the role of information literacy in addressing a specific strand of lifelong learning: the work...

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Glasgow Caledonian University

Scottish Centre for Work Based Learning

MSc Lifelong Learning and Development

The role of information literacy in addressing a

specific strand of lifelong learning: the work agenda

By Christine M Irving

April 2007

Work Based Learning Project: Stage 1 & 2

MSc in Lifelong Learning and Development

Module Code: GAPWM04

Module Abreviations: GAP: LLMM20

Matriculation No. 200520429

Word Count: 18,300

Christine M Irving MSc Research Project

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Acknowledgements

This research was made possible through the working relationship

I have with Dr John Crawford and the wealth of knowledge and

research experience we have shared and developed over the last

two and a half years that I have worked with him.

My thanks also to Vince Mills and Sabina Siebert for their tutelage

and guidance in the world of lifelong learning and work based

learning, their suggestions and assistance in the recruitment of

interviewees for this research project.

Finally my gratitude and appreciation to all the interviewees who

responded to email requests, telephone calls, and participated in

the research interviews, without your assistance, the research

could not have been carried out.


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Abstract

The purpose of this research was to investigate information literacy

as part of the lifelong learning agenda in particular to gain an

understanding of the role of information literacy in the workplace

and to gauge if possible levels of information literacy skills and

competencies and consider how these vary in different working

environments. In order to do this six semi-structured exploratory

interviews were carried out over a two month period (February to

April) in 2006 on a one to one basis with individuals in a spread of

occupations and interests.

While the study was small and of an exploratory nature it has

highlighted an indication that although the term information literacy

is not recognised within the workplace, the associated skills and

competencies are recognised by individuals as important in the

workplace and that employers implicitly expect people to have

these skills and competencies particularly for professional roles.

Using the CILIP (Chartered Institute of Information and Library

Professional) definition the individuals in the study felt that they

have these skills and competencies although there was an

indication that for some their evaluation skills particularly of Internet

resources could be improved upon. As the Internet is one of the

main information resources organisations provide for their

employees this suggests an area that workplaces need to tackle

with learning geared towards the skills and competencies

individuals need to evaluate Internet resources rather than rely on

attendance at an Internet Explorer course.

Given that the Internet was in many cases the most used

information resource, it was not surprising to learn that this is the

way most organisations use to satisfy their information needs.

However the research identified that employers are at risk of an


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over reliance on technology‘s capacity to hold ever increasing

amounts of information especially the organisation‘s Intranet and

the world wide web and underestimating their employees‘ skills in

managing, accessing and evaluating the information they find

without suffering from information overload or only utilising the

sources of information they are familiar with or find easy to use.

Further research is required to look at linking information literacy to

a key business competency or problem such as information

overload and then linking it to either existing or newly created

information literacy workplace learning programmes.

The research also suggests that a person‘s profession plays a key

role of their view of and relationship with information and

subsequently the level of information literacy skills and

competencies required. This is demonstrated by the quantity

surveyor who saw the skills and competencies of information

literacy as ―essential tools‖ for his job and expressed the view that

―an employee with higher information literacy skills is more useful

to an employer than one who hasn‘t‖. As quantity surveyors are

involved in costing information this may provide an opportunity for

further research exploring the costs to businesses if employees

lack information literacy skills.


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Contents Table

Acknowledgements .................................................................. 1

Abstract ...................................................................................... 2

Chapter 1 Introduction ............................................................ 7

1.1 Background to the research project ........................... 7

1.2 Research Aims and Objectives .................................. 9

1.3 Report Structure ....................................................... 10

Chapter 2 Literature Review ................................................ 11

2.1 Introduction .............................................................. 11

2.2 Lifelong learning ....................................................... 11

2.2.1 Employability in today‘s global economy .................. 13

2.3 Learning Organisations ............................................ 13

2.4 Learning Theories and Styles ................................... 18

2.4.1 Learning Theories .................................................... 18

2.4.2 Learning Styles ........................................................ 22

2.5 Information skills and Information literacy ................ 25

2.5.1 Information Skills ...................................................... 25

2.5.2 Information literacy ................................................... 26

2.5.3 Information literacy definitions .................................. 27

2.5.4 Information literacy in the workplace ........................ 30

2.5.5 Information literacy and the lifelong learning agenda ... …………………………………………………………………...35

2.6 Knowledge Management .......................................... 37


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Chapter 3 Methodology ......................................................... 39

3.1 Research methodologies.......................................... 39

3.2 Research .................................................................. 40

3.3 Rationale for the chosen method ............................. 41

3.3.1 Interviews ................................................................. 41

3.3.2 Semi structured Interviews ....................................... 41

3.3.3 Exploratory Interviews .............................................. 42

3.4 Interview questions .................................................. 42

3.4.1 Rationale for interview questions ............................. 43

3.5 Piloting of questions ................................................. 46

3.6 Selection of sample .................................................. 46

3.7 Limitations ................................................................ 47

3.8 Analysing the results ................................................ 49

Chapter 4 Analysis of Data Findings.................................. 49

4.1 The skills employers are looking for .............................. 50

4.2 Learning in the workplace ........................................ 50

4.3 Information skills ...................................................... 52

4.4 Information Literacy .................................................. 54


4.5.1 How their organisation satisfies their information needs ……………………………………………………………………56

4.6 Research Limitations ................................................ 57

Chapter 5 Discussion of Results ........................................ 58

5.1 The skills employers are looking for ......................... 59

5.2 Learning in the workplace ........................................ 59

5.3 Information skills / Information Literacy .................... 62


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5.4.1 How their organisation satisfies their information needs ………. ..................................................................... 65

Chapter 6 Conclusions ......................................................... 67

A better understanding of the role of information literacy in the workplace and the attitudes of employers to information literacy .............................................................. 68

Levels of information literacy skills and competencies, how this varies in different working environments and does information literacy have a direct value to employers and employees which can be calculated? .................................. 69

How skills imparted in education extend to the workplace .. 70

Information literacy research in relation to the workplace and lifelong learning ............................................................ 71

Further Research ................................................................ 71

The relevance of the findings to the student‘s own professional context ............................................................ 72

References ............................................................................... 74

Appendix A: Information literacy: the skills ........................ 81

Appendix B: Semi structured interview questions ............ 85


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Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1 Background to the research project The Department of Learner Support at Glasgow Caledonian University

(GCU) has a substantial background in survey, research and

evaluation work (Crawford, 2004). More recently this work has focused

on the information literacy agenda as a result of the evaluation of the

usage of electronic information services by staff and students at GCU

(Crawford, 2003; Crawford, 2004) and as a result of the Drumchapel

Project (McLelland & Crawford, 2004). The original aim of the

Drumchapel Project was to evaluate the ICT (information

communication and technology) skills of pupils there but the outcomes

suggested the need for a strong focus on information literacy skills

training among secondary school pupils.

In other words their ability to:

know when and why they need information, where to find it,

and how to evaluate, use and communicate it in an ethical

manner.

This definition by the Chartered Institute of Library and Information

Professionals (CILIP) Information Literacy Group implies several skills

(or competencies) are required if an individual is to be information

literate. They are an understanding of:

a need for information

the resources available

how to find information

the need to evaluate results

how to work with or exploit results

ethics and responsibility of use

how to communicate or share your findings

how to manage your findings.

CILIP (2006)


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The main finding common to all three studies was the strong

emergence of an information literacy agenda and the need to develop

strategies to manage and develop it. However what was equally clear

was the need for a holistic vision. Much of the work being done in the

HE (higher education) sector is focused exclusively on the

undergraduate but it is clear that what is needed is a strategy which

links the secondary and the tertiary sectors and recognises the lifetime

of work to come, an information literacy lifelong learning agenda in

other words. This intimate link between information literacy and

lifelong learning is recognised in the IFLA (International Federation of

Library Associations), 2003 statement, ‘Information Literacy for lifelong

learning.

The result of all this research has been to focus attention on an

information literacy strategy which links secondary and tertiary

education and encourages the secondary and tertiary sectors to work

together. The Information literacy skills – the link between secondary

and tertiary education project is an innovative national pilot to develop

an information literacy framework with secondary and tertiary partners

which, at the end of the project, can be rolled out to other participants.

It will aim to produce secondary school leavers with a skill set which

further and higher education can recognise and develop or which can

be applied to the world of work directly (Glasgow Caledonian

University, 2005).

As a result of the current Information literacy skills – the link between

secondary and tertiary education project, a new strand has emerged

the need to recognise the lifelong learning agenda. It is

necessary to look beyond education and research how the

information literacy agenda is carried over into the world of

work (Irving & Crawford, 2006, p.39).


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This new strand ties in with similar research questions identified by

Crawford (2006, p43)

We need to know more about how the skills we impart extend

to the workplace and how these skills may be refined to benefit

the future employee. We need to know more about the

workplace and attitudes of employers. Some employers are

clearly more sympathetic to the information literacy agenda

than others. What factors predispose them one way or another?

Does information literacy have a direct value to employers and

employees which can be calculated?

The result of these research questions has prompted the basis of this

research project.

1.2 Research Aims and Objectives Whilst it is not feasible for this small based exploratory study to

answer all of the above questions hopefully it will provide some

answers plus contribute and facilitate further research in this area.

The aim of this research is to look at the role of information literacy in

addressing a specific strand of lifelong learning: the work agenda.

Specific objectives

to gain a better understanding of:

o the role of information literacy in the workplace and

o the attitudes of employers to information literacy

to gauge levels of information literacy skills and competencies

and consider how this varies in different working environments.

Outcomes:

contribution towards information literacy research in relation to

the workplace and lifelong learning

contribution towards how the skills imparted in education

extend to the workplace


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contribution towards the question of ‗Does information literacy

have a direct value to employers and employees which can be

calculated?

1.3 Report Structure

The report is composed of six sections.

1. An introduction looking at the background to the study and

specifying the research project and its objectives.

2. A critical evaluation of the relevant theoretical debates,

literature and research which locates the research in the wider

literature context of current academic and professional

discourse.

3. The methodology chosen for the research and a rationale for

the method chosen including any potential limitations plus how

the questions were developed and the sample selected.

4. Analysis of the data findings,

5. Discussion of the results and how they relate to the wider

issues discussed in the literature review.

6. Conclusions which will look at how far the objectives were met,

what new insights are offered, how these relate to prior work

and what the implications are for the overall success of the

research or project and for further research.


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Chapter 2 Literature Review

2.1 Introduction The literature review is composed of the following five sections:

1. lifelong learning specifically skills and employability

2. the learning organisation

3. learning theories and styles

4. information skills and information literacy including the role

information literacy plays in the workplace and the lifelong

learning agenda

5. knowledge management.

2.2 Lifelong learning

Whilst lifelong learning would suggest cradle to the grave for all

learning whether formal, informal or non formal, the term is commonly

used in relation to learning that takes place in post sixteen education

and adult education (Brookes, 2006) particularly in relation to

employability skills undertaken on a formal basis within educational

institutions and learning centres.

An emerging strand of lifelong learning is the learning that takes place

in the workplace. As Watts (2000 cited in Onnismaa) states

Workplaces are engines of learning as well as of production, and more and more jobs require ―multiskilling‖. Learning no longer precedes work rather learning is interwoven with work, on a lifelong basis (p.34 -35).

The recognition of learning often informal or non-formal and non

credited learning that is taking place in the workplace may be the

result of several factors including the need to keep employment skills

current and recognisable whether due to CPD (continuing professional

development), annual appraisals or simply to keep employed.


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It is understandable therefore that the focus of lifelong learning is seen

in regard to employment as learning and education has traditionally

been in preparation for the world of work. Brookes (2006, p.39)

however points out that ‗as the 21st century continues education

should become a process through which people acquire the capacity

to meet the challenges of living and working in an increasingly diverse

world.‘ In other words we need to learn how to learn and be equipped

with generic skills such as problem solving, critical thinking and

evaluation so that we can deal with any new situation that arises.

