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REPORT SUBMITTED BY THE EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH NETWOR K IN

WEST AND CENTRAL AFRICA (GAMBIA CHAPTER)

THE REPORT ON NGOs’

PERFORMANCE STANDARDS by

Yves Benett

with

AbdoulieBittaye and OusainouLoum

VOLUME 2:

THE MODULAR TRAINING PROGRAMME

Module 1: Perspectives on Assessments and Performance Standards

Module 2: Quality Assurance and Accountability

Module 3: Learning events, Work-based learning and Reflective learning

Module 4: The politics of Performance Assessments in organisations

Module 5: Staff Development

June 2012

CONTENTS Page

MODULE 1 PERSPECTIVE ON ASSESSMENTS AND PERFORMANCE STANDARDS

2

1. Introduction 2 2. Module Objectives 2 3. Module Content 2 3.1 Standards of Performance 3 3.2 Validity and Reliability 4 3.3 The Concept of Competence 5 3.3.1 The Assessment of competence 6 3.4 Performance Standards and Quality 7

MODULE 2 QUALITY ASSURANCE ─ The Design, Validation, Monitoring and Review of Programmes/ Services

9

1. Introduction 9 2. Module Objectives 9 3. Module Content 10 3.1 Programmes/Services Design 10 3.2 The Validation, Monitoring and Review of

Programmes/Services 10

3.3 The Evaluation of Programmes/Services 11 3.4 Accountability 12

MODULE 3 LEARNING EVENTS, WORK-BASED LEARNING, REFLECTIVE LEARNING

13

1. Introduction 13 2. Module Objectives 13 3. Module Content 14 3.1 Learning Events 14 3.1.1 Learning Outcomes 14 3.1.2 Achievements 15 3.1.3 Performance Standards 16 3.1.4 Transferable Skills 16 3.1.5 Assessments 16 3.2 Work Based Learning – responsibilities for learning and

performance stands 17

3.3 Reflection 18 3.3.1 Introduction 18 3.3.2 Criteria for Assessing Reflections 19

MODULE 4 THE POLITICS OF PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT IN ORGANISATIONS

20

1. Introduction 20 2. Module Objectives 20 3. Module Content 20 3.1 A Conceptual framework for assessing the performance of

organisations 20

3.2 Efficiency and Effectiveness in organisations 21 3.3 Models of Performance Assessment (for organisations) 21

MODULE 5 STAFF DEVELOPMENT 23 1. Introduction 23 2. Module Objectives 23 3. Module Content 23 3.1 Policy Formation 23 3.2 The role of NGO managers in the Staff Development Process 23 3.3 Organisational Support for Staff Development 24

An indicative Reading List for the programme 25

Module (combined)

THE MODULAR TRAINING PROGRAMME

INTRODUCTION

For training purposes, the learning content for this modular programme is “chopped up” into

segments in order to facilitate learning and teaching, and the segments are free-standing.

The programme employs a mix of learning and teaching strategies, from the most traditional/

didactic, to the more learner- centred, flexible learning methods. The programme is

supported by trainers who are primarily facilitators rather than givers of information.

Although the programme is not conducive to self-paced individualised study, the learning-

teaching approach is designed to allow learners/trainees to do a lot of work on their own ─

reading, reflecting, and writing assignments. Active participation in group discussions, in

seminar presentations, and in analyses of relevant actual or fictitious Case Studies are also

key features of the teaching-learning approach. Visits are arranged to places of interest, e.g.

visits to Army barracks in order to see how standards of discipline are obtained in the absence

of “maslaha”.

Short Assignments are set and trainees have the opportunity for tutorials to discuss their

assignments with tutors. The following are examples of tutors’ instructions for assignments:

(a) The “maslaha” syndrome that pervades all Gambian interactions has both positive and negative effects on job performance. With regards to the programmes/ services that your organisation provides, discuss how “maslaha” helps or hinders your work.

(b) Select any programme/service that your organisation has recently implemented or is currently implementing and develop a plan for monitoring the programme/service.

(c) Discuss the factors that can affect the efficiency and effectiveness of NGOs in The Gambia.

The management of the modules will depend on the availability of the staff, on when the

modules are delivered, on how they are taught (that is, whether through, for example,

workshops, seminars, lectures or tutorials), on the venue, on the amount of time allotted for

each module, and so on.

The Resources and facilities needed to deliver this programme include a Flip Chart and stand,

Markers, a Projector, a Laptop, available Computer facilities, and Library facilities. The

strategy is to ensure that the trainees have the necessary resources to achieve the learning

outcomes. An indicative reading list is available (see page 25)

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MODULE 1: PERSPECTIVES ON ASSESSMENTS AND PERFORMANCE

STANDARDS

1. Introduction

The term assessment refers to the process of reporting the achievements of individual clients in

the various components of the programmes/ services which they follow. The notion of reporting

formally the achievements of clients on programmes/ services is in general firmly entrenched

and it is axiomatic that the responsibilities of NGOs’ non- support staff include such reporting.

2. Module Objectives

Upon the completion of the module, you should be able to:

(a) Define the terms Assessment and Performance

(b) Explain the concept of performance standard.

(c) Explain how in an organisation the attitudes of both the workers and the supervisors

can affect job performance.

