed'0 e"i"beyondall posoible H'UUCHtCAI. $n.VCTUUOFTHE LECAL ORl>U4\ The Comlitul,,,,,Thepeculiarityofthelawthat it "gul.t'" iuownc"a,ion, h..beenpointedout beforeinIheseThiJc.n bedone byanormdetorminingmerely theprocedurebywhichanothernormi. to be cre.ted. But it can be done al ... by a norm detormining. 1 .ndordin.nc.. i"ued inaocordancewithi...regarded ..bindinglegal norm.. ThenIhe b"'ienorm(tbec""stitution in the tran"'cnt we .hallonly con.ider the normal ,itu.,ion; a legal ord.r which ;n.. i,,,, .. a'p pooio' oIdo' _ EMM"' tOmArylaw U nodilfe,ent fromthat toward'tatlllory1.w. Foranorgan whoh.. toapply. nrmcrealMbycu""'""",erl.in,'hefact of (u>lorn (detennined by ageneral legal norm, has ;ucertaintd, ina pracedu,"determined by a general l.gal nonn. that fact. afe pr...nt '0which a g.ne....1legal norm.,tach.. a "'rlain 53nction, thenIhi. org;>n ought toorder a sancdondetrrmintdin Iheearliermen,ionedleg:sl n"nn. ina procedured.termin.dby g.nrnlleg.1 no:rm." Thio formulation of the rule "f law. ,hen, .how5----1lndtherein li.. the eo.sential func,ion '" Ihe rul. of law describing theI.w_he.yst.ma'icconn..:,i"nbetwrentheSCK3.11edformal andtheSCK3.11ed material law(that i., be,ween,h.d.termin.,ionofthe delict andthe ..nction on ,he one hand and ,he dctenninationof lhe law-applying organand hi, procedureon th. other).The r.la,ion be,weenthe gene....llrgal nonus and their applica,ion by judicial Or admini>ttativ. organsi.....nliallythe same.,that r"i"ingbetweenthe Hllli,itntion and,he cre.tioo of grnr....llegal no:rnu d.t.nnined by it. The creation of gmerallegalnonn.i. an application of theconstitntion in thesame ..-ay that theapplicationofthegm....1 legal norm' byjudicial o:r admin;"'.,i..eorgan. i, the ofindividual legal normS. Ju" .. thegrnerallegal norm. createdby legi.lation or cu.tomarelonnal1y,.,.and ptthaps aloomatcrially,rletCTmin..Jby ,h. "TOl'of ,h. ron_"it"tlon(that is. bynorms01 ahighCTle,-d) in,h""'me way,h. illdi.id"alnorm. c.eatedbyjudicial oradmilli",..,h'. 0-materially a' well a' lom1ally----iti legal norm 'ha' Tegulat.. ito cTea-tion. is called"source:' fn,hi. "'noe. 'he comti'utioni. ,h. >ouTeeof 'he generttllegal norms c,..,atedby legillationor cunom; a genenl legal normisthe",ureeofthe judicial decision(i..,of ,h.indi ... idual norm)hywhichthe g.ncnl nOTlOi. 'pplied; but thejndicial decisioni''''lf may"" Tegarded .. the SOnrce of 'he obliga_'ionOT Tight of ti,. con..nding parti.. eatablished by thedecision.Or a' the!DUrccof 'he a"thorintiot' of the organ who has '0""ecnte this deci,iOTt. Ar. theacts, mentionedbefore, bywhichtheeTCi,,",authOTizedbytl"legal nTnll, "0exttuted. AndtheTe i. anaL' of po,i,ive lawcre.,ion. whichi, not'he .pplica'ion of. positi"e leg.tl norm, 'heen'ctment of'hehi"oriti'ution....hich I.kes pIa1='q' >'O'''"I''P AI"'W ''''''1 'OU'>Up U01'1"P l"PlPll! V""']1 P""ludp U!'l'!'" "! PP llUjl.[ww"OJ '" 1u....u1OJ. uuou(""U>S'']l ul op",mq" Wp;>Uj1O""-'p UOl'Ju",. 10J ""0]l!P""" "'OJ !'w"lll D! "''1'"4''' "IOU'''''"1...,,111'P:"O!""" "'.l>[lOJ0 "l,04lnO4>14." OwAO"'1(1 AqpoDl"''''''P'1 luOlooJ0004'"OW1OUI""P1Alpulllup'>J' Aq "'''0''r&ll"'uoil '41 Alddo o"no, ''I'puo ,Dol""'u"--"