Harrison et al. (2002, p.1) makes the same point encompassing the

cradle to the grave concept

Learning as a preparation for life has been displaced by learning as an essential strategy for successful negotiation of the life course, as conditions in which we live and work are subject to ever more rapid change. In contemporary conditions learning becomes not only ‗lifelong‘, suggesting learning as relevant throughout the life course, but also ‗life-wide‘, suggesting learning as an essential aspect of our whole life experience, not just that which we think of as ‘education‘.

This life-wide aspect can be found reflected in the Scottish Executive‘s

(2003, p.7) definition that lifelong learning is about ‗personal fulfilment

and enterprise; employability and adaptability; active citizenship and

social inclusion‘. It also sees lifelong learning as encompassing ‗the

whole range of learning: formal and informal learning, workplace

learning, and the skills, knowledge, attitudes and behaviours that

people acquire in day-to-day experiences.‘

Although lifelong learning is not a ‗wonder drug or magic bullet that, on

its own, will solve a wide range of educational, social and political ills‘

(Coffield, 2002, p174). We do live and work in a world that is ‗subject

to ever more rapid change‘ which requires us to continually learn to

‗obtain and keep employment‘ (Harrison et. al, 2002, p1).


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2.2.1 Employability in today‟s global economy Within the UK there is a consensus of opinion linking lifelong learning

to employability and the need for individuals to educate / equip

themselves with the skills that employers are seeking from a 21st

century workforce to survive and succeed in today‘s economy due to

globalisation and technology. Coffield (2002) warns that the elements

within this consensus are problematic and ‗offers comforting illusion

that for every complex problem there is one simple solution‘ (p183).

This is reflected in a recent British government report by the

Department for Education and Skills (2005) that highlighted the

importance of skills both for the individual and businesses:

Skills are fundamental to achieving our ambitions, as individuals, for our families and for our communities. They help businesses create wealth and they help people realise their potential. So they serve the twin goals of social justice and economic success. (p. 1)

As many of these skills are technology led and technology is growing

exponentially, it is not surprising that learning has become life long as

no business or individual can afford to stand still for if they do they find

themselves no longer able to provide the services or products required

and are subsequently left behind.

Within the workplace the organisation has a role to play in their

employees learning where employees do not have the required skills.

The organisation‘s actions in relation to any learning required

determine whether they are a ‗learning organisation‘.

2.3 Learning Organisations Senge (1990 cited in Keep and Rainbird 2002 p.65) defined a learning

organisation as

where people continually expand their capacity to create the results they truly desire, where new and expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured, where collective aspiration is set


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free, and where people are continually learning to learn together.

Although Keep and Rainbird (2002, p.65) see the concept offered as

an idealised model that is at ‗odds with the product market strategies

of many organizations and weak in its conceptualisation of power

relations in the workplace‘. They do however feel it provides a broad

strategic framework for skills, training and development policies to be

located enabling learning to become ‗the chief organizational principle

around which business strategy and competitive advantage can be

developed‘.

For businesses to be highly competitive and have economic success

in today‘s global market requires employees with the right skills at the

right time to deliver the right product or service. Training employees to

have the right skills takes time and money and employers generally

look for a return on any investment they make in their employee/s.

Given that businesses are there to make money it is not surprising that

some employers take the above human capital point of view and

assume economic rationality (Schuller and Field, 2002) with regard to

their employees‘ skills. Businesses therefore tend to prefer to employ

employees with the right skills rather than outlay the training costs

themselves and face the possibility of another employer benefiting

from their outlay.

Although the more enlightened employer recognises that they will

benefit from an increase in the skills level of their employees the

power over what training, if any, is offered to the employee or learning

achieved in the workplace lies with the employer and managers. As

Hager (2004, p.23) points out ‗there is no doubt that many

contemporary work arrangements discourage learning, let alone

lifelong learning‘.


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There is as Bierema and Eraut (2004) highlight a ‗prevailing

assumption‘ that ‗learning and work are separate activities‘ and whilst

‗this may be sometimes true … very often learning and working occur

at the same time and sometimes, as in problem solving, they are

identical‘(p.5).

Within the workplace learning agenda, a new player has emerged -

trade unions and their partners are now encouraged to ‗assist learning

in its widest sense‘ (STUC 2002 cited in Glasgow Caledonian

University. Scottish Centre for Work Based Learning 2005b, p.7). The

Trade Union movement Union Learning Representatives are

‗responsible for promoting learning and offering advice and guidance

to fellow workers‘ (ibid). At Glasgow Caledonian University this has

resulted in cleaning staff having the opportunity to undertake ICT

(information communication and technology) skills training at a time

that suits them early in the morning.

Eraut et al. (2002, p.107) identifies that the learning within an

organisation was either ‗facilitated by or constrained by (a) the

organisation and allocation of work and (b) the social climate of the

work environment‘. In addition

a major factor affecting a person‘s learning at work is the personality, interpersonal skills, knowledge and learning orientation of their manager. While approaches to management development normally emphasise motivation, productivity and appraisal, comparatively little attention is given to supporting the learning of subordinates, allocating and organising work, and creating a climate that promotes informal learning.

Felstead et al. (2005) also supports this position and reported

evidence of the importance of line management support for learning in

the data they collected.


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According to Keep and Rainbird (2002, p.66) the learning that takes

place within a learning organisation can be identified in three different

states:

1. Individuals within an organization learning things 2. organizational learning – where the organization as

an entity starts to develop ways in which it can learn lessons collectively

3. the learning organization – where the central organizational goal is systematic learning.

The factors discussed above all add to the complexities of learning in

the workplace and in turn lifelong learning. However how a person

learns also needs to be taken into consideration.

The other consideration as Gerber (1998) states is that ‗the

importance of understanding how people learn in their work is a recent

phenomenon in professional and workplace learning‘ and proposes

that ‗workers may use more than one way of learning in their work

depending on the circumstances of their learning experience‘ (p.171).

He reports eleven different ways, which are:

1. by making mistakes and learning not to repeat the mistake

2. through self-education on and off the job

3. through practising one‘s personal values

4. by applying theory and practising skills

5. through solving problems

6. through interacting with others

7. through open lateral planning

8. by being an advocate for colleagues

9. through offering leadership to others

10. through formal training; and

11. through practising quality assurance.

By ‗understanding how the workers in their context learn …managers

may be able to develop programmes that are relevant to the


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workplace, policy requirements and to the workers‘ learning style‘

(Gerber, 1998, p.175).

More recently data collected by Felstead et al. (2005) on how

‗individual employees rated various activities in terms of their

helpfulness in enhancing work capabilities‘ (p368) showed that:

Over half (51.8%) reported that simply doing the job had helped

them learn most about how to improve. 32.9% reporting it was

quite a lot of help.

Almost nine out of ten respondents said that their job required

them to learn new things and pass on tips to colleagues, and a

similar proportion agreed that they had picked up most of their

skills through on-the-job experience.

Not all work activities proved to be as helpful. The use of the

Internet, for example, to download materials, participate in e-

learning and seek out information was regarded as being of no

help at all to almost half the sample (49.7%).

Activities more closely associated with the workplace—such as

doing the job, being shown things, engaging in self-reflection

and keeping one‘s eyes and ears open, i.e. facets associated

with learning as participation—were reckoned to provide more

helpful insights into how to do the job better. All of these factors

were rated as more helpful sources of learning than attending

training courses or acquiring qualifications. (ibid).

A quarter (25.3%) reported that reading books, manuals and

work-related magazines helped quite a lot.

Using skills and abilities acquired outside of work was reported

by 19% as a great deal of help and quite a lot of help by 29.4%.

These findings have implications for learning in the workplace, lifelong

learning and information literacy programmes.


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2.4 Learning Theories and Styles The area of learning, learning theories and styles is complex and

highly contested. Hall & Mosely (2005) state that

While the skills and understandings underpinning lifelong

learning are widely assumed by policy-makers and practitioners

to be well delineated, generic and transferable, our review of

the field of learning styles [carried out by Coffield et al]

indicated that there is still a great deal of difference between

theorists about the component elements of learning and

learning styles (p248).

2.4.1 Learning Theories Although there are different learning theories, most of them rely on

stimulus but also calling for engagement in learning through either

new knowledge or with the learner‘s own environment (Rogers, 2002).

Among the theories that have been influential over the last half century

are:

learning as behaviour

learning as understanding

learning as knowledge construction

learning as emancipation

learning as social practice

Of interest to this research are learning as understanding, learning as

knowledge construction, learning as social practice.

Whilst learning as understanding is linked to ‗processing information

and internalising it as knowledge‘ there is the risk that ‗learners will

leave with the experience of ‗knowing that‘ but not ‗knowing how‘.

Learning through constructing one‘s own knowledge enhances the

‗personal experiences and understanding‘ could therefore lead to

achieving both the ‗knowing that‘ and ‗knowing how‘ (Glasgow

Caledonian University. Scottish Centre for Work Based Learning,


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2005a, p.2). This resonates with some of the discussions surrounding

generic and transferable skills and learning to learn, the later a term

which as Hall and Moseley (2005, p253 citing Pumphrey and Slater,

2002) identify is

increasingly promoted as an alternative to specific skills

-based initiatives, in particular in terms of satisfying employers‘

demands for workers with generic and transferable skills:

organization, interpersonal skills, flexibility and self-motivation.

Learning as a social practice rather than an individual activity is a view

held by Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger. Wenger (2002) points out

that

Since the beginning of history, human beings have formed

communities that share cultural practices reflecting their

collective learning; from a tribe around a cave fire, to a

medieval guild, to a group of nurses in a ward, to a street

gang, to a community of engineers interested in brake

design. Participating in these ‗communities of practice‘ is

essential to our learning. It is at the core of what makes us

human beings capable of meaningful knowing (p163).

According to Wenger (1998, cited in Wenger 2002, p163 - 164) there

are three elements that define a community of practice:

1. members are bound together by their collectively developed

understanding of what their community is about and they hold

each other accountable to this sense of joint enterprise

2. members build their community through mutual engagement.

They interact with one another, establishing norms and

relationships of mutuality that reflect these interactions. To be

competent is to be able to engage with the community and be

trusted as a partner in these interactions.


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3. communities of practice have produced a shared repertoire of

communal resources … to be competent is to have access to

this repertoire and be able to use it appropriately.

Within recent years there has been an increase in the use of the term

with the creation of professional online discussion lists and subject

networks being called ‗communities of practice‘. An example of this is

the Scottish Further Education Unit‘s Communities of Practice (SFEU,

2007) who describe a Community of Practice as:

a group of people who share the same profession, situation or

vocation. These communities facilitate professional exchange,

allowing members to establish a bond of common experience

or challenges (SFEU, 2007a).

Whilst the above community of practice could be said to have the

three elements that Wenger uses to define a community of practice

(see above) they do not generally have a shared task which is the

basis of Lave and Wenger conception of a community of practice.

In addition to community of practices working on a joint enterprise,

colleagues learn from each other (Eraut, 2004, Harrison et. al, 2002

also identified that we learn from friends, parents and children) and

use each other as an informal source of information, knowledge and

support (this view of people as an information resource ties in with

information literacy beliefs and practices). It also reflects the Chartered

Institute of Library and Information Professionals (CILIP) communities

which are described as ‗an evolving space for members to share and

learn from each other‘ (CILIP Communities, 2006a).


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From the findings of a study of the mid-career learning of

professionals, technicians and managers in health, engineering and

business sectors Eraut (2004, p2) identified that

the most common form of learning from other people takes the

form of consultation and collaboration within the immediate

working group: this may include teamwork, ongoing mutual

consultation and support or observations of others in action.

Beyond the immediate work environment, people sought

information and advice from other people in their organisation,

from customers or suppliers or from wider professional

networks. This was often done on a reciprocal basis.

He describes this type of network in relation to learning as building

networks of contacts for:

finding out how to get things done

getting advice on the culture and micro-politics of the

department … (p21).

Learning from experience was also highlighted as a principle finding of

the above study as most of the learning was

non-formal, neither clearly specified nor planned. It arose

naturally out of the demands and challenges of work-solving

problems, improving quality and/or productivity, or coping with

challenge – and out of social interactions in the workplace with

colleagues, customers or clients. Much learning at work derives

its purpose and direction from the goals of the work, which are

normally achieved by a combination of thinking, trying things

out and talking to other people (p1).

