The Rise of Rome

Virgil, Aeneid. [the wanderings of Aeneas] (written at the order or at least times of Augustus)

Showing distinct characteristics of the Romans: dedication, obedience, courage, stubborn endurance, civic commitment, and patriotism

(Cf. the Greeks, the Romans were not strong in philosophy, but good in military, such as good soldiers)

• The story: After the legendary Trojan War (around 1200 B.C.?), some of the Trojans escaped the sack. Aeneas, a son of a Trojan Prince (Anchises) and Venus [Goddess of Love]. His holy mission was to go the “romised land” -- found Rome

• Queen Dido (Carthage)

• Finally, Tiber River (crossroad), thus, “All roads lead to Rome.”

• Then, Ascanius (son of Aeneas) …… 13th king = Proca with 2 sons -- Amulius drove out his elder brother Numitor, and made Numitor’s only daughter Rhea Silvia a Vestal Virgin (a priestess of Vesta), thus, not allowed to have children.

• Nevertheless, (fate?) Rhea Silvia was said to have visited/mated by Mars, the God of War, and gave birth to a pair of twin-boys -- thrown into the Tiber River in a basket (fate?) …… flooded, survived, and nursed by a she-wolf; then, a herdsman; …... became stout farmers/shepherds, named Romulus and Remus, who finally killed Amulius, the usurper, and founded a new city, then disagreed with each other, fought, and Romulus killed Remus. Thus, the name of the city = Roma (after Romulus)

• A lot of difficulties, thus, “Rome was not founded in one day.”• But, according to Aeneid, Romulus said, “My

Rome shall be the capital of the world.”

• 753 B.C. was the date for the foundation

• 509 B.C. Sextus raped Lucretia (virtue, chastity) -- husband: Brutus, and father: Lucretius revolted

• Roman Republic

• First, a cluster of rude hilltop settlements on the Tiber River, then extended over neighboring peoples of Latium and Etruria, then over all of Italy, then, expansion and conquest (gained momentum), and finally, the entire Mediterranean world.

• If a conquered people proved loyal, they might be granted Roman citizenship (unlike the Athenians); thus, able to construct an empire far more cohesive and durable than that of Athens.

• 509 - 265 B.C. Expansion of Rome to unification of the Italian Peninsula

• 265 B.C. The Roman Republic united the Italian Peninsula in the form of a confederation [in 509 B.C. = 50 sq. miles; by 265 B.C. = 10,000 sq. miles = 1/5 of the Italian Peninsula; and dominant all over the Peninsula]. It was at this time (265 B.C.), Italia was first used as a geographical term = the Peninsula; Italici = Italians, thus, identity; hence, the idea of Rome was established.

• “They lost many battles, but they always won the war.” [probably because of their great military virtue was not tactical brilliance BUT stubborn endurance.

• War with Pyrrhus (the most skilful Greek general of the time) in 280 B.C. at Sicily [20,000 heavy-armed infantry (phalanx); 3,000 cavalry; 2,000 archers; 20 war elephants]. Rome lost the battle, [Greek Pyrrhus won], BUT now “Pyrrhus’ victory” means the price is dear/expensive!

• Conquest of the Mediterranean

• 264-201-146 B.C. Struggle with Cathage: 1st Punic War, 264-241 B.C.; 2nd Punic War, 218-201 B.C. [*Hannibal]; 3rd Punic War, 149-146 B.C. [the complete destruction of Carthage].

• Poenus, Poeni = Latin words for Phoenicians or Carthagians, therefore, Punic becomes the adjective in English.

• The 1st Punic War, 264-241 B.C.: At first, Rome lost the battle in 256 B.C., but by 242 B.C., Rome finally won the war.

• The 2nd Punic War, 218-201 B.C.: Because there was Hannibal of Carthage, Rome lost many battles; but again, at the end, Rome finally won the war.