3. Module Content

This process of reporting generally involves taking decisions about (a) what information is

relevant, (b) how to gather the information, and (c) how to report the information. The

mechanisms which are used to carry assessment decisions into effect are described by such

terms as assignments, work – based projects, essays, and tests.

The expectation is that organisations have effective procedures for designing, approving,

monitoring, and reviewing the assessment strategies for their programmes/ services and have

devices for implementing their assessment policies and practices. The aim is to ensure that

standards are set and maintained at the appropriate level, and that performance is properly

judged against these standards. Actually, expectations go further; for organisations are

expected to evaluate the extent to which assessment tasks are effective in measuring

clients’ achievements of the intended outcomes of programmes/ services. They are also

expected to make guidance on assessment accessible to their staff, to their Clients, and

to placement providers, and ensure that the range and types of assessments used measure

appropriately Clients' achievements.

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It goes without saying that Designing assessment tasks that allow Clients to focus on their

own interests (for example, offering a choice of topics/ activities for an assignment) is

highly recommended.

3.1 Standards of Performance

Since assessment involves making decisions about the information that is relevant it

necessarily involves having a set of criteria for judging such information. However, to

have a set of criteria means that there exists a set of values and principles which provide

the framework for the kinds of information to be gathered in relation to the achievements

to be reported. But that is not all. For the fact that it is thought worthwhile to look for

certain kinds of achievements also means that these are looked for in a certain degree, and

in terms of expected levels of achievement. Now, these expected levels of achievement

against which individual clients are assessed are precisely what is meant by standards here.

In this sense of the term then, standards involve quite clearly an expression of what is

valued; they give an indication of priorities and explain why these rather than others are

established. For example, setting problem-centred tasks for assignments indicates quite

clearly the value attached to such tasks.

Standards also indicate that procedures exist to evaluate on a certain basis (that is, on the

basis of expected levels of achievement) and that, where appropriate, there is a frame of

reference for the interpretation of any measurements that are made. The measures

themselves may be criterion-referenced or norm-referenced, a criterion being a specific

performance which indicates what is considered a desirable performance; a norm is also a

standard of performance indicating the expected, general level of performance in a given

population.

But there is another important point to consider in connection with the notion of standards as

expected levels of achievement. The point is that a distinction must be drawn between the

application of standards which are “crisp, unambiguous and precise” and the making of

judgements. For example, the aesthetic quality of a student's painting or 'the rhetorical force of

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a student's essay' may not be subjected to the mechanical application of pre-specified standards.

However, this is not to say that judgements cannot be made about these qualities by comparison

to a whole range of criteria or that such judgements are ‘cavalier, irresponsible conclusions'.

In the Gambia another point to consider in connection with standards is the notion of “maslaha”

This is the art of trying to please everyone and not stepping on any one’s toes. It is good to

please people, but not to the point where a sub-standard performance is accepted as good just to

please the incumbent. The notion of “maslaha”, if not checked can nullify both validity and

reliability ─ principles which are cardinal in test theory.

3.2 Validity and Reliability

Validity concerns what it is that is being assessed and Reliability concerns the precision and

consistency of the measurement procedure used. To take VALIDITY first, as the argument runs,

the objectives for each scheme/ programme/ service determine the content of what is assessed.

And since these objectives have already been approved by the appropriate specialist committees/

bodies, assessments which are designed with these objectives as the starting point are valid

content wise and therefore have 'content validity'. However, this argument rather assumes that the

objectives are valid in the first place in terms of meeting (at the appropriate level) the professional

training and practice requirements of various occupations/jobs on the basis of occupational/job

analyses. The argument also assumes that the objectives cover adequately the domain of

occupational/job content at a specified level and that the assignments in turn provide adequate

coverage of the objectives______ and one advantage of the objectives format is that it helps

outsiders (such as employers) and managers to determine whether the programmes/services

offered were suitable for their (the employers') staff. A grid may be used to specify both the

content and the abilities required for a particular programme/ service but the team of trainers/

professionals on the scheme (in collaboration with other appropriate specialists internally and/or

externally) must agree on the use of the grid.

When we turn to RELIABILITY, we find that it is the consistency with which a set of

assessments measures whatever it is the assessments do measure. Consequently all clients

should be assessed on the same criteria (with the implication that there must be a common set

of values and standards) and should be objectively assessed in the same way by all assessors.

For ensuring the reliability of internal assessments the recommendation is that organisations

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should set up Assessment Committees and make arrangements for involving a range of

interested parties in assessments schemes.

The tantalising question is: what sort of formal procedures/mechanisms exist in NGOs to

oversee assessments internally (that is, to decide criteria, to make assessment plans, to construct

assessment schemes and so on)? It is a question which has to be explored if we are to determine

the extent to which internal assessments are valid and reliable, and performance standards are

maintained.

Externals are a vital means of establishing and maintaining standards, in addition to the

rigorous validation of programmes/ services. The duties of the Externals include, amongst

other things, moderating the work of Internal Assessors. It is to the Externals, operating

collectively, that one looks for confirmation that the required standards have been attained.