This reflects the work of Gerber (1998) discussed earlier.


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2.4.2 Learning Styles The way in which we learn or prefer to learn can be linked to a

particular learning style. For some this is by experiencing information

through sight, hearing, feeling or touch whilst for others the experience

is more abstract in that they have to have a visual or mental picture.

This is then followed up by either doing something with the information

or by thinking about it. Kolb identified these learning activities as

perception and processing and produced a learning cycle

incorporating the four activities referred to above.


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Honey and Mumford (1992) subsequently adapted Kolb‘s original

cycle:

They identified that in relation to the different stages of the cycle

people learn / prefer to learn in four different ways:

activists who tend to ask ‗how‘

reflectors who tend to ask ‗why‘

theorists who tend to ask ‗what‘ and

pragmatists who tend to ask ‗what if‘

(Glasgow Caledonian University. Scottish Centre for Work Based

Learning, 2005a).

Whilst Kolb focuses on ‗the process of experience and variety in

learning‘ Honey and Mumford, ‗emphasize the diagnostic elements of

the learning cycle in terms of finding and building upon strengths‘ (Hall

& Mosely, 2005, p248).

Coffield et al (2004) however raises questions about learning styles

(71 learning style models published between 1902 and 2002 were

identified) analysing some of the major models in depth (including

Honey and Mumford‘s labels for learners as activities, reflectors,


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theorists and pragmatists) and assessing their reliability and validity.

The outcome was to show that there are a multitude of things that

impact on someone‘s learning and it is unwise to rely on just one

particular theory or style as important aspects necessary for effective

learning may be missed. Hall and Moseley (2005, p254) report that

they ‗hope that having a single learning style will cease to be the

fashion, given the limits that this can place on the learner‘s ambitions

and other‘s expectations of them‘.

In practice learners use a range of learning styles to suit their

preferences, experiences and situation and some may use them all at

some time or other‘ (Rogers, 2002). In his investigations Gerber

(1998) emphasises the point that ‗people in workplaces should value

all of these ways of learning and not prize one or two‘ (p.171). He

identified eleven ways of learning in the workplace (they are listed at

the end of the learning organisation section).

Whilst this research project does not explore the interviewees‘ learning

styles this section of the literature review does provide useful

background information into the discussion of the relevant theoretical

debates, literature and research in this area which will inform the

research in this small based exploratory study to be undertaken.

However as Hall and Moseley (2005, p254) suggest ‗the outcome of

engaging with style should be strategy‘ and for any future potential

research / development work in developing information literacy

learning strategies within the workplace a more comprehensive

literature review would be required to unravel the complexities of

learning strategies including learning and motivation (Bostrom &

Lassen, 2006).


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2.5 Information skills and Information literacy Information literacy has been known by many different names: library orientation; bibliographic instruction; user education; information skills training. Each has built on the other. Information skills training and finally information literacy concentrates on cognitive and transferable skills, such as problem solving, evaluation and communication skills.

CSG Information Literacy Group (2006)

Although the term information literacy has evolved from information

skills training as outlined above. The term information skills is still in

common usage as some library and information professionals believe

it is a more user friendly term.

2.5.1 Information Skills Sutton (1998) describes information skills as:

skills that will help you search, find, evaluate and present information. In short, they will allow to you to use information … [and] may be explained by the following diagram:

The diagram is particularly useful as it demonstrates the information

process as cyclical and iterative rather than linear, which the written

definition on its own may imply.

JISC (Joint Information System Committee) also emphasis this cyclical

and iterative process in their i-skills model for students and staff. This

model is looked at later within the section on definitions.


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2.5.2 Information literacy The literature identifies that the development and need for information

literacy was brought about by the changing world in particular that

brought about by technology. As Andretta (2005) states:

rapid technological changes together with the proliferation of information sources that have initiated the shift from library instruction to information literacy p10).

the literature clearly illustrates, information literacy has developed to address the requirements generated by phenomena such as information overload caused by the rapid developments in digital technologies, by the needs of the information society for competent information consumers, and to meet the requirements of the knowledge economy for a responsive workforce (p2).

Within her book Information Literacy: A Practitioner’s Guide (Andretta,

2005) she covers ‗environmental factors in the shift to information

literacy‘ (p10) and highlights the following:

The ALA‘s (American Library Association) progress report in 1989:

To respond effectively to an ever-changing environment, people need more than just a knowledge base, they also need techniques for exploring it, connecting to other knowledge bases, and making practical use of it. In other words the landscape upon which we used to stand has been transformed, and we are being forced to establish a new foundation called information literacy. (Owusu-Ansah, 2004: 4)

The ACRL (Association of College and Research Libraries)

Information Literacy Competency Standards for HE (ACRL, 2000):

Because of escalating complexity of this [digital] environment, individuals are faced with diverse, abundant information choices – in their academic studies, in the workplace, and in their personal lives … increasingly information comes to individuals in unfiltered formats, raising questions about its authenticity, validity and reliability. In addition, information is available through multiple media, including graphical, aural, and textual, and these pose new challenges for individuals in evaluating and understanding it. (Lichtenstein, 2000:25)


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2.5.3 Information literacy definitions Although as Webb and Powis (2004) state ‗the meaning of information

literacy itself can be rather difficult to pin down‘ there are many

definitions of information literacy to be found within the literature, most

of them originating within the field of education. They all however have

some common features. For the purpose of this research definitions

that are not exclusively focused on student education are given below.

The Association of College & Research Libraries (ACRL) ‗Information Literacy is the set of skills needed to find, retrieve, analyze, and use information.‘ ACRL (2006) On their website they refer to the ‗explosion of information output and information sources‘ and that

It has become increasingly clear that students cannot learn everything they need to know in their field of study in a few years of college. Information literacy equips them with the critical skills necessary to become independent lifelong learners.

They also highlight that information literacy:

is not just for college students but all of us, as professionals, in the workplace and in our personal lives. Being information literate ultimately improves our quality of life as we make informed decisions when buying a house, choosing a school, hiring staff, making an investment, voting for our representatives, and so much more. ACRL (2006)

The Joint Information Services Committee (JISC) JISC uses the term i-skills to describe information literacy and IT skills, which they define as:

the ability to identify, assess, retrieve, evaluate, adapt, organise and communicate information within an iterative context of review and reflection


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This ‗iterative context‘ is demonstrated in their i-skills cycle diagram.

(JISC 2005)

The JISC i-skills formula was designed as a tool for staff development,

although it followed from The Big Blue project (Manchester

Metropolitan University Library & Leeds University Library, 2002)

which had examined the development of student information skills. ‗It

became apparent that there was an equally strong argument to

investigate the development of staff use of i-skills within the workplace‘

(JISC 2005). The term i-skills is used to encompass terms such as

information skills, e-literacy, information literacy, knowledge

management and research skills. They highlight that:

Working in a rapidly growing and complex digital environment has increased our dependency on information. But there is increasing evidence that our information skills are not keeping pace in any systematic fashion. We all need help to develop the techniques we use, often unconsciously, to handle information in our daily lives – our i-skills. i-Skills are needed at every stage of the information cycle and you may have a varying level of involvement at different stages, depending on your role. In some areas you may be required to have an expert level of i-skills. In others you will only need a working knowledge and may depend on other colleagues for specialist help. (JISC 2005)

http://www.mmu.ac.uk/library


http://www.leeds.ac.uk/library/


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Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals (CILIP) CILIP define Information literacy as:

knowing when and why you need information, where to find it, and how to evaluate, use and communicate it in an ethical manner. This definition implies several skills. We believe that the skills (or competencies) that are required to be information literate require an understanding of:

a need for information the resources available how to find information the need to evaluate results how to work with or exploit results ethics and responsibility of use how to communicate or share your findings how to manage your findings.

CILIP (2004)

See Appendix A for a more detailed explanation of the above skills.

The definition that this research uses in their discussions with the

interviewees is the above CILIP definition as it has been used for other

research undertaken by the author with HE students and sixth year

pupils (Irving, 2006) and enables comparisons to be made. In addition

the author is a member of this profession and this particular research

undertaken within the workplace was seen as an ideal opportunity to

test the definition and CIILP‘s claim that:

We have tried to encapsulate the important elements simply, and in plain English, so that the definition can serve as a base-line interpretation of information literacy for all communities in the UK. The skills serve to explain in greater detail what it means to be information literate.

Finally, we acknowledge that IL [information literacy] will mean slightly different things to different communities; it may also require a greater degree of skill or understanding by some communities than others. IL is relevant (and an important skill to be learned and used) in primary and secondary schools, in


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further and higher education, in business, and in leisure. CILIP (2006)

2.5.4 Information literacy in the workplace Although this is a little studied area compared to information literacy

within education (Crawford 2006; Cheuk 2000) particularly in relation

to higher education students, the literature review revealed a number

of research projects undertaken. Reasons for the lack of activity or

awareness of information literacy in the workplace is highlighted by

Bruce (1999) who identified that

in the workplace, employers and managers have perhaps attended more to the need of computer and information technology skills. As information technology becomes more seamless and user-friendly, it is likely that attention will shift more clearly to questions of how people are actually interacting with, and using, the information which technology makes available. .. . the perennial need to make decisions, problem-solve and research, also suggests the need for employees to be able to deal with information per se as being of primary importance. (p33)

Whilst it is generally individuals that are referred to in relation to being

or becoming information literate, Drucker (1992 cited in Bruce, 1999)

discusses the ‗need for organisations to become information literate‘

and suggests that they ‗need to learn to ask questions such as: What

information do we need in this company? When do we need it? In

what form? How do we get it?‘ (p34).

The question of why information literacy is not given the same priority

as ‗information technology and computer literacy‘ is also raised. Bruce

goes on to answer this question and cites the term itself as not clearly

‗communicating its meaning‘ and of its association with education and

libraries and confusion with computer and information technology.

However despite these limitations she cities Much who asserted the

potential importance of information literacy to business and ‗how the

concept might be employed within the business field. Much suggests

that an emphasis on knowledge, and the making of meaning, should


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be employed to strengthen the value of the concept, particularly in

relation to the notion of the ‗learning organisations.‘ (Bruce, ibid)

Bruce had previously identified Seven faces of information literacy in

the workplace through her research of four types of professionals,

mainly from Australian Universities.

1. information literacy is experienced as using information technology for information awareness and communication

2. information literacy is experienced as finding information from appropriate sources

3. information literacy is experienced as executing a process 4. information literacy is experienced as controlling information 5. information literacy is experienced as building up a personal

knowledge base in a new area of interest 6. information literacy is experienced as working with knowledge

and personal perspectives adopted in such a way that novel insights are gained

7. information literacy is experienced as using information wisely for the benefit of others.

‗More than sixty individuals contributed to her study; sixteen through

semi-structured interviews and the rest by supplying written data‘.

They all fell into the category of ‗knowledge workers‘ and the different

experience of information literacy encountered … reveal[ed] a

distinctive picture of the phenomenon that is characterised by:

Varying emphases on technology

Emphasis on the capacity to engage in broad professional responsibilities, rather than specific skills;

Social collaboration or interdependence between colleagues, rather than an emphasis on individual capacity;

Need for the partnership of information intermediaries;

Emphasis on intellectual manipulation of information rather than technical skills with IT.

(Bruce, 1999, p35)

As a result of the above research Bruce determined that ‗The

relationship between workplace processes and the seven faces also

firmly establish information literacy as an important part of the

character of ‗learning organisations‘, as well as of ‗life-long learners‘.


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This link‘ she believed was ‗supported by the descriptions of

information literacy which reveal the importance attributed to the

phenomenon, by participants, for maintaining currency, networking,

problem-solving and maintaining a client orientation.‘ (Bruce, 1999,

p43)

Although Abell & Skelton (2005) report that ‗in the workplace, it is hard

to gain acceptance of information literacy now as it once was of

knowledge management‘ they believe that ‗the answer appears to be

to link IL [information literacy] to a key business competency or a key

business problem‘ (p44). They feel this is not difficult to do and that

‗this direct link provides the opportunity to demonstrate real benefits to

individuals and the organisation‘ (p45). They state that:

Organisations need people who can both collect and connect – information literate people operating in a knowledge management environment.

and

Business leaders who have recognised the value of KM [knowledge management] should not have a difficulty in ‗joining the dots‘ with IL. The demands of the modern organisation call for a workforce where IL is fostered, encouraged and recognised. In an age of information overload, IL skills are as essential as basic literacy and numeracy.