....Yl D:ld'V""WNje1'''' and ..hrt bw'PP'ring .'S'''' d. !!]j, ,.t-ctlon...,.ho.....-It."....., ""ult Dawn! boa occurrul. 1bc1IlOOlUin"""". of the condilioningboa by the 0DUrt. dH:fon, iI consli i inIf. &m-nallo:pl nonna'ta(o a punisll bea""ertained, ane'"court procedure can be i""i'uled. The .i".... 'ion,ha"'0,heviewof thepani... thejudicial deci.ion was renderedbyawu"incompetent '0 .it, orin afaoltyprocedure, i. analogou, '0'he ,i'uationII. .. ,h. delictwos commiued by anindividualo,her,han,he","tencedoneor ,hat thedelict whichheac,uallydidcommit was differ.nt fromthe one forwhich he was ..menced. Inan theseca...a wur, procedurei. Ihe.ubject of anotherwurtprocedu",. If ,hi, appeal from one procedure to .no,heri. limi,edbyaI""i'ivelegal ord.., then ,I...... ;,finallyacou.' procedure,ha, can nolonger be ,he .ubject 01 .no'h.... wur, procedure.Then,heborderline c..., of anul,ima'e couTt procedure mu" be....,pted lacl ini,,,,lf. Thi. happen. when,he deci"'nofthecounof1 , in.tanceacquir.. theforceoflaw. ThiJmeans ,h..now ,h. subjectivemeaning ofthe act of deci.ionof,he counoflast in, lance ha. to be accep'ed it> ohjec,ive meaning. Ifin,hi,d"""'nnthep.trty-con'ettedfact i. "see".ined ,h.,a cou"procedutepTeceded theorderingof the""reutionof ,hesanctionOrthat thecompe,enceof ,heearliercourt, denied by,hep.tr'i.,.canno' be denied or ,hotthe faultine.. of,hepreviousprocedure a.....ed by ,h. parti.. does not ""i,,_,hen any oth.. opin.ion i, legally excluded,Although ,h. coun procedure ,ha, ascemin, the laCt that i. ,h.condi,ionfor II. ... i. no' aproceduteof lI(ien"ficcogn;....Tn" DYNAMIC""neTlAWjon. but of cru';"" of Jaw.till. a cena;"p"ral1e1 ex;'" be,,..,,,,"thi.< prottduu and the plttedu,.., by whichIIdentific. cogniuoo o!natural fact. isan.ined, pl"Q\liMdthat we .nume ,ha,,hep,occ.dUTe of >cien,ifiecognition ho, con"itu,iveeh...""tet. In thi,p'",Hd,h" organ of ,h" cnrn';lu';,". couTt pr the actionor acquiuthe on,heground, that, according to the cour", view. no ,'alid gen..al normexisu which atr.alic p""""utor. It has been "",plained ..rlier"that thelegal ord....gula,es humanbeha"iornot onlypositi"eJy byordering a cortainbehavior, butabonega-tively by permitting a c..tain bebavior by not prohibiting it, Thatwhich iI legally no' prohibited iI legally permitted. The .lOUJ 4,nw '!unO.JOuOII> lP '4' ';>so:>U! U'A' ",nl!"p".ld "4'uuou[...... u:>ll .,!l!rodJO u..q. ''1' u!-"nw uno. ''I' 4'!'1'"ul .... ''I' UO!punJ 0,'! unOJ ''1''1'14"ul ...., ''II """"''''1J>.Jll.p ul ",u""Dlp A,uo '! ='1L'UJ.lOUI.......u.>ll'ou. 4.n,JO .."[UOUJJOu]""Pl'!PUI ..uno' ''1L.,'""'"0, P"ll"J .lO"j'!S,[ "I'lsod'4' 'l"!'1"ru.lOU,,''''[.......p!mo. unOJ ''1' '1J!'['"UJiOU ..u:>2 SU!"ldd .1'1 ""'Ou ""prA!pUl '1'1'm''''uno.'41 lnll ..OJ lu.....d ,.\8u!, ''1' .l0J I"l"" ''''''00 ,.npIA!pul u."0,.. 0' P"!.IO'I,noA[UOOJ unOJ ''1' .I0J. .UtlOUIcll:I, f'U,uol!JOuOl1"" ''1' lu"w" ,)lU!'OI'lll>[...1'1Jl 'J>J..IO' "lnb:wu" "'lL.I0'01,!8.[ ,. uo!"unj 0'" '.10m ''1''"'I' p!"' "lion",'! 11 .... [ ..'u"..... OJ unOJ ''ll _!""qlno '"'I' UUOD "[' lnq"'.IOU 'pn, A]dd. 'OU,:>01' uno. '41"" '!'I' uJmO"n. ""UOl'"I'lll>[ "'I 1'''''.0 uuou,.ll>j(....,u.>ll qP"U!tw"'p>.Jd '"OUUI '! ,,,,,,1100 ""''I'" WlOU [.S.[ (onpIAlI''''U OJ '!'ll U! ".....0, '! uno. 'lf1 "4' ,uO'UJt1'lL1'"'n ''1' """"U'"OJ.lODllU!o[d '4' .I0JpugOJ '''OJ''''J.p",un's< '"'I' "['l",!nbJun.I""'n[un .. W.l"UjOl.u.>$0 'I,mjO'41Sl.prsUO' lmOJ ''1'JI'mq'p>sn.", '411Inb.. 01 lou '0 u"l'" "/' "!W'lp O,,0U uno.'4' """"4,no 1Jp.lo[cll:I, "/' '"'I' '''''''',''0'1 "]'ll'rodOil"'!'I.IOJnq''''1 'J'I' 01 UO!lJU", 0 SU!4""'" ""0"1 ""8. "'Ip"1J"o.ld ,0u'1'OlA"'!"'!'1'1,{qpl,"[Ol' ,,,,,,,,ul JI[1 "J 'I' pun p"llqlqs...d ....."[.,,"""UOJ 'l'"S ",q"'!,""! 'J,.nP"lp"!'''fIOUOJO.I0!"4"'! ''ll pu.[.nptAlpDl '00"'..... .L'>"JdS">' '">1.1.hDOII1Il, a un.aiD amouDt of dixr'ctt CD be imptllCdby Ibe courtaI>ould btogin or cod; or ,he day wbeD a death .....~ .. 10 be a-ulCd. Inthcproccduf'Cin ..hicha gcnu.Unormi$individual.ilCd.he ~ n applyingthe gcnrnol normm.... a1wars de'ermine.bef ~ .. which arc: noo ye"'nd(JUtrtOl be. dconmincdby 'he .....