Nonetheless, the final judgement on the standards of a programme/ service is more appropriately

made by a group of colleagues than by individual externals. Evaluation is a 'political activity' in the

sense that it involves negotiations and relationships. Standards of Performance involve the

negotiation of norms and criteria between, for example, members of Assessment Committees. If

we assume that there may be a plurality of values amongst the members of these committees and

indeed of other committees (such as the validating committees), it is inevitable that opinions will

differ amongst the committee members on what constitutes a 'good' programme/ service and

also on what are acceptable standards of performance in individual subject areas at given

levels.

3.3 The Concept of Competence

Competence is the ability to perform key functions in a work role

The elements of competence are

(a) the specified performance requirements, and

(b) the description of competent performance

Together these elements provide the occupational standard. The description of an element of

competence is made up of an active verb (that is, a verb about doing something), an object, and the

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conditions under which the competence is practised and the active verb at the start of the element

of competence indicates the assessment method required.

The award of a National Vocational Qualification (NVQ) certificate to an individual implies that

he/she is competent in the occupational area specified and that he/she can perform in a number

of roles, and not just in one specific job. There is thus a distinction between National Standards,

and Job-specific Standards.

Moving on from elements of competence to statements of competence, the latter should

incorporate specified standards as regards:

• the ability to perform in a range of work-related activities, and

• knowledge, understanding, and attitudes which underpin such performance

3.3.1 The Assessment of competence

In order to know if someone is competent, the elements of competence need to be assessed. It

is not sufficient to sample only a proportion of the elements, in respect of either ability to

perform or of knowledge and understanding. Sufficient evidence of competence in an

element must be obtained.

The methods of assessment vary according to whether they collect Evidence of Performance

(i.e. doing something) or Supplementary Evidence (normally of knowledge, understanding

and attitudes ).

PERFORMANCE EVIDENCE may be obtained from e.g.: observations in the

workplace, multiple-choice tests (competency tests, skills tests, proficiency

tests, assignments, etc),

SUPPLEMENTARY EVIDENCE may be obtained from e.g.: oral

questioning, short or long essays, etc

The Reliability of assessments (that is, the consistency between different assessments,

different assessors, different tests), while important in norm-referenced assessment systems,

is of less significance in NVQ assessments because in the latter there is a clear external

reference point against which to check different assessments (that is, the elements of

competence and the performance criteria). The primary concern in criterion-referenced

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assessments (such as NVQ assessments) is instead, to meet the externally defined standard

and not how assessments compare with each other. A competence-based system does not set

out to rank people one against another. The assessment of a person’s Competence is against a

standard and not in comparison with other persons.

3.4 Performance Standards and Quality

The quality of an organisation is defined in terms of its fitness for purpose, its mission and its

objectives as set out in its Corporate Plan. The expectation is that the organisation establishes

its own cost-effective means of measuring and improving performance and its own

monitoring system ──one that is capable of providing programme/ service deliverers with

effective feedback.

As a matter of fact, the expectation is that the organisation’s system of Quality Assurance

will be matched to its needs and will include:

• periodic reviews and annual monitoring procedures

• the collection and use of data relating to the admission, progression, and

achievements of the organisation’s clients.

• the evaluation of its programmes/ services effectiveness

• the provision for personal guidance and support for clients

Turning next to the quality of programmes/services, quite clearly it is determined by the

interaction of a number of factors but, arguably, a crucial factor is the existence of a

programme/service team which undertakes 'collective responsibility' for the

programme/service. Arguably too, the team approach is most effective when the whole

range of activities involved in programme/service design, implementation, and evaluation/

review becomes the collective concern of all who work on the programme/service. For, in

their “dialogues” with validation committees (during the validation process)

programme/service teams become aware of national standards and agreement on matters of

principle is reached between internal and external assessors/verifiers through free and open

discussion. The conclusion then is plain and brutal: programme/service standards are not

absolute; they are established and maintained through negotiation coupled with

'professional pragmatism’. Recognising that much, one seeks instead to establish

'acceptable standards', by taking different factors into account, such as the acceptability of

standards to employers and to professional bodies.

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Whether standards agreed through open and free discussion may be described as objective is

another matter. From one particular perspective, objectivity involves the idea of social

agreement, as the following quotation suggests: “what is objectively so is what we can agree,

to one degree or another at any given time and place, is objectively so”. Consequently, in so

far that the criteria which underpin the establishment of standards have been clearly

identified, made explicit, and agreed (after free and open discussion), such criteria and the

standards which are derived from them may have some claim to objectivity. However, it is an

open question whether free and open discussions are likely to take place in the context of

formal evaluations, given that there may be constraints on people's thinking imposed by the

special status or role of the participants. In any case, is it not possible for programme/ service

leaders to have around them people who are congenial but who may not be necessarily competent

in the context of a given programme/service? Is it not also possible that internal groups may

become so engrossed in their own concerns and protective of their own interests that norms and

criteria may be adopted without sufficient evidence of their appropriateness?

There is, furthermore, the question of the comparability of standards between organisations

offering similar programmes/ services. For example, in The Gambia, there are NGOs thatoffer

similar services. The question is, are there standards that are consistent from place to place and

from year to year, in terms of specified criteria. If the answer is no, then what is the role of the

central bodies and the professional bodies in the maintenance of standards? Should such bodies

“guarantee” the comparability of standards, even though the “problems” involved in trying to

achieve comparability of standards between organisations are notorious. TANGO, The

Association of Non-Governmental Organisation established by the central government, could

fulfil this role.