Earlier research by Cheuk (2002) conducted across the commercial

sector agreed with the above findings and in addition identified the

impact that poor skills can have on workplace effectiveness:

There is a continuous cycle in the creation and use of information in the work settings. Employees create information and share it with other colleagues. Employees access information to add value to their own work. Yet, in the process of going through this cycle, we see a lot of inefficiencies, partly due to employees‘ lack of information literacy skills (p5).

This lack of information literacy skills are illustrated by nine real-life

examples tied into the following inabilities:


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1. unable to determine the nature and extent of the information needed

2. unable to retrieve information effectively from information systems

3. not aware of the full range of resources available instead tending to use the resources they are familiar with even though they are not the best choice for their research purposes

4. unable to evaluate and filter information 5. information and electronic mailbox overload 6. unable to exploit technology to manage information 7. unable to relate information creation and use to a broader

context 8. unethical use of information 9. unable to evaluate the costs and benefits of information

management (p.3-5)

Cheuk (ibid) believes that these examples ‗also tell us that people are

drowning in a sea of information, they are not sure how to tackle these

problems‘ and that ‗many members of the existing workforce have not

fully equipped themselves with the necessary information literacy

skills, and they have limited opportunities to be trained in this area‘.

This lack of recognition according to Mackenzie and Makin (2003)

is possibly informed by misplaced confidence in the notion that technology now makes the need for information skills training redundant. The results of the project demonstrate otherwise. The need for training is all the more imperative today, if staff are to equipped with the appropriate skills to use information effectively and apply those skills within an increasingly diverse environment (p.129).

However before we try to develop or enhance these skills it is

‗important to know how individuals learn throughout their working life,

how they … [participate] in learning through work and on what basis

… [this is] exercised‘ (Billett & Pavlova 2005, p196).

Mackenzie and Makin (2003) in their study within further and higher

education institutions found that ‗staff use very few of the ranges of

resources available to them, relying instead upon those that they are

most familiar with, or comfortable using, irrespective of their fitness for


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purpose‘ (p.129). Robinson and Lawson (2005) show further insight

into individuals thinking following an evaluation of an information skills

training programme in the health sector:

7% of course participants also stated that they had not used their information skills because they were not currently needed. There seems to be a strong impression that these skills [information skills] are to be used for research purposes rather than for everyday use and this idea can be hard to overcome (p.64).

On the positive side Crawford (2006) in his study of alumni students

identified that ‗The relationship of work activity to information literacy

was found to be central‘ they ‗saw it as a tool to support their work,

something which gave them a chance to exercise initiative and even

have an advantage over their colleagues. It is also a promotion skill.

Some even said that they could not do their work without it whilst

others saw it as a shared skill / learning experience with colleagues‘

p.42-43).

As Cheuk (2002) states

It is important to be information literate in the work settings because the workplace of the present and future demands a new kind of worker, who have to access, manage and use the vast amount of information delivered to them through multiple channels (e.g. phone, Internet, e-mail, printed documents, Web-casts) and in a wide variety of formats (e.g. video, printed, electronic text) (p2).

However although Cheuk identifies best practices that have been

adopted to promote information in the workplace she also states that

these are ‗not widely adopted in business organizations. Most

companies are still in the infancy stage of promoting information

literacy‘ (p9) and that ‘more applied research should be conducted in

the workplace settings to qualitatively and quantitatively demonstrate

the costs to business if the employees lack information literacy skills‘

(p10).


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Although Bruce and Cheuk are writing in respect of Australia and the

USA the research is equally valid for the UK in today‘s global

economy.

2.5.5 Information literacy and the lifelong learning agenda In today‘s global economy the industrial society has been replaced by

the information society and as the Prague Declaration: towards an

information literate society states

Information Literacy encompasses knowledge of one‘s information concerns and needs, and the ability to identify, locate, evaluate, organize and effectively create, use and communicate information to address issues or problems at hand; it is a prerequisite for participating effectively in the Information Society, and is part of the basic human right of life long learning. (Brevik, 2003)

Although this has been declared a basic right the assumption made is

that information literacy is either taught in schools or learnt through

osmosis. The reality is that any learning that has taken place has been

implicit rather than explicit and either patchy or non existent resulting

in poor or inadequate level of information literacy skills (McLelland &

Crawford, 2004; Irving & Crawford, 2006; Andretta, 2005).

The life-wide importance of information literacy is clearly highlighted

by Lupton (2004 cited in Lloyd, 2005, p.83)

Information literacy is not just about finding and presenting information it is about higher order analysis, synthesis, critical thinking and problem solving. It involves seeking and using information for independent learning, lifelong learning, participative citizenship and social responsibility.

Lloyd (2005, p.85) argues that information literacy should be

‗considered as a critical element of learning‘ as it can be ‗seen as a

transformative agent, which, in the workplace, enables transformation

from novice to expert and from individual worker to team member‘ and

that:


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developing information literacy is viewed as contributing to social capital by investing in the development of human capital through ‗enlarging an individual‘s skills or knowledge base‘ (Karner, 2000: 2637) through access to a special kind of resource, i.e. information. (p.86)

Although the Joint Information Systems Committee (JISC, 2000)

reported that many UK employers consider information literacy as a

key core skill for their staff within the UK‘s knowledge based economy

this viewpoint is not supported by the recent British government report

(Great Britain. Department for Education and Skills, 2005), Skills:

Getting on in business, getting on at work. Whilst this report

specifically mentions ICT skills there is no direct mention of

information literacy skills.

However a recent interim report by HM Inspectors of Education (HMIe)

in Scotland on the Integration of Information and Communication

Technology specifically mentions information literacy and its

importance and points out this lack of application. The report identifies

that ‗Few schools had systematic approaches to developing

information literacy to ensure that all pupils acquired this set of skills

progressively as part of their passport of core and life skills‘. The

report‘s conclusions, relating to curricular planning, states that:

Schools should ensure that: pupils ultimately achieve a cohesive ICT skills set, to prepare them for the world of tertiary education or work including information literacy skills. (HM Inspectors of Education, 2005, 4.14)

Further insight into the situation within schools is provided by a recent

study (Williams, 2006) which reports that ‗teachers understood

information literacy to be important for lifelong learning but do not feel

able to effectively support the development of information literacy

within their current curriculum environment‘ (p.i). They also

recognised the complexity of the subject and several [of the participants in the study] suggested that implementation of information literacy skills development would require additional


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professional training both in schools and at pre-service levels (p.38)

The input from the learner themselves should however not be

forgotten or overlooked as Eisenburg et al. (2004 cited in Agosto, 2005)

points out that:

Our ability to be information literate depends on our willingness to be lifelong learners as we are challenged to master new, and as yet unknown, technologies that will surely alter the landscape of information in the future (p.177).

From a higher education point of view Martin & Rader (2003) state in

their introduction to Information and IT Literacy – enabling learning in

the 21st century

Notions of key skills and employability underline the linkage between what is learned in educational contexts and the use to which it is put in employment or in everyday life. What we give to our students is not just intended to make them better students, but to make them more effective employees, and to enable them to live more fulfilling lives. (xiii)

Llyod (2003, p87) stresses that ‗the lack of evidence-based research into

the transfer of information literacy from an educational context to a

workplace context has implications for our understanding of the process

and as such, for the effective teaching of information literacy

programmes that are professionally and vocationally relevant‘. She also

raise the question of ‗how much transfer of skill occurs between the

school and the workplace? Especially when the formal school

environment is linear and systematic and the work environment is

complex, messy and often difficult for the individual to navigate and map

out mentally‘ (p88).

2.6 Knowledge Management Linked to organisational learning and information literacy is knowledge

management, as Rowley (2001) argues

learning and knowledge are closely intertwined and that effective knowledge management needs to embrace and


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develop the achievements that have been associated with the implementation of the concept of the learning organisation (p.228).

Kelleher and Levene (2001) define knowledge management as

the capabilities by which communities within an organisation capture the knowledge critical to them, constantly improve it and make it available in the most effective manner to those people who need it, so that they can exploit it creatively to add value as a normal part of their work (p.15).

The activities within this description tie in with organisational learning

and collective learning and with the main aspects of the learning

theories regarding stimulus and engagement in learning through either

new knowledge or with the learner‘s own environment.

However in order for any learning to take place or knowledge

developed, information and the skills associated with information

(information literacy) must be engaged first, as Lloyd (2005, p.85)

states ‗without this connection, knowing and learning remain

incomplete‘.

Cheuk (2002) and Abell and Skelton (2005) identify the relationship

between information literacy and knowledge management. Whilst

Cheuk highlights the challenges that knowledge-organisations face

are information literacy related. Abell and Skellton believe that

‗workplace information literacy (IL) as a term and a concept is

following a very similar path in organisations to that of knowledge

management (KM)‘ and that there are many significant areas of

similarity between KM and IL‘ as follows:

1. Both are inextricably linked in the minds of many people with learning – lifelong learning in the case of the individual, the learning organisation in the case of the organisation.

2. The arguments for developing IL and KM capability within the workplace / organisation are indisputable. Very few senior managers deny the benefits of managing and using the


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organisation‘s knowledge effectively and most acknowledge their organisation‘s need to improve its knowledge flow. Both KM and IL underpin the way organisations work and develop. Both such acceptance has not necessarily brought action.

3. Both are difficult concepts to ‗sell‘ in terms of business value and outcomes. Both can be perceived as ‗nice to have‘ or ‗common sense‘ rather than a key organisational capability.

4. Both have had a problem with their label. Except for those in the know, the terms do not immediately conjure up a clear picture of what they mean (p44).

Whilst it would have been interesting to look at the literature on the

subject of knowledge and the different types of knowledge (e.g. tacit,

implicit) it is the relationship between information literacy and

knowledge management identified above that this research is

interested in.

Chapter 3 Methodology

3.1 Research methodologies There are a number of different research methodologies available; Bell

(1999, p.7) highlights that ‗different styles, traditions or approaches


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use different methods of collecting data‘. Depending on the data to be

collected the researcher can use either quantitative or qualitative

methods.

Quantitative methods are used where the research data can be

quantified and general conclusions can be drawn from the analysis of

the data. If however the data to be collected cannot be easily

quantified particularly where the researcher is trying to gain an insight

into people‘s feelings, beliefs or experiences then qualitative methods

are used. These include interviews, focus groups and observation.

Babbie (1992, p.89) identifies that there are ‗two major aspects of

research design. First, you must specify precisely what you want to

find out. Second, you must determine the best way to do that‘ and

‗usually the best study design is one that uses more than one research

method, taking advantage of their different strengths‘.

3.2 Research The purpose of the research was to investigate information literacy in

the work place as part of the lifelong learning agenda. In order to do

this six exploratory interviews where carried out over a two month

period (middle of February to the middle of April 2006) on a one to one

basis with individuals in a spread of occupations and interests as

detailed below:

Quantity Surveyor* – Local Authority

Development Officer Everyday Skills – Scottish Trade Union

Congress (STUC)

Mechanical Design Engineer* – Small Medium Enterprise

Senior Executive Creative Futures Team – Scottish Enterprise

(Local Enterprise Company)

Training Advisor - Local Authority

Human Resource Staff Development Manager* – University


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The interviews took place at a time and place that was convenient for

them. Only one of the interviews (STUC) took place in the

interviewees own place of work and three of the interviews (those

marked with an *) were carried out in the interviewees own time.

3.3 Rationale for the chosen method

3.3.1 Interviews

Interviews have been chosen as the preferred methodology, primarily

as Denscombe (2003, p.164) states researchers can use interviews to

gain ‗more of an in-depth insight into the topic, drawing on information

provided by fewer informants‘.