-cnlnonn. The I\"'"eral "",m .. ahny. only aframe ..I.hin ..hich'heindh'idual no.m .. tobe crc:.,ed. Bu' ,h"fr,une conbenaT'TO""CT orwider. It I. wldut when'heJl'O'itiv. general no.mcon.. Illi only ,h. au,ho,;,.,lon for ,he ete.,ion of ,h,Individu.llcgalnorlll, wlthou'predetermining its content.If ,h,con'en' of ""'h a (Ourt..:\.,.] individuallcg.1norm i, illno"'.ypr.,.]e'ermined by gencrol norm, '001 ,he individ.....1norm bas tetroani,.. r........ A leryinthesam. waynu: ........""eMI'TOP ....w.""*10 tbr aot ill which Ir.illo his inalrably ill law.. uponlbela,tt't'. ttqlllion a>o adi.. or, jf he doel not d.li , topntY-'" for 1M""..om tau,ho.i,cd tC.ea'ebyill judgonen. PO' onlyanindividual normbindingforthe p._1It ca>oo. bu I ....e....l nor.... Tbi. happeJU wb.....1Ie jud'-cil-l decisioa !>calmes a IOalied preced.... '. ,hat is. when,he deci.,ionof aDOCislivingdiue.ion'0,he derision ofsimilarcases.Ajudicial dec""'" ....yha,'c obo ,haraaa-of aprccednl' whenme, inrtiridtW norm crn,edby d"" ddioois ...... in iu coo,....t,pmic1mDincd by. gonttalnormof: .....u""1 .. ' ..n........, law ..is ambil;uowIy worded acf..etioru.. IntMf........... cue wcou.t', pnadmtial dihono:reo....MW law; in "'" >C'CODd a. tbo implicitin "'" dcci-lion -'mcstbcchancu1"of: Imnal DDn:Il. I"both"'"coun ...... 0,,"_tbo pocccdm. f.."",ion> in """ manner 01.. "'Ii..1.>tOII poocioclylik "'" DIp" .lUhorid by on.o!fl,iolate. The jtdicial do:ioion 01 COI"ICTCl.epya dil'tion '0 tbcdeci.ion is goncn.liud. This I""cn.li.llnionha.it, the f"",,ubtion of the SCncnlnonn.....,. l>t done by the COUrt.ha. crn,edthe precede..,,: bu. it canaloo helef. toOOM couTUbound by .he p'cccdential deci';on. In ,hit case i, t. notthat differ....' cou"' .....y l""eraU"",heprecedentLol dedl;on. indifferentway>: which don not help pu.pose of the inld"'tion.namely. toachieveauniformjudicature. Si,see theprccmcmialdccWon can gi... direction only to ,he de"',;"" of ,im'la. C:UCO. theqUCltion wlscohct auJi",ilar to the precedemLoIcoos< is of de-.,.(ui.... imponance. Sma110 OM: is simibrIt> antIInin "tty,..,.'flOC'" the "oimibrity" of tM twO ..... in questioncan consistonlJinWItbtyconnpoad10mchOl.her inenu,n......tialpain... j .... as two OCU of betl wtueh IDSlituOC w ..-delia _nat Jimilar;n all poilu.. 001 onlyincftU.innomlia1poinu.. Butthe 'I_ion in whim. pain"tlwyhi..,Ul a dilionio anl1 a mlargemcn. of ,be coun. luna.....Ir courts ar" auth.o;ri>.td to etta'" indiYidual...4 rencnl nor-.....itlt ."'" Iqis!.1li... 0Ipne>s."TheprincipW. tobind okd....... ofcaner..., QJOI by gmtnJ__ thaI arctobe Cl'fttedbefordwldby em..,) Iqisb.i"",0fPI'. eon be.,.lCDdcd10 1M fU""'MIaJ of admlnistn- .utt-itieo. n.., principle, in lhisgrnrnll form. rqlrattetnis.he onewithin..'hiehnoc"".... orpo ai'lJ.\.II, bu. judges and Idm'n;tt...." ..,lutho.illCO di of the Kl-Clliled'rei.RcdIJ(z,.duQg {frtt juritdk,ionj, i, i be ab-sof",e. "1"....in ,hi. ontte;.... id '0 be decision of. case only if it taka in,oall peculiar;,in of ,he ca...Bu' .ince no ale i.like Iny o,lleT, ,he Ippl in,i"., or I gen-e",1norm '0 a conne'e CllC ca" nevtr-1O i, i'>aid-lead '0 Ijll"ded.ion. For I no....' nec.... rily PTI,supl'0oeimil,r awhirhin TOllily do not exi". TherdoTO Illla'" must Indiyid-uIIch.netot only, Ind,he di.ionof '''peel UUIClllialii, ,hOOtyoflawi.mCTdya .aria", 01,hedO('r;ncf na'ural Jaw and, lik it, the hopei... attempt III alogi.cally impoooiblc deduction from an is to an Qught.Botw."n,II"", twoeX'TOme types i a jurisdiction bound