In spite of all the above issues regarding quality and standards it remains the case that, generally

speaking, a great deal of the responsibility for maintaining quality and standards on

programmes/ services does rest on programme/service teams. The question is, therefore, the

extent to which the accounting relationship between team members contributes to the quality

of programmes/ services and to the establishment and maintenance of standards. With this in

mind we will turn to an analysis of the concept of accountability for the delivery of

programmes/ services in the NGO context in Module 2.

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MODULE 2: QUALITY ASSURANCE ________

The Design, Validation, Monitoring and Review of Programmes/ Services

1. Introduction

All NGOs operating in the Gambia are expected to ensure that their responsibilities for standards

and quality are discharged effectively through their procedures for the design, validation,

monitoring, and review of their programmes/services. We expect them to take account of

external reference points, such as benchmark statements for content, national qualifications

frameworks, the respective requirements of professional bodies, government, and employing

organisations. In addition, the organisations benefit from the contributions of external

advisers, and of partner organisations with which they have made collaborative arrangements.

In The Gambia, the NTA has developed quality assurance criteria and mechanisms, and

benchmark statements on international standards, in order to ascertain the eligibility for

registration and accreditation of TVET institutions under the overall monitoring and

supervision of MoHERST. A national quality assurance framework (which is yet to be

approved by Cabinet) has been drawn up by MoHERST thereby systematising the quality

assurance mechanism. Key performance indicators have been identified. They cover a wide

range of important quality assurance aspects, such as academic matters, human resources,

physical facilities, financial resources, leadership and management, registration, and

accreditation. Quality assurance is needed in all the activities of an organisation and ensuring

quality is a matter of continuous teamwork in which standards, benchmarks, and quality

audits play significant roles


Upon completion of the module, learners should be able to:

(a) Explain the concepts of: (i) Validating, Monitoring and Evaluating a programme/ service. (ii) Accountability

(b) Develop plans and strategies for implementing, monitoring, evaluating and reviewing programmes/ services

(c) Internalise the attitude of aiming to work to expected professional standards.

(d) Develop a mission statement for an organisation operating in Agriculture / Education / Health

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3. Module content

3.1 Programmes/Services Design

Regarding the design of their programmes/ services, organisations are expected to include

such matters as their mission statements, the aims and objectives of their

programmes/services, the balance in the content of their programmes/ services (in relation to

their theoretical and practical elements), the intended outcomes of the programmes/services

and how these will be assessed, and the resources available for the programmes/services.

3.2 The Validation, Monitoring and Review of Programmes/Services

Validation

The validation of programme/services should be informed by a consideration of a number of

factors. Among these, one would highlight the expected standards, the resources available,

the anticipated demand for the programme/services, the contents of the programme/services,

and the balance between the annual monitoring of the programmes / services and their

periodic reviews.

In the Gambia, another factor that must be considered is the involvement of the beneficiaries.

Studies have shown that if the local population and /or beneficiaries are not invited to

participate in the planning and implementation of an intervention there is little hope that the

beneficiaries will sustain it once the funding is over

Monitoring

Monitoring considers the effectiveness of programmes/services in achieving their stated aims

and objectives. Monitoring is the responsibility of the programme/service team as it appraises

its own performance at the end of each year, on the basis of reports from professional bodies,

from the non- support staff, and from feedback from Clients and employers;.

Many NGOs in The Gambia have, as part of their organisational structure, a Monitoring and

Evaluation (M&E) Unit, and it is the responsibility of this Unit to monitor and evaluate the

programmes /services of the organisation.

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Reviews

Periodic reviewing gives due consideration to technological advances, changes in relevant

professional and/or statutory body requirements, changes in Clients’ demand, and changes in

employment opportunities.

3.3 The Evaluation of Programmes/ Services

The evaluation of a Programme/ Service is the process of applying an appropriate set of

standards to it, justifying their application and making appropriate judgements. Programme/

Service evaluation thus involves making an appraisal of that body of content and

regulations which denote that particular Programme/ Service.

Approaches to the evaluation of individual Programmes/ Services vary. In one approach

the question is whether clients are achieving the Programmes/ Services objectives at the

required standards. In this approach, the concern is essentially with examining the

congruence between the objectives of the Programme/ Service and its outcomes.

In The Gambia NGOs operate in the following sectors:

(a) Climate, Agriculture and Environment

(b) Education and Life Skills

(c) Gender and Poverty

(d) Human Rights and Governance

(e) Youth, Child, Health and Population

These sectors have various approaches for evaluating their programmes/services. For

example, in Agriculture, the evaluation of performance is based on the relationship between

a given input and the output obtained through the application/ utilisation of better

techniques, methods and practices.

An alternative, illuminative, approach to evaluation is to look at transactions and processes

and not only at outcomes. The process variables may include, amongst other things, the

participation of clients in group activities, the allocation of time to task-oriented activities,

and the division of time between individual work and group work. The point being made here

is that by studying the processes (as well as the outcomes) when conducting an evaluation,

one may draw on the judgments and perspectives of the participants in those processes.