In addition as Babbie (1998, p.264) points out interviews can:

‗serve as a guard against confusing questionnaire items‘ as the

interviewer can ‗clarify matters, thereby obtaining relevant

responses‘

through their presence also ‗generally decrease the number of

―don‘t knows‖ and ―no answers‖ and probe for answers or follow

up on statements made‘

the interviewer can also ‗observe respondents as well as ask

questions‘.

Observations can provide valuable non-verbal information to the

research interview / process and should be noted and /or followed up.

It also allows the generation of a repertoire of issues which can inform

more qualitative based research.

3.3.2 Semi structured Interviews Semi-structured interviews as opposed to structured or unstructured

were selected as this enabled the set list of questions to be asked and


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answered but allowed for flexibility in the order the areas are covered

and as Denscombe (2003, p.167) points out:

perhaps more significantly, to let the interviewee develop

ideas and speak more widely on the issues raised by

the researcher. The answers are open-ended, and

there is more emphasis on the interviewee elaborating

points of interest.

3.3.3 Exploratory Interviews As the interviews are what Oppenheim (1997, p65) identifies as

exploratory whose purpose is:

essentially heuristic: to develop ideas and research hypotheses

rather than to gather facts and statistics. It is concerned with

trying to understand how ordinary people think and feel about

the topic of concern to the research.

The findings therefore will not be generalisable but instead provide

further research questions to be drawn from the interviews.

3.4 Interview questions The interview questions (see Appendix B) were designed to

investigate the role of information literacy in the workplace and to

gauge levels of information literacy skills and competencies. The

questions were also designed to investigate the importance of these

skills and competencies and to see whether they were included in the

skills employer‘s where looking for in their workforce or providing

training for. As knowledge management is linked to both information

literacy and lifelong learning a small section on this was included.

The questions were divided into the following areas:

Background information

o The person‘s job title


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o Brief description in interviewees‘ own words of the

work they do, their experience and qualifications and

how they acquired the capability to do what they do.

o The skills employers are looking for

Learning in the workplace

Information skills

Information Literacy

Knowledge Management.

Although there is an opinion that ‗it should not be necessary to ask at

interview for background information‘ (Gorman & Clayton, 2005,

p.129) it was felt that it would put the interviewee at ease to talk a little

about themselves and the work they do plus provide an opportunity for

seeking clarification or expansion on any points they raised

3.4.1 Rationale for interview questions

Section A - Skills needed today for work: 1. What skills employers are looking for

2. Are they looking for people to have these skills prior to being

employed

3. Where they expected people to learn / acquire these skills.

Research Objectives Although the Joint Information Systems Committee (JISC, 2000)

reported that many UK employers consider information literacy as a

key core skill for their staff within the UK‘s knowledge based economy

this viewpoint is not supported by the recent British government report

(Great Britain. Department for Education and Skills, 2005), Skills:

Getting on in business, getting on at work. Whilst this report

specifically mentions ICT skills there is no direct mention of

information literacy skills.


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The research will investigate this situation and ascertain what skills

employers are looking for and whether these include information

literacy or not.

Section B - Learning in the workplace: 1. Type of learning offered in the workplace

2. Organisation supportive of learning in the workplace

3. Manager supportive of learning in the workplace.

Research Objectives To investigate learning in the workplace, this needed to be explored to

establish what learning if any took place, if so what it covered and in

what form it took (formal, informal or nonformal) and in what

circumstances. In addition to determine whether any information

literacy training or learning is taking place, in any shape or form.

Section C - Information skills / Information Literacy skills: 1. Description of information task

2. How they went about this task

3. Training received to assist in the use of resources

4. Self rating of information retrieval skills

5. Planning information tasks

6. Assessment of the quality of information found

7. Use of information

8. Organisation of information

9. Review of search procedures

10. Copyright and plagiarism understanding

Research Objectives

To investigate the skills and competencies people use to carry out

information tasks related to their employment, how they rate their own

information retrieval skills and whether they had received any training


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to use the information resources available to them. Questions from a

similar exercise with students and senior pupils in a focus group

(Irving & Crawford 2006, Irving 2006) were used in addition to

questions from Mackenzie and Makin‘s (2003) survey of further and

higher education staff.

Section D - Information Literacy: 1. Understanding of the term information literacy

2. The extent to which they have these skills and competencies

3. Level of these skills and competencies

4. Importance of these skills and competencies

5. Improvement of these skills and competencies through work

6. Importance of information literacy at work

7. Employers looking for these skills and competencies

Research Objectives

To investigate knowledge of the term information literacy and to

investigate how the interviewees rated their information literacy skills

and competencies as defined by the Chartered Institute of Library and

Information Professionals (CILIP 2004, CILIP 2004a) and where they

had learnt these skills. Subsequent questions were devised to

investigate the importance of these skills in the workplace and whether

employers were looking for these skills explicitly or implicitly.

Section E – Knowledge Management: 1. Understanding of the term knowledge management

2. Use of knowledge management in the workplace

3. How information / knowledge is shared in the workplace

4. How organisations satisfy their information needs

Research Objectives

To explore whether the term knowledge management is known and

used by the interviewee‘s place of work and whether that gives any


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implications for information literacy skills and competencies as Cheuk

(2002) and Abell and Skelton (2005) believe. Also how organisations

satisfy their information needs.

3.5 Piloting of questions

All the questions used were based on something the research needed

to know and were reviewed by the research director then piloted with

an individual that fitted the characteristics of the sample. The pilot

went well and whilst none of the questions required amending, white

postcards were printed up to be handed out to make it easier for the

interviewee to respond to definitions and assessment ratings. These

cards had the added benefit of providing the interviewee with

information that they could take away for future reference, thus

furthering the term information literacy and the associated skills and

competencies.

3.6 Selection of sample As a small number of interviews were to be undertaken (six to ten)

with representatives from specific populations that had ‗a range of

characteristics relevant to the research‘ (Gorman & Clayton, 2005

p.128) the sample was purposive. The selected populations and their

characteristics included:

1. former students contacted through the University‘s alumni

office, as further research to a recent qualitative study by

Crawford (2006) of alumni student which highlighted the

importance of information literacy in the workplace

2. trade union learning representatives contacts provided by the

Scottish Centre for Work Based Learning as individuals who

would have knowledge of workplace learning and the skills

employers were looking for


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3. fellow MSc students (Lifelong Learning and Development) who

work for a range of employers across the public, private and

voluntary sectors and could therefore provide their knowledge,

experience and insight as professionals within these different

sectors.

Responses from the first two populations were extremely

disappointing, with nothing from former students and three responses

from trade union learning representatives. Of the three responses, one

was eager to participate whilst two requested more information but in

the end despite several communications regarding other more suitable

contacts within their organisation and alternative interview dates, the

interviews unfortunately never took place. The number of interviewees

increased to three as two of the MSc students agreed to participate.

Further participants were recruited from personal contacts that fitted

the selected population and their characteristics.

3.7 Limitations Although interviews tend to have a higher response rate than

questionnaires there is always the possibility that there could be a

poor response from people willing to give up an hour of their time to

participate in the research (as highlighted in the previous section).

Whilst those that do participate could therefore be said to have an

interest in the subject matter and influence the findings, this possibility

is borne in mind when drawing up the questions and the sample,

carrying out the interviews, analysing and presenting the findings. The

same however could be said for those participating in focus groups or

completing questionnaires.

It is also important that the interviewer is able to stay neutral, non

judgemental and not influence the interview as the impact of the

interviewer means that ‗consistency and objectivity are hard to

achieve‘, which has ‗an adverse effect on reliability‘ (Denscombe,


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48

2003, p.189). However the validity of the data can be checked for

accuracy and relevance during the interview.

Whilst it is also important to record the responses accurately, different

methods of recording have their strengths and weaknesses and these

aspects need to be taken into consideration. Although audio tape

recording can be intrusive most interviewee‘s are happy to give their

permission for the interview to be recorded. Although transcribing

taped interviews is a long and time consuming process, it can provide

information that the interviewer may not have deemed important at the

time of the interview but could be important at the analysis stage when

viewed in conjunction with other interviewee‘s statements. In addition

if it is used to back up detailed notes taken during the interview then it

can prove beneficial in checking nothing important has been missed or

misinterpreted. The detailed notes can also cover non verbal

communication which the audio tape is unable to record. It is also

important to note that it is dangerous to rely solely on a taped

interview as recorded speech is not always easy to hear and

equipment can break down.

Interviews are not without their difficulties and can ‗fail miserably

unless there is good planning, proper preparation and a sensitivity to

the complex nature of interaction during the interview itself‘

(Denscombe, 2003, p.164). The project therefore took due diligence of

these difficulties and the above limitations resulting in minimal affect to

the research project as follows:

some difficulty in recruiting the required number of participants

as highlighted in the previous section

two of the interviews had to be rescheduled due to illness

resulting in an extension to the timetabled period for carrying

out the interviews. However it was deemed their participation

outweighed the delay.


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49

3.8 Analysing the results Analysing the results or data analysis is the process of ‗bringing order,

structure and meaning to the mass of collected data‘ (Gorman and

Clayton, 2005, p206). Although this is a small scale study the amount

of qualitative data six one hour interviews produces is considerable

and the task of analysing the results and searching for meaning from

the data is as (Gorman and Clayton, 2005, p205) state no simple task

‗reduce a huge volume of information into a meaningful case report‘.

In order to bring some meaning to the interviewees‘ responses and to

see if there were any recurring themes (Bell, 1999) the transcribed

and word processed interview data was transferred to separates

sheets (a separate sheet for each of the sections within the interview).

From these sheets, the data was analysed and extracted as

quotations or summarised data to form the research findings. Many of

the quotes were retained, particularly those that would help illustrate

certain points or inform or illuminate aspects of the research area.

Chapter 4 Analysis of Data Findings

This chapter presents the main findings of the research conducted

using the methodologies outlined in chapter three.


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50

4.1 The skills employers are looking for Responses varied but included specific skills in relation to the job plus

generic and soft skills as the following statements demonstrate:

- wide set of skills for computer use, ability to carry out your own research, the ability to clearly communicate with others, the ability to network with other[s]

- communication skills, organisation skills, good time management, IT skills

- literacy and numeracy - softer skills that are actually the kind of critical ones in the 21st

century which do things like adaptiveness, creativity, innovation - around transferable skills into the workplace

The general opinion seemed to be that employers would much

prefer prospective employees to have these skills prior to taking up

employment and that they expect people to learn / acquire these

skills throughout their educational life or from job experience as

reflected in the following statements:

- I think they don‘t want to spend the money training them – rather people come in with these skills

- Catch 22 Some employers take on graduates to give them experience and progression Others I imagine head hunt council tries to take on school leavers

4.2 Learning in the workplace The type of learning that takes place in the workplace includes task

specific, job specific, generic skills and soft skills. Comments included:

- Mostly job specific training - Essentially the learning opportunities tend to be driven by

business requirements. - typical soft skills eh presentation skills there is also policy

related courses.

With regard to how supportive organisations were of learning in the

workplace this was mixed with some supportive and some not for

example:

- Reasonably.. em …but when it suits them


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- No It‘s impractical for them. It‘s impractical for the employers, impractical for those individuals. If by in the workplace you mean learning during working hours. Workplaces don‘t have any slack

- Absolutely. I‘ve not worked in an organisation that I can say is so active in this area.

The lack of time during working hours was reflected in the number of

interviews in the study that took place within the interviewees own

time, half (three out of the six).

In principle, managers seemed to be supportive of learning in the

workplace but there is a caveat to that - a good line manager would be

supportive but the work still needed to be done and the training

needed to be work-related. In addition, it was felt that ―a lot of

employers aren‘t interested in developing or don‘t seem to be

interested in developing their staff and I think it‘s partly through fear

that they feel if they spend money training them then they will go off

somewhere else, a better job‖.

Interestingly the interview with the Scottish Trade Union Congress

revealed a more fundamental problem of the difficult some people are

having with basic literacy skills which as the interviewee stated

affects their work, it affects their whole life, they can‘t really get

involved a lot in their union activities if their not confident with

their reading and writing.

Literacy skills are not the only problems; some employees also have

problems with numeracy skills such as understanding their pay slip.