by>latelegislation andajurisdiction(teeofItalelegislationarc(altil"", typesinwhicha centrallegi,I.,;,.., organi.I .....bli.lh.d, j"C',h. cour"are authorized toCTOa,. not only individual norm.withintbe fr.unc,,"orkof the general nornu crealedbythe )egi,1a-tive organbut al--under .pecial drcumotancCl, dcocril>ctl.bove-individual nor"", ouuide thi> framework; and (b) that .),.teminwhichthecourt>areauthorizedto creategeneral legal norm. inti,e formof pr;edemial ded.io".. Thesediffereot .y"em. repre-..,nt differen, drgrcc. ofc""",.lizationord=mraliLationof theI.w-cre.ting Junctionand'hereb)' differ-ent degreCl of there.li",,ion of the principle01Oexibility of law, whichi. ininve.... reI.lion to the principle of leg.l ..curity,A,y"Cffi of a .peei.l kinduthat in which general norm> are, in,h. main, not crea,ed hy. central IcgUlative organ, hut by cu"om,and .ppliedhythe cour... Sinceint the application of gener.l leg.l norm createdby cullom i. di1tinguiohedfromth. appli..tionof ageneral norm.reatedbylegi,J..ion;nthat thealiCer",inm."t of the validity of a norm of CU!!om.ry law '0be applied--that U. ,he ."""","Inm.", tlut a I.w.creating .",tOmi, pTCICnt_plal'" muchmoreprominent .nd dearroleinthejudge'. conleience than the "",.".tainm.nt olthe ....lidity of a norm created by.'nit DVNAMICA'''''CTOF U.w'"legi.dation and publiJhins whythe viewi, 'OlOIIThe l"/lal t,an,actiona, ","..-"ting factTh. iudi,'id".1 nO,mtllrrnt. Otherwi", i, wouldhe imp""ibl.'0 o..en.in in.I.w-opplying procedur., especiallya judici.1pro-cedu... ,h. f.ct ,h., a contract w.. concluded," DYNAMIC....PECTOP ....wwBetweenthe actual will of a pafly andhi. ded.utionm.y be adi"",epancy. bee.u... the other contractingpany or thelaw-apply-ingorganm.yattributetotheded.ration me.ningcc:o"... the olferingpartyh., meanwhilech.ngedhi. mind .nd hou expresUn....perlorrn.ncc. bllt to ron"'" an undctcrrninf'dnumhcr of pcrformonca or pcrfo'm.nc....nd'-;Oulllcrpuform-.nea; .uch 0''he cMtraCtinwhich .nin,uran,c COnlp>"ybind.;'ionll organill,ion. 'hen 'he ion ;. bued on.con'nel "".....,.",b. llsociationorin,.......t; l organ;.. tiononthe on.h.nd .nd,h. acudi"ll oub)tOI11Uof the .""";ati,,,,',lIalu,,, orthe organ;ta'ion', C"""lingaccon:Iing'0,he printipkof diy"i"" oflobor--organ. dirt'tdy or indirt'tll1 calltd to ,beir fune'i""..thot t. 10...y. ..iY"lycentnl organ" (.) ,hi, .""""i,.. orderis limited in ill t..-.itorial .ph.... ot ,..lidity 10a Rri.d1 tologallyqualifiedas stateollki.1w.applying otga'"arenot autho-rizedtoexaminewhether'hOI whichi, publied '0 decide wh.th.r ,h. ".lU'e pas>edhyi,;, constitutional; ,h.n,heflOSilj". deci.ion of,hi. que>tioni. im_pliedin,he legi.lative .et. This mns,h3l"'erythingwhich,helegi.I.'i"e OTganis'u a. a "a'u'eha. '0be consid..ed .. sta'lItewithin ,he m..oingof the consti'ution:and,hat ,he norm. whicha,."thesubject,veme.ning01alegi,lativ. act havetheohjecti"em ning oIleg.l norm. even if ,he statute-o:ording to somebody.lse', view_i. not in eonfoTmity with the nomu of the Cl,""itu,ionregulating,helegi.Ia,i ..procedureand,h.COlU""'. ofstatllt..,Th. legi,l"i,'e organis,henin a si"""on an.logon,.o th., oIacounof la";nstancewhosedecision hasatt.ined,It. lorreof final judgment. The meaning of ,he com,ittnionreguh,ing legi,-b,ioni, no' that valid'Utute. mayCOmein,obeingonlyin ,lte"'ay direc,lystIpulatedby,he consl"""on, hu, alsoinaway d.' ..mined by ,he legi.l.'i"e organ i...lf.Theprovi.ion, of the constitution which TOgul",e legislationha>'eanahema,i," .har.u:'cr. Thecon"i,u';onindud..adiTOctalld all indirect Tegula,ion or Icgiilation, and,heleg-isla,i'" orgallha. '0 (hoo"ve organ,hepower'0exam'lIe ,heconuittt,ionali,y 01 ... tut.. and authori... ,hi>organ'0repeal astatu'econsideredas "unconsti,utional." Thi.function",aybeconferredupona.peei.l courtorupon,h. 