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3.4 Accountability

The literature about accountability distinguishes between the formal, legal, element of 'giving

an account' to superiors and the informal (or moral) element of responsibility to clients; and

in the 'managerial model' of accountability, staff are formally accountable to those who

administer and control the programmes/services to which they contribute.

A distinction is also made in the literature between 'being' accountable and 'feeling' accountable.

'To be' accountable is to be in a position where one's actions can be criticised through

established procedures. 'To feel' accountable is to feel that one is liable to be called to account

for what one does, even if it is only in principle that one might be called so to do. It is to feel that

one should give an account of one's official activities, however informally. Such a feeling might

arise from the formal pattern of accountability, but it might also owe its origin to a moral

responsibility which one might impose on oneself as part of one's professional standards.

However, this responsibility is held within the kinds of control of programmes/services which

may be imposed internally and/or externally (by central bodies) in order to maintain standards. It

is therefore within those systems of control that the issue of professional accountability arises as

the focus is on the professional obligation to account to each other as colleagues working on the

same programme/service.

Another consideration is that central to the notion of accountability for programme/ service staff is

the identification of those aspects of their work which are within their power to control. It seems

rather pointless to draw their attention to deficiencies in implementing programmes/ services if they

are powerless to do anything about these deficiencies. For this reason, questions about professional

accountability focus on those professional activities in which programme/ service staff might be

expected to have a measure of control within overall system of internal and/or external control.

In The Gambia, NGO Staff have limited powers to change policies and/or implementation

strategies. Decision-making is vested only in the NGO Board of Directors and/or in the Senior

Management. It is therefore imperative to empower NGO staff to the point where they can

influence decisions.

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MODULE3: LEARNING EVENTS, WORK–BASED LEARNING,

REFLECTIVE LEARNING

1. Introduction

NGOs exist partly to help build a nation which is socially cohesive and economically

competitive, through investing partly in knowledge, skills and employability for all the

people, from their early years and throughout their lives. The agenda for action then includes

offering guidance on effective learning support and on improving the quality of learning

events on NGO programmes/ services.

Now, about the term “learning events”:

• the word “event” is usually taken to refer to an occurrence, an incidence, an

experience of some significance (such as, a football match, a trip abroad, an

award ceremony, the transit of Venus, etc.);

• “ learning” is a word used in connection with very many different activities and

interests (for example, learning to drive a car, learning to appreciate a painting or

a piece of music, learning to play a game, and so on). Learning is taken to be a

change (in behaviour) which results from a process (or processes).

In this module, the emphasis is on viewing the learning process as a conversational

framework (a dialogue between teachers/ facilitators and learners, and between learners) that

involves a number of activities which make up the process. The learning events are the

interactions that occur at the level of presentations, discussions, and actions which allow all

participants to reflect and to adapt accordingly. The module highlights some aspects of this

conversational framework.


Upon completing the module, the learner should be able to explain and discuss the following

concepts.

(a) Learning events

(b) Performance standards

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(c) The importance of reflection in the teaching/ learning process.

3. Module content

3.1 Learning Events

As a learner you will encounter a wide range of learning activities as you go through the

programme. You will be working in small groups. You will attend lectures, tutorials, and

seminars, and present your own seminar papers. Work-based learning is an important feature

of your training programme, not just in relation to your practical, professional/ technical

skills, but also as regards the development of your wider professional/ technical role.

Every module within your programme has its specifications which set out the learning

outcomes and the assessment strategies to be used in determining whether or not they have

been achieved. The module specifications give details too of the content normally covered in

the module.

You will encounter a variety of assessment strategies, ranging from projects to practical work

and peer assessment. Underlying the selection of learning strategies is the basic point that

your programme operates as an adult learning environment. You will be expected to develop

your autonomy as a learner (that is, to take responsibility for your own learning), and to co-

operate in supporting the learning of your peers.

3.1.1 Learning Outcomes

The Learning Outcomes fall broadly into two categories:

• Knowledge and Understanding outcomes: these relate to the knowledge of the module

content and to an understanding of the relevant theoretical concepts and principles

• Ability outcomes: these relate to the relevant specific skills and abilities, work-based

competencies, and key transferable skills that you will be learning.

A set of learning outcomes which are common to the three targeted sectors (Health,

Education, Agriculture)are the abilities to:

• interpret information

• demonstrate self- discipline (e.g. in managing time)

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• communicate clearly

• work co-operatively

• work alone

• accept criticism

• understand one’s own strengths and weaknesses

• act ethically

Other cross-sector learning outcomes are useful for functioning effectively at a higher level

(e.g., at line management level); they include the abilities to:

• plan and organise

• be flexible

• be sociable

• work on several tasks at once

• motivate others

• develop cultural sensitivity

• listen and observe

• be able to explain, justify and present solutions

• influence others (e.g to sell one's own ideas)

• understand clients' problems and issues, and help clients to understand problems and issues

• learn from failure

• select appropriate information, and synthesise information from different subject areas,

• add to one’s existing knowledge

• identify the major issues or problems in any opportunity

3.1.2 Achievements

For each module the assessment strategy will provide the opportunity for you to demonstrate

your achievements in both categories of outcomes, by asking you to reflect, analyse, criticise,

synthesise, and come up with concrete products. You will also be asked to show that you can

integrate theory with practice and that the theoretical knowledge that you gain in the modules

can be applied to your work and to other appropriate activities.

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The records of your achievements in the modules will contain assignments as well as your

reflections on the processes and outcomes of your learning. You may feel that a particular

assignment is not entirely appropriate for you. If this is the case, you should discuss with the

module tutor whether it is possible to make minor amendments to the assignment in order to

make it suitable. If minor amendments do not resolve “the problem”, you should negotiate

with your module tutor a learning contract which sets out how you will show that you have

met the module outcomes. However, when negotiating a learning contract, you must ensure

that your work is of the same quality as the work required by the set assignments. This will

ensure that standards are maintained throughout.

3.1.3 Performance Standard

When you have completed your assignment and submitted it on time, your module tutor will

assess the work, taking into account the indicated module outcomes, the assignment briefs (or

your learning contract), and the assessment criteria. If your work is of a sufficiently high

standard, the tutor will accept it. If the work is not of an acceptable standard, but a limited

amount of further work would bring it up to the required standard, you will be allowed to

present your work for another assessment; and if the work then reaches the required standard,

itwill be accepted. If the work still does not meet the required standard, you will

unfortunately fail the module.

3.1.4 Transferable Skills

You will be expected to display an appropriate level of ability in the key transferable skills of

Literacy, Numeracy and Information Technology. As the assessment of these skills will be

integrated with your assessments for the Modules, you will be expected to produce work

of an appropriate standard specially as regards grammar and spelling.

3.1.5 Assessments

The set assignments will require you to write reports of group discussions, seminar papers,

and project reports which contain relevant, accurate descriptions, as well as analyses of

concepts and principles, together with evidence of reflective or critical arguments to justify

particular points of view.

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3.2 Work Based Learning - responsibilities for learning and performance standards

NGOs are responsible for the standards of their provision for work-based/ placement learning.

Clearly defined policies and procedures (for securing, approving, and allocating work-based or

placement learning) help ensure that, where applicable, any partner organisation that provides

learning opportunities has the capacity and capability to assist learners/ clients to achieve the

intended learning outcomes. For example, in The Gambia, schools and Gambia College partner

in the training of teachers, with schools providing placements for work-based learning to help

trainee teachers achieve the intended learning outcomes.

A Memorandum of Understanding (or other type of formal agreement)ensures that the work-

based or placement provider understands, agrees to and is able to demonstrate its ability to fulfil

its responsibilities under the relevant legislation. Such an agreement takes into account the level

of skill and of experience of the learner/ client anywhere the opportunity for work-based

learning takes place. It is understood by all partners where responsibility lies for the

provision of appropriate learning opportunities, for the health and safety of the learners/

clients, and for their assessments.

Learners/ Clients who undertake work-based or placement learning have entitlements as

individuals, as well as obligations and responsibilities towards the learning provider, and

towards others, such as organisations’ customers, service users, and the general public.

Clients have a responsibility too to meet the norms for professional conduct in the particular

field of work or study that they are undertaking through the work-based or placement

learning. For example, learners/ Clients on health-related practice must conduct themselves

and practise within an ethical framework. For those learners/ clients who use their existing

workplaces for their work-based learning, such norms, expectations and responsibilities may

be covered in an employment contract and may be more obvious than for learners/ clients

who join a workplace on placement. In The Gambia, trainee teachers who are placed in

schools for a period, are expected to conduct themselves in the same way as full-time

teachers.

Module 3 18

3.3 Reflection

3.3.1 Introduction

Your Programme may require you to engage in reflective learning and in reflective practice.

The purpose of this note is to help you to develop an understanding of what we mean by

reflective learning and reflective practice and to be more effective in writing up your own

reflections

The term Reflective Practice is particularly associated with the work of Schon and has

proved to be immensely influential in professional education and training. Practitioners are

encouraged to develop problem-solving skills relating to situations at the work place, beyond

merely using and/ or selecting from a pre-determined formula or procedure. This is done by

reflecting on their experience of similar situations and on the effectiveness of the solutions

that they have tried. This process of reflection involves making hypotheses about what will

work in the future; these hypotheses are then tested and their effectiveness as guides to

practice is evaluated. Essentially, the reflective practitioner is constructing his or her own

theories about these particular situations — that is, he/she is developing 'theories in use'

rather than formal scientific or sociological theories.

Reflective Learning is the analysis and evaluation of what, how, and why you are learning. In

other words, reflective learners actively consider the content of their studies but also question

and seek to improve the learning process, by thinking about the various factors that contribute to

their learning: that is, themselves, their Tutors, and other learners.

Reflective Practice questions and seeks to improve your professional practice by means of the

approach outlined above; however, this programme requires you to go beyond constructing

`personal theories' and to relate your analysis of practice to the knowledge and understanding

you are gaining through the modules in your programme.

Critical reflection emphasises group, rather than individual, discussions of issues and takes

its themes from the collective concerns of group members. Its aim is largely political, that is,

to identify structural factors which constrain the lives, practices and understandings of

specific groups and to recognise the political interests operating through such constraints.

Module 3 19

However, the reflective practice model has limitations. Thus, the emphasis on 'theories in use'

can tend to devalue the importance of systematic, scientific theory, and limit the opportunities

for the practitioner to learn from the work of others.

Opportunities for Reflection occur on this training programme in a number of different ways.

Firstly, there is your own informal reflection which you undertake simply because you are

interested in the issues raised on the programme. Secondly, there will be the reflection which

takes place in your group as you work on the modules, perhaps initiated by the staff or perhaps

by other group members. Thirdly, your assignments will require you to reflect on particular

issues raised in the modules. Finally, the records of what you learn and achieve in the modules

should set down your reflections on the process of your own learning.

Much of the reflection you submit for formal, official assessment will be 'on action', that is,

your reflections will be your thoughts on practice or learning after it has taken place and after

you have had time to digest its implications. But one of the aims of developing reflective

practice is to enable you to reflect 'in action', that is, to maintain a critical viewpoint on what

you are doing as you practise or learn, and to modify your actions in the light of this

reflection.

3.3.2 Criteria for Assessing Reflections

The work you submit for a module will be assessed on the quality of reflection it contains as

well as on the quality of the work produced for an assignment (or learning contract). Your

tutors will make judgements about the quality of your reflections based on criteria such as the

following:

• Reflections should be analytical rather than merely descriptive. You need to say what

you learned, why the learning was so successful, and so on.

• Reflections should make use of the knowledge and understanding that you have

gained on the programme so far, and, in particular, the use of the concepts, theories,

and techniques developed in the modules that you are completing.

• There should be increasing evidence of critical reflection as you progress through the

programme. Thus, in earlier modules your reflections may be concerned mainly with

developing and improving your practice; but in later modules, you must also show a

concern for the wider philosophical and social contexts in which your practice takes

place.

Module 4 20

MODULE 4: THE POLITICS OF PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENTIN

ORGANISATIONS

1. Introduction

There may be a tendency for programmes/ services to emphasise organisational management

efficiency rather than effectiveness and professional development, and to give insufficient

consideration to Clients’ role in the assessment of organisational performance. There is

therefore an issue of what sort of safeguards may be required to contain these tendencies and

to enable Clients to feed their views into the assessment of programmes/ services.

2. Module objectives

Upon the completion of this module, you should be able to;

(a) Discuss the factors that can affect the efficiency and effectiveness of organisations

(b)Identify and discuss the schemes adopted to assess performance in NGOs

3. Module Content

3.1 A Conceptual framework for assessing the performance of organisations

An over- simplified conceptual framework for an organisation’s programme/service views it as

a process which transforms inputs (e.g. time, consumables, equipment, buildings, instructions

from the organisation, trained personnel, the results of research used, and so on) into outputs

(e.g. in the form of consumption of goods and services). Both the measures of inputs and

those of outputs vary a great deal: thus, inputs may be measured in money terms and outputs

in physical units (for example, in Higher Education, the number of graduates and the number

of published research papers)

Output and input measures can be combined to produce partial productivity measures — for

example, the output of graduates/ school leavers, per member of academic staff. In this

instance, both outputs and inputs are measured in physical units and there is no attempt to

control for either the quality of the outputs or for the cost or for the quality of the inputs.

Such measures do however have the merit that they can be computed fairly quickly and on a

Module 4 21

disaggregated basis — for example, department by department in a given organisation or

across sections in the same department.

In The Gambia, the use of such measures as Performance Indicators has expanded

significantly in recent years, as part of the Central Government’s programmes to improve the

planning, monitoring and evaluation of performance (see e.g. SPACO II and PAGE in The

Gambia). However, both cost-benefit analysis and cost-effectiveness analysis rely upon the

assumption that particular costs incurred within organisations can be associated with

particular returns even though there are measurement difficulties bothon the output sideand on

the input side.For example, on the output side there is the measurement difficulty in the

allocation of any joint costs among the products of a multi-output firm, and on the input side

the difficulty in the costing of, for example, central services (such as libraries and computer

centres), and premises that are common to both teaching and research or income-generating

activities. One approach to solving this “problem” is to seek to establish the 'stand-alone' cost

of each activity separately, and to compare these costs with the combined cost of all activities

3.2 Efficiency and Effectiveness in organisations

Efficiency compares outputs with inputs (normally, actual outputs with actual inputs),whereas

Effectiveness asks whether objectives (e.g. the objectives of programmes/ services) have been

achieved. Efficiency indicators include the Client – Staff ratio and the range of Unit Costs

broken down by the main categories of expenditure. Effectiveness indicators focus on

objectives, such as the first destinations/ occupations of graduates/ school leavers from

programmes/ services, the research grants awarded, and the earnings from income –

generating activities

3.3 Models of Performance Assessment (for organisations)

Schemes for the assessment of performance in organisations have long been discussed and

developed but the question is what are they for? Close study of such schemes shows that their

purposes include clarifying organisations’ objectives, evaluating the outcomes resulting from

the organisation’s activities, identifying areas of potential cost savings, and questioning the

organisations’ use of resources.

Module 4 22

A limitation of such schemes is that however effective and motivating participants'

experience of them may be, they sometimes seem to be more concerned with efficiency than

with effectiveness, and are imposed from above instead of growing up within a particular

organisational setting. Indeed, in the public sector, performance assessment seems to have

been driven entirely by the concern for efficiency (and hence have been about inputs and

outputs), thereby putting aside questions about organisations’ objectives ---which studies of

effectiveness inevitably raise! In point of fact, studies of effectiveness raise questions not

only about fundamental objectives but also about basic values and ideologies, and studies of

outcomes can find it difficult to separate out the impact of a programme/ service from the

effects of a number of other key variables—such as social background and economic reform.

Arguably, organisations should encourage their Clients to join them in broadening the

performance agenda beyond a narrow concern with efficiency, and attend to effectiveness

issues.

An additional impetus to performance assessment has come from professional groups’

concern with standards, but there are fundamental incompatibilities between the

management-driven model of performance assessment referred to above and the 'professional

development' model. The former sees individuals in an organisation as needing to be

formally ‘incentivised' and sanctioned, in order to ensure sufficiently rapid changes. The

latter, on the other hand, is probably less individualistic and assumes that Professionals can

co-operate in order to improve each other's performance. For many among them monetary

rewards may not be as necessary as continuous in-service training, knowledge updating, and

research opportunities (for sustaining the process of performance assessment).Schemes for

performance assessment that are based on the professional development model are acceptable

(probably because of its emphasis on controlling the process by the professionals

themselves). However, the training implications of formal performance assessments within

this approach are considerable: interviewers for appraisal sessions require training,

opportunities for improvement must be offered to those who are assessed, and the relevant

documentation has to be appropriately designed. Crucially, it is necessary to establish that

time is allocated and extra money earmarked for performance assessment so that it can be

done properly; to cram it into existing staff timetables and under existing budgetary ceilings

is to ask for-“problems”!

Module 5 23

MODULE 5: STAFF DEVELOPMENT

1. Introduction

This module is based on the premise that the systematic planning of Staff Development

programmes in an organisation should reflect two basic principles, namely, that staff

development should be located within the context of the organisation’s personal policy, and

that equal opportunities for staff development should be ensured.

2. Module objectives

Upon completion of this module you should be able to:

(a) Explain what is meant by Staff Development

(b) Identify the key elements in a Staff Development programme

(c) Plan a Staff Development programme to meet an identified need.

3. Module Content

3.1 Policy formulation

The expectation is that a Staff Development policy for the registered NGOs has been

established at national level and has been implemented at individual NGO level (through

consultations between interested parties), and also that the policy is updated at regular

intervals. The NGOs are expected to include in their policy statements what they consider

staff development to be, the opportunities that the staff might expect to have, the priorities

that reflect national and local needs, and the specific, organisational developments that are

likely to meet the priorities.

3.2 The role of NGO managers in the Staff Development Process

The aims and objectives of Staff Development programmes should be derived from relevant

national and/ or local developments and used as a basis for the evaluations and reviews of the

programmes

The role of managers in the Staff Development process is crucial and there are key elements

in the management of Staff Development programmes to consider. These are:

Module 5 24

(a) the analysis of staff’s professional needs

(b) the design, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of Staff Development

programmes.

Each of these elements requires planning (that is, developing strategies and processes);

communicating (that is, providing appropriate services and structures in order to assist the

elements to achieve their objectives), and reviewing the policy and the programmes.

Clearly, funding is required if it is the Staff Development policy to create an appropriate

management infrastructure to perform these functions. Also, is it the role of TANGO to

ensure that there are effective mechanisms for the implementation of its national Staff

Development policy and for Staff Development Programmes at individual NGO level?

3.3. Organisational Support for Staff Development

NGOs’ support for Staff Development may take a number of forms, including:

• replacement cover for staff on training programmes

• timetable re-organisation to facilitate the participation of staff in the Staff

Development Programme

• appropriate mentorship for staff on the Staff Development Programme

• action research (to enable staff to carry out their projects within their own

organisations, as part of the Staff Development Programmes).

NGO managers may require specific training for the management of staff development (that

is, training which focuses on a knowledge and understanding of the processes and functions

of Staff Development).

Reading List

Indicative Reading List Argyris C. (1974)Theory in Practice: Increasing professional effectiveness. San Francisco,

Jossey Bass.

Bacal Robert (2003)The Managers Guide to Performance review, McGraw-Hill.

Deblieux Michael (2003) Performance Appraisal Sourcebook: A Collection of Practical Samples. McGraw-Hill.

Eraut M (1994)Developing Professional Knowledge and Competence. London. Falmer.

Grote Dick (2002)Performance Appraisal, Questions and Answer book: A survival guide for managers. AMACOM, NY, USA.

Rudman Richard (2002) Performance Planning and Review: Making employee appraisals work.Prentice Hall.

Schön D. A (1983)The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action. London. Temple Smith.

Sparks D et al(1997)A new Version for Staff Development: Action for Supervision and Curriculum Development. July, USA.

Spitzer Dean R (2009)Transforming Performance Measurement. dean @ dean spitzer New York USA.

the report on ngos’ performance · pdf filethe report on ngos ’ performance ......

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