This identification of lack of skills has come to light with the

introduction of more traditional office based skills and tasks being

introduced into manual work. In addition a lot of employers ―deny that

they have employed any staff with literacy and numeracy difficulties‖

The STUC and TUC are aiming to


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52

raise awareness among managers of the learning at work,

training them to identify support for their colleagues who have

literacy or numeracy difficulties and are quite happy to signpost

them to organisations that can help with the provision and

support them.

This however is not an easy task as ―getting employers on board ... is

really difficult‖ and then it ―takes a long, long time to set up a work

based programme‖. However some employers have ―been supportive

and they want to do something about it and they get some training for

their staff – most employers don‘t want to know‖.

The learners they help come from a ―range of workplaces, mostly low

skilled, low paid‖. It is not only those in employment they are seeking

to help; they are also involved in ―community type learning working

with people who are unemployed and hoping to go into work‖.

4.3 Information skills All interviewees have a need for information and use a variety of

resources: Internet, print, and people to satisfy this need. The

resources used depend on those that they have immediate access to

or have experience of - the web / Internet was mentioned by everyone.

Generally, they had not received any formal training at work to assist

them in using any of these resources as demonstrated by the following

comments:

- In house learning – by example, watching and listening to other people.

- No, (laugh) you just pick these things up as you go along.

- At university - In terms of Internet training the actual use of the Internet

in terms of using search engines - acceptable use policy - Yes em in a couple of ways em but not as a member of

staff. As a student through my representative for HR with you know my Masters as well I learnt a few skills.


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- No. I‘m a huge fan of Google and there‘s very little information that I‘ve ever required that I‘ve not been able to get to.

For the Quantity Surveyor the need for information was constant ―we

are always looking for cost information for some times specialist

constructional material and we have to research and source that

information‖ and the sources of information used were ―either by

journals [print], internet, RIBA (Royal Institution of British Architects)

library or personal contacts sometimes your own colleagues.‖

Although there was generally no formal training on offer at work, those

involved in training within their organisations were asked if they

perceived a training need, to which they answered:

- I think there is yes I think it is quite important these days to be able to access the type of information on the Internet

- There probably is. I haven‘t considered it before

The interviewees were asked to rate their own information retrieval

skills from three descriptions and all but one rated their skills as

‗Generally I find all the information I need with few difficulties‘. When

asked how they dealt with any difficulties the response was that they

would turn to colleagues for help.

In relation to whether they planned ‗how to find information’, this was

divided into either a definite yes or no. When assessing the ‗quality of

the information found’ they used their own experience to gauge the

quality of the information although this was not infallible as one

interviewee highlighted:

Well sometimes it‘s quite difficult because in the past I found some material on a website that looked like a reliable source and then I later discovered that it wasn‘t.


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Search strategies were only reviewed if they were found to be

unsuccessful: information found was both adapted and used as it was

depending on what the original purpose of the enquiry.

A variety of methods were used to facilitate future retrieval of

information found - filing systems (electronic and paper), favourites

list. Some were more organised than others, influences included

personal traits and engagement in formal learning such as Masters

Degrees.

They all had a sense of copyright / ownership of material and an idea

of what plagiarism meant in that other people‘s work / words were

protected by copyright and that to use and claim it as your own was

plagiarism. The responses indicated that this understanding stemmed

from their own experiences of study at university. It is also possible

that the recent high profile of these issues in the media could have

contributed towards their understanding. To what degree it was

implemented or relevant within the workplace was not explored.

However one interviewee working in research and development was

struggling with the implications of intellectual property rights in relation

to a design brief that he was currently undertaking.

4.4 Information Literacy Half of the interviewees had heard of the term ‗Information Literacy‘

however when given a definition they all felt they had some of the

outlined skills and competencies required to be information literate,

either to a degree or in part. The variation stemmed mainly from their

ability to evaluate results and how to work / exploit results. Most didn‘t

do the latter in any formal way and some felt on reflection that they

could probably improve. As with most self assessment procedures

people tend not to rate their own skills and competencies accurately

and the responses given earlier of their information-related activities

are probably a truer reflection of their skills and competencies.


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The development of and source of their skills and competencies

varied: from a combination of workplace, further education, university;

not knowing where they acquired them; to the following statement ―like

most things you learn just through experience‖.

Whilst one interviewee thought some of the skills were more important

than others, for example resources available and how to find

information, the rest felt that the skills were very important, really

important or extremely important as demonstrated by the following

quotes:

Yea very important in the workplace not just academia. Mm for my part I would say they are actually very crucial

For the Quantity Surveyor these skills were ―essential tools for my job‖

and ―an employee with higher information literacy skills is more useful

to an employer than one who hasn‘t‖.

These skills had improved, with practice, in their workplace as demonstrated by the following:

- Yes – it‘s a necessary tool for me to do my job, for me to do my

job better those skills need to improve - Because if you possess these skills you can identify what you

need, how to get and relevance em very quickly and trying to avoid going down the wrong route following, maybe misleading information

Information literacy was felt to be important at work and that it was

expected that people had these skills. The only exception was in

relation to manual workers where it was felt that they were not

applicable to them or as one interviewee with experience in this area

stated ―They say they don‘t need these skills to do their job - or an

employer may not see it as a need for them to have these skills. But

they may not realise these skills are important outwith work‖.

Although employers are not thought to be explicitly looking for

information literacy skills and competencies participants indicated that

it is generally implicit as reflected by this comment ‗it‘s not something


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that is articulated‘. The exception to this was when the post explicitly

required these skills. Employers tend to assume that people have

information literacy skills, particularly those in a professional role or

they don‘t realise themselves how much these skills are required. One

interviewee felt that there‘s perhaps ―a reliance that attendance at an

Internet Explorer course provides the basic grounding and from that

it‘s down to the intellect [and] the application of individuals‖ concerned

to further develop these skills.

These assumptions are not unique as higher education is equally

guilty of such wrongful assumptions of school leavers when they first

enter university.

4.5 Knowledge Management All but one of the interviewees had heard of the term knowledge

management and whilst knowledge management was recognised it

was either not implemented or not used enough or practiced badly in

that ‗it‘s not organised, not made available and it‘s not consistent

enough‘.

With reference to sharing information and knowledge within their

organisations, for most interviewee‘s the process was by talking to

colleagues and / or sharing information electronically. For one

interviewee there was however frustration with their organisation as

the particular technology they had to use was structured badly, the

technology was poor and the design flawed resulting in people using

their own networks (face-to-face and via e-mail) to share information.

4.5.1 How their organisation satisfies their information needs The sharing of information and knowledge described above reflected

how their organisations satisfied their information needs. Whilst

organisations provided staff access to the Internet and ―makes a lot of

reliance upon electronic information and electronic means‖

interviewees generally felt that this was not enough as demonstrated

by the following comments:


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57

I think it is something we are still trying to do.

I‘m sure that there are resource buried somewhere in the systems and archives but unbelievably it‘s well nigh impossible and you only become aware of specific information because someone thinks that‘s worthwhile pushing onto everyone‘s desktop.

Relies heavily on staff members to research and source information required, to carry out their work, it provides the RIBA library.

The indication is that it is not something organisations do in any

structured way other than provide employees with access to the

Internet. In addition some organisations have Intranets or websites but

in general they rely ―heavily on staff members to research and source

information required, to carry out their work‖. One interviewee

expressed frustration in relation to the provision of information

resources available within their organisation:

―I‘m sure that there are resource buried somewhere in the systems and archives but, unbelievably, it‘s well nigh impossible and you only become aware of specific information because someone thinks that‘s worthwhile pushing onto everyone‘s desktop‖.

With regard to libraries a couple of interviewees mentioned them

particularly in relation to provision made by their professional bodies

(Civil Engineers, Royal Institute of Chartered Surveyors). For those

interviewees whose organisation had libraries they were either not

mentioned or were not seen as a resource that satisfied their

organisations needs.

4.6 Research Limitations As highlighted in previous sections there are limitations to this

research. The sample is very small as the response was poorer than

expected and the findings are not generalisable as they reflect those

of the six people interviewed, their educational, career / profession

background and each person‘s individual opinion and experience of

their workplace. As can be seen from the table below, no two people


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worked in the same profession or organisation and each had varied

career and education backgrounds so comparisons of their opinion

and experience could not be compared.

Table 4.1 Educational and career background of interviewees

Educational background Career background Present employer

University degree late on in career

Same profession

and employer

Local Authority

University degree early on

in life

Different professions

and a number of

employers in

different fields

Trade Union

University degree late on in

career

Progression of jobs

with same employer

Local Authority

University degree late on in

career

A wide range of

careers

Local Enterprise

Company

University education early

on in life and then again in

career

Early on in their

profession and

career

Small Medium

Enterprise

University degree early on

in life

Same profession but

different employers

University

However the purpose of the research was of an exploratory nature to

provide an indication of what is happening in the workplace and

enable further research questions to be drawn.

Chapter 5 Discussion of Results

This section discusses the main findings of the research in relation

to the issues discussed in the literature review and presents areas

of possible future research, which have emerged from the results

presented.


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5.1 The skills employers are looking for In line with the recent British government report (Great Britain.

Department for Education and Skills, 2005), Skills: Getting on in

business, getting on at work the interviewees all mentioned ICT /

computer skills along with other generic skills such as

communication, literacy, numeracy, organisational and time

management skills in addition job / task specific skills. Furthermore

the indication is that most employers take a human capital point of

view and generally seemed to prefer perspective employees to

have these skills prior to employment rather than outlay training

costs themselves (Schuller and Field, 2002). There was no

mention of information literacy skills despite the report by the Joint

Information Systems Committee (JISC, 2000) that many UK

employers consider information literacy as a key core skill for their

staff within the UK‘s knowledge based economy.

However once the interviewees had been given the CILIP (2006)

definition of the skills and competencies relating to information

literacy. It then emerged that although generally employers are not

explicitly looking for information literacy skills and competencies by

name they are assuming that employees will come with these

skills. If these findings are a reflection of the workplace in general

then it creates problems for both employees and employers as it

makes it difficult for individuals to educate / equip themselves with

the skills that employers are seeking if the employers themselves

do not explicitly express these skills.

5.2 Learning in the workplace Not surprisingly the learning that takes place is driven by business

requirements and is job or task specific and is either ‗facilitated by

or constrained by (a) the organisation and allocation of work and

(b) the social climate of the work environment‘ as Eraut et al.

(2002, p.107) highlights. The facilitation or constraints of the

workplace is demonstrated by the comments from the Scottish


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Trade Union Congress with regard to employer‘s engagement or

lack of engagement with work based learning and the difficulty they

have with ―getting employers on board‖ plus the length of time it

takes to organise work based learning. For the other interviewees

their experience was mixed with some organisations being

supportive whilst others were not. Managers themselves seemed

to be supportive but the training needed to be work-related and the

work still needed to be done. As one of the interviewees pointed

out the impracticalities of learning in the workplace for both the

employer and the employee due to the workload, as ―workplaces

don‘t have any slack‖. This reflects the constraints highlighted by

Eraut et al. (ibid) of the social climate of the person‘s work

environment and the importance of the line manager‘s support for

learning (Felstead et al. 2005).

In relation to information literacy skills, these skills are generally

not formally include in workplace learning except in the form of

Internet training / acceptable use policy. However the fact that

colleagues are learning from each other (Felstead et al. 2005,

Eraut 2004, Harrison et. al 2002, Gerber 1998) and that the

interviewees felt that their skills had improved with practice

(Felstead et al. 2005, Gerber 1998) with most recognising that their

ability to evaluate information could be improved upon shows that

learning is interwoven with work (Watts, 2000) and learning and

working occur at the same time (Bierema & Eraut, 2004). Also as

Felstead et al. (2005, p368) findings report ‗simply doing the job‘

can help employees learn how to improve their job performance

with 51.8% of the respondents in the survey reporting that it helped

a great deal and 32.9% reporting it was quite a lot of help.