'upreme cd bythecon,,-itution, The ....calledunlalUtcoarecomti"nional 'tatutcowhich,howeveT, mayber..eindedina.pecial procedure. In,h.,.. ca!C5too, provi.ion. of theconstitution'CglJlatingl"lli.lotioohaveth.mentioned aherna,iv. charactet. The legiilative organ h th.choicebetweentwop;>th" theoneprcscrilJcd explicitlyhy theconstitntion and d,. oneto he decidedby,helegi.lativ. organi,oelf.The difference. however, con.i.tsindu., the.tatute. crca.,edtrythelattermethodmay berepealeditt .peeial procedure. eventhough they .re. until then. nlid.TI,i, taue.. general legal nontUin.he fonnof ominane... which do nOl CJt.vcusurped,hi. pibletode..ribe it innoncon,radictoryrul.. oflaw.l) NullitydndAnnuUabililyIt follow.fromwbatha.o been,..idthat "nullity' cannot exi"in alegal order_,hat :rlegal nonn belonging ,n legal oroer cannOt b.n"n. but only "ann"nable." 8u, the .nnull.bili,y providedfOT bythe legal ",der may have different degr.... As a rule, a legal n"rmTHEIlYNA.UC M ~ l < C f 0' LAwi. annulled(Le., repealed)onlywith dec, tothefuture, 10 .ha.the legal ellec" brought aboul by it are left undiMurbed. BUI. exceptiooally, it canallbe: annulledretroactively. 10tbat all legaleffec" brougbt abou, by it arc aunulled;.uch a., fOT e>od oIlcgisLation.il,lhe....tion 01 gmttaIlcplnonns,. aDd if ..... 0 mnninll 01_ dill51. P,nn.PI' ,-,.,."cr. -IIJIco I _ ..... ('P>l,1'1',., .. "'" e-...I T"",,of_ s- (.flIJ. ". ,., ..'"umII or A.' dHferinginlan-guage, =Oe, ,"ligion . worldconcept, and ..paratedby .onOic.. 01iot.,...", i. doomed to failu,", 1t i. particularly impoMible to demoO"-,tratethee"i"ence01lOmeIOrt 01 p.yebicinteractionwhich... Cl. PI'- Ist, aM',0."."independent of any Irgal bond, un;'e, all jodi,liInal. bdQnging toa ".'e in .uch a "-ar that ,hey can be dWlngui>hedfrom otherin-d;yjdual., belonging to another .tate, andunitedby ananalogowinteractionaslWO "par."e group!. i. i.undeniabletbat no "KbinteractioneximuoiLingall individual. I>'o a....,.I. lIot:l. P'yeho.logical bu,:I. legal question. Theuni,y of individuals COll.!,ilUlinga"'...'. popula,ion can only be seenin the factthat the same legalorder;" valid for ,h... individuals, ,h.. ,hei, behavior i, regula'edbythelame leg.1 order. The state population i, 'he pe"",nal.ph..e of vo1idity of 'he national legal order.Th. tate ,erri,ory i,. certain delimi,ed 'pace. I, i.nO! a delimi,ed pi",eof ,h. earth'. ,urface, b", a three-dimensional .p.cewhichinclud... the.pacebelow,hegroundand ,he'pace al:>o"e,he'eHi'ory enclosedby,heso-ca.lledfTOntie... of ,he,tate. It i,obvious ,h.. the unityofthi>'pacei, nO, natural, geowaphilhemagainn andlhw " ..Us itlcpUypoor.iblC'that ,tates aiot bdidc in and Follow _h othtt in Ii"""h is a1mosI..,If-nidentlhat tbe IOGlIedpow.... which ..cxnrioocd by .ll""CfD. a ....te. popuJal>on wit.hi.n a .... is D.Ol.imply tbe pow which......,indindual .,..uaIlyIa:I O"a' aootbtt indit1 In the .,,,,n,;'" of the ...., ., POW""u"'olly .... lht manifeo-tolion of a POW'" which OfttCOOlid....... 1IIdt a" CIIC'TItialauributeof the Itote thaI opnbof ....os .. 001 "powcn."ifohlio'"and..x..rci,inglegal rig)'u-i. aproblemofIttributioll. it i. nend'hellICUling ollhe problem.Thcqu........ whelhera 01a quuti""directed,.......tdthe UiM'cnce of I flC'like thc qu",'ion ..heth..... ceminhum.nbeing h..performed Icerta;" ""ion. II 'he qu""i""didh.velhi. m... "ing.it cooold n........ be an.......m .Illnnatively_For in fanil i, """"" the.....1(bul a1wapaunainindividual whoisacting. Onlyif tilelUteu .... acling J"'"OI\ uttpI!, ru,wou.'l'!,U'I'I1!P 0,., ,.r "'"I pur""",.,.,.. -ll' ']'pul '''01' 'lllio rI' ,ou"" (,U"J "'j,"[,!ll,[ ''I' UllOjL>\01JOU"I' J')j!P U1!1'Qm0 ,r"ou>C'ual crea,ionof generalandindividual nOrm' i, nO' calledSl.te function. unl...i, i. perfonnedby sta" official. functioningby divi.ionof labor, .lthough,he""ecu,ioDofltbrough, about bythe,hr, of.sanction. andif,heintentionof,he l"!lal order i,repreoented""thepurposeofthe 'lale-jn,' as,he l.lidi,y of ,he na,ithavior .ltribmrdtothe,tatewhich comll,o'",hecoo-,"".. of ,h.Irg:o.l oblig'lioTU. Thefunc.ionaurlbmed '0the Slatei. not a law..., activiti ..m.an" '"to'peak, ,heir"offici.li,..tion," ,h., is '0 oar-their pctfonna"". organs qualified .. 'offidal,".ndfunctioningao:omingto,b. P'incipl. of div;,ionoflabor, In what does thi. qualifica.ion as "olf.dals" co",i,,1Firs', in that th."" individuals arc called to th.ir functionsby xnadmini",,,tive act of th. govemment or of an autboriICdadmini..trative authority, and an: legally ,ubotdinatedto ,h. go'-.mmen!.Second. in ,hal the execution of ,h.ir functionis made .h. contentof.specific obligatiOll, the o/ficial duty, who>e fulfillment is gllar-............ STAn 197anteo:d by dUciplinMy pttUollia. I.... to n.ou:d. tha, Ihe Xli.il}'thai p"" of the:on: tnnll""", to olidals.npiaUytheaUUor>of the cwrcift an. thepolitt funoionandthe cor>ducrof .....by 'M ClUbliolunent ofa .undi"llarmyand ,he of a._. utroccn. HI" n .""It of ofIiciob i. ou,ed it pm-.tOoofmmtbl: unsury. TIw chid orOP'"mthtaboolu,", alldJtothe,ndi,idual who lad.. the eroo=qo." Io!:li1'._1n" juristically inexact '""'", "oblig.tiom of. ,,,,I.'T< oftlat. only-iF onei, i"viola,ioni. aboaudhuted tothe"X,., becau..,ubjofthestateoli.hing thi, .ph..... Intherarlier of ,h... fund'm.ntal rightsandelvil libert'" "'it Wa! d.monstrated tbat ,h... a,." not righ in the .prcific 'MI'. of,h. tern>; that 'he"prohibition"toI..ue< tain.tatutes violatingthe CO"'ti'utionally g"a",me ctllH""" "afinancial performance...heni. i.'0 be fulfill""- fromtM lUre propcny, andwhenthe """ution (ifs.ucll applico)ill to be directedinto theproperly of 1M "ate. n.cIepl nnkr may prcoaibc: if it Iw bttn ucmaincdinajudicialprocedure that an ""-ent individual was punilbcd. not0111, .heamtmee.......ld booannulledandthcrrlore .heforribledcpri""."a, 1""."'-... d.. lalo .... iodi."idual Chlte attributionto thep"not> of ........,c. 01 'he delkt lh>' com"'" inthe "00uI611"",,,,...... obIig;otion u...,..;bl", becau.., the bell COfUlitutingtho: dt-lictdotlttmintion. no00,ncoblip.ions.. They .... tiom00 belullillcdfromlbc ",opt'" in""",ncdaspropntyof........"'. Tbry an conotiluledby .... DUblishmnllof smccioot,_Iyof an ..........>00,in.trptncd00 be dita:lcd inoo Ibn prop-my, bulDOl apiDsr. thepenon ollbclUte..c=;ution it di.n'Clcd ..,ina lb. penon of tbt ...."'., '"ll"",,1>0 ..:Iminislen lbisproperty.Iflb;, propenyio ..uribtlted to p,,, ,h. fu;,itiuus ""no"of lh.,tate. Thenotionalil.. !ionof propertyis alway. undc""oodassociali..,ion,communi.... tion of propeny. In thi, """,e, "ate i. collec,i.-e property of them"",hen of the ting .. a social reality independe", of law, ere.... ,he law and,hen .nbjec" itulftoit, ,-oluotarilya, it were. Onlytheni. it a.tate governed by law. a Ruhlwo.I. A Itate not gov.rned by law i.n",hinbble;for ,he "a,. only exis" in.Ctl of "ate, and,h... are..,,, perfonoedbyindividuah and attributedtotheIta'ea, ajn_rink penon. Such attribntiott i, """ible only ott the b..i, of l.galnono. whkh.pecifically determineth.... acto. Thatthe.tateere-atet the law merely means 'hit individual., whooc acu, OIl ,he ba,i.oflaw, are attributedto,he "a,e,cre.te,he l,w. Bu' ,hi. me,,,,'"mat 1M lawrquLotosillOWl! crea...... It doconot lupp &"'" bT thal.....,..1 kpIcornmunitia, lqalor-dtnwimdml (Ilprate) Irrritorial opheraof n1idilf.were to aisI lide bflide. witboullht P'*ibililf thaI ...... wbdi.,........ couldbe: IooUd upon &I paru 01 a r.oull.tnitOO'f. tbm Ihtlimit of """,,"bit dmtnliatioa ........II> be 0VC'I1Icpptd. AMul-utude01IcgaICOUIm.,n;lia orlqal order andingoide bJ ,ilkwithoultotal order Ux:ludi.., and mutuallydelimi.i... thCIcIc:plllt'den,.OOI'lMiIUUns a totalltpl community iIu,,whodiffer ",'ith' ..pee' totheir language, ,eligion, race, ""', or prof....,ion. If, intlti. ca.., w. 'peak of a"divi,ion"oftlte,tate, i, i, aUWAND .tOtic olomont of tho .pa,ial .phorr ofthenorm$'validi,y, a dynamic elemen, i. added which, although entiulydifferent fromandindependen, ofth.. rorm.... i...ill used inamuddled mixtu.... withit wh..., centralization and dec..m.... li.. tionarebeing tal1cedabout. Wh..roa. ftomth.. Ii"t poimof view,hovaiidnorm. arebeing lookeduponmordywi,h""nsiderationoftheir difFerenl territorial .pher.. of validity, fromthe !auor pointofviow. theco"'id.... lion i. directedat ,hemethod of creating,h= norm., th..i. to Jay. at ,h.. act of normcrealing andlh.....lor.. at thenorm-creaLingorgans. Adi"inc,ion i>n,adewhetherth.. nonm. validfor ,h.. entireterritory orpar.. thor..,f, arr crratedby a.ingl.organorapluralityoforgans. Andalthough.cen,nlized.nda decen'ralized legal commuoity (in the ILllicsense)i. possible wbether tho norm. are cre"edby one organor anumber oforgans. ye, One oormallya>soc;at Wilh "conttaliza.tion"th.. concepl of norm. (v.lidforth.. "",ire are.) createdby a.ingl.. organ. constituting a. it were,he c..n'", of thocommunityand somehow phl"i.vJOT, i. arelatively ccntnlizcdroerci,.., o.d "Jaw" in the same ",me.' na'ionallaw, andthereforea f'O"ihlc objte' of "'iencc of law.Inaccordancewith 'he conc"}>t oflawhereaccept.. say, aON of Donn, fn'udi.,,,inetionto legal nOT""-may "rul"'of law."I'wil[demonstratedbelowthat imernational Lawregulatth.of humaneVOn wheTe it n:gulu.. theof sta,eL A, the momen, wewan, to anower the qucs"O"whe'herintemati""al lawrcgub,.. ,h.of .tat.. in .ueha ""'ytha' it reacts against a certaina. a delict by providing for" ..nction utbe conoequ.nce of ,h. delict. The ded.iv. qu..';on,wen, i" d",. interna,io..! lawe.tabli.hcoerciveaeU ....ne-don.,The .pedfic ..nct;oru of internat;onal law are rcpt;..I. and wor.'00IITATE AND tNTEJt."'AT10NAL l.AW'"It i. ea.)' 10 d.moo...",,,, thaI lhis a..umptiooi. cOlTttl Wilh TO-'pre' '0TOpri.!>. For it is a preo'pedI' an; thenorms of "a.ltCI1I.lwinl(t"tL\ot.ionallaw, boa..... '''''7 CItt,. obliga,iow or righll for all.....,(1. Among th_nonn. one" of '1'0111 iml'O'unce, knowna. ,he prindpl./>tiocu, don Dothave scncnJ. but oalr panicuJar charxlcr; itoDOnI.. arc Dot nlidfor aUKa bu. _IrCor 'WOor aIarzcr or>mallei"JfOUPof-.: tber a i....., ,..Ir pa.tiaI COI:IU:DUDI.ict.I. utobeDOledw. Sincc thi.5ttOnd I.vel, ,h.t is, tl..im.motion.1law.vaby IU>dlint;(rcpoSllor onr)II) the oppmite bcha!the >lItl.Thisright i. dilfcrml froma.igh, of printe1.0. in,hll the,.,....ruo:...snelAL LAW'-7Thelegal meaning01 thepuliar;,y01international law. ac-cordingtowhkh"only .lat",areobligatedandauthoci,",," andaccording to which"only .late' aTe,ubjects 01 internationallaw."i, completdy inthe.laternen" international lawdele-gat.. to thenational legal orden th. ta.kofidentifyingtheindioviduals by"h,,.., behavior theoblig"t;"'" .....bli"'"" by internation.llaw ace fullill"" or violal"". and th. right.< ",,,,hU,h",, hI"international law ateexecd.ro. Bythis,t.lement nothingd .. i.but theindil"ee:lnding those of ,helow.... orders.If notional and intrm.,ional lawfonna1Y'I,,-=";.5II'S....... ::;.".... a:1;. ...i" ..."'6,,""'tl a-II"a.-i.l ... C... " ;0 i!'. I',a '. ,\.-.,. 'ih'l"-' .I.... ' i' ;.",.I,'l' o". 'I!!d.1l,,;:1; . -._n_._.. Pl'PH il