• Hannibal, c. 247-183 B.C.: the military general of Carthage, an outstanding military strategist in ancient times; determined, powerful, [his father and brother-in-law were generals in the 1st Punic War], with good military and diplomatic training. When he was young, he had sworn to be the uncompromising enemy of Rome (cf. Aeneas and Dido’s love and hatred; China and Japan; France and Germany; etc.?!)

• General Hannibal lived and ate with his soldiers, and always led (in the front of) the army/troops, thus, he was loved and respected by his soldiers.

• Hannibal was good at tactful strategy -- brave and not impetuous; at times, he knew how to distract the enemies, and then, he would focus or concentrate his own advantageous superiority and attack his enemy, thus, won many battles.

• But, at the end, he lost the war, because (1) his long adventurous expedition, crossing the Alps with war elephants, etc. was too expensive; (2) Carthage was a commercial state, thus, could not afford to fight for too long; and (3) there were two opposite clans inside Carthage, Hannibal was good at enduring warfare, but his opponents stopped his supplies at home.

• 183 B.C. Hannibal committed suicide

• Historians sighed that Hannibal was (1) an extraordinary military genius, but lived in a wrong time; (2) a great general with vision, perspectives, and strategy, and good at organizing military warfare; (3) a general with political ideal; (4) also good at languages, such as Latin and Greek; (5) could make his soldiers from different background [such as customs, races, languages] obey his order and command.

• 3rd Punic War, 149-146 B.C.: Rome wiped out (or destroyed completely) Carthage, and renamed the place Province of Africa.

• Rome gained momentum (like snowball)

• Defeated the Greek East• 200-167-146 B.C. Defeated Philip V of

Macedonia, 197 B.C.; defeated Antiochus III the Great of Syria, 190 B.C.; defeated Perseus of Macedonia at Pydna, 168 B.C.; and destruction of Corinth, 146 B.C.

• 167-133 B.C. Imperialism -- Republic in name only (Empire in fact).

• By 133 B.C., Rome was the unchallenged ruler of the Mediterranean.

• 509 B.C. The ruling class of the Roman Republic = aristocratic called the Patricians

• The lower class or common people = the Plebeians

• 450 B.C. The Twelve Tables (Roman Law)

• The rise of Rome: the process was slow as compared with the dazzling/meteoric imperialistic conquests of Alexander the Great; BUT, it was far more lasting [probably because they Romans were serious, hard-headed, and they built slowly but surely.

• Problems of the Roman Republic by the 1st century B.C.:

• At home, the Roman Republic was dominated by a small group of conservative aristocrats, good at short range political manipulation = the gentlemen of the fishponds, with bribery and corruption, for example, Verres, Governor of Sicily, 73-71 B.C.

• Abroad, the Roman mastery of the Mediterranean Sea made them arrogant, luxurious, and corrupted.

• The Roman generals ruthlessly expanded the hegemony of Rome both for their own honor and profit, and for the benefit of allied financial interests, for example, Sulla, Pompey, Julius Caesar.

• Factions of clans or cliques: Between 234-134 B.C., there were 26 clans furnished 3/4 of the consuls, thus, power was in the hands of a layer of influential families. Yet these aristocratic families themselves contended as fiercely as ever for public office and fell into factions of cliques.

• Decline of the Roman Republic:

• The Gracchi Brothers -- (1) Tiberius Gracchus (163-133 B.C.), a truly idealistic reformer: dividing state lands among the landless; was killed in 133 B.C. = the first drop of blood in a century was spilled; (2) Gaius Gracchus (154-121 B.C.) was elected tribune in 123 B.C., but was killed in 121 B.C. (again! Cf. Kennedy brothers?!)

• Sulla (138-78 B.C.)

• 88 B.C. became Consul; then went to the east

• 83 B.C. returned, then, civil war

• 82 B.C. victory; thus, became dictator, and reformed the constitution

• 79 B.C. retired

• 78 B.C. died

• Cicero (106-43 B.C.)