By learning from other colleagues‘ skills / how to do certain tasks

demonstrates learning as social practice often through what Eraut

(2007) describes as networks of contacts including immediate

working group, ongoing mutual support and support or observation


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of others in action rather than Lave and Etienne‘s community of

practice. It also supports Eraut‘s (2007) finding that most learning

is

non-formal, neither clearly specified nor planned. It arose

naturally out of the demands and challenges of work-solving

problems, improving quality and/or productivity, or coping with

challenge – and out of social interactions in the workplace with

colleagues, customers or clients. Much learning at work derives

its purpose and direction from the goals of the work, which are

normally achieved by a combination of thinking, trying things

out and talking to other people (p1).

In addition as JISC (2005) highlight ‗there is increasing evidence

that our information skills are not keeping pace in any systematic

fashion [and] we all need help to develop the techniques we use,

often unconsciously, to handle information in our daily lives‘. There

is therefore a need for these skills to be formally recognised as

discussed earlier and programmes developed as indicated by

Gerber (1998) that are ‗relevant to the workplace, policy

requirements and to the workers‘ learning style‘ (p.175).

A group that will need additional help is those individuals who have

basic literacy and numeracy problems. The scale of the problem is

said to be ‗up to 16 million adults – nearly half the workforce – are

holding down jobs despite having the reading and writing skills

expected of children leaving primary school (Smithers, 2006).

According to the DfES, by the age of eleven ‗a youngster would be

expected to "understand straightforward texts of varying length on

a variety of topics accurately and independently" and "obtain

information of varying length and detail from different sources"

(Smithers, 2006). This has major implications for workplaces and

any learning that is taking place or needs to take place in the


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workplace as without these basic skills individuals are at a

considerable disadvantage.

5.3 Information skills / Information Literacy In this study three out of the six interviewees had heard of the term

information literacy before which was surprising given that the term

is not generally thought to be known outwith the library and

information profession. However this is probably due to the circles

these interviewees work / move in rather than information literacy

gaining general recognition. On reading the skills and

competencies listed in the CILIP (2006) definition, they all felt that

they had some of the skills and competencies either to a degree or

in part. More importantly they felt that these skills and

competencies were very / extremely important at work and that it

was expected that people had these skills.

Perhaps as Bruce (1999) states the lack of recognition of the term

information literacy itself is that it does not clearly communicate its

meaning in addition to the assumption that it is covered by

computer and information technology.

Not surprising was that the level of skills and competencies the

interviewees thought they had was not necessarily the same as

their earlier description of how they undertook a number of tasks

which unbeknown to them were the same as the CILIP defined

skills and competencies. It would be interesting to undertake

further research and observe individuals at work whilst they are

carrying out the information tasks they described. This however is

probably not feasible given the demands of the workplace.

The research highlighted a number of skills and competencies that

could be improved upon including: evaluating sources of

information particularly in relation to quality, increasing people‘s


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knowledge of search strategies and range of sources of

information available. Similar findings emerged from research into

the information literacy skills which students bring to university

(Irving, 2006). Felstead et al. (2005) reported mixed experiences of

reading books, manuals and work-related magazines as learning

sources for improving job performances. More worrying is Felstead

et al. (2005) findings that almost half (49.7%) of the respondents in

their survey found that using the Internet ‗for example, to download

materials, participate in e-learning and seek out information was

regarded as being of no help at all (p.368).

These findings are backed up by this exploratory study with

interviewees reporting that they had not received any formal

training to assist them in using any of the resources available. This

may in part be due to the fact that generally the sources of

information employers make available to employees are

information technology sources and there is an assumption that the

necessary skills are included in IT and Internet courses. As one

interviewee stated ―there is a tendency to rely on attendance at an

Internet Explorer course to provide the basic grounding‖.

Bruce (ibid) however hopes that with technology becoming more

seamless and user-friendly, the attention will shift more clearly to

the interaction with the information rather than the technology.

Another possible solution is that the individuals in this study who

are involved in training / learning in the workplace perceived a

training need once they explicitly recognised the importance and

value of information literacy. This finding could be tested and

utilised to explore this recognition and perceived need further.

The CILIP definition of skills was easily understood by all the

interviewees and did serve to explain what it means to be

information literate as well as demonstrate that information literacy


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and the CILIP definition is relevant in the workplace / businesses.

The research also allows us an insight into how these skills and

competencies are seen by professional people. This is not as a

distinct set of skills or as a process but as something they either do

not think about or rather do as part of their professional role, for

example finding information from sources in order to do a particular

task/s or aspect/s of their job. These findings reflect one of the

seven faces of information literacy in the workplace identified by

Bruce (1999) namely, information literacy is experienced as finding

information from appropriate sources and that there is an

‗emphasis on the capacity to engage in broad professional

responsibilities, rather than specific skills‘ (p35).

There is therefore the need to demonstrate the benefits of these

skills to employers / organisations and employees / individuals.

Abell and Skellton (2005) believe that the answer lies in linking

information literacy to a ‗key business competency or a key

business problem‘ (p44). One such problem in the workplace is

information overload and the sea of information people are

drowning in. Bruce (ibid) cites information overload is one of the

nine real-life inabilities and that this inefficiency is partly due to

employee‘s lack of information literacy skills. With the vast amount

of information delivered to them through multiple channels and in a

wide variety of formats, individuals need to become information

literate however as Cheuk (2002) identifies, information literacy is

still in its infancy stages and ‘more applied research should be

conducted in the workplace settings to qualitatively and

quantitatively demonstrate the costs to business if the employees

lack information literacy skills‘ (p10).

5.4 Knowledge Management Whilst Abell and Skellton (2005) suggest that information literacy is

following a similar path to knowledge management, the findings

from this small study suggest that although the term knowledge


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management is more widely known it does not seem to be

implemented or used widely in organisations and where the

organisation is said to practice it, it is done badly. Although Abell

and Skelton (2005) believe that most senior managers

acknowledge their organisation‘s need to improve its knowledge

flow, the indication from this research is that there is an over

reliance on technology and a lack of understanding or expertise on

the sharing of information and knowledge within organisations.

Perhaps if there was an explicit recognition of the importance of

information and the associated necessary skills then some of the

problems knowledge management has within the workplace would

be resolved or diminished. As Lloyd (2005) highlights in order for

any learning to take place or knowledge developed, information

and the skills associated with information (information literacy)

must be engaged first, ‗without this connection, knowing and

learning remain incomplete‘ (p85).

However as knowledge seems to have a higher profile this

suggests that this should be used to strengthen the value of

information literacy particularly in relation to the notion of the

learning organisation (Much cited in Bruce 1999).

5.4.1 How their organisation satisfies their information needs Given that the Internet and the web were in many cases the most

used information resource, it was not surprising to learn that this is

the way most organisations use to satisfy their information needs.

According to a fairly recent report ‘80 per cent of information users

seek information electronically, either from the web or an

organisation‘s intranet (FutureFacts: Information Industry Outlook

2006 cited in Freeman, 2006, p.3) However the research identified

that employers are at risk of an over reliance on technology‘s

capacity to hold ever increasing amounts of information specifically

the organisation‘s Intranet and the world wide web and under

estimating their employees‘ skills (the seriousness of this problem


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as highlighted by Falsted et al. 2005 has already been discussed)

in managing, accessing and evaluating the information they find

without suffering from information overload, caused by the rapid

developments in digital technologies (Andretta, 2005) or only

utilising the sources of information they are familiar with or find

easy to use. This reflects Mackenzie and Makins‘ (2003) findings in

their study of further and higher education staff.

If employees and employers are to survive in today‘s global

economy where the industrial society has been replaced by the

information society and as the Prague Declaration (Brevik, 2003)

states then information literacy is a prerequisite and they must

acquire the ability to identify, locate, evaluate, organise and

effectively create, use and communicate information to address

issues or problems at hand, in other words acquire information

literacy skills and competencies. They cannot however rely on

education to supply these skills as education has similar problems

in the lack of explicit recognition and application as identified by an

interim report by HM Inspectors of Education in Scotland.

If employers need education to equip individuals with these

necessary skills, then information literacy needs to be explicitly

recognised and included as a core / key life skills in the learning

and teaching that takes place in school then further developed

from there onwards into further and / or higher education and in the

workplace.

This then raises another little studied area that of the transference

of information literacy from an educational context to a workplace

context and the question identified by Llyod (2003) of ‗how much

transfer of skill occurs between the school and the workplace?

Especially when the formal school environment is linear and


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systematic and the work environment is complex, messy and often

difficult for the individual to navigate and map out mentally‘ (p88).

Chapter 6 Conclusions

The aim of this research was to look at the role of information literacy

in addressing a specific strand of lifelong learning: the work agenda.


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The specific objectives were to gain a better understanding of the role

of information literacy in the workplace and the attitudes of employers

to information literacy. Also to gauge levels of information literacy skills

and competencies and consider how this varies in different working

environments. The outcomes of the research were to include a

contribution towards information literacy research in relation to the

workplace and lifelong learning; how the skills imparted in education

extend to the workplace and the question of ‗Does information literacy

have a direct value to employers and employees which can be

calculated?

A better understanding of the role of information literacy in the workplace and the attitudes of employers to information literacy Whilst the study was small and of an exploratory nature it has

highlighted an indication that although the term information literacy is

not recognised within the workplace, the associated skills and

competencies are recognised by individuals as important in the

workplace and that employers implicitly expect people to have these

skills and competencies particularly for professional roles.

Not surprisingly the skills and competencies of those taking part in the

study were learnt in education and in the workplace, although the

learning in the workplace had been in most cases except for basic

Internet usage informal rather than formal. Encouragingly the

participants in the study who were involved in training / learning in the

workplace (four out of the six) agreed on reflection that there was a

need for information literacy training in the workplace. This offers an

opportunity for those involved in information literacy and the provision

of workplace learning to develop workplace learning programmes in

addition to or along with further research being carried out in this area.


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Levels of information literacy skills and competencies, how this varies in different working environments and does information literacy have a direct value to employers and employees which can be calculated? As to the levels of information literacy skills and competencies, the

individuals in this small study felt that they have these skills and

competencies although there was an indication that for some their

evaluation skills particularly of Internet resources could be improved

upon. As the Internet is one of the main information resources

organisations provide for their employees this suggests an area that

workplaces need to tackle with learning geared towards the skills and

competencies individuals need to evaluate Internet resources. This

would also contribute towards the problem of information overload and

may address the high percentage reported by Felstead et al. (2005) of

the Internet being of no use to 49.7% of their survey sample of

learning sources for improved job performance, if the problems relate

to poor search techniques and ineffective use of the Internet. How this

learning should take place is an area for further research as the

literature implies there are a variety of ways in which people learn.

With regard to how the level of skills and competencies varies in the

different working environments requires further research on a larger

scale than this exploratory study. However what did come through in

the study was that the quantity surveyor seemed to place a higher

level of value and importance on information in relation to his job than

the other interviewees did. For him these skills were ―essential tools‖

for his job and his view that ―an employee with higher information

literacy skills is more useful to an employer than one who hasn‘t‖.

This suggests that a person‘s profession plays a key role of their view

of and relationship with information and subsequently the level of

information literacy skills and competencies required. It was also the

closest the study came to contributing towards the question of Does


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information literacy have a direct value to employers and employees

which can be calculated?

This link between particular professions and the role information

literacy plays in their profession reflects similar findings by Webber,

Boon and Johnson (2005) with academics working in the field of

Marketing and English where marketing academics worked with and

valued information and saw information literacy skills and

competencies as an important part of their professional role and

necessary for them to do their job effectively and progress in their

careers. This contrasted with the view held by the academics working

in the field of English. This link may be the answer to the question

Crawford (2006) asked as to why some employers are more

sympathetic to the information literacy agenda than others. In that it

may not the employer per se but the profession which they are

engaged that recognises and values the skills and competencies of

information literacy and thus appears more sympathetic. In turn this

has an impact on how the level of skills and competencies varies in

different work environments. The role skills imparted in education

extend to the workplace should however not be forgotten or

overlooked.