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.... 'ill,lI iHlI,.j ,;F!., r.pin,llhWJ.uimouchaprovWon.m;t!piUonof intnnaUonaI lawbyIhci...uvidualltate iI ..... a oondi.ioa ofi.. ,-al.idityfoe thillta'cKipulato;!. by in..,.....a'ioo.1 law i...1f. A nlid DOrmof internationalLaw QIIDOt .....blisb oudt a condicioa. beg",,", the Yalitli.y of ohio........ iurif anooc dcpmd01:> oucb a condition- Bu, JOOthi.., ""'_..".. law courts and oobcr Iaw"'pp1rini orpw.o reprd. intnnaUonaIlaw ... nlitl for theirOWII ....te oaJy ifthal ....te bas 'CClJI-ni.rctl it ... biodirtg.mull of IIICh a Yicw iI thaI in,erna,ionalLaw iI not binding for a ....te which bas.- rewgniud. it. Tbc vicwthaI imcmationa........ll.a. is :pnIedas nlid. fQl" noe pa.. of I Ill,ionalltgllorderhyrOglli,ion. if, ,h...,fo.-e. ,heiruhima'e _.IOnof nlidi,y i.,heprtll'ppoootdbl,i IribwWs, are oaly ."thoriud(by the C.)toapply ...tiooWtaw; tI>ty an, lhn-c:lott. applym......1ioP.I1 b.oal1 if il> aICI'tn'haI.......m wfonD. oflWional taw(OUI,"1e,ordi.n.mcc) that ... if i. has bem lnDOfonz>ed into n.a.jon.l law. IIin ddlult of In-lUl...-;on, a DOflIl of intnn.>.UonaI b .. cannot appliedinaCOIICfCClal'. lllm(if we.anfrommthi, point 0(a, Itplph.llom""" compatable ""!'" "...l;on and dUoohl1ion of Icolompreval.nt.mong.... t... Tbi, objeetion, how.ver, i, basedon tbe lad:. 01difl not mean, as hbeen m....rt. ,h., 'hetheory of 'heprim.,y of national law" les. f3\"tlrabletotheideaof a legal m.ganl'atlon of 'he world th.nthelhcory of the f'Timacy of ;ntern.-,ion.llaw. But 'he theory of the primacy of nation.llaw _m. to'upply the justificatIon for a policy 'ha' rejects farre.ching reslric.tions of the .ra.. r,..,edom of .t1ion. Thi. justificatIon i' based ona fallacy. caused by 'he ambigui,y of 'he concep' of IOverelgoty a.eI,her hlghe"leg.l au,hori,y 0' unlimi''''' fr=domof a"ion. Butthe ."i"eoce ofthi' f.lIa,yha. tobe>etthat thenorm\0 be applied 0. the'1"tel ofnnrm. Ie:.....openseveral possibiliti..-nd this mean.tha' i' con,. in, no decision asto whichof,he in'.......inqu..,ionhasahigh... valuethanfheo'hers. bu' lea... ,hi. deci'ion'0anact ofnormcreationtobeperformed. for example in renderIng a judicial deci.ion.JNT..,.PR.ETAll0N'"46.At, AN ACTOF Colaw, thelNTnYUTATlONestabliohm=t of a legal aCt, sofar ;uituh.within fnm.workof th. logal normto be app1il, i. I",., that i.. withinthe d;"errtian of the organ upon to coubli.h,h. ae!ricdyscientific inter-preta,ion01 ta'uteor international "",,aty, e"hibitingon theI>.o..i. of acri,ical .naly>i. all po.,ible interpretatiotlO(indudingthe politicallyund..on.. andthosenOCintended by 'heltgi..lator or the contrac,ing partie., ye' inclnded in the wordingchosenbythem) m.yha" practical eIf""t byfa. outweighingthe poli,ical adnn"'ge of thefiction of unambiguousne.., of "onem""ningonly'" .uchscientific interp....t.tioncanshowthelawcreating authority howrar hi. worki. behindthe t""hnical postulate01 lormulating legalnonm a. unambiguously ..p""ible, or,at I..." in.uchawaythat the una.oidable ambiguityi. reducedtoaminimumand that therebythe highest p""ibledegreeof- legalsecttrity ,. achieved.