• Cicero scornfully called the conservative aristocrats (who were more skilled in short range manipulation and obstruction than in long range reconstruction) the gentlemen of the fishponds.

• Even though Cicero was famous as a poet of Classical Latin, he was also an outstanding attorney (very successful, probably because of his excellent rhetoric), and a senior statesman.

• Cicero, born in a wealthy family, studied law with the great pontifex maximus Q. Mucius Scaevola, and was famous for oratory and law; then further studies in Greece under the great Greek rhetorian: Apollonius; became the greatest attorney of the age; for example, Cicero prosecuted an unusually corrupt governor of Sicily: C. Verres, and the next day, Verres ran away without awaiting the verdict.

• In 63 B.C., Cicero was elected Consul (with C. Antonius)

• Julius Caesar (100-44 B.C.)

• Man of many talents: a superb general, an idealistic politician, a distinguished man of letters (Latin and Greek), an hypnotizing orator (persuasive and to the point).

• 60-59 B.C. 1st Triumvirate: Julius Caesar, Crassus (Caesar’s political mentor, an ambitious millionaire) and Pompey

• 59 B.C. Julius Caesar’s daughter: Julia married old Pompey (political marriage)

• 59 B.C. Julius Caesar was elected one of the consuls (he threatened the other consul not to go to the Senate, that he would not guarantee his safety, etc.)

• 58-50 B.C. Conquest of Gaul and Britain (55-54 B.C.) -- famous sentence: Veni, Vidi, Vici (I came, I saw, I conquered) [cf. Chairman Mao’s poem].

• Story of an incident showing his wit (in 47 B.C., when Caesar landed on a beach of Africa, he fell on the sand which might mean bad omen or at least not dignified as a leader/general; but Caesar immediately pretended to kiss the sand of the beach, and exclaimed, “I seize you, Africa!”

• Yet, too successful?! (especially in the conquests of Gaul and Britain)

• 49 B.C., Pompey (+ Senate) declared Caesar the public enemy, thus, civil war

• 46 B.C., Pompey fled to Egypt, and was murdered, and Caesar became the unquestioned master

• Then, Caesar became a dictator for 6 months; then, for 1 year; then, for 10 years; and finally, for life in February, 44 B.C.

• Nevertheless, Julius Caesar was too idealistic, for example, he advocated land redistribution causing hostility of the Senate; and his reforms were too soon, too fast, too radical, too far, too much, and too ambitious (Cf. Wang An-shih of Song China); and finally, he was too confident [fatal] by dismissing his bodyguards (cf. John F. Kennedy of USA, Sardat of Egypt, etc., dismissing the protecting glass shields)

• Caesar’s reforms (46 B.C.): (1) setting up colonies for the veterans in the conquered land to settle the soldiers; (2) reform the Senate, making 600 to 900 (adding 300 of his own supporters [soldiers, outstanding citizens, and merchants] to the Senate), thus, controlling the Senate [personnel management]; (3) changing the lunar to solar calendar [with 1 year = 365 ｼ days (accurate until now); and July was named in his honor]; (4) organizing census for population, and registration for voters; (5) standardizing coins with gold as reserve to stabilize the Roman inflation; (6) land redistribution [motivation: (1) for his soldiers -- major supporters, or ideal (?), etc.

• Julius Caesar was also the Pontifex Maximus (Supreme pontiff or chief priest)

• On Ides of March (i.e., March 15), 44 B.C., Brutus, Cassius, and a group of conservative senators assassinated Julius Caesar

• Comments on Julius Caesar = controversial (both positive and negative) [cf. Augustus, mostly positive]

• Civil war and anarchy for about 14 years

• Octavian (62 B.C. -- A.D. 14; Caesar’s grand nephew) was only 18 years old in 44 B.C. [the later Augustus, r. 27 B.C. -- A.D. 14); realistic and practical.

• He was a traditional politician [opposite to Caesar; perhaps learnt the lessons from Caesar, or simply different character], recruited Caesar’s veterans