How skills imparted in education extend to the workplace There is an indication that the development of and source of their skills

and competencies varied and that both education, the workplace and

lifelong learning has played a role in the learning of these skills and

competencies. As most of the interviewees had recently returned to

education to undertake a degree or MSc and had learnt some new

information literacy skills and competencies this indicates the

transference of skills from education to the work place. Whilst these

findings contribute to understanding how skills imparted in education

extend to the workplace and towards information literacy research in


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relation to the workplace and lifelong learning there is more work to be

done in this area.

Information literacy research in relation to the workplace and lifelong learning It is important to stress that as the study was exploratory and

concerned more with trying to gain a better understanding than to

gather facts and statistics. Although the findings are not generalisable

they do reflect the literature and indicate the importance of information

literacy skills and competencies in the workplace and the need for

these skills to be:

• recognised as key / core skills

• taught in education particularly in school where the skills and

competencies can be used and developed for all information

related activities – educational (from primary, secondary to

tertiary), employment, citizenship and social

• explicitly recognised and included in CPD (Continuing

Professional Development) programmes.

However without advocacy backed up with research the above will not

be achieved.

Individuals‘ lack of basic literacy skills which the unions are trying to

tackle raises issues for anyone engaged in information literacy

programmes. However it may be that these individuals have

developed their use of people as sources of information as a way of

overcoming their difficulties of using print and electronic sources. This

raises a possible area for further research.

Further Research This research has provided an indication of information literacy in the

workplace and attitudes to information literacy. However the findings

need to be tested on a larger scale within different organisations.

Discussions are currently taking place between a number of

organisations that have expressed an interest in being involved and

funding applications are in the process of being completed.


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The link between particular professions and the role information

literacy plays in that profession may indicate where further research

into the costs to business if the employees lack information literacy

skills is feasible particularly as these professions value information

literacy skills and competencies and in the case of quantity surveyors

are involved in costing information.

Further research needs to be carried out in linking information literacy

to a key business competency or problem. This could then be linked to

either existing or newly created information literacy workplace learning

programmes. A possible problem is information overload something

experienced by workplaces and individuals and as this study shows is

compounded by information technology and individuals difficulties or

lack of expertise in evaluating information on the web and Internet and

how badly organisations manage their information and satisfy their

information needs with an over reliance on technology rather than

information skills and competencies.

With relation to the transference of information literacy skills from

education to the workplace, research into this area is currently being

investigated through the piloting of the draft information literacy

framework work (highlighted in the background to the research project

p.6) this could be expanded to include CPD an area not previously

associated or linked to information literacy.

The relevance of the findings to my own professional context As previously stated information literacy in the workplace is a little

studied area and linking it to another little studied area learning in the

workplace opens up the opportunity for a lifetime of interesting

research and advocacy work plus professional experience in this field.

The findings have contributed to the author‘s own knowledge and

understanding of lifelong learning and development, the project the

author is currently engaged on, the author‘s own lifelong learning,


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CPD and professional standing within her professional body, the

learning and teaching community and Glasgow Caledonian University.

The later particularly in relation to the creation of an information

literacy strategy linked to information technology skills, study skills and

the universities learning and teaching policies which aims to achieve

excellence and relevance in learning and teaching making appropriate

use of information technology and improve students‘ learning literacies

(how to build knowledge from information).


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74

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Appendix A: Information literacy: the skills

Understanding a need Recognising that information is needed; understanding why information is needed, what (and how much; what kind of) information is required, as well as any associated constraints (e.g. time, format, currency, access); recognising that information is available in a wide range of formats in various geographical and virtual locations. The ability to articulate a question and so develop a focus for the research is an important skill. Note: Information may be available on paper (books, reference works, journals, magazines, newspapers, etc), digitally (on CD-ROMs, over the Internet or the World Wide Web, on DVDs, on your own computer or network, etc), through other media such as broadcast or film, or from a colleague or friend. It may or may not be conveniently close to hand and easily accessible, and quantifying your need and making a decision about the use of an information source may be tempered by the ease and speed with which an answer can be obtained. Understanding availability Be able to identify what resources are available for exploitation, where they are available, how to access them, the merits of individual resource types, and when it is appropriate to use them. Note: As suggested, this requires an understanding of types of resource (paper-based, electronic/digital, human, etc) and when to use each; what are the merits of individual resource types; what are the differences between them. Examples:

1. A journal article may be available in print, as a part of an e-journal or as a record in a database of full-text articles

2. Not all search engines offer the same facilities 3. A company website, a market research report, or the website of a

national statistical organisation may offer differing views 4. Access channels to information resources may vary according to who

or where you are. e.g. For an 8 year old child, availability is subject to having to go through various gatekeepers such as their parents' views or willingness to buy books, the library‘s filtering policy, access to a computer at home or at their friends, etc. Whether the exact same information sources can be reached by different children depends on the local channels available to them.

5. Any resource may be subject to cultural, political, industrial, national or other bias. e.g. Newspapers are notoriously politically biased and this same bias is continued in Web news sources; it is also important to be aware that


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PR companies are employed to create 'spin' websites. Think, for example, of lobby groups (e.g. animal rights, anti- or pro-abortion, extreme left or right wing political groups, religious groups/sects). The organisation behind the information you are being given may have an ulterior motive.

Understanding how to find information An ability to search appropriate resources effectively and identify relevant information. Note: Strategies need to be tailored to the resource being used, so as to get the best results from that resource. Users need to respond to search results – possibly because there are too few or too many – and know when to stop searching. An information literate person would also understand that, in addition to purposive searching, information can be acquired by browsing, scanning and monitoring information sources. Examples:

1. Searching across several resources 2. Using back-of-book indexes 3. Using abstracting and Indexing journals 4. Scanning RSS and news feeds 5. Participating in e-mail, discussion lists, Bulletin boards, etc 6. Using hypertext, URLs, bookmarks, etc 7. Understanding and using Boolean logic 8. Understanding and using truncation 9. Understanding and using fielded data 10. De-duplicating search results 11. Understanding and using relevance and relevance-ranked searching

Understand the need to evaluate results Be able to evaluate information for its authenticity, accuracy, currency, value and bias. Also, be able to evaluate the means by which the results were obtained in order to ensure that your approach did not produce misleading or incomplete results. Note: This is not just whether the resource appears to answer the question, but whether it is intrinsically trustworthy. Examples:

1. Use prior knowledge of author, editor, series, publisher 2. Examine

- Relevance to problem/question/task in hand - Appropriateness of style for users - Availability of index, notes, bibliography, illustrations, multimedia,

etc - Authenticity and origin


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- Authority (ownership, reputation, coverage, scope) - Bias or point of view - Error rate/accuracy - Purpose/audience - Currency/timeliness - Consistency - Design (output, presentation and arrangement) - Organisation/Navigation (ease of use) - Access and Use (documentation, accessibility, comparison with

other sources) Understand how to work with or exploit results Analyse and work with the information to provide accurate, presentable research results, or to develop new knowledge and understanding. Note: To understand, compare, combine, annotate, and apply (use) the information found. Recognise and understand a possible need for further information searching. Examples:

1. Use of appropriate software (spreadsheet / database / statistical / reference management / etc)

Understand ethics and responsibility of use Know why information should be used in a responsible, culturally sensitive and ethical (professional, business, personal ethics) manner. Respect confidentiality and always give credit to other people‘s work. Understand the nature and uses of bias, in order to report appropriately. Where appropriate, provide a balanced (unbiased) report. Note: This could include issues of intellectual property, plagiarism, unfair practice, fair use, freedom of information, data protection, codes of practice and ethical principles as set out by your employers, institution or professional body (e.g. CILIP). Examples: CILIP‘s Ethical Principles and Code of Professional Practice for Library and Information Professionals are available at: http://www.cilip.org.uk/professionalguidance/ethics/ Understand how to communicate or share your findings The ability to communicate/share information in a manner or format that is appropriate to the information, the intended audience and situation. Note: This goes beyond analysis to the synthesis, organisation and/or creation of further information in an appropriate form.

http://www.cilip.org.uk/professionalguidance/ethics/


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Examples:

1. Understanding of the advantages and disadvantages of different communications channels (e.g. web page, presentation, written report)

2. Participating effectively in collaborative writing and publication, including use of collaborative software (e.g. student group report; internal knowledge base; collaborative blog; wikipedia)

3. Understanding of appropriate writing styles (e.g. for reports, essays, presentation, etc)

4. Knowledge of citation style 5. Use of footnotes / end notes 6. Use of a succinct and easily understood style when reporting findings

verbally 7. Use of appropriate style and understanding of conventions when using

e-mail Understand how to manage your findings Know how to store and manage the information you have acquired using the most effective methods available. Reflect critically on the process and achievement as well as on the sources found in order to learn from the experience of finding and using information. Note: Continual or ongoing management for yourself and/or others. Examples:

1. Consideration of re-finding resources (either locally or in the original) at a later date

2. Use of, and relocation in, filing cabinets and/or shelves for physical resources

3. Use of folders to organise computer-stored data 4. Organisation of e-mail and e-mail attachments 5. Use of appropriate software (spreadsheet / database / statistical /

reference management / etc) 6. Security and backup copies 7. Tracking changes in documents 8. Personal content management

Updated: 21 December 2004

CILIP (2004a)


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Appendix B: Semi structured interview questions

Glasgow Caledonian University, Learning Services, Learner Support

Information literacy in the workplace - Research interviews

Date

Name of interviewee

Name of organisation interviewee works for

Position

Brief description in interviewees own words of the work they do, experience and qualifications, how they acquired the capability to do what they do.

Skills needed today for work

What skills employers are looking for?

1. In your opinion / experience what kind of skills are employers looking

for today?

2. Are they looking for people to have these skills prior to being employed?

3. Where do they expect people to learn / acquire these skills?


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Learning in the workplace

1. What type of learning / training does your workplace / organisation offer / cover?

2. Is your organisation supportive of learning in the workplace? 3. Is your line manager supportive towards learning in the workplace?

Information skills / Information Literacy skills

1. Describe an „information need‟ situation you have encountered. 2. How did you go about dealing with it? 3. Have you received any training to assist you in using any of these

resources?

4. Interviewees asked to rate their own information retrieval skills.

a. Generally I find all the information I need with few difficulties b. Whilst I feel confident dealing with routine enquiries I have difficulties identifying sources for new information

c. I need to develop additional skills to help me locate information quickly and effectively

5. Do you plan how you are going to find information? 6. How do you assess the quality of information found?


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7. Do you adapt the information you find or use it as it is? Or What do you do with the information once you have found it?

8. Do you organise the information you find to facilitate future retrieval?

9. Do you review your search process to evaluate its success?

10. What do the following terms means to you?

Copyright

Plagiarism

Information Literacy

1. Have you heard of the term “Information Literacy”?

If yes

2. What does the term “Information Literacy” mean?

Card with definition handed out

By information literacy skills we mean

Knowing when and why you need information, where to find it, and how to evaluate, use and communicate it in an ethical manner.

There are several skills or competencies requiring an individual to have an understanding of:

a need for information

the resources available

how to find information

the need to evaluate results

how to work with or exploit results

ethics and responsibility of use

how to communicate or share your findings

how to manage your findings.

3. To what extent do you think you have these skills and competencies?


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4. Where did you learn these skills and competencies?

5. How important do you think these skills and competencies are?

6. Do you think your information literacy skills have improved as result of work?

7. Do you think information literacy is important at work?

8. Do you think employers are looking for information literacy skills and

competencies? Either Explicitly or Implicitly?

Knowledge Management

1. Have you heard of the term “knowledge management”?

Knowledge management: a definition

“The capabilities by which communities within an organisation capture the

knowledge that is critical to them, constantly improve it and make it

available in the most effective manner to those people who need it, so that

they can exploit it creatively to add value as a normal part of their work.”

(Kelleher & Levene, 2001, p. 15.)

Kelleher, D., & Levene, S. (2001). Knowledge management: a guide to good

practice. London: British Standards Institution.

2. Is “knowledge management” used / practiced in your organisation / workplace?

3. How is information / knowledge shared in your organisation / workplace?

4. How does your organisation satisfy its information needs?

the role of information literacy in addressing a specific strand of lifelong learning: the work...

Education

educate equip

british standards

glasgow caledonian

university

todays global

facilitate

